Not to be taken from this room 91 ,®W mmm Vc ^ 1 9lo [ Whole Number 215 R E P O R T OF THE FOR THE YEAR 1399-1900. Volume 1 . WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 19 0 1. r NATIONAL LMAftY 6f EDUCATION ■ U S. DS^RTMENT OF EDUCATION MAR 2 8 2013 400 MARYLAND AVENUE fe.w. WASHINGTON, D C. 20202 THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION, Created as a Department March 2, 1867. Made an Office of the Interior Department July 1, 1869. COMMISSIONERS. Henry Barnard, LL. I)., March If, 1867 , to March lo, 1870. John Eaton, Pit. I)., LL. IX, March 16, 1870, to August 5, 1886. Nathaniel II. R. Dawson, L. H. D., August 6, 1886, to September 3, 1889. MS ill i am T. Harris, Pit. I)., LL. I)., September 12, 1889, to date. CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1. THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. Total enrollment in schools and colleges . . . . . The common schools _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ Average amount of schooling per inhabitant . . . . S3rstem of public education in British India. . . . . . Truant schools . . ... . . . . . . . . . Education in Porto Rico . . . . . . . . . Educational extension in the United States . . . . Education in central Europe. . . . . . Education in Great Britain. . . . . . The language question in Greece. . . . . . . Sociology at the Paris Exposition _ _ _ _ _ _ Education in the Philippines, Cuba, Porto Rico, Hawaii, and Samoa... Education at the Paris Exposition, . . . . . . Education in France . . . . . . . . . . Introduction of reindeer into Alaska.. . . . . City school systems . . . . . .... Higher education . . . _ _ _ _ _ Increase in the number of law students . . . . . . Land grant colleges . . . . . . Secondary schools . . . . . . . . .. Education of the colored race . . . . . . Topics of letters of inquiry received during the year 19C0 . Page. IX IX XVI XVII xx r XXII XXII XXVI XXXI XXXVI XXXVII XL XLII XLIV XL VI XL VII XL VIII XLIX i j1 V LVII LIX Statistics or State Common School, Systems . . . Chapter I. —System op Public Education in British India. LXIII Introduction . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . Beginnings and general features of the public system of education established in British India . . . . . . . . . Educational statistics . . . . . . . . Detailed view of progress in respect to the study of English and the extension of elementary education . . . . . . . . Education in Mysore and Ceylon . . . Educational provision for special classes . . . Education of backward classes . . . . . . . Hostels or boarding houses . . . . . . . Chapter II.— The Development op English Secondary Schools for Boys. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . From the fourteenth to the nineteenth century: The founding of the Latin schools . . . . . . The original character of the foundation schools . . . . . . The further development of the foundations, or so-called ‘'public schools,” until the beginning of the nineteenth century . . . . . . The private schools . . . . . . . The century of reform: Dr. Thomas Arnold, head master of Rugby, and his influence _ _ _ The founding of new schools. . . . . . . . . . The examination system . . . . . . . . . The parliamentary commissions 'and their results and consequences _ _ _ Further development of secondary schools (1870-1894) . . . . . . The commission of 1894-95 and the education hill of 1893 - - - - Chronological table of the history of English secondary schools for boys . 1 8 13 35 41 45 46 52 04 05 67 09 72 75 80 82 III IV CONTENTS Chapter III.— Truant Schools. General Statement: Historical sketch . _ . - . . Present status . ... . - . . . . . Equipment and organization . . . . . Discipline and instruction . . . . . . Results . . . . . Ungraded schools . Truant schools in Massachusetts . . . .. . . . . . . . Comparison of the Massachusetts and Connecticut systems of truancy schools. . . . Truant schools in the State of New York . . . . . . . . . . Detailed statements as to schools in San Francisco, Cal . . . New Haven, Conn . . . . Chicago, Ill . . . . . . Boston, Mass . . . . . Franklin and Hampshire counties, Massachusetts . . . . — _ Essex County Truant School, Lawrence, Mass... . . New Bedford, Mass - - - - - - - - - Middlesex County Truant School, North Chelmsford, Mass . . . . Worcester County Truant School, Oakdale, Mass . . . . . Plummer Farm School, Salem, Mass . . . Springfield, Mass . . . . . . . . Hampden County Truant School, Springfield, Mass _ _ _ _ Union Truant School of Norfolk, Bristol, and Plymouth counties, Walpole, Mass . The ungraded school at Worcester, Mass . . . . . . Bay City, Mich . . . . . Detroit, Mich . . . . . . . . Grand Rapids, Mich . . . . . . . Newark, N.J . . . i . . Albany, N. Y . . . . Binghamton, N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Buffalo, N. Y . . . . . . . City of New York, borough of Brooklyn . . . . . Borough of Manhattan and the Bronx . . . . . . . . . . Rochester, N. Y . . . . . . . Syracuse, N.Y . . . . . . . . . . . Cleveland, Ohio . . . . . . . Dayton. Ohio, and Alleghenjp Pa . . . . . . . . Philadelphia, Pa . . . . . . . . Providence, R. I . . . . Laws relating to the disposition of truants and incorrigibles: Connecticut... . . . . . . . .... Illinois . . . . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . Maine . . . . . . . . . . Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . Minnesota and Montana . . . . . . New Hampshire and New Jersey . . . . . N e w Y ork . . . . . Ohio. . . . . . . Pennsylvania and Rhode Island . . . . . Utah . . Vermont . . . . . Wisconsin . . . . . . Reformatory and allied institutions in Great Britain . . . Chapter IV.— Education in Porto Rico. Introduction of American educational methods . . . Communication with teachers . . . . . . The beneficentia . . . . . Spanish school laws . . . Educational sentiment . . . Intelligence of the people . . . . Modification of education . The American library . . . 85 91 93 94 95 9*3 97 113 118 130 133 134 133 135 135 136 139 143 144 145 149 150 151 153 153 155 156 15? 15S 159 159 165 170 180 181 185 187 190 193 194 196 197 198 301 303 304 205 306 308 3119 310 311 211 331 323 325 226 227 228 229 233 CONTENTS, V Instruction in art . . Holidays and. vacations . _ . . . Schools to be free . . . . . . Separation of school life from family life _ Teaching English in public schools . . United States maps - - - School finances . . * . School statistics . . . . . Higher education _ _ . — ...... . . . New school provisions . . . . Poverty of the poor _ Public sentiment appreciates public welfare School boards and teachers - - - Resignation of G-en. John Eaton . . The Aguinaldo spirit ... . . American school at Ponce . Rural schools . . . . . Conclusions . . — 333 234 235 235 236 237 239 210 245 240 251 252 255 259 282 285 209 270 Chapter V.— Educational Extension in the United States. Origins of educational democracy in England . . . . . 275 American lyceums and popular education (1826-1900) - - - - - - - 284 American pioneers of popular education _ _ _ _ _ _ 299 University extension in America . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Chautauqua... - - - - - - - - - - - 313 Select types of summer schools . . . . . . . . . 320 The city and popular education. . . . . . . . 326 Art for the people . . . . . . . . . 339 Music for the people - - - - - - - - - - - - - 349 Educational extension by travel and pilgrimage . . . . 358 Idea of a national university - - - - - - - 358 The Smithsonian Institution and the American Historical Association _ _ _ ... 303 Library of Congress . . . . . . . . . 300 Museum extension . . . . . . . . . 367 Higher commercial schools . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Newspapers as popular educators . . . . . . — _ 370 Chapter VL— Some Historical Documents Bearing upon Common- School Education in Virginia and South Carolina previous to the Civil War. Proposed plan for the organization and support of common schools in Virginia. By Henry Ruffner . . . . . . . . Address of Henry A. Wise to his late constituents - - - - Dr. J. H. Thornwell’s letter to Governor Manning on public instruction in South Carolina. Chapter VII.— The Organization and Development of the American Com¬ mon School in the Atlantic and Central States of the South, 1830 to 1800. Introduction . . . . . The beginnings of popular education in Virginia Maryland . . . - . Delaware . . . . . N or tli Carolina . . . . . South Carolina . . . Georgia . . . . Alabama . . . . . . . . Florida . . . . . . . Mississippi . . . . - . Kentucky _ _ _ _ Tennessee . . . . . . . 431 441 443 448 400 472 481 490 493 503 537 381 397 403 Chapter VIII.— Papers Read at the Chicago Meeting of the Department of Superintendence, 1900. Status of education at the close of the century. By Nicholas Murray Butler, professor of philosophy and education, Columbia University - - - - The trail of the city superintendent. By Aaron Gove, superintendent of schools, district No. 1, Denver, Colo . - . - . . 571 Vi CUE I E H 1 8. Page. Obligations and opportunities of scholarship. By President Edwin A. Alderman, Uni¬ versity of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C . . . 577 Alcohol physiology and superintendence. By Prof. W. 0. Atwater. Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn . . — .. . . . 584 Discussion of the latter article . . . . . 599 Chapter IX.— The B6ee op the School-teacher in the Struggle Against Alcoholism. Customs prevalent in the workshops . COS Abnormally alcoholic children . 604 Methods oi the antialcoholic school propaganda . — . . . 606 Education of women . . . ... .. 612 Esthetic education . 613 School temperance societies . 613 Chapter X. The Readjustment of the Collegiate to the Professional Course . . 615 Chapter XI. The Justification of the Public High School . 628 Chapter XII. Free High Schools for Rural Pupils . . 613 Chapter XIII.— Report of Committee of the National Educational Asso¬ ciation on the Relations of Public Libraries to Public Schools. Letter of transmittal . - . . . . . Pref atory note . - - - - - - - - Public libraries and public schools. By Sherman Williams . . . Reading lists . . . . . . - . .. . Supplementary reading. By Robert C. Metcalf, Boston, Mass . The relation of the school to libraries. By Charles A. Me Murry . . . . . Report of the subcommittee on relation of libraries to normal schools. By M. Louise Jones . . . . . . . . Establishing libraries in villages. By F. A. Hutchins . . . . . . The present condition of school libraries in rural schools and villages of less than 2,500 inhabitants. By F. A. Hutchins _ _ _ _ _ _ By-laws suggested for a board of library trustees. By W. R. Eastman, Albany, N. Y. . Hints for cataloguing small libraries . . . . . . . . . Aids and guides in library work . . . . . . . . . The librarian’s spirit and methods in working with the schools. By J. C. Dana . Work in certain typical libraries . . . . Schoolroom libraries. By Clarissa S. Newcomb . . . 663 663 665 666 673 678 689 696 7n3 705 706 r* ♦ ‘ i 710 717 718 Chapter XIV.— Education in Central Europe. Articles on education in central Europe published in previous Reports of the Commis¬ sioner of Education . . . . . . . . . . Popular education and national economic development . . . Statistics of education in central Europe, and comparisons with other European coun¬ tries . . . . . . . Importance, value, and definition of school statistics . Statistical tables . . . . . . . . . Statistics of illiteracy . . Expenditure for education in Prussia . . . . The schools of Berlin in 1898 . . . . . . Expenditures for higher education in the civilized world . . Children's claim upon childhood . . . . . Medical inspection of schools in Germany . . . . . Secondary education as viewed by scientists . . The German commercial clerk . . . . Statistics of the Swiss school system . . . . Defective children of school age in Switzerland . . . German schools in foreign countries...’ . . . . . 721 723 761 762 765 7t.O 788 791 797 810 825 828 835 847 855 859 CONTENTS VII Page. Attendance in higher institutions of learning of foreign countries . . 861 Industrial and commercial schools in Hungary . . . 865 Corporal punishment in the elementary schools of Prussia . . 878 Froehel's system of education and the spread of the kindergarten. . . . . 8S3 Chapter XY. Public Playgrounds and Vacation Schools . . 895 Chapter XVI. The Old South Work . . . 905 Chapter XVII.— Public, Society, and School Libraries. Summary of statistics of libraries in 1900 . 923 Summary of statistics of libraries of 300 volumes and over in 1S75 . 940 Summary of statistics of libraries of 300 volumes and over in 1885, . 941 Summary of statistics of libraries of 300 volumes and over in 1896 . 942 Summary of statistics of libraries of 1,000 volumes and over in 1891 . 943 Summary of statistics of libraries of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 . 944- Statistics of public, society, and school libraries of 1,000 volumes and over in J900 . . 947 Chapter XVIII.— Education in Great Britain and Ireland. Topical outline . . . . . . . . 1167 Summary of current educational statistics . . . 1168 Brief conspectus of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1169 Present state and urgent problems. . . . . . 1171 Philosophical and practical education ., . . . . . . . . 1184 Statistical review . . . . . . 1190 Special adjustments for backward children . . . . . . 1203 Science schools and art division - - - - 1206 Article of E. Lyulph Stanley on higher elementary education . . . . . . . 1210 Sir J. G. Fitch on higher grade board schools. _ _ _ _ _ _ 1217 ■Higher education in Great Britain and Ireland . . . . . . . 1230 University notes. . . . . . . . . . . . 1231 University of Oxford . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1237 Engineering at Cambridge . ...s . . . . . . 1241 The new laboratories of King’s College . . . 1243 Chapter XIX. * List of Educational Periodicals in the United States . 1245 Chapter XX.— Educational Directory. Chief State school officers. . . . . . . . . . 1249 City superintendents . . . . . . . . . . 1250 College presidents . . . . . . . . 1260 Principals of normal schools . . . . . . . . . 1268 Chapter XXI. Temperance Physiology OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., October 1, 1900. Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith the Annual Report of this Office for the year ending June 30, 1900. Total enrollment in schools and colleges. — There were enrolled in the schools and colleges, public and private, during the year 1899-1900, 17,020,710 pupils, the same being an increase of 282,348 pupils over the previous year. Of this number the enrollment in public institutions was 15,443,462. Besides the enrollment in public and private institutions of all grades included in the above summary there were pupils enrolled in special institutions more or less educational in their character as follows : Enrollment in special schools , 1S99-1900. City evening schools . . . . . . . . . 190, 000 Business schools _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 91,549 Schools for defectives _ _ _ _ _ 25, 261 Reform schools _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ 23, 901 Government Indian schools _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 21,568 Indian schools (Five Civilized Tribes) _ _ _ _ 10, 499 Schools in Alaska . . . . . . . . . 1 , 753 Orphan asylums and other benevolent institutions _ _ _ 15, 000 Private kindergartens . . . . . . . 95, 000 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . 50, 000 Total . . . . . . . . . 524,531 The item “ miscellaneous” in the above table includes such institu¬ tions as schools of music, oratory, elocution, cookery, and the various special arts. Adding the enrollment in these special schools to the enrollment in schools and colleges we have a total of 17,544,888. the common schools. Under the designation “common schools” this Office includes pub¬ lic schools of elementary and secondary grades. Schools of elemen¬ tary grade contain pupils in the first eight years in the course of study. Schools of secondary grade include pupils in the next four years of the course, and the instruction of the secondary grades is IX X EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. usually conducted in high schools and academies. Other names also are given to schools conducting this grade of instruction, namely, preparatory schools, collegiate institutes, seminaries; State univer¬ sities and professional schools supported by the State fund are not counted in the “common schools,” although by reason of their receiv¬ ing support from public funds they might be thus classified correctly. The common schools are divided into two classes — graded and un¬ graded schools. The schools in the cities and large villages are mostly graded schools, forming one organization, with the pupils divided into classes according to their degree of advancement, each grade of pupils being taught by its own teacher. The ungraded schools are found in all sparsely settled districts of the country. Each teacher has under ids control pupils of all ages from 5 or 6 years to 16 or 18 years, and of all degrees of advancement from beginners up to pupils who are pursuing studies that belong properly to the high school or secondary education, such as algebra, geometry, or Latin. In the ungraded school the text-book is the chief instrument of instruction. For ti-e most part each pupil studies his book by himself, making such progress from day to day as he may, and reciting by himself to the teacher, there being no other pupil just at the same grade of advancement with himself. The teacher at some time in the clay hears this pupil give an account of his individual work, tests him by a few questions as to the thoroughness with which he has studied, gives him some hasty advice, and assigns a lesson for the next day. It is one of the chief defects of this kind of instruction that the teacher does not have time to probe the pupil’s insight into what he lias learned from his book; the recitation is apt to show only what the pupil has memorized and not what lie has understood. The rural teacher con¬ ducting one of these ungraded schools proves his sagacity by the ability he shows in testing the amount of understanding gained by the pupil in his individual work. The poorer the teacher of rural schools the more he requires of verbal memorizing and the less lie requires of intellectual insight. In the graded school, on the other hand, the pupils recite in classes containing from 10 to 30 pupils each, and the recitation is lengthened out to twenty or thirty minutes. In the recitation or class exercises the teacher is able to go over the entire lesson, making each pupil contribute the results of Ills preparation and testing the insight of his class into the meaning of the words and their grasp of the subject. A pupil may be said to grasp the subject when he is able to marshal the items of his own experience and interpret the statements of fact and principle given him in the book by observations made by himself. The teacher in a graded school, if up to the required standard, devotes most of his attention to the work which the pupils have done in test¬ ing and verifying the statements in the book. He instructs his pupils to go behind printed statements, criticise them, and verify them. XI THE COMMISSIONERS INTRODUCTION. Instruction in graded, schools is very much superior, on the aver¬ age, to instruction in the ungraded school. But it must not he for¬ gotten that even in the ungraded school the pupil, if a bright inquiring mind, can learn a great deal from boohs without the aid of the teacher, and that even a poor teacher has an influence over the pupil to make him more alert and critical than he would be if he studied at home without bringing his daily work under the supervision of a person more mature than himself. The graded schools in the United States are on the increase con¬ stantly. Small villages grow into large villages, and the large vil¬ lages into cities. The ungraded school, which is a school taught by one teacher, gives way to the graded school taught by two teachers, by three teachers, by several teachers. In a recent movement, of which record has been made from year to year in the Annual Reports of this Office, an attempt has been made to abolish the small ungraded school and transport the children to the graded school at the nearest village in the town. Inasmuch as the cen¬ tral school in the village can provide for a few more pupils without an additional teacher, the salary or a large fraction of the salary is saved. The transportation' of the pupils furnishes a neve item of expense, it is true, but this item is not nearly so large as the expense of the salary of a teacher. Hence, in the States that have adopted this transportation system, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and several others (see the chapter in this Report entitled “Current questions”) find that the transportation system makes a large average annual saving in the expense of the schools, while it increases the efficiency of instruction very greatly7. The average length of the school term the past year was 144.6 days, this being an increase of a day and a half over the school term of the previous year and an increase of 124 days over the length of the school term for the year 1869-70. The average length of the attendance of the pupils enrolled was 99 days and a fraction. iVBLE I. — Common-school statistics of the United States. a xir EDUCATION RETORT, 1899-1900. W O ro 0 f rH rg 0> 0 r— 4-5 ^ 0 £ IS 1 £ p o ^ o c 0) 0 bjor* > <5 03 >5 dj 03 t~ C ^ 5 g 15 p. o 8 0)^ S3 •hO® ®j tw £ a; O S3 J) fa fj s 5^ S3 p. m 03 o' ° d S3 Spa o-£ crL O ■ 03 Cf S3 SjfaHfaofa^fe S3 « C:h S3 S3 Q X X /v? rg og^ 3 0^ if h c ^ ^ *—i o -g ^ — h rH CD Ph a The figures for 1898-99 and 1899-1900 are subject to correction. c Estimated in part. See Table 1, p. LXIII. b Estimated. d Several States are not included in this average. THE COMMISSIONER S INTRODUCTION. XIII CO o IQ co" 00 o CC CO 138, 031, 838 39.158,963 H CO iC) co co . /•« hH O'! CO t-H OI O'! tH CO CD CD t- co of CO r-H CD O! of CD CO CO CO CO rH 'DO rH 8.9 14.0 cd O -H CO l— coo CD CD O! CD SO CO "rr1 CO I:— 0> CO — H o • • CO CO •'O-'! co o> co co h CD tH H CD O'! CO t-H t-H CO CO CO O! O CO O! 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P bC^ P ©.3 S ~ p> Ci Sj’p Q. .S o S ,_cJ ^ .£ £ ?P g O £ -13 © o © ^ ; v: . -p X © bo © ,5 5 © r,', g .; ■73 «p © c5 .£ K S 3 p ^ 2 : 3. r-H Gn G ■g*i8«§ ^ S £ 'p, s 'rt £r- 0 ^ S'3a0'g ■p © 3 . 3 •S ©PPP ^5 gc1- g u p.£ XT «• S G pj r ■ c o at c 2' p,- ce 3 ^ .Grp H-5 ^ £h ‘0 rH 9 aj © § p hp d J 15 o w p X' J, O O.S © pc P rp tp d x © £'x ?Gi ® G S' S' ' TJ © -p P T> 1 hr © ©NO oc+3 "©‘p © p ci - a 3 bc‘©^ ■ S bOG^0 ■C X grg^'X" , G © G a—t — 1 p *— ' T © p r -■ T © ^ G PH MCr2^;^'C P, PH © 2 — © O © a © - g 5 2 g'c-p >,-p w y3 .pi - d S G t> “G rj © — ■U* rrH © Gr x G © © ^ ci Gt I 2 ffl.g d.P p x * © G Cl G rG *" P-ph o 3 ra C x © ■9 *©H 02 X.3S r-p p © © eg o ,g © v Cs^S ' iiic II. — Total number of pupils and students of all grades in both public and private schools, 1899-1900 — Continued. THE •COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION. X\r pa CO d r- 1 Cl 01 0» 0> o> r-H CO i. - «— < i - 10 ■pa CO CO 01 01 CO CO s ® HH o o o o o o CO CO 10 'X. O 10 “'S >-• © WJ o 10 10 01 o 9? 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O OS I :o ft 55 o r I d © 01 CO o iO ^ CO 10 CO ORX iO i>» r— i-H 01 r-t C© 10 CO CO O )-0 CO 01 CD r—< r—i DC -0) 10 CO 01 CM u0 ■0 ft ao K § u O c3 CD ” PC G£ ■3s! 2^ © J H ?h> 01 cT H-i CD CO CD >0 CO 10 O co :c C! ^ to 01 O CO I- >0 oVaf-H^ 01 01 10. t-1 ^ 01 CO t-H i> O 0-1 ’’+1 I- I— 01 tH CO 01 CD Hj* h* U- Oiodtorf o' i — 10 0 * w pH CD 0* O- 05 00 C/2 0 ~P c3 -P OQ .2.2 O o ! .2.2;g'” : j QGqqS .2 o _, ,— cn O | CO X rH 01 01 ta ^ | CO r— i O 10 CO 0 rH 1 HH©Hi — i Oft >j ® £ r-i C C o ^ co p O "ftH r-^ r-H i 00 hH 10 O' X 10 01 01 ftH 1 A si Hi s ^ c? i> CO ^COOCiSti O CO 10 10 >0 1 - 1 0 ?H H gjg 91 CO CO CO CO CO Cf* Oi- CD CD 05 XVI EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. Table III. — Average number of years of schooling (of 200 clays each ) that each individual of ihe population received at the different dates specified in the table , taking into account all piddle and private schooling of whatever grade. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1808. 1899. 1900. The United States. 3.36 3.96 4.46 4.49 4.52 : | 4.72 4.75 4.83 4.93 5. 00 4.96 4.99 North Atlantic Division. 5. 06 5. 69 ' 6. 05 6. 18 6. 10 6. 35 6.47 6. 52 6. 64 6. 75 6. 70 6. 71 South Atlantic Division. 1.23 2. 22 2. 73 j 2. 74 2. 79 2. 95 2. 95 2.93 2. 98 3. 14 3.05 3.02 South Central Division.. 1.13 1.86 2.42 1 2.69 2.64 2.89 2.65 2. 70 2. 89 2. 95 3. 15 2. 96 N or tli Central Division. . 4. 01 4. 65 5. 36 5. 21 5. 38 5. 57 5. 69 5. 84 5. 87 5.87 5. 71 5.94 Western Division.. . 3. 56 4.17 4.57 5.07 4.93 5.01 5.43 5. 46 5. 78 1 1 5. 76 5.82 Table IV. — The same, taking into account only the schooling furnished by public elementary aaicl secondary schools. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. The United States. 2. 91 3. 15 3. 85 3. 97 3.99 4.17 4,23 4.28 4.39 4. 46 4.43 4.44 North Atlantic Division. 4.43 4.84 4. 99 5. 10 5. 10 5.28 5. 47 5. 52 5. 61 5.71 5. 67 5. 69 South Atlantic Division. .80 1.90 2. 42 2.46 2. 51 2. 70 2. 68 2. 66 2.72 2.87 2.78 2. 72 South Central Division.. .80 1.57 2.20 2. 41 2.38 2.59 2. 39 2. 44 2. 63 2.68 2.88 2. 68 North Central Division.. 3.71 4. 19 4. 67 4. 75 4.84 5. 00 5. 15 5.21 5.28 5. 25 5.14 5.34 Western Division . 2. 77 3. 57 3.98 4. 47 4. 39 4.45 4. 87 4.95 5. 25 5. 25 5.28 5.23 AVERAGE AMOUNT OF SCHOOLING PER INHABITANT. I have found it useful to reduce to figures the average number of years of schooling of 200 days each that each individual of the popu¬ lation is receiving. This can be calculated from the items, entire population, number enrolled, and actual number of days attended. This item is useful as giving in the most compact form the result of the school system; it shows the average result for each individual of the community. We have seen above that the actual average attendance is under 99 days and a fraction. At this rate each individual of the enl ire population would receive 1,000 days instruction in his school life, or five years of 200 days each. The normal length of the school year is 200 days, and cities and large villages usually adopt a school term of that number of days. In Table III, I have given a comparative view commencing with the first year in which statistics were obtained by this Office, and showing the same item for each decade later, but showing the increase by years for the last nine years. Table III takes into account public and private schools of all grades; Table IV lakes into account only the public schools of elementary -and secondary grades — that is to say, district schools and high schools. At the close of the century very many new estimates have been made in one department and another in order to make clear to us a comparison of our present condition with our past condition. Upon a careful estimate, the entire schooling obtained by the average member of the community in 1800 was equal to 82 days; in 1840 and subsequently, the United States census shows the number of THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. XVII persons who have attended school during the previous years. The total amount of schooling of each of the population at the rate of 1840 was 208 days; for 1850, 420 days; for 18G0, 434 days; for 1870, 672 days; for 1880, 792 days; for 1890, 892 days; for 1900, 998 days. This estimate includes instruction in the common schools, and also in private schools and colleges. STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. Appended to this introduction, Mr. F. E. Upton, the specialist in State school systems and chief of the editorial staff of the Office, lias presented in tables numbered 1 to 17, the results of his compilation of the returns made to this Office from year to year by State superintend¬ ents of public instruction. System of public education in British India. — Chapter I passes in brief review the efforts of the British Government to establish systems of education in the several provinces of India. These efforts possess special interest at this time for the reason that the problem of intro¬ ducing European ideas and systems of training into India has been similar in kind to that which confronts the United States in dealing with the populations of our. new possessions. In India, it is true, the problem was on a larger scale and much more complicated than that with which we must deal, because of the enormous population to be reached — 300,000,000 — and the venerable history and high develop¬ ment of the native civilization. The English Government assumed the responsibility of education in India in 1854. This was two and a half centuries after the estab¬ lishment of the English East India Company and a few years before the authority of that company was set aside and the government of India taken over by the Crown. The earliest government instructions on the subject of education, “the dispatch” of 1854, advised the largest freedom to local initiative and the application of Government funds as supplementary and pro¬ portional to local expenditure. The importance of higher education was emphasized, both in defer¬ ence to the spirit of the people and as a necessary means of preparing natives to enter to some extent upon administrative and official careers. The need of elementary education was also recognized, and its development bjr all jiossible agencies strongly urged. Subsequent instructions have been more and more explicit in respect to elementary education, but all the conditions of the country and all the tendencies of official action in India have favored the development of higher insti¬ tutions. With regard to the diffusion of elementary education the results are meager and unsatisfactory to the Government. The statistics given in Chapter I show for 1896-97 a total enrollment in all grades of scholastic institutions of 4,356,870 pupils, or a little ED 1900 II XVIII EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. less than 2 per cent of the population.1 Omitting girls, who form only 9 per cent of the total number of pupils, it appears that out of every 1,000 students 4 were in colleges, 18 in high schools which prepare for the university, 42 in an inferior grade of high schools, 118 in the upper primary schools (which introduce some notions of geog¬ raphy, history, and elementary science), and 818 in the lower primary schools. The relative proportion of pupils in the primary schools of all classes has increased slightly during the last live years — i. e., from 934 in a thousand to 936. The enrollment in primary schools was 3,209,825, or 9 per cent of the population of school-going age, the latter being estimated at 15 per cent of the total population.2 The slow progress of primary education led to the appointment of a Government commission in 1882 to investigate the whole range of educational work as it had developed in the several provinces. A new impulse was undoubtedly imparted to the lower schools as a result of the recommendations of the commission, adopted by the Govern¬ ment. In the two and a half decades from 1882 to 1897 the enroll¬ ment in supervised primary schools for boys increased by 31 per cent ; further, the proportion of illiterate males, which by the census of 1881 was shown to be 909 in every thousand of the population, had fallen in 1891 to 891 in a thousand. Notwithstanding this slight improve¬ ment, the conditions are still unsatisfactory, and one of the first acts of the present administration (Lord Curzon’s) was a renewed effort to ascertain the causes of the low state of popular education. The quinquennial report, 1891-92 to 1896-97, was made the basis of this investigation, which resulted in a general condemnation of the manner in which the local authorities had carried out the instructions of the Government. The complaints were embodied in a “resolution” whose principal points, summarized from current English reviews, are presented in Chapter I. The text of the “resolution” has since been received in this Office and confirms in every particular the view presented. The three chief points of complaint on the part of the central Gov¬ ernment are: The inadequacy of the inspection staff; the diversion of public funds to the support of higher and secondary education, without due regard to local provision for those grades, and to the neglect of pri¬ mary education; the failure, first, to give effect to the recommenda¬ tion of the commission of 1882, which urged that in the upper classes of high schools there should be two divisions, one looking toward the 1 The statistics are taken from the quinquennial report for 1891-92 to 1896-97, prepared by Mr. J. S. Cotton. M. A., which deals with a population of 233,490,022, about 81 per cent of the whole population. 2 By a typographical or clerical error the rate of increase for women in colleges appears in Table I, column 9, as 50 per cent, instead of 93 per cent. The actual increase was from 45 to 87 women students. THE COMMISSIONERS INTRODUCTION. XIX entrance examination of the universities, the other of a more practi¬ cal character, intended to lit youths for commercial or other non¬ literary pursuits; and the failure, second, to give adequate support and extension to primary education. For the better understanding of these points it is desirable to bear in mind that the main features of the system of education in India are freedom of local initiative in establishing and maintaining schools, and the application of provincial government funds and provincial super¬ vision to all classes of schools, the amount of aid being determined largely by the results of Government examinations. In each of the larger provinces there is an education department for the general administration of education, and in the smaller divi¬ sions a director. The efficiency of the primary schools depends chiefly upon the inspectors, who are supposed to see that the instruc¬ tions of the departments and of the directors are actually carried out. The diversion of public funds to the support of higher education to the neglect of primary education is alleged as one cause of the slow progress of the latter. The total expenditure for education in 1806-97 was 35,241,900 rupees ($6,837,574), of which amount provincial rev¬ enues yielded 27 per cent, local public funds 20. 6 per cent, fees 30.1 per cent, and other sources the balance, 22.3 per cent. Only 31 per cent of the total sum named was expended on primary schools. The rate of increase in total expenditure during the quinquennium was 15 per cent. For arts colleges (English) it rose to 16 per cent, but for pri¬ mary schools it did not rise above the average rate (15 per cent). The importance of providing for the training of teachers has been constantly urged upon the provincial education authorities, but the commission of 1882 found that only 18 per cent, of the teachers in primary schools had received any training, and since that date the provision for this work has increased but slightly. One of the most important questions that has arisen in the develop¬ ment of education in India under English rule is that of the place to be given to the English language, and to European as contrasted with Oriental studies. The discussions of this subject when the educational system was in its infancy are noticed. It was early determined that it was the duty of the State to spread Western knowledge among its Indian subjects and that the English language should be made the medium of the higher instruction in European literature, philosophy, and science; at the same time equal encouragement was to be given to Oriental institutions. As regards elementary education it has been the policy of the Gov¬ ernment to recognize and foster every local effort in this direction, Whether the vernacular or English has been the medium of instruction. The progress of English instruction in higher institutions during the last decade and the extent to which it prevails in all classes of schools are shown. From the tabulated statistics it appears that in XX EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 189G-97 of every 1,000 boys in primary schools 22 were learning English (in 1891-92, 20 in every 1,000); of bo}’s in vernacular secondary schools, ' 100 in 1,000, and all boys in English secondary schools during some portion of the course. All the students in arts colleges and special schools pursue English, and it is noticeable that while the attendance upon arts colleges steadily increases that of the Oriental colleges declines. From a somewhat detailed review of the progress of primary schools for boys it appears that in the decade 1870-71 to 1881-82 there was a large increase in the number of pupils, viz, 239 per cent; for each of the five-year periods 1886-87 to 1891-92 and 1891-92 to 1896-97 the increase was only 13 per cent. For the decade 1870-71 to 1881-82 the increase in the number of schools was much greater than in the num¬ ber of pupils, but there has been a marked change in this respect, coming from the consolidation of small schools, with a resulting increase of efficiency. Schools unaided by public funds are dimin¬ ishing. Of all classes of primary schools recognized by the Government the strongest are those managed by local school boards. The statistics show also an increasing proportion of pupils in the two higher divi¬ sions of the primary schools, viz, 75.7 per cent in 1891-92, 79.88 in 1896. The efforts in respect to the education of girls have been attended with peculiar difficulties, but the statistics show advance here also. In the ten years from 1886-87 to 1896-97 the number of girls in public institutions increased from 241,568 to 360,006. The ratio of girls in schools to the total of school-going age rose from 1.97 per cent in 1891-92 to 2.34 per cent in 1896-97. It was highest in Burma (5.18 per cent) and lowest in the northwest provinces and Oudh (0.46 per cent). Above the primary schools of India are the secondary schools and colleges, which are welded into a system quite distinct from the ele¬ mentary schools through the controlling influences of the five univer¬ sities. These are examining bodies which, by their matriculation and degree examinations and their power to affiliate colleges, virtu¬ ally regulate the work of secondary schools and colleges. An account of the recently constituted Indian University of Research is given. There are given also citations from Mr. Cotton’s quinquen¬ nial report relative to the special provision for educating native chiefs and noblemen, and the special provision for “backward classes.” The chapter gives brief summaries of education in Mysore and Cey¬ lon, the former showing the effect of English influence upon native States not under English administration, and the latter the compara¬ tive ease with which a foreign system can be fostered in the midst of a small, compact population. From the survey of the work already accomplished in India it is evident that the slow progress is not wholly a sign of neglect or apathy. THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. XXI Where large place is given to local activity the direct educational results are not so immediate as under the pressure of centralized authority, hut they are accompanied by a diffused sense of public responsibility and a general aptitude for directing public affairs, which are important factors in social development. English secondary schools. — Chapter II gives a brief account of the origin in the fourteenth century, the growth, the influence, and t lie relation to the public of the great schools of England. The names of some of them — Eton, Rugby, Harrow — are as familiar as house¬ hold names even in the United States. These schools were at first intended to be charitable institutions for the benefit of poor scholars, an object which was afterwards lost sight of. As the training ground of the leaders of England their influence has been far beyond anything that can be measured by statistics. As pointed out by the author, the internal organization of the great schools, the rigorous and sometimes cruel treatment of the students by their own political constitution, the character-forming contests which formed part of the life of the school, all were a preparation for careers which have been famous in the camp, in Parliament, and in letters, and in all parts of the world from England to India. The change in the character of secondary instruction in England from the old exclusively classical system to one related to modern requirements is pointed out in connection with its cause — the demands of commerce and industry. The national conservatism appears in the deliberation with which the change was made. Truant schools. — Chapter III gives in systematic shape a digest of information relating to truant schools. The evolution of this class of schools is traced at some length and their present status consid¬ ered. As now viewed, they may be characterized as institutions designed on the one hand to gather apart, reclaim, and educate way¬ ward children inclined to vagrancy and crime, and on the other to relieve the regular schools and teachers of a disturbing element. The principles upon which these schools should be organized and conducted are not as yet fully agreed upon. A feeling exists that to segregate children from their fellows, thereby making them a class apart, and subject them to institutional influences for a considerable length of time, may be prejudicial to their welfare in certain respects, and result in a greater evil than that which the truant schools them¬ selves were designed to remedy. Moreover, there is a diversity of opinion as to the character and degree of culpability a child should manifest before he is subjected to these special agencies. It is owing to these considerations mainly that the establishment of truant schools has been proceeded with but slowly and that there is a great difference in the extent to which they are utilized by the communities where they exist. Of the boarding schools solely for tru¬ ants there are only 13, the 6 county schools in Massachusetts, and 7 XXII EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. city schools, 5 of which are in New York Slate. These schools have a total average attendance of 690, or about 1 in 1,370 of t lie whole number of pupils attending school. In Lynn, Mass., this proportion runs up to 1 in 285. Besides the boarding schools there are 29 day truant schools in 13 cities distributed through 8 States. The results of each class of schools, so far as they can be determined, are summed up on pages 95 to 97. Three representative States — Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Xew York — are taken up for special consideration and their several systems for repressing truancy derived historically, analyzed, and compared. Then follows a treatment of individual institutions and cities; the text of the laws relating to the disposition of truants in 17 States; and finally an account of reformatory and allied institutions in Great Britain, where, according to the official statements quoted, truant schools have had only a modified degree of success. Education in Porto Rico. — In Chapter IV General Eaton presents a most interesting picture of the aspect of educational affairs in Porto Rico at the moment of the transfer of its allegiance to the United States, a unique moment in the national life of the island. General Eaton was called to take charge of the education of the island under the Spanish secretary of the interior before the insular government had been fully reorganized by the American military governor. He remained in the island, changing and reorganizing the system of education and encountering all the difficulties of the novel situation, until May, 1900. He was, therefore, the pioneer in the new system of education, and the originator of the changes which were found necessary to remodel the existing school system and bring it more in accordance with the American plan of organization. His observa¬ tions on the situation as he found it, his study of the intelligence and social condition of the people, their needs in the matter of schools, and the conservative measures he recommended form an important chapter in the history of the island and of the United States as well. It was a fortunate thing for Porto Rico that a man with vast experi¬ ence in the matter of organizing schools in a population just emerg¬ ing from the condition in which war had left them, should have been in charge of the school system. Educational extension in the United States. — In Chapter Y Dr. H. B. Adams gives a survey of the most important educational agencies outside of the formal school and college systems. Of the various instrumentalities and influences that promote popular cul¬ ture which are passed in review, some are new, while others are old ones appearing under a new aspect or stimulated to renewed activity and a broader field of action through organized effort and the employment of more effective methods. The beginnings of the agitation for the general diffusion of knowl- THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. XXIII edge, I)r. Adams holds, sprang from that democratic spirit to which the American and French revolutions owed their origin, and which led to the great reform movements in England. The American lyceum, the forerunner of the university extension lectures of to-day, is traced back to the early thirties, antedating by a few years the labors of Horace Mann in Massachusetts. University extension itself is treated at some length, as well as its allied agencies, such as Chautauqua and other summer schools, vacation schools, etc. Public school and c‘ traveling” libraries receive due consideration, as well as art and music for the people, education by travel, the Smithsonian and other governmental institutions, and, finally, newspapers. The improvement in all the processes which go to making* up and printing newspapers and magazines, together with cheap postage, has resulted in their universal diffusion in the United States, rendering them an educational agency of the first magnitude. Their influence on the moral and material life of the nation can hardly be overestimated. Dr. Adams sets forth in some detail the systematic educational work undertaken by the Chicago Record, of which it is said that fully 100,000 people avail themselves. The same causes have been at work cheapening and multiplying books as well as newspapers, so that it is now possible for a workman at the price of one or two hours’ labor to purchase almost any popular standard or classical work, embracing such authors as Carlyle, Ras¬ kin, Macaulay, Scott, Dickens, Thackeray, and the better -known poets. The circumstance that the counters of department stores are well stocked with such books would seem to prove that there is a corresponding number of readers. AH this apparatus of books and newspapers as it now exists is a new phenomenon in the world’s history and one capable of exertin. a potent influence on civilization. Historical papers . — Chapter VI is made up of three memorable historical documents relating to education in the South previous to the civil war, which deserve frequent reprint and are worthy of preservation in permanent form: (1) The c< Proposed plan for the organization and support of the common schools of Virginia,” pre¬ pared by Henry Ruff her in 1841 and presented to the State legisla¬ ture. (2) An address delivered by Henry A. Wise in 185G, on the occasion of his retirement from Congress as Representative of a Vir¬ ginia district. The burden of this address is, “Tax yourselves to edu¬ cate j our children.” (3) Letter of Dr. J. II. Thornwell to Governor Manning, of South Carolina, on public instruction (1853). After treat¬ ing of higher education the writer makes an elaborate argument in favor of bringing the means of elementary education within the reach of every child in the State. All of these utterances, so far as they relate to free public schools, are marked by farsighted views, greatly in advance of the state of public xxrv EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. opinion on the subject then existing in Virginia and South Carolina. They illustrate Dr. Mayo’s article on the history of the common schools of the South, contained in the following chapter, and are by him edited for this Report. Common school* in the South, 1830-1860. — In Chapter VII Dr. A. D. Mayo has traced the history of common schools in the South¬ ern States east of the Mississippi River during the thirty years pre¬ ceding the outbreak of the civil war. The social and economic con¬ ditions then prevailing in the South were not such as to favor the growth of the common-school idea, yet here and there certain far¬ sighted minds were alive to the importance of giving all the children of the State an elementary education at the expense of the State, and they labored zealously to that end. These efforts did not meet with any marked degree of success except in a few circumscribed localities, mostly in the decade preceding the war, where concentra¬ tion of population and other circumstances made the establishment of public free schools more practicable. Dr. Mayo has collected a large amount of material on the subject, and his treatment of it is marked by a breadth of view and a grasp of the general relations of events which combine to throw light on educational conditions in the Souih before the war. In Chapter VIII are reprinted a number of noteworthy papers read at the meeting of the department of superintendence at Chicago in 1900. One, by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, has for its subject the “ Status of education at the close of the century.” The nineteenth century is presented as preeminently the period of individual liberty, though it has come to be realized that the individual alone is nothing, only as a member of a society and a race is he everything. Dr. Butler pre¬ sents in a striking and suggestive manner the effects upon educational conceptions of the triumph of the doctrine of evolution. Following this paper is one on “The trail of the city superintend¬ ent,” by Supt. Aaron Gove, of Denver, who examines the difficulties that confront and the qualifications required of the city superintend¬ ent. President Edwin A. Alderman, then of the University of North Carolina, now of Tulane University in New Orleans, treats of the “Obligations and opportunities of scholarship,” with sped a 1 reference to conditions in the Southern States. Finally, Professor Atwater’s address on “Alcohol physiology and superintendence” is reprinted entire. The viewTs contained in this paper as to the functions of alcohol in its relations to the human body, and as to what should be taught on the subject in the schools, have awakened some adverse criticism, but being the conclusions reached by an eminent scientific authority after a course of carefully guarded experiments they would seem to be entitled to careful consideration. Mrs. Mary II. Hunt’s discussion of the paper is appended. Temperance teaching in Europe. — The subject of temperance THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. XXV instruction is taken up again in Chapter IX. It is always profitable to observe how social and economical problems here pressing for solution are dealt with in other lands, and under conditions far removed from those which obtain in the United States, and to inquire whether in the study of a foreign environment some principles of gen¬ eral application may not be suggested that will assist us in dealing with problems here at home. The system of warfare against intem¬ perance through the medium' of the schools, projected by A. Sluys, director of the Brussels (Belgium) Normal School, and given at length in the chapter referred to, exemplifies the different point of view that may be taken by an Old World observer from that so prevalent here. The educational devices he proposes and the recommendations he makes will receive attention. Collegiate and profession al courses. — The average student who pur¬ sues full collegiate and professional courses is not ready to enter on the actual practice of a profession until the age of 25 or 26. In view of this circumstance much thought has been expended in considering the best expedients for reducing the undue length of the term of school and college life. Judge Simeon E. Baldwin, professor of con¬ stitutional law in Yale University, delivered recently an address upon the subject before a section of the American Bar Association, which is reprinted as Chapter X of this Report, and in which are dis¬ cussed the various plans that have been proposed for shortening the time necessary for acquiring a complete education. A defense of high schools . — Chapter XI is a reprint of an essay by II. H. Morgan, for many years the principal of the high school at St. Louis, Mo., on “The justification of the public high school,” which originally appeared in the St. Louis school report of 1876-77. Although the establishment of public high schools is in its full career, there is much interest in the arguments for and against such institutions. The number of public high schools increases with the growth of city populations. In 1890 there were in the whole United States 2,526 high schools, and in 1900 the number had increased to 6,005. In the Southern States there is manifest the same zeal to pro¬ vide public secondary instruction, and in the same decade the number of high schools (including Missouri with the South Atlantic and South Central States) increased from 343 to 1,358. Free high schools for rural pupils. — Chapter XII contains an ear¬ nest plea for better facilities of secondary education in rural districts. The matter has been prepared by Prof. H. R. Corbett, of the Univer¬ sity of Chicago. He gives an account of the replies he received from noted teachers and public men on the subject of free high schools for rural pupils, and presents the results of his painstaking inquiries in a suggestive form. Since he neglects no section of the country the paper is a valuable symposium of public opinion on the question. Relations of libraries to schools. — The report of the committee of XXVI EDUCATION KEPORT, 1899-1900. the National Educational Association on the relation of public libra¬ ries to public schools is reprinted in full in Chapter XIII. The report takes the form of a symposium, being made up of a number of papers, each treating a special topic. As a whole, they emphasize the need of recognizing the public library as an integral part of the system of public education, and discuss the best methods of cooperation between librarians and teachers and of systematizing and directing the read¬ ing of school children. A number of classified lists of books for pupils, or of books to be read to pupils by teachers, are given. This report is a very timely one, in view of the recent stimulus that has been given to the creation of public libraries through the gifts of Mr. Carnegie and through other influences. In a later chapter of this Report (Chapter XVII) the statistics of libraries at present existing in the United States are given. Education in central Europe. — Chapter XIV treats of education in central Europe. It contains, first, a discussion of the relation of pop¬ ular education to national economic development, translated from the German of Prof. J. Tews in Berlin. The author attempts to show the beneficent influence of a more advanced education of the lower strata of society upon national economic development. Though he refers chiefly to conditions prevailing in Germany, his deductions are applicable elsewhere also. He first shows that civilization is depend¬ ent upon diversified industrial pursuits and highly developed skill in labor. In the second section of his essay lie shows that industry is dependent upon education, general as well as special. Numerous quotations from standard writers in form of footnotes enhance the value of the dissertation. The subject has been before the German National Teachers’ Association for several years, and every speaker on the subject has urged views similar to those here presented by Professor Tews. The burden of all the resolutions passed by the association always has been: Increase and intensify the general ele¬ mentary education of the people and on this basis build a special industrial, agricultural, or other education, but do not lay the bur¬ den of special education upon the shoulders of children before their general elementary education is acquired. Hence he concludes that all specialization in education should begin after the child has com¬ pleted his fourteenth year of age. This is followed by a statement from the Unterrichts-Statistik in Rein's Encyclopedia of Pedagogy, in which, after an introduction on the nature and methods of school statistics, a long array of statistical tables is given to show the futility of comparison of heterogeneous ele¬ ments as presented by various governments. The most interesting part is the author’s exhibit of results of education, in 'which he shows up the methods of presenting illiteracy statistics in the published reports by the various states and countries of Europe. A comparative exhibit of the American and Prussian expenditures THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. XXVII for education is given on pages 788 to 791. The purchasing value of money is so much greater in Germany that the difference of nearly 50 per cent is not so great as it would appear at first. A detailed table of the schools of Berlin shows a surprising variety of educational agencies at the German capital. The table reveals the fact that Berlin has 103 secondary schools (52 public and 51 pri¬ vate) and 306 elementary schools (293 public and only 13 private). By comparing the number of students in secondary schools with the number in elementary schools it is found that the percentage of sec¬ ondary students is 14-1 per cent of the total number. This percent¬ age is so unusual that one is interested to inquire into the cause of it, and it is found that these secondary schools include pupils in the elementary school age (6-14) ; 24,275 of their students were less than 14 years old, 13,245 were over 14. It must be called to mind, that as the classical secondary schools in Germany reach on the one hand far into the college courses, so on the other they reach down to the tenth year of age. While the high schools in this country include only pupils in the third course of four years (ninth to twelfth year’s work) of the com¬ mon school (four years primary, four years grammar, and four years high school), tlie German high school begins independently at ten years of age, and closes its course* according to its character, with the seventeenth, eighteenth, or nineteenth year of the student. If, then, we reduce to American standards the number of secondarv students t/ in Berlin, count only those over 14 years, the percentage of the sum total is found to be a trifle over 5 per cent. It is also interesting to notice what great efforts the city makes in aiding the industrial edu¬ cation of its youth. The fifth section of the chapter gives an account of the expenditures for higher education in the civilized world wherever higher seats of learning exist. These expenditures are grouped so that the per capita expense for each country can be seen. A summary for Europe shows that Switzerland and Great Britain stand at the head, with 21.8 and 21.7 cents, respectively, per capita of the population, while Bul¬ garia stands at the foot, with 2.3 cents. Montenegro and Turkey report no higher seats of learning. The claim of children for a free childhood development is the subject of the next section. It deals with the conditions under which wage¬ earning children are found in Austria and Germany. A table pub¬ lished in 1897 by the imperial statistical bureau at Berlin gave the total number of such children in the Empire as 214,954. This total has been considered erroneous, and a new inquiry instituted by the imperial chancellor, Prince von Hohenlohe, has since revealed the fact that the number of wage-earning children engaged in industrial pursuits only (those engaged in agricultural pursuits were purposely excluded in the new enumeration) was 532,283; hence more than twice the number found in the census of 1895. If to this is added the num- XXVIII EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. ber of children earning wages in agricultural and forestry pursuits, to wit, about 200,000, there are upward of three-fourths of a million children between 6 and 14 years engaged in earning wages in Ger¬ many. The article quotes a number of teachers and officials who write about the dangers of child labor. While most are of the opin¬ ion that a certain very limited number of hours of responsible labor is not only not dangerous to the health of children, but advisable owing to the sense of duty which is thus awakened through regular occupation, all are opposed to the prevailing abuse of child labor, long hours, and unhygienic or immoral environments. The condi¬ tions of child labor found in the city of Berlin and in some Thuringian industrial centers are pronounced to be reprehensible. The seventh section of this chapter contains an order of the minis¬ ter of education in Prussia concerning medical inspection of schools, based upon experiences made in Wiesbaden. The order is conserva¬ tive and quite as far removed from the radical measures recommended by some physicians as it is from the old-time indifference to hygienic considerations. The annual meeting of the German “Naturforscher ” (a society similar to the Association for the Advancement of Science in the United States) discussed secondary education and institutions for its promotion during the year 1899 in Dusseldorf. An account of this discussion and a review of the recent literature on the subject is found in this chapter. The burden of all the arguments advanced is that the classic languages must recede from their privileged position and make room for more realistic, that is to say, more scientific, knowledge, and better hygienic considerations must prevail in the preparation of courses of study and programmes of hours of study. Meanwhile the Emperor has decreed that English replace French as an obligatory study in classical high schools. Formerly English was only optional in such schools. The ninth article in this chapter is a discussion of the German com¬ mercial agent. Three contributions, from Prof. J. J. Findlay, in Lon¬ don; Prof. Edward J. Goodwin, in New York, and Prof. W. Weinig, of the commercial college in Bellizona, Switzerland,1 deal with tnis subject, each from a different standpoint, agreeing, however, in the premise that the German commercial agent is superior to his colleagues of other nationalities, and giving reasons why he is so. While the first of the three gentlemen lays special stress upon the fact that the German student has a good elementary or general education on which to build a special preparation, the second describes the excellence of German high schools, giving credit to secondary education, and the third shows that specially well-adapted professional education based 1 The statement of Professor Weinig was received by this Office through the courtesy of his excellency the Swiss minister at this capital, Mr. J. Pioda. THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. XXIX on good elementary and secondary education can not fail to have the results so much spoken of in England and other countries, where the German commercial agent has recently become an object of careful study. This article is followed by statistics of the Swiss school system, which show increase in all educational institutions, from kindergartens to universities, commensurate with the increase in population. The results of a Swiss governmental inquiry concerning the number of mentally defective or weak children of school age (6 to 14) are given in the eleventh article of this chapter. The total number is 13,155. The article shows what is done with them, and recommends further measures that will prove of interest to American readers who advo¬ cate singling out intellectually weak children from those of robust intellect and placing them by themselves under especially well-trained teachers, partly that they may be saved from discouragement and partly to relieve the regular classes of pupils who would retard their progress. In the twelfth article of this cliaxiter an account is given of German schools in foreign countries. Though few in number as yet, they give evidence of how persistently and consistently the Imperial Govern¬ ment is reaching out beyond the seas to protect its citizens and pre¬ serve their nationality. The article is a translation of Prof. J. Roux’s paper on “Questions diplomatiques et coloniales.” In article thirteen of this chapter will be found a statement of the number of students in higher institutions of learning in fifteen prom¬ inent countries. The tables show, first, that the Teutonic nations — Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, and the Netherlands — are in the front rank, not only in the number of students in higher institu¬ tions, but also in the ratio of increase. Second, that the percentage of increase in students of technical institutions, such as polytechnic institutions, agricultural and mining schools, is everywhere larger during the year 1898-99 than in those of universities and colleges. We note, for instance, that the attendance in universities in Germany increased 6.5 per cent, but that of technical institutions increased 8.2 per cent. In Austria the increase in universities was 4 per cent; in technical institutions it was 7.8 per cent. In Russia the increase in universities was 1.2 per cent; in technical institutions it was 7.7 per cent. Such figures are significant, inasmuch as the3r indicate that the industries of Europe and America are claiming more thorough and more special preparation than formerly. The commercial interest is making itself felt, but it does not seem that the old ways of classical education required by university study are deserted, for the increase in attendance on the traditional course of study in universities is larger than the ratio of annual increase in the population. This is followed by a statement of the efforts made by Hungary to promote industrial and commercial education. Significant figures are XXX EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. given in evidence of a remarkable revival of special education m Hungary. In 1SG8 the department of commerce spent $500 for indus¬ trial schools, but in 1897 nearly $250,000. The article sketches minutely the organization, objects, and methods of industrial and commercial schools, most of which were first organized by private initiative. Corporal punishment in the elementary schools of Prussia is dis¬ cussed in its relation to the recent orders of Minister Dr. Bosse and Minister Dr. Studt. It is gratifying to note that the latter, in formu¬ lating the new regulations, followed an American usage, which does not prohibit corporal punishment entirely but limits the practice by requiring written reports of each case, and by this means prevents excess. The last article in this chapter is a translation of an essay of the Baroness von Bulow-Wendhausen, which reviews the tireless work of her aunt, the Baroness von Marenholtz-Biilow, in behalf of kin¬ dergartens and. the spread of Froebel’s ideas. In connection with this a cursory view of the kindergarten systems of all civilized coun¬ tries is offered, which may prove of especial interest to American fol¬ lowers of Froebel. The article breathes an enthusiasm most refresh¬ ing to anyone disappointed in the seemingly slow progress of kinder¬ gartens in Germany. Public playgrounds. — Chapter XV contains an account of public playgrounds in Germany and of a vacation school in Providence, R. I., the latter prepared by Dr. Ellen C. Putnam, who gives a description of what is being done in that city to prevent school children of the slums from lapsing into bad habits through home influence during the long summer vacation. The pathological phase of education seems to demand and receive more attention from year to year all over the civilized world. If we consider the many efforts made in rescuing children in Germany, England, the United States, and elsewhere, one can not help seeing that the people generally are becoming alive to the necessity of preventing crime and degeneracy, rather than pun¬ ishing or curing it after it has become a fact. We see, for instance, spring up in large numbers special schools for intellectually and morally weak children, reform schools for both sexes, industrial and agricultural continuation schools, vacation playgrounds supervised by expert teachers, and other benevolent efforts, all of which have a pathological as well as an educational purpose. They certainly deserve to be regarded as indications of a higher civilization. Chapter XVI gives an account of the unique experiment in Boston known as “The Old South work,” inaugurated by a noble woman, who desired to promote an intelligent patriotism among the youth of the land. Mrs. Mary Hemenway had a deep feeling of personal gratitude toward the founders of Xew England and the Fathers of the Republic, and devoted much of her time and of her fortune to the promotion of THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. XXXI patriotic endeavors. One of the chief agencies in the work under¬ taken at the Old South Church has been a lecture course, continued from year to year, on one or another phase of history. The Old South Meeting House had been saved from destruction by a contribution of $100,000 made by Mrs. Hemenway toward the fund for its purchase. The preservation of that landmark had a wide influence, resulting in the saving of other historic landmarks in Massachusetts and in other States. Chapter XVII gives the statistics of public, society, and school libraries. The number of public, society, and school libraries in the United States, of 1,000 volumes and over, is 5,383, according to reports collected bv this Bureau in 1900. This shows an increase of 1,357 libraries of 1,000 volumes in less than five years. The number of volumes in the 5,383 libraries was 44,591,851, as compared with 33,054,872 in the 4,026 libraries reported at the beginning of the year 1896, the same being a remarkable increase of 11,539,979 volumes, or almost 35 per cent in the five years. Of those libraries open to the public 2,734 were entirely free, 2,375 being supported by taxation. The 3,115 reporting their income, in the aggregate received $7,812,406. In table No. 5 the libraries are classified according to size. ‘Four libraries have upward of 500,000 volumes each; 50 libraries have collections of more than 100,000 and less than 500,000; 283 libraries have each over 25,000 volumes and less than 100,000. Comparative statistics show the following items: Year. Libraries. Volumes. 1875 . . . . . . . 2,039 2, 988 3,503 11, 4S7, 778 19,401, 119 ism . . . . . . . 25, 977, 843 1886 . . . . . - . - . 4, 028 5,383 33.051,872 1900 . . . . . . . 44,591,851 Table No. 6 shows the endowments reported ; 645 report an aggre¬ gate of $25,267,643. In 1896 there were 605 reporting endowment funds aggregating $17,570,673, the increase being 44 per cent since the last report. Education in Great Britain. — Chapter X VIII treats of education in Great Britain, and in particular of the English system of elementary education, which has reached an important crisis in its history. This is the establishment of a new central education authority, the “board of education,” in place of the former education department and the department of science and art. To this board are also transferred the educational duties of other government agencies. This consoli¬ dation frees the public system of education from the waste and fric¬ tion of duplicate agencies, which had become a serious obstacle to efficient administration. The scope of the central authority is also XXXII EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. increased by the authority to supervise secondary schools1 applying for the service, and to recognize a new class of elementary schools termed higher elementary (giving substantially what the high school of the United States gives). By this provision the board is brought at once into touch with the paramount problem of the hour, namely, the adequate supply of secondary schools — i. e., schools having work in advance of that taken up in the first seven years of school — and their adjustment to the public elementary schools and to the wants of the industrial classes. Apart from the need of government intervention in respect to secondary education there was a necessity for reorganizing the cen¬ tral authority in the phenomenal, but unequal growth of the S3rstem of elementary education established by the law of 1870. The present and antecedent conditions are set forth in Chapter XVII I by a consideration of the two problems which demand the immediate attention of the new board and by a retrospective statis¬ tical review showing, in detail, the growth of the elementary school system since its establishment in 1870. The first of the two problems in the order followed in the chapter specified, and which precedes also in the order of development the prob¬ lem of secondary education already referred to, is that of equalizing 1 The term “ Secondary school ” varies so much in meaning from the same term as used in the United States that I quote from the English report of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education, 1895, Vol. I, p. 41: “ Existing secondary schools. — 50. The Schools Enquiry Commission distin¬ guished three grades of secondary schools, according to the age up to which the pupils normally remain at schools. For the first grade the leaving age is 18 or 19; for the second grade, 16 or 17; for the third grade, 14 or 15. In each grade there are schools of different types, according to the time devoted to different subjects. But in every case the grade of the school depends on the head form: and the char¬ acter of the head form depends on the age up to which the majority of the pupils stay at the school. “ Taking provisionally this classification, which it will be seen in the sequel can not be very rigidly applied,, we find that the following kinds of existing secondary schools belong respectively to the first, the second, and the third grade. “First grade (secondary) schools: (1) First grade endowed schools, including the seven great public schools. “ (2) First grade proprietary schools sending pupils to the universities or uni¬ versity colleges. “ (3) Private schools of the more advanced type. “Second grade (secondary) schools: (1) Second grade endowed schools. “ (2) Proprietary or private schools which send in pupils for the higher classes of the college of preceptors’ examinations, or for the Oxford and Cambridge local examinations. “ (3) Some day schools at technical institutes. “ (4) The highest departments of some higher grade elementary schools. “Third grade (secondary; schools: (1) Third grade endowed schools. “(2) Private schools in which the ordinary standard is that of the third-class certificates in the college of preceptors’ examinations. “ (3) Higher grade elementary schools.” THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. XXXIII school provision, especially between the rural districts and the cities. This problem of uni versa! interest has assumed peculiar feat ures in Eng¬ land on account of the dual system of elementary schools — i. e., board and parochial. To understand this it is necessary to pass in review certain statistics brought out in the thirty years’ review comprised in the chapter here considered. The statistics show an increase in enrolled pupils from 1,693,059 to 5,672,403, or from 7.6 per cent of the population to 17.8 percent. The annual appropriations from the public treasury have steadily risen to meet the demands. In 1870 the public grant for schools was £562,600 ($2,813,055); in 1899 it had reached a total of £8,723,538 ($43,617,690). (See Tables VII to IX, pp. 1190 to 1192.) How far this increase has been caused by mere growth in the number of the schools and how far by their enlarged resources is suggested by a comparison of per capita expenditures. In twenty years — i. e., 1879 to 1899 — the rise in private (‘‘voluntary”) schools was from £1 14s. 6d. ($8.60) to £2 5s. lyd. ($11.25) per pupil, and in board schools from £2 2s. fd. ($10.50) to £2 15s. 7d. ($13.89). (See Table VIII, p. 1191.) The greatest factor in this development has been the new agent introduced by the law of 1870, namely, the board schools. These schools, supported in part by local taxes and managed, like our own public schools, by local elected boards, illus¬ trate the democratic impulses from which the school law originated. Beginning at nothing in 1870, they educated in 1899 46 per cent of the enrolled pupils. Private schools, chiefly parochial, which were made a part of the system by the law, have also increased under the fostering care of the Government, but they maintain an unequal struggle against the more progressive public schools. This is indi¬ cated by the financial limitations of the parochial as compared with the board schools. Close estimates show that the average income of the parochial schools is 10s. 6d. ($2.59) less per pupil than that of board schools. The parochial schools are the chief and often the only school supply in the rural districts of England, and the backward state of rural as compared with urban schools, which has come to be felt as a national evil, is attributed in great part to their need of funds. In particular, their supporters complain of their exclusion from a share in the local taxes. The special grant in their favor allowed by a law of 1897 lias not been adequate to their relief, and it lias excited much opposition. Among other alleged causes of the inferiority of rural parochial schools are the opposition of farmers and squires to education, the indifference of agricultural laborers, the short school life, the unpractical curriculum, the sectarian monopoly, the too small area of control, and, in general, the absence of popular control. While the improvement of rural education is largely a matter of local effort, it is expected that the new board will support some com¬ prehensive measures looking to that end. The present state of this ED 1900- -III XXXIV EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. interest is shown in detail by the statements in the chapter from English sources. The growth of the school-board system has been marked by a gradual development of higher grade elementary schools, correspond¬ ing on the whole to the American public high school. They are situ¬ ated in t lie great centers of industry and have naturally developed on the scientific and technical sides. They have met a great want, but they complicate the general problem of secondary education by increasing the number of local authorities engaged in the field and by a coordination of secondary and elementary grades, which is regarded with some apprehension by those who advocate a limited and specialized training for the masses. Recent measures seem to indicate that the Government has been unfavorably affected toward these local developments. The situation with respect to them is made clear by articles from well-known English authorities cited in Chapter XVIII under the head of second¬ ary educat ion. The school boards, it is shown, have immense strength in the great boroughs, and have thus far proved amply able to pro¬ tect their interests, even against a large conservative majority in Parliament. The struggle which seems imminent between conserva¬ tive and liberal policies involves a principle of universal interest. A few earnest leaders in education would make this the occasion for laying broad and deep the foundations of a unified system of national education. They emphasize the ideal possibilities of human nature rather than the social and utilitarian purposes which are urged from every side. The exhibit of education in the United States, transferred from Pa ris to Manchester at the expense of a local committee, was a timely object lesson in this particular. Its bearing upon the English prob¬ lems was indicated by Sir John Gorst in a speech quoted in Chapter XVIII. Mr. Gorst defines the two opposing theories of education, the philosophical and the utilitarian, and, while expressing the opinion that there is much to be said for both, observes that “America is entirely in favor of general education.” Among other evidences of the development of public education reviewed in this chapter are the extension of the period of compul¬ sory education, the age for exemption having been raised by recent legislation from 10 to 12 vears; the improvement of the teaching force through the increased proportion of adult assistant teachers, and the proportionate decline in the number of pupil teachers; and the increase in salaries and improved provision for the training of teach¬ ers. In the last-named particular England is still inferior to many continental countries. The usual term at the normal school is brief — only two years, in which are comprised both academic and profes¬ sional training, and with the existing provision only one-third the annual demand for new teachers can be met. THE COMMISSIONERS INTRODUCTION. XXXV During the thirty years since the passing of the elementary school law there has been a gradual extension of the school curriculum. It is this extension which has afforded the chance for the development of the higher grade schools already considered. For a typical exam¬ ple of the English higher grade school see pages 1226 and 1227. Chapter XVIII contains also a brief account of the measures taken by school boards to control habitual truancy and in cooperation with private agencies to relieve the wants of destitute children. School dinners are provided in London, Manchester, and other large cities, and in London an organized effort is in progress for securing legal sanction for this relief work as a regular part of the elementary school operations. The Government has already made general provision for the educa¬ tion of blind and deaf children, and many urban school boards have established special schools for the feeble-minded. Indeed, in respect to many serious social problems the school boards of the larger cities of England are giving valuable lessons to the world. Under secondary education is given a summary of the work of the science and art department and a brief resume of conditions in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. These three divisions of the Kingdom, it appears, have advanced far beyond England in provision for the pub¬ lic supervision of secondary schools. The discussion of this part of the education work is comprised in Part II of the chapter. The statistics of universities and university colleges presented in Table XVII show, in general, increases of attendance in these higher institutions during the decade 1889-1899. The noticeable decline in the number of students in the Scotch universities is attracting serious attention. It is due in part to the advanced standard of admission and in part to financial inability to provide the equipments required by modern demands. In this respect England is making rapid strides, chiefly through private and municipal activity in the establish¬ ment and endowment of local university colleges. The success of the movement for the higher education of women is attested by the very large attendance at all the university colleges and departments to which they are admitted. The foundation of new universities and the equipment of laborato¬ ries and of new departments for research in the old universities are among the important particulars set forth in the record of university life comprised in Part III of Chapter XVIII. In the current move¬ ment toward unity of educational ideals and purposes university men are taking an active part. The consultative committee organized for advisory service to the new board of education comprises representatives of all orders of education, and thus gives tangible expression to the impulses toward a comprehensive national system of education which are working in many minds at the beginning of this new era. XXXVI EDUCATION REPORT, 1809-1900. A list of educational periodicals in the United States, classified by States and by subject, is given in Chapter XIX. Chapter XX com¬ prises a directory of State and city superintendents, presidents of universities and colleges, and principals of normal schools. The study of temperance physiology . — In Chapter XXI is reprinted an argument by Mrs. Mary II. Hunt, who has conducted with eminent ability and success the effort to introduce the study of the evils of alcoholism into the elementary schools, in which she contends that instruction in temperance physiology should be begun when the child first enters school and continued through all the elementary grades in succession, to be finally taken up and completed in the first year of the high school. The Hopkins Grammar School , New Haven, Conn. — In Chapter XXII Mr. II. K. Willard has detailed some of the circumstances con¬ nected with the establishment of this historical institution near the middle of the seventeenth century. The complete list of masters or rectors which he gives contains the names of many widely known educators. The language question in Greece. — The language of all countries which possess a literature or a lettered class exhibits more or less the phenomenon of “diglossy;” the literary and the colloquial languages differ from each other. Among the Greek-speaking peoples this divergence of spoken and written language is and has been for cen¬ turies strongly accentuated. Dr. Daniel Quinn has made a study of the diglossic phases of modern Greek, and their historical derivation from the classic idioms, which appears as Chapter XXIII of the pres¬ ent Report. From this it would appear that the aspects of the modern Greek language are not restricted to a learned and a popular form merely, but various modifications or combinations of these have been devised by Greek writers, each of which has its zealous adher¬ ents. The matter needs more thorough investigation in order to come to a clear understanding regarding it. It is stated that some eminent foreign scholars and even educated Greeks have miscon¬ ceived the relations between the spoken and written languages, the “demotic” and the “katharevousa.” The paper of Dr. Quinn is a scholarly contribution to this subject that will be of peculiar value and interest not only to teachers of Greek, but to students of language in general. Senator Justin S. Morrill. — In Chapter XXIV is given an address by G. Vf. Atherton, president of the Pennsylvania State College, upon the legislative career of Justin S. Morrill, the author of the acts of 180:2 and 1890 endowing that class of institutions now known as the agricultural and mechanical colleges. Dr. Atherton recounts, in brief, the efforts made by Senator Morrill to promote the passage of the acts referred to, showing also the motives which actuated him and the purposes he had in view. E COMMISSIONER 8 INTRODUCTION. XXXVII Chapter XXV contains (1) a valuable article by the Hen. Henry L. Hawes on Indian Territory.; (2) a report on “Backward children,” by the Civic. Club of Philadelphia; (3) “Engineering education in the United States in 1900,” by Ira O. Baker; (4) a sketch of He La Salle, founder of the Christian Brothers; (5) C. A. Cutter’s account of the “Bevelopment of public libraries;” (6) the Hugo Grotius celebra¬ tion at Helft; (7) Professor W oodward’s discussion of “When and why pupils leave school; ” (8) President Hadley: “How can the future business man be educated;” (9) Hr. W. H. Payne on “Elastic grad¬ ing;5'’ (10) President Eliot: “The expedition of Cuban teachers to Cambridge, Mass.55 Chapter XXVI contains (1) an eloquent and instructive address by Hon. J. L. M. Curry, the agent of the Peabody fund, delivered before the Alabama Polytechnic Institute; (2) sermon at the dedication of Trinity College, in the District of Columbia, by Right Rev. Mgr. Conaty, H, H.; (3) sketch of President William Preston Johnston, late of Tuiane University; (4) the inaugural address of President Pritchett, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; (5) sketch of life of Hon. J. B. Stallo, one of the most eminent thinkers on the philos¬ ophy of science living in the nineteenth century; (C) plea for the higher education of the negro; (7) the Texas declaration of independ¬ ence, relating to education. Consular reports. — Extracts from the Consular Reports to the State Department are inserted in Chapter XXYII of Y olume 2. They are of great importance, since they refer (1) to the noted Nobel prizes for scientific discoveries, (2) to commercial education in Scotland and Saxony, (3) progress of education in Liberia, (4) medical degrees in Germany, (5) educational progress in Eastern Siberia, (6) the institute for oriental languages in Vladivostok, (7) commercial education in Saxony, (S) manual training in Germany, (9) the growth of German cities, (10) children’s growth at school in Germany, (11) statistics of crime in Germany, etc. Sociology at the Paris Exposition . — Chapter XXVIII contains a report on sociology at the Paris Exposition of 1900, by Mr. Lester F. Ward. After a brief general treatment, Mr. Ward considers at length the subject from an educational standpoint. At the Congress for Instruction in the Social Sciences, held at the Exposition during the summer, reports were made by specialists, chiefly on the status and progress of instruction in the social sciences in the various countries they represented, in different classes of schools, and in individual institutions. Mr. Ward has given extracts from a considerable num¬ ber of these reports, selecting those which seemed to him to be of special importance as typical of the rest. The work of the Congress of Social Education is outlined and its scope and objects explained. Y arions other agencies for education in sociology are noticed. The International Institute of Sociology held a meeting at Paris during EDUCATION REPORT, 1399-1900. Hie progress of tlie Exposition, to which Mr. Ward contributed a paper on social mechanics, with which he concludes his report. Society makes possible the collection from each individual of the products of his special labor and the transfer to him in exchange of a share in the aggregate products of all mankind.1 This function of collection and distribution is accomplished by means of the four cardinal human institutions — (1) family, (2) civil community, (3) state, (4) church. The end and aim of all institutions is to endow the individual with the net results of the activity of his race. It may be said to be the elevation of the individual into the species. For this each individual must be active and productive— he must produce what is good for his fellow- men; secondly, the products must be collected; and thirdly, redistributed. Hence there must be pro¬ ductive industry, channels of intercommunication, and commerce. The goods which come as individual products to the world market and are again redistributed are of two kinds — material and spiritual. Food, clothing, and shelter are material and exclusive in their nature; they have to be shared or divided when distributed. But spiritual products do not have to be divided. Each individual may receive the whole. The wisdom of the race is for each individual in its entirety if he will but enter into it by his own labor. Millions of men live lives full of adventure and experiment, full even of error — full of collision with the laws of the universe. But their life experience is as much for their fellow-men as for themselves. All life is vicarious. The experience of one man goes to all the rest and is summed up in the aggregate of ethical wisdom. By science each man can vicariously enjoy the sum total of all sense perception and all reflection of mankind. The inventory of the world of matter and of the world of human history is taken by the joint cooperation of scientific observation. The principles that unite facts and events are discovered, and human observation, thus con¬ densed in these principles, is served up to each individual. The peculiarities of time and place, the habitat, the climate, soil, and productions — each limited and peculiar — by commerce are so neu¬ tralized that each place gets its share of the fruits of all places, and is thus emancipated from its local defects. Productive industry and commerce have as their first object the collection and distribution of material products; but their spiritual purpose is far more wonderful. In exchanging food and clothing, the nations exchange ideas, and in this exchange each gets richer without parting with anything except ignorance. Society makes possible this miracle. It is a whole which is greater than the sum of its parts. The reenforcement that each gives to the 1 I make rise in this and the following paragraphs of a report written by me in 183G for the National Social Science Association. THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. XXXIX whole is offset by the reenforcement of the whole given to each. Thus by society the individual is infinitely strengthened. The object of social science is the study of the nature of human combination into institutions. Obviously it may be divided into four departments to correspond to the four cardinal institutions — family, civil society, state, church. It first may devote itself to the question of nurture, or parental care, and this covers all phases of charitable activity; for although the family is the primary institution for nurture, or for the support of the weak by the strong, yet the family principle has in some degree to be assumed by all the higher institutions. The principle of the family is nurture, but the principle of our sec¬ ond institution, the civil community, is self-help. By means of the instruments of property and contract it procures for itself through labor a participation in the fruits of nature. Thus the civil com¬ munity by organization conquers nature and turns it against itself — making nature toil directly for man — making the powers of nature work to protect our bodies from the destruction produced by those powers. Property and contract we call the instruments of this civil combination. In the state, the third institution of civilization, man attains free- « dom; for as citizen he gives his life for the existence of the political personality of the nation and by it is reendowred with that person¬ ality — his own little self reenforced by the aggregate of all the selves in the nation and thus rendered infinitely strong and firm. In the fourth spiritual institution, whose function it is to furnish art, religion, and science, each man is illuminated by the light of the whole. He learns and adopts for his own the theory of the world, created by the combined vision of all the highest seers of the race and by the combined experience and observation of ail scientific laborers. Social science has for its legitimate field all these provinces — the entire civilization of man. It strives to discover how the institutions of societv are organically related to one another as productive of human welfare. As an attempt to classify these departments of social science the following conspectus was offered in 1886 at the American Social Science Association : 1. Theory cf property, real and personal. 2. Production and distribution of wealth. 8. Theory of government, national, state, and municipal. 4. Public and private corporations. 5. Punishment and reform of criminals. 6. Prevention of vice (intemperance, prostitution, vagrancy, etc.). 7. Public and private charities (care of the poor, insane, blind, idiotic, deaf-mute, foundlings, orphans, etc.). XL EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. 8. Sanitation of cities and of private dwellings (water supply, venti¬ lation, drainage, epidemics, etc.). 9. Theory of public elementary education. 10. Higher education (as furnishing the directive power of society). Under the last two, 9 and 10, which include education, social science looks at the spiritual outcome of society — the results of religion, art, and science as embodying the theoretical view of the world. Under the eighth it looks after the direct care of the human body — food, clothing, shelter, cleanliness, ventilation, and all matters per¬ taining to its environment. Under the seventh it looks after family nurture and the methods of supplementing it by organized charity. Under the fifth and sixth it looks after the source of the evils that attack society and their remedy, pondering means for the reform and punishment of criminals and searching for the sources of crime in vice and ignorance. Under the third and fourth it looks after the organization of the state and its delegation of powers and functions to corporations. Under the first and second it investigates civil society by itself — the realm of individual endeavor, and the participation of each in the fruition of all through wealth. Education in the Philippines , Cuhct, Porto Pico , Hawaii , and Samoa (Chapter XXIX). — In his account of education in the Philip¬ pines the specialist who has the work in charge of studying and digesting the data received from our insular possessions has included the testimony of’ competent German and French scientific observers, in addition to that of Spanish authorities resident on the islands, as to the intellectual attainments of the Filipinos and the results of the education which had been afforded them. It appears from the works of the writers referred to that the Filipinos have received considera¬ ble European culture from their Spanish masters. The solid evidence to prove this is found in the production of a number of eminent law¬ yers and statesmen besides scientific and literary men in recent years. The conditions of the country were not favorable to independent thought or intellectual activity, and the virility of the Filipino char¬ acter is shown by the perseverance that its possessors have manifested in forcing their way into the modern intellectual world in spite of discouragements and repression. Filipino writers have naturally given their attention in recent years to the disturbed political condi¬ tions of their country and to plans for its amelioration. Hence their activity in political writing and revolutionary movements. Specimens of political writings as a means of insurrectionary propaganda, espe¬ cially by freemasons — for freemasonry played a prominent part in the insurrection of 189G — are given, which illustrate the literary and rhetorical skill of the writers. A brief account is also given of the origin of the municipal and THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. XL I political organization of the people, together with a short historical sketch of modern events sufficient to make the extracts from the native authors intelligible and explain the modern conditions in the islands and the cause of the revolt of 1896. This introductory and explanatoiy part, including the specimens of native writings before alluded to, is followed by a statistical and historical account of educa¬ tion at the ancient university of Santo Tomas and in the colleges (or secondary schools) and elementary schools, from which it appears that a number of former institutions like the university were founded some three hundred years ago and have continued until now, giving under the direction of the church such instruction to native boys and girls as was deemed sufficient and appropriate for them. Public elemen¬ tary schools were required to be established in every village of 500 people under the Spanish law, and the evidence of American army officers shows in numerous instances that they were actually in exist¬ ence in various islands when the Americans arrived. It also appears that while Spanish was required to be taught in the public schools, the law in pinos kne\ respect was a dead letter and comparatively few Fili- Spanish. The statistics show that 1,186 degrees were granted by the university between 1645 and 1820, and 2,292 between 1800 and 18S2. There were said to be over 1,000 students at the uni¬ versity in 1896, while the total attendance at all the colleges of the islands was 8,070, showing a large body of young men who received secondary education. Besides these it appears that there were 1,915 students at the 67 private Latin schools. Cuba. — In consequence of the disturbed conditions of the island in recent years little activity in education was to be expected in Cuba. The census showed that in 1899 63.9 per cent of the population were unable to read. The Americans took hold of the elementary schools with vigor, and, under the management of Mr. Alexis E. Frye, the numbers increased so rapidly that by March 1, 1900, there were 3,099 schools in operation, with 3,500 teachers, and an enrollment of 130,000 Children. In 1899 there had been only 200 schools, with an attend¬ ance of 4,000. A comparison of the Spanish with the recent Ameri¬ can regulations regarding education, which are incorporated in the chapter, shows that the Spaniards were fully aware of the defective state of the school system. They had prescribed a plan of studies, based on the law of 1865, modified by that of 1880, which was admi¬ rable in theory, but was never carried, into practice. Porto Rico. — As soon as the Americans took possession of the island, General Henry, the military governor, recommended a reor¬ ganization of the school system, a task which was placed in charge of General Eaton, formerly United States Commissioner of Education. General Eaton’s account of the condition of things as he found them and the changes he proposed (given in Chapter IV) affords a clear picture of the backward situation prevailing in the island at the time. XLII EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. After General Eaton’s return to the United States, the work he inau¬ gurated was carried on by his successors, Dr. Victor S. Clark, Maj. George G. Goff, and the present commissioner, Prof. Martin G. Brum¬ baugh. It appears from an interesting historical sketch of education in Porto Rico, prepared by Senor Enrique C. Hernandez, secretary of the insular board of education, and published in Dr. Clark’s report to General Davis, that the Spanish governor in 1865 introduced salutary school reforms, which were extended by General Despujol in 1876. The latter governor sent out inspectors, whose reports showed the unsatisfactory condition of the schools, and in 1880 the organic law was published prescribing the course of study and instituting the reforms shown to be necessary by the inspectors. In 1808, before the Americans took possession, there were (accord¬ ing to Spanish statistics) 380 public schools for boys and 148 for girls, with an attendance of 18,243. In June, 1800, Dr. Clank reports that there were 212 town schools and 313 country districts with schools. 7 with an attendance of 21,873, leaving 268,630 children without school facilities. In October, 1900, according to the report of Professor Brumbaugh, there were 800 schools, of which 50 per cent were rural schools. The census showed that 27.1 per cent of the total whites in Porto Rico could read, and 15.6 per cent of the total colored, and that 3 per cent of the whites and 4 per cent of the negroes were in school. Hawaii. — A report of the minister of public instruction of Hawaii for 1899 shows that of the 15,490 pupils in the schools 5,043 were Hawaiian, 2,721 part Hawaiian, 601 American, 213 British, 337 Ger¬ man, 3,882 Portuguese, 84 Scandinavian, 1,141 Japanese, 1,314 Chi¬ nese, 30 South Sea Islanders, and 124 were other foreigners. Samoa. — An interesting letter from a lady who had observed the system of instruction in the islands gives am account of the state of education there. She remarks that in the whole of American Samoa there is a school population of 1,500, of whom about 800 are receiving a desultory education in the village pastors’ schools, and adds: “If only some good philanthropist at’ home would open three schools — one in each village — and try the experiment of educating the very young, ] think it would be found that more could be accomplished toward the enlightenment and advancement of these people than in any other way.” Education at the Paris Exposition. — Chapter XXX comprises a report on education at the Paris Exposition by a member of the inter¬ national jury on primary education representing the United States (who happens to belong to the office force of the Bureau of Education), together with appended papers from foreign sources relative to the exhibit from this country. The report describes the general appear¬ ance of the educational section, which for effective disposition and comprehensiveness surpassed any previous display from this nation, THE ' COMMISSIONERS INTRODUCTION. XLIII thanks to the efficient management of the Commissioner-General for the United States and his assistant, Mr. Howard B. Rogers. A detailed description is given of the French exhibit, which, by its sys¬ tem of classification, furnished the standard for the other countries represented. The report considers, further the educational import of the exhibits of elementary schools as brought out in the examinations and discussions of the jury. The characteristic features of national systems were very clearly marked bv the exhibits, and the results of school instruction shown by pupils’ work and by statistical charts afforded the basis for suggestive international comparisons. Among special features which attracted the careful consideration of the jury were the exhibits of agencies for improving the physical and intel¬ lectual condition of poor and unfortunate children and the efforts at race education. The latter formed an important part of the French colonial exhibits, and the great interest of the French Government in the subject drew special attention to those portions of our own exhibit dealing with this problem, especially ter the education, of the colored people. The report of the jury on primary education, cited from the report of Hon. Ferdinand W. Peck, the Commissioner-General for the United States, treats of the composition of that body and its general methods of procedure. It was composed of specialists thoroughly familiar with the subject-matter and animated by the most candid and judi¬ cious spin if The appended papers comprise a comprehensive survey of the edu¬ cational exhibit by Mr. Howard J. Rogers, director of education and social economy for the Commissioner-General of the United States, and appreciative articles on the exhibit of the United States by Dr. G. Compayre, who is well known to American educators, and M. Gustave Lansou. An account is given of the action of the Manches¬ ter technical committee in transferring the educational exhibit of the United States to that city, followed by extensive citations from Eng¬ lish notices of the collection. The chapter closes with a reprint of the special catalogue of the material prepared by Mr. J. II. Reynolds, director of the Technical School, Manchester. The visitor at the Exposition, and especially at the international congresses of education held in the month of August, could not fail to be struck with the great power that the French system of education is exercising on the fortunes of the Republic. Seeing is believing in this instance. There is no longer room for doubt that France has reached a condition of stability through the effects of universal edu- cation that is developing individuality and independent initiative, not only in the large cities but in the remotest provinces. The increasing facilities for the higher education of women and the large numbers of women who come forward as professional teachers, these indicate an ethical tendency in the instruction of the great middle classes of the XLIV EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. population which insures prosperity and stability to the French nation. It produces the required balance between Paris and the other prov¬ inces of France; between the rich and powerful classes and the more numerous poor and dependent classes, by building up a middle class of thinkers and workers who understand and support the national government. Education in France. — Chapter XXXI treats of education in France, with special reference to the public system under the control of the minister of public instruction, whose province is general, as distin¬ guished from industrial education. According to the latest reports (for the year 1897-98) there were enrolled in infant schools 744,126 children, in primary schools (elementary and higher grade) 5,535,125, or altogether in schools classed by the French system as primary an enrollment of 6,279,251 children, being 16.2 percent of the population. The annual expenditure for the public schools, which have three- fourths of the total enrollment, lias reached the sum of 214,015,250 francs ($42,803,050), or 46 francs ($9.20) per capita of enrollment. The State secondary schools (classical lycees and colleges) for boys enrolled 86,321 students, and private schools of the same order 100,865, or a total in secondary schools of 187,186. The public lycees and colleges for girls established in 1880 increased from the small number of 300 students in 1881 to a total in 1899 of 11,994. The public universities had 28,254 registered students in January, 1899, of which number 817 were women. The private or independent faculties (i. e., independent of State control and support) registered 1,658 students. The centralized and comprehensive system of public instruction derives its chief support from State appropriations, which for the cur¬ rent year 1901 reached the total of 206,966,483 francs ($41,393,296). Of this sum 76 per cent ($31,426,215) was appropriated for primary education. The public primary schools, which are free schools, derive their additional income, about 33 percent of the total, from communal appropr iat ions. Secondary schools and universities draw additional support from fees, gifts, and municipal funds. In its lavish endowment of public education the Republic has sought to realize the high ideal of a State sustained by intelligent public opinion, and enriched by the skill, aptitudes, and talents of a contented and industrious people, and at the same time it has sought to maintain and advance the prestige of France as a leader among the nations in art and science. The educational service is regarded like the army, as essential to the preservation of the Republic, and for this reason the Government views with alarm everv indication that other influences than those in accord with its own ideals are gaining ascendency over youthful minds, or that the public system of education is failing in its purposes. This solicitude is shown by the immense impetus recently given to the THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. XLV movement for adult education, or the continuance of popular educa¬ tion beyond the brief school period, and by the renewed interest in measures for increasing the regularity of school attendance and for strengthening the higher grade primary schools. These were the chief matters considered in the congress of primary education held in connection with the Paris Exposition, as set forth in the report of the congress included in Chapter XXXI. It is particularly in respect to secondary education that the Gov¬ ernment solicitude is at present exercised. Signs of a slight but significant movement of students from the State secondaries to those maintained by religious orders have been watched with ever-increasing apprehension during the last decade. Whereas in 18S7, as shown by statistics presented, the State schools enrolled 56 per cent of all boys in secondary studies, in 1898 the State schools enrolled only 45 per cent, the total enrollment in all institutions of the religious orders having risen during the period from 160,161 to 185,267 students. The province of the French secondary schools is liberal education, con¬ sidered as a means both of discipline and development. The purpose of the Government in fostering schools of this high order is to secure for the service of the State men of influence and authority, who are in sympathy with its policies and able to guide its destinies. To increase attendance on State schools, a law against the religious asso¬ ciations was introduced into the Chambers at the close of the year, and carried through the Chamber of Deputies after a stormy debate in which the principle of liberty of instruction was eloquently defended by the Count Albert de Mun. Still further to accomplish this object a new measure for reforming the State secondaries was submitted by the minister of public instruc¬ tion to the superior council. These two measures are the matters of supreme interest in the year’s record of education in France. In the French system the secondary classical schools (lyeees and colleges) are closely coordinated with the highly specialized univer¬ sities. Chapter XXXI gives a brief resume of the recent measures cul¬ minating in the lav/ of 1896, which has transformed the faculties of the Imperial or Napoleonic system into organic and autonomous bodies. The inspiring effects of this measure are particularly shown in the increased attendance upon the faculties of letters and of science, viz, from 3,684 students in 1888 to 6,557 in 1899, and in local efforts for the enrichment of the reorganized universities. Education in Alaska (Chapter XXXII). — During the year the increasing interest of adult natives in the educational work in Alaska has been especially noticeable. This is manifested by the requests which have come from several places for the establishment of night schools for adults. At Wood Island and Gravina it has been possible to comply with such requests and the results have been gratifying. XL VI EDUCATION RETORT, 1899-1900. At Gravina, Saxman, and FortWrangei native Alaskans are efficient members of the local school committees, which aid this Bureau in the management of the schools. Extracts from the written reports of the teachers give some insight into the condition and surroundings of the schools of that arctic region. Dr. Jackson, the United States general agent for education in Alaska, has been able to obtain reports of the educational work of most of the missionary stations of Alaska which will throw additional light on the character of the people and the effect of school and church upon their welfare. Introduction of reindeer into Alaska (Chapter XXXIII). — In Octo¬ ber, 1900, there were in Alaska 3,323 domestic reindeer distributed among the following stations: Point Barrow, Point Hope, Cape Prince of Wales, Teller, Cape Douglas, St. Lawrence Island, Golofnin Bay, and Eaton. Since the beginning of the introduction of domestic reindeer into Alaska, it lias been steadily kept in mind that the reindeer would be of great service in the rapid transportation of mail in winter over the frozen surface of arctic and subarctic Alaska between the widely sepa¬ rated mission stations and isolated mining camps of that region. During the summer of 1899 the gold mines in the neighborhood of Cape Home (a little more than 100 miles south of Bering Straits) proved so rich that a large population was attracted to that region. In order to furnish the miners with a mail service during the winter the Post- Office Department entered into a contract with Mr. William A. Kjell- mann, the superintendent of the reindeer station, for the carrying of mail semimonthly during the winter (1899-1900) between Home and Eaton Station, 60 miles northeast of St. Michael, and a bimonthly mail from St. Michael to Golofnin and Kotzebue. Both routes have been in successful operation, the reindeer having sometimes made the round trip of 480 miles on the Nome route in twelve days, including stops. For the winter of 1900-1901 the Post-Office Department has made a contract with Dr. F. II. Gambell, Mr. Kjellmann’s successor, for the carrying of mail from Eaton to Kotzebue Sound, a distance of 400 miles each way. The influx of population into the Golofnin Bay mining region requiring the presence of United States troops in order to preserve the peace, Capt. E. S. Walker, in command of the detachment at Fort St. Michael, in January, 1899, applied to the superintendent of Eaton reindeer station for transportation. In compliance with his request Lapps, reindeer, and sleds were sent from Eaton to St. Michael and transported troops, with their tents, rations, and camp equipage, from St. Michael to Golofnin Bay. When there was no longer an}r need for their presence at Golofnin Bay, the Lapps and reindeer returned the soldiers to St. Michael without accident or difficulty. In order to further demonstrate the possibilities of reindeer trans- THE COMMISSIONERS INTRODUCTION. XLVII portatio-n, and as an act of humanity and relief to the crowd of miners that had flocked into the Cape Nome region and were short of provi¬ sions, the reindeer station transported a limited amount of food from St. Michael to Nome. The gradual furnishing of a permanent supply for the Alaskan natives has not been lost sight of in the other phases of the develop¬ ment of the reindeer enterprise. Pursuing the policy of distribution which was adopted at the outset, 1,150 reindeer are now the personal property of 19 Eskimos, who have learned the management of reindeer by five years’ apprenticeship at the Government reindeer stations. It is reported by the herdsmen that the fawns born in Alaska excel those born in Lapland and Asia as to size and strength. City school systems (Chapter XXXIV) . — The list of city school sys¬ tems in cities claiming populations of over 8,000, as published in the Report of 1898-99, numbered 632. The present list, prepared from the bulletins of the Twelfth Census, numbers 568. This change in the list, a loss of 64 from the number tabulated in 1898-99, brings the increase for this year over the preceding far below the normal increase, and in the case of the North Central Division, which by the revision of the list is reduced from 244 to 201 city systems, causes in nearly every item an actual decrease from the figures of 1898-99. The total enrollment in the city school systems of the United States shows an increase of 29,094. This excess would of course be much larger if the enrollments of all the towns included last year had been retained. To give an idea of the changes made in our list of cities of over 8,000 inhabitants by the new census, I give a list of the cities of Nebraska according to last year’s table: Cities. Population. By census of 1890. By census of 1900. Beatrice . „ . . . - . 13,886 6, m 7, 586 13, 584 8, 074 55. 154 11.941 140, 452 8. 392 8,062 7. 875 7; 241 7. 554 7. 188 5,834 40, 169 7,380 102. 555 4, 964 26, 001 Fremont . . _ . . . . - . . Grand Island . . . . . . Hastings . . . . . . . . . Kearney . . . Lincoln . . . . . . . Nebraska City . . . . . . . Omata . . . . . . Pi attsra outh _ _ . . . . .. ...... South Omaha . . . . The increase in private school enrollment is rather less than for. several years past. Of the 144 supervising positions added, 106, or nearly three- fourths, were filled by women. Still more marked is the difference in favor of female teachers. The whole number of city teachers in 1898-99 was 82,650, in the list for 1899-1900 the total reached 83,493. Of the 843 new places for teachers only 2 were secured by men. A notable fact disclosed by the tables is the increase in expenditures, even ‘with diminished list of cities. The xl vii r EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. expenditure for tuition amounted to $59,183,566, an increase of $3,493,779 over the figures for 1898-99. The total expenditure increased from $93,413,046 in 1898-99 to $99,457,234 in 1899-1900, a gain of $6,044,188. The valuation of the school property at $322,777,996 raises the value of the school property, per capita, of pupils in average attend¬ ance to $109.53, which is $2.88 above the highest figure of any previous year. «/ Higher education (Chapter XXXV). — The total number of under¬ graduate and resident graduate students in universities and colleges for men and for both sexes, in colleges for women, Division A, and in schools of technology, for the year 1899-1900, is reported as 98.923, an increase of 6,538 students over the number for the preceding year. The number of such students for each year from 1889-90 to 1899-1900 is as follows: Year. Universities and colleges for men and for both seses. Colleges for women, Division A. Schools of tech¬ nology. Total number. Men. W omen. W omen. Men. Women. Men. Women. 1880 00 38, 058 8,075 1.979 8. 870 707 44. 928 10, 761 1880-91 . . 40. 089 9, 439 2,265 6, 131 481 46, 220 12. 185 1891-9' . . . . 45. 032 10, 390 2,836 6, 131 481 51,163 13.507 1892 93 . 48, 689 11,489 3,198 8, 816 843 55. 305 15. 530 50, 297 13, 144 3, 578 9, 517 1, 376 59,814 18.098 1894-95 . 52. 586 14,298 3. 667 9,467 1,106 62, 053 19,071 56. 558 16, 746 3,910 8,587 1,065 65, 143 21,721 1898 97 . . . 55, 755 16, 536 3,913 8,907 1,094 64, 662 21,54a 1887-98 . . 58, 407 17, 765 4,416 8.611 1.289 67. 018 23, 470- 58. 467 18, 948 4. 593 9, 038 1.339 67, 505 24, 880 1899-1900 . 61.812 20,452 4, 872 10, 347 1,440 72, 159 26, 764 Increase, per cent... 62. 4 153.3 146.2 50. 6 103.7 60. 8 148.7 These figures show that the rate of increase in women students has been much greater in the past ten years than that of men students, the increase of men students being 60.6 per cent, while that of women students is 148.7 per cent. The total value of property possessed by institutions for higher education amounts to $360,594,595, a gain of $17,706,234 over the amount for the preceding year. Benefactions reported as having been received during the year amount to $11,995,463. Of this amount $6,246,676 were received by institutions in the North Atlantic Divi¬ sion; $642,002 by institutions in the South Atlantic Division; $587,128 by institutions in the South Central Division; $3,956,355 by institu¬ tions in the North Central Division, and $563,302 by institutions in the Western Division. This statement shows that the institutions in the South are not as fortunate in the matter of benefactions as the institutions of other sections of the country: New buildings were reported as having been erected during the year by 102 institutions at a cost of $5,684,663. The total income for the year, excluding benef acti o ns , a m o a nted to $28,558,463, of which amount the sum of THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. XLIX $11,171,127, or 39.1 per cent of the total, was derived from tuition and other students’ fees, the remainder coming from endowment funds, various appropriations, and miscellaneous sources. Brief mention of new courses of study or changes in existing courses,, so far as reported, is made in this chapter. The changes in the cur¬ riculum of Yale University to go into effect in 1901 are given quite, fully, and show that all of the work above the freshman year is made wholly elective within certain limits, and that it will be possible here¬ after by extraordinary effort and ability to complete the course of study in three years. In the Report for 1897-98, pages 2441-2445, was given a statement con¬ cerning the movement for higher commercial education in the United States. Since that time the establishment of courses in commerce by higher institutions of learning has made considerable progress, and in this chapter the courses of instruction in commerce offered by six institutions are given. In nearly all cases it is stated in the catalogues of the institutions that as this line of work is entirely new the courses- of study outlined are merely tentative, subject to such changes as experience and the needs of students shall show to be necessary. The Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance was established, at Dartmouth College, on an endowment of $300,000 given by Mix Edward Tuck of the class of 1802. It is essentially a graduate depart¬ ment for the education of young men intending to enter business life. Professional schools (Chapter XXXVI). — With the exception of theology, the number of students in professional schools continues to increase. In the 96 law schools there was an increase of 642 stu¬ dents, making the whole number for the year 1899-1900, 12,516. The growth in the number of law students is better realized when we con¬ sider that it is now one-half larger than the number in theology — 12,516 in law, 8,009 in theology. Ten years ago, 1889-90, there were- 7,013 in schools of theology and 4,518 in schools of law. Again, the number of law students is now about one-half as large as the number in medicine (12,516 in law and 25,213 in medicine), while ten years- ago it was not one-third as large (4,518 and 15,484), and this not¬ withstanding the fact that the number of medical students lias con¬ tinually increased, the whole number now being 25,213, an increase of 1,435 over the previous year. In the enrollment for the past year there were 151 women students in law. In the previous year there were 167 women to 11,707 men — about 1 in 70. The increase in the last quarter of a century of all stu¬ dents in law schools has been 343 per cent. In France the number of women studying law has increased in twenty-five years from 6 to 147. In former times it happened that the larger portion of persons under preparation for the practice of law were to be found in lawyers’ offices- reading law and practicing the drudgery connected with it. In later years it appears from statistics that a much larger number pursue ED 1900- IV L EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. their preparatory study in regularly established law schools. This accounts in part for the increase of attendance. But I think that there is another cause for the growth of attend¬ ance on law schools. The lawyer of the present day finds the most lucrative field to be that of counsel or expert in some special province of .jurisprudence. Business men placed at the head of great interests have to advise constantly with their lawyers, and the enormous growth of business combinations creates a demand for a larger number of experts in law. There are reasons why the ratio of women law students may be expected to increase in the future. It has been asked whether the profession of law is not already over¬ stocked. Are there not more lawyers than can make a living at their profession? The answer to this question calls attention to the increase of great business combinations and to the utter necessity of profes¬ sionally skilled legal advice in every new experiment in trade and transportation. This creates a need for greater specialization and more expert skill on the part of the legal counsel. Here is woman’s opportunity. She will not be so much required as lawyer in criminal cases as lawyer in civil cases. She will not be required so much in actual control of civil cases in the courts as in the office giving pro¬ fessional advice in advance, giving advice which will prevent law¬ suits, for the business man needs to keep clear of lawsuits, and he needs advice that will enable him to do so. It is not to his purpose to employ a lawyer only to extricate him after he has been so unfor¬ tunate as to be brought into court. He would be ruined on that line of procedure. He needs the lawyer to warn him in advance against the danger of trespass on others or of others on him in an}7 given line of business policy. This would seem to be a much more useful func¬ tion of the profession of law. The lawyer of the future is to find his oi’ her chief function in preventing lawsuits. One reads now and then in the newspapers of a wealthy man in America, in fact, of some great captain of industry, who had the habit of expressing himself on all occasions as opposed to higher edu¬ cation in colleges and universities. One may call him a very uncon¬ scious sort of person, for he does not seem to be able to recognize the product of higher education when he comes in contact with it. Every week and perhaps every day of his life he has had a host of legal advisers in his employ. In one case of this kind it is known that more than 100 lawyers in one State alone were in the employ of his company. There are multitudes of business managers in this and other coun¬ tries, each of them handling the interest of vast trusts, defending each the property of his own corporation, who are able to make their action legally safe only by constant recourse to skilled legal advice. When we hear a great business manager sneering at higher education THE COMMISSIONERS INTRODUCTION. LI because lie himself has become the head of a great business, and this, too, without a higher education or even a secondary education, it provokes the retort that it is through and by means of higher educa¬ tion that he is able to adopt measures of action and policies of man¬ agement that are safe from legal attacks. In other words, the cap¬ tains of industry depend on higher education to keep themselves out of jail, for great business combinations involve collisions of all kinds with other interests, and their managers must adopt legal precautions to avoid civil and criminal liabilities. Nearly all of the great industries require the services of experts in other provinces of learning as well as in the lave, who have been trained, and who can be trained, only in institutions of higher educa¬ tion. Take, for instance, the steel industry, and think of the utiliza¬ tion of the higher studies in chemistry and in optics which have made the Bessemer process possible. It does not need a long argument to show that higher education means education in directive power and that directive power comes from two elements: First, a knowledge of principles and moving causes; secondly, a knowledge of human nature and an ability to create confidence in one’s leadership. These two elements are quite apt to be separate, one person having knowledge of human nature and an ability to create confidence in his fellows without the scholarly knowledge of forces through mathematics and physics, or of the sources of historic development in national ideals, such as one gets through higher education in literature. On the other hand, many persons get a higher education who lack a sympathetic knowledge of humanity at large and have small capacity to interest others in their aims and purposes. But it always happens that the great social leaders, whether educated or uneducated, have to avail themselves of the services of the class who have received higher education. These act as secretaries, superintendents of labor, architects, engineers, professional advisers — especially legal advisers — and as one or another sort of purveyors of the accumulated wisdom of the past. •These reasons for the present and future increase of lawyers may be seen to better advantage by considering the great increase of wealth-producing power in this country and throughout the world. The total annual production of the United States one hundred years ago is estimated at less than 10 cents a day for each man, woman, and child. The introduction of steam during the next fifty years increased the production to about 30 cents a day per inhabitant, and, with the manifold applications of all kinds of motive power and the improvement of machinery, the production has increased in 1900 to about 55 cents a day. This increase means not only creature com¬ forts and even luxuries for the wealthier half of the population and a fair supply of food, clothing, and shelter for the poorer half, but it means, also, that there is more demand for alertness and versatility LTI EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. of intellect than for mere brute strength and persistency.' Hence, again, this means increased combination of man with man and of each locality with all other localities. Combinations always involve possi¬ bilities of collision. The future progress of man in the conquest of nature is beset with pitfalls of litigation and even of war. To avoid this enormous waste of friction and mutual destruction, it becomes more and more necessary to have a class of experts devoted to the study of laws and customs, for laws and customs contain what has been discovered necessary for self-preservation and the avoidance of waste in life and property. Hence we see that the trend of civili¬ zation leads irresistibly to the increased importance of the study of jurisprudence. This has an obvious bearing on the choice of law as a profession for women. There is, however, another consideration to be noted, and it is a very important one in the problem of the diversification of employ¬ ment for woman. The natural characteristic of the feminine tem¬ perament is not favorable to the legal consideration of a subject. Sentiment and impulse predominate in her mind rather than a cool and deliberate investigation of the forms of justice which protect society as a whole. An interest in legal studies is less likely to be a feminine than a masculine trait. One would saj^ therefore that the study of law is desirable on the part of many women. It has been often remarked by philosophers in politics that, the United States has succeeded in the experiment of self-government because of the serv¬ ices of its lawyers. For lawyers have been found not only in the courts of justice but in the legislative chambers. The lawyer serves his country not only in helping interpret the law in the court, but also in the legislature in making a law that does not contradict itself or subvert the fundamental law of the State. It will add an element of strength to the mind of woman to acquire the judicial way of looking at human deeds and actions, to acquire what is called “a legal mind.” And it will not be at the expense of the high traits of character which are recognized as feminine. Schools of dentistry, of nurses , etc. — In the 5-1 schools of dentistiy there were. 7,928 students, an increase of 574 over the previous year, and in the 53 schools of pharmacy there were 4,042 students. In the table of schools for training nurses 432 names are given, with 11,104 pupils, and the names of a considerable number of schools have been added to the list since this table was closed. It is true that several of these schools have only a small number of pupils, but in the preparation of the table it was not deemed necessary or advisa¬ ble to draw a line of demarcation between larger and smaller schools, but rather to give the items that speak for themselves, such as the number of pupils, the capacity of the hospitals with which the schools are connected, etc. THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. LIII Land-grant colleges (Chapter XXXVII). — These institutions, estab¬ lished under the provisions of an act of Congress approved July 2, 1862, granting lands to the several States for the establishment of col¬ leges of ' agriculture and the mechanic arts, and further endowed by an act of Congress approved August 30, 1890, are constantly extend¬ ing their sphere of usefulness. The past few years have witnessed the establishment of short courses of study in agriculture, dairying, mechanic arts, household economy, etc., for the benefit of such per¬ sons as can not spare the time to take a regular course. These courses are well patronized, thus showing that they supply a real need. Another line of work in which these institutions are engaged and through which their influence is widely spread is farmers’ institute work. A description of the work done in this line during the year is given in this connection. Three of the land-grant colleges in Southern States (Mississippi, North Carolina, and South Carolina) have recently established courses of study in textile industry, with special reference to the manufacture of cotton goods. These institutions have provided buildings of reg¬ ular cotton- mill design, equipped with machinery and apparatus for textile work. The establishment of these courses should result in a few years in the graduation of persons well equipped to take charge of the cotton mills being erected throughout the Southern States, which enable these States to sell more and more of the finished product instead of the raw material alone. The several States and Territories appropriated during the year for the support of the land-grant colleges the sum of $2,916,837, while the amount received under the two acts of Congress above mentioned was $1,844,177. The number of institutions has been increased by one through the establishment of the Colored Agricultural and Normal University of Langston, Okla. Chapter XXXVIil presents the statistics of normal schools. The growth of schools organized expressly for the training of teachers is illustrated in the following table : 1889-90. 1899-1900. Institu¬ tions. Normal students. Normal graduates. Institu¬ tions. N ormal students. Normal graduates. Public normal schools . . 135 26* 9.1 7 4, 413 172 47, 421 9,072 Private normal schools . . 43 7, 897 824 134 22, 172 2, 321 Total . . . . 1 CO 1 ^ r-l — r* y ' 1 6 3 2 «w — tw © O A C U "5 -i g 0 © — r.£ X - r 0 > ] o vi © u © 1 © o P. State or Territory. S-3 © © bJD 4 J <4-1 cS c- O a rf ^ O V? P.00 ® o ® -2 © n ( © tg 1870. 1880. 1890. 02^ 0 © K*'. V) bc-p V S3 a ft? a - "T 5 tl. Z* Cy X S — C '43 ~ trT S CS 0 c- I.Sa ,5 c5.2 +* r* > £-2 § > £ p © >> §§!£■ J'Cp o © Gy £ o p4 Sag f- 1 4^ © 4 - © Oh PS ® a U p* © £ Ph w Ch Eh 1 3 4 5 <8 7 8 9 1© United States _ 31.27 30.04 29.61 91.4 33.5 14. 77 21 29.20 si, 036 North Atlantic Division . 28. 30 26. 87 25. 39 114. 4 45.8 22. 34 107 51.81 1.232 South Atlantic Division - 33. 02 32.24 34.04 66. 8 6.6 2.35 33 16. 03 579 South Central Division.. 33.92 33. 13 34. 76 65. 9 8. 6 2.93 19 10. 45 569 North Central Division.. 32.40 30. 63 29. 33 94.8 51. 5 18. 16 30 25. 91 1.129 Western Division . . 25. 57 25. 13 24. 33 156. 7 44.7 25. 46 3 29.99 2,250 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 28.01 25. 71 24.60 123. 7 25. 0 11.94 OO 19. 72 740 N ew Hampshire _ CM <» T . i ') 22. 80 22. 29 140.8 38 4 19. 21 42 27.37 863 Vermont _ _ 27. 18 25. 96 24. 65 124. 1 33.4 13. 26 36 7.93 799 Massachusetts. . . 25. 51 23. 98 22. 87 129.9 60. 5 29.35 278 69. 90 1.252 Rhode Island . . 25. 66 24. 64 24.38 118.7 62.4 30. 77 318 78.89 1.459 Connecticut . . . 25. 86 24.97 23. 54 127. 6 54. 6 24. 60 154 , 51. 63 1,119 New York . 28. 09 26. 32 24. 57 120. 1 54. 8 26. 19 126 60.02 1,430 New Jersey. . . 29.01 27. 98 26.04 109. 9 48.3 22. 77 194 54. 04 1.000 Pennsylvania. _ 30. 55 29. 43 27.92 99. 6 32. 3 16. 08 117 40.93 1,177 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 31.84 29. 11 28. 19 100. 1 17.3 7. 81 86 36.46 1.043 Maryland _ _ 31.30 29. 89 29.28 88.7 24.4 9. 05 106 44. 65 1,041 District of Columbia . 27. 01 26.87 25. 38 110.3 26.3 8. 15 3. 840 100. 00 1,491 Virginia, 32. 43 33. 37 34.16 33. 62 67. 0 70.7 2.8 5.9 1. 11 2 48 41 13. 40 6.95 521 575 West Virginia _ 34.13 31 North Carolina _ 33. 60 32. 30 35. 35 59.9 rt . i .23 33 3. 87 361 South Carolina . . 33. 15 33.21 37.14 55. 1 2.3 .54 38 6. 86 348 Georgia . .. 34. 42 33. 17 35. 50 61.0 2.1 .66 31 10. 84 464 Plorid a. 3-1 03 32. 82 33. 23 74.0 11.5 5. 80 12. 02 995 South Central Division: Kentucky . 34.41 33. 14 32. 76 74.0 8.7 3. 19 46 14.87 631 Tennessee . 34. 13 33. 44 : u •» 66. 5 2.9 1. 13 42 1 1 . 45 502 A la ha mn, 34 40 33. 37 34. 12 35. 70 36. 69 60. 1 57.3 3.2 3. 1 .98 29 5.89 412 352 Mississippi . 33. 70 .62 28 2. 64 Louisiana. . . 31.11 31.93 34. 04 65.8 17.8 4. 45 25 23.65 443 Texas . 34. 80 32. 60 35. 10 68.3 16.9 6.84 9 10.08 942 Arkansas . . 34. 16 33.15 35. 68 64. 0 3.5 1.26 21 4.89 403 Oklahoma . . 30. 18 102. 7 9.6 4.43 2 781 North Central Division: . Ohio . . . . . 31.74 29. 75 28.37 97. 6 30.4 12. 51 90 ■31.57 1,076 Indiana . . . 33. 75 31.37 29. 54 91.9 17.8 6. 67 61 18.27 956 Illinois . 32. 24 30. 66 28. 26 99.2 47.0 22.01 68 38. 83 1,324 Michigan . . . 1 30.28 28.37 27. 77 106. 2 56. 1 25. 97 36 26. 08 1,001 Wisconsin _ _ 00. 57 30. 85 29.88 91.6 72.4 30. 78 31 25. 17 1,087 Minnesota . 32.45 30. 43 28. 93 99.8 76.4 35.90 16 28. 37 1,300 Iowa . . . 31. 40 30. 17 90.2 42.6 16. 95 34 14. 08 1.196 Missouri . . 33.57 32.35 31.11 84. 7 22.5 8. 77 39 26.27 895 North Dakota 24.34 (27. 30 \29. 29 112.2 89.3 44. 58 3 1.894 South Dakota . . r°- 100. 5 61.2 27.69 4 3.10 1,293 Nebraska . 28.07 29. S8 30. 12 94.5 42.1 19. 13 14 24.46 1,205 Kansas _ . 29 83 31. 73 31.59 85.0 26. 4 10.36 17 11.62 1,261 Western Division: Montana . 10.20 17.10 18.06 274.0 49.4 32. 61 1 18.58 3. 429 "Wyoming . i 9. 39 18.06 21.33 208. 8 47.2 24. 57 1 19. 26 2,797 Colorado . . i 22.47 18.72 22. 00 181.8 36. 3 20. 38 4 37. 07 2, 780 New Mexico . 31.90 29. 85 19. 59 28.07 25. 42 104.3 13.2 7.33 1 1,507 3, 168 1,681 Arizona . 16. 78 156. 4 57. 1 31.52 * 1 Utah . 1 35.05 33. 39 32.45 80.7 66. 6 25. 52 3 28.73 Nevada . 12.56 18.22 21.87 209. 3 60.8 32. 14 04 18. 60 3, 941 Idaho 11.30 22 98 27. 07 137. 9 41.1 20. 69 1 2, 464 Washington . 27.19 22. 69 185. 3 39.3 25. 76 5 28.27 2,177 Oregon.. . 28. 63 26. 96 132. 1 27.9 18.27 3 18. 14 1,882 California . i 24.48 1 25. 03 23. 72 161.3 51. 8 30.32 8 40. 98 2,097 STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS LXV Table 3. — School ages in the several States — State school censuses. School census. State or Territory, free at¬ tendance at the public schools. /Age iOi compul¬ sory at¬ tend¬ ance. Date of latest school census reported Age of children enumer¬ ated. Number of childi merated. en enu- Boys. Girls. Total. I ■os 4 3 ii 7 8 North Atlantic Division: Maine . . 5-21 a 7-15 1900 4-21 211, 085 New Hampshire (1899) . . . Over 5. 8-14 1899 5-16 34, 903 34, 880 69, 783 Vermont . . . - . 5-21 8-14 1900 5-21 46, 586 44, 062 90, 648 Massachusetts . _ - . No limit. 7-14 1899 5-15 457 917 Rhode Island (1899) . Over 5. 7-15 1899 a 5-15 39, 929 39, 896 79,825 Connecticut _ _ . (6) 7-16 1899 4-16 194 800 New York . . 5-21 8-16 1900 5-18 786, 000 783, 653 1, 569, 653 New Jersey . . . . 1899 5-18 46'$, 565 Pennsylvania _ _ 0-21 6-16 6-16 South Atlantic Division: Delaware (1893) . . 6-21 (c) 1893 6-21 15, 827 17, 758 33, 585 Maryland (1899) _ 5-20 (c) (cl) District of Columbia _ 6-17 8-14 (cl) Virginia (1899) . 5-21 (c) 1895 5-21 339, 725 326, 140 665, 865 West Virginia . 6-21 8-14 1900 6-21 159, 375 148. 209 307. 584 North Carolina. - - 6-21 (c) 1899 6-21 333, 596 326, 033 659, 629 South Carolina . . . 6-21 (c) (cl) Georgia 1898 6-18 333, 039 327,831 660. 870 Florida _ _ _ _ 6-21 (C) 1900 6-21 81,712 79, 716 161.428 South Central Division: Kentucky (1897) . . 6-20 7-14 1S96 6-20 375, 259 360, 846 736, 105 Tennessee . . . 6-21 • (c) 1900 6-21 391,322 377,521 768, 843 Alabama . . . . 7-21 (c) 1899 7-21 290, 0J0 345, 000 635, 000 Mississippi (1897) ... _ 5-21 (c) 1896 5-21 270, 789 281, 678 552, 467 T /ouisiana 6-18 (c) 1899 6-18 404 757' Texas . . . . 8-17 (c) 1900 8-17 372, 061 357, 304 729, 365 Arkansas . . . 6-21 (c) 1900 6-21 246. 698 237,921 484, 619 Oklahoma . . North Central Division: Ohio . . . . 6-21 8-16 1900 e 6-21 628, 491 597, 875 1,226,366 Indiana _ _ _ _ 6-21 6-14 1900 6-21 390, 787 365,217 756. 004 Illinois . . . 6-21 7-14 1900 6-21 801,857 784, 038 1, 588, 895 Michigan (1899) . . 5-20 /7-16 1898 5-20 361,271 352. 469 713, 740 Wisconsin _ _ 4-20 7-13 1900 4-20 370, 098 360, 965 731, 063 Minnesota _ _ 5-21 8-16 (cl) Iowa (1899) . . . 5-21 (c) 1899 5-21 369, 135 358, 640 727, 775- Missouri _ ... . . 6-21 (c) 1900 6-20 502, 236 484,429 986, 665 North Dakota _ 6-20 7-14 1900 6-20 47, 846 44. 163 92, 009 South Dakota . . 6-21 8-14 1900 6-21 63,613 60, 791 124, 404 Nebraska. . . 5-21 8-14 1800 5-21 192, 262 185, 529 377, 791 Kansas _ _ _ _ 5-21 y 8-14 1900 5-21 257,994 250, 866 508, 860 Western Division: Montana _ _ 6-21 8-14 1900 6-21 28, 914 28, 294 57, 208 Wyoming . . 6-21 7-16 (cl) Colorado. . . . . . 6-21 8-14 1800 6-21 77,557 75, 585 153, 142 New Mexico . . . 5-21 8-16 1899 5-21 28, 480 24, 528 53, 008 Arizona . . 1900 6-18 10, 655 10,178 20,833^ Utah _ 6-18 8-14 1900 6-18 43, 225 43, 128 86. 353 Nevada _ 6-18 8-14 1900 6-18 4, 594 4, 481 9,075 ' da ho _ _ _ 5-21 8-14 1900 5-21 28,234 26, 605 54, 839 Washington (1898) _ 6-21 8-15 1898 5-21 60, 373 58, 1 18 118,491 ( )regon _ _ _ 6-21 8-14 1900 4-20 67, 490, 65, 691 133,181 California . . . 1900 5-17 182,879 178,274 361, 153- a Inclusive. b ” Not fixed by law. Children can go until 21 certainly, perhaps longer.” c No compulsory law. | No school census, c Unmarried. f SAB in the country. g F our months in the year. ED 1900 - -V LXYI EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Table 4. — Number of pupils enrolled in the common schools at different dates, and the relation of the enrollment to the school population. State or Territory Number of different pupils of all ages enrolled during the school year (ex¬ cluding duplicate enrollments). 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1899-1900. 1 2 :s 4 3 United States - 7,561,582 9, 867, 505 12,722,581 15,341,220 North Atlantic Div - 2, 748. 344 2, 930. 345 3,Tl2. 622 3, 633. 240 South Atlantic Div.... 603.619 1.242,811 1.785.486 2. 174. 083 South Central Division 767, 839 1,371,975 2, 293, 579 2, 912, 698 North Central Division 3, 300, 660 4. 033. 828 5, 015. 217 5, 823, 019 Western Division . 146, 180 288, 546 515, 677 798, 180 North Atlantic Div.: Maine . a 152. 600 149.827 139.676 130, 918 New Hampshire ... 71. 957 64. 341 59, 813 5 65,193 Vermont . . c 65, 884 75, 238 c 65, 608 65, 964 Massachusetts _ 273, 681 306, 777 371.492 474, 891 Rhode Island. . a 34, 000 40.604 52, 774 b 64. 537 Connecticut . . . 1 13, 588 119, 694 126, 505 155, 22S New York . .. 1,028,110 1,031.593 1.042. 160 1,209.574 New Jersey - 169,430 204, 961 234. 072 6 315, 055 Pennsylvania . .834, 614 937. 310 1 , 020, 522 I , 151. 880 South Atlantic Div. : Delaware . . 20, 05S 27. 823 31 , 434 d 33. 174 Maryland . 115, 683 162. 431 1S4, 251 5229,332 Dist. of Columbia __ 15, 157 26, 439 36. 906 46, 519 Virginia . 131, 088 220. 736 342. 269 5358.825 West Virginia . 76. 999 142, 850 193. 084 232. 343 North Carolina _ a 115, ( 00 252, 612 322. 533 400. 452 South Carolina .... 66, 056 134,072 201.260 281.891 Georgia . 49, 578 236, 533 381,297 482, 673 Florida . . . . . _ 14,000 39, 315 92. 472 108. 874 South Central Div. : Kentucky . e 178, 457 e 276, 000 399. 660 / 501. 893 Tennessee. . . a 140.000 300, 217 447. 950 485, 354 Alabama . . . 141.312 179. 490 301,615 376, 423 Mississippi _ 117,00!) 236, 654 334, 158 5360,177 Louisiana . . 57,639 77, 642 120, 253 196, 169 Texas. . 63. 504 a 220, 000 468, 872 578, 418 Arkansas . 69. 927 81,972 223,071 314,662 Oklahoma . . . 99.6112 North Central Div.: Ohio . . . 719,372 729, 499 .797, 439 829, 160 Indiana . 450, 057 511.283 512. 955 564, 807 Illinois . 672. 787 704.041 778.319 958,911 Michigan . 292. 466 362, 556 427. 032 5498, 665 Wisconsin . . 265. 285 299, 457 351,723 445. 142 Minnesota . . . . 113, 983 180, 248 280. 960 399, 207 Iowa . . 341.938 426.057 493, 267 5554,992 Missouri. . 330, 070 482, 986 620, 314 719, 817 North Dakota . 1 Q f 35. 543 77. 6861 South Dakota . j CL JL j uO J 1 0, t i O 1 78,043 96, 822/ Nebraska . 23. 265 92, 549 240, 300 288. 227 Kansas _ _ _ 89, 777 231.434 399, 322 389, 583 Western Division: Montana . . . . a 1 , 657 4,270 16, 980 39,430 Wyoming _ _ _ . a 450 2, 907 7, 052 14, 512 Colorado . . . 4,357 22.119 65, 490 117, 555 New Mexico . a 1.320 4, 755 18. 215 36, 735 Arizona . 0 4.212 7,989 16.504 Utah . . 16. 992 24, 326 37. 279 73, 042 Nevada . . 3, 106 9.045 7.387 6, 676 Idaho . . . 906 5, 834 14,311 36. 669 Washington _ a 5, 000 14, 780 55, 964 g 97, 916 Oregon . . . 21.000 37, 533 63,254 89. 405 California . 91.332 158, 765 221. 756 269. 736 Per cent of school population (i. e., of children 5 to IS years of age) enrolled. 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1899-1900. « 7 S 9 61. 45 65. 50 68. 61 68. 93 77. 95 75. 17 70. 45 68.09 30. 51. 50. 74 59.22 61.37 34.17 46.43 60. 14 61.90 1 6. 87 75. 84 76. 46 75. 68 54. 77 64.96 70. 01 81.13 CL Si . 35 89.80 85. 88 76. 63 91.31 81.32 87. 21 71.28 b 71 . 71 72.34 71.76 72. 56- 74. 03 a 59. 24 59. 59 62. 65 b 63. 12 80. 83 76. 97 72. 02 72. 61 82. 98 77. 10 70. 71 67. 72 63. 20 64. 77 62.21 665. 77 76.35 74. 37 69. 53 65. 49 50. 04 65. 20 66. 19 d 68. 58 46. 70 58. 13 60. 37 666. 89 41.60 55. 40 63. 10 65. 77 02. 34 45. 00 60. 51 5 57. 31 49.47 69.21 75. 27 72. 08 a 31. 23 55. 87 56. 39 59.81 27.28 40. 56 47. 08 56. 62 11.89 46. 24 58. 45 61 33 21.21 44. 16 71.10 62. 00 65. 64 /74.51 70. 18 a 32. 00 58. 21 74. 05 40. 36 42. 60 55. 83 57. 65 40. 60 61.29 70.62 6 64. 45 24. 78 25. 87 31.58 41.72 21.00 a 42. 40 59. 50 54. 05 40. 29 30.81 55. 41 67. 22 82. 87 84. 04 76. 69 76. 54 70. 31 78.64 82.39 79. 21 75. 98 81. 01 74. 61 71. 97 70. 37 79. 66 i 'O. 0b 73. 45 6 75.34 73. 92 73. 78 69. 77 72. 00 75. 92 75. 87 74.59 78. 78 84. 44 83.52 85. 51 683. 77 56. 03 ' 68. 85 74. 43 74.47 a 39. 26 41.68 / 71.26 1 81.04 89.17 82. 32 58. 79 68. 48 75. 35 89. 56 74. 22 73.23 88. 56 83. 85 70.24 63.77 71. 14 89. 72 a 45. 34 77.44 54. 46 73. 54 42. 28 60. 82 72. 20 98. 99 a 4. 42 13. 32 42.25 67. 02 0. 00 53. 16 52. 72 52. 82 53. 36 50. 61 55. 26 81.34 53.97 79. 73 73. 80 72. 09 46. 06 77. 85 62. 66 83. 75 a 69. 00 72. 36 70. 58 g 90. 12 67. 73 75. 02 74. 78 80. 19 63. 63 73. 37 77. 38 76. 58 a Approximately. 6 In 1898-99. (•Includes pupils of legal school age only. d In 1891-92. e “ Highest number enrolled.’ /In 1896-97. g In 1897-98. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. LXYII Table 5. — The school enrollment of 1899-1900 classified by sex; per cent of the total ' population enrolled. Number of different pupils of all ages enrolled. Per cent of the to- State or Territor United States . North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division . South Central Division . . North Central Division.. W estern Division — — North Atlantic Division: Maine . . . New Hampshire (1898-98) Vermont . . Massachusetts . . Rhode Island (1898-99). .. ' Connecticut . New York. . New Jersey (1898-99) - Pennsylvania . . South Atlantic Division: Delaware (1891-92) . Maryland (1898-99). . District of Columbia . . Virginia ( 1898-99 ) . West Virginia _ .... North Carolina. . South Carolina . Georgia _ _ _ .. _ Florida . . South Central Division: Kentucky (1898-97). . . Tennessee . . Alabama . Mississippi (1898-99) . Louisiana . . . Texas . Arkansas. . . . . Oklahoma . . . North Central Division: Ohio . . . Indiana . . . . Illinois.. . . . Michigan (1898-99) . Wisconsin . . Minnesota. . . Iowa ( 1898-99) . . Missouri . .' . North Dakota . . South Dakota . — Nebraska . Kansas . Western Division: Montana . . Wyoming . . . Colorado . New Mexico _ _ _ Arizona . . Utah _ _ _ Nevada . . . Idaho . . . . Washington (1897-98) _ Oregon . . . California . . . . y. Male. a 7, 734, 739 a 1, 833, 250 a 1, 085, 133 a 1, 458, 987 a 2, 955, 071 a 404, 318 33.011 33, 580 32, 518 G11 . 407 158, 047 a 580, 625 21, 735 179, 199 120. 436 203, 243 138. 797 238. 691 53. 965 256, 520 247, 317 171, 000 99, 917 290, 173 160, 511 51,380 422. 723 283, 300 483. 792 251. 565 a 225. 346 363,912 40, 495 50. 287 147, dp5 196, 798 7, 359 58,074 20, 367 35, 616 3,344 18, 156 49, 908 45, 315 136, 848 Female. 3 a 7, 606, 481 a 1, 799, 990 a 1. 088. 950 a 1,455,731 a 2, 867, 948 a 393, 862 32. 182 32, 384 12, 019 598, 167 157, 008 ci 571.255 24, 784 179, 626 111,907 197, 209 145, 094 243, 982 54, 909 238, 037 205, 423 96, 252 288,245 154.151 48. 222 406,437 276. 507 475,119 247,100 a 219, 796 355, 905 37, 191 4-6, 535 140, 652 192, 785 7.153 59, 481 16, 368 36. 426 3,332 18, 513 48, 008 44. 090 132, 888 Total. 15,341,220 3, 633, 240 2,174.083 2, 912, 698 5. 823. 019 798, 180 tal popu¬ lation en¬ rolled. 130, 918 65,193 65, 964 474. 891 64, 537 155, 228 1,209,574 315. 055 1,151,880 33,174 229, 332 46, 519 358, 825 232, 343 400, 452 281.891 482, 673 108, S74 501,893 485, 354 376, 423 360. 177 196, 169 578, 418 314, 662 99, 602 829,160 564, 807 958,911 498, 665 445,142 399. 207 554, 992 719, 817 77, 686 96. 822 288,227 389, 583 39, 430 14.512 117, 555 36, 735 16,504 73. 042 6, 67 6 36, 669 97, 916 89, 405 269, 736 20. 38 17.32 20. 91 21. 46 22. 16 19. 70 I : . 6 15. 98 19. 20 16.93 15. 39 17. 09 16. 64 17.12 18.28 19.33, 19. 44 16.69 19. 58 24. 23 21.15 21.03 21.78 20. 60 24.41 24. 02 20. 59 23. 65 14. 20 18.97 23. 99 25. 02 19. 95 22. 44 19. 89 20. 92 21.51 22. 79 25. 28 23. 17 24.34 24.11 26. 97 26. 49 16.20 15.69 21.78 18. 81 13. 42 26. 39 15. 77 22. 67 20. 45 21.62 18. L a Estimated in part. LXVIII EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Table 0. — The average daily attendance at various periods, and its relations in 1890-1000 to the enrollment. Average number of pupils actually present at school each day. Number in daily attend¬ ance for each 100 enrolled in 1899- 1900. State or Territory. 1870-71. 1879-80, 1889-90. 1899-1900. 1 a ♦ > 4 5 6 United States. . . 4,515.317 6,144,143 8, 153, 635 10,513, 518 68. 53 North Atlantic Division . . 1, 627, 208 1,824, 487 2. 036, 459 2, 631 , 368 72. 43 South Atlantic Division . 368.111 176, 798 1. 126, 683 1, 326, 684 61.02 South Central Division . . 535, 632 902, 767 1. 467, 649 1,945.883 66. 80 North Central Division . . . . 1 . 911 , 720 2,451,167 3. 188, 732 4, 066, 169 69.84 Western Division . 102, 646 188, 924 334, 112 543. 414 68. 08 North Atlantic Division: Maine . . 100, 392 103. 115 98, 364 97, 697 74.63 New Hampshire . . . 48, 150 48, 966 41,526 a 47, 733 a 73. 21 Vermont . . . b 44, 100 48, 606 45, 887 47,020 71.29 Massachusetts . . . . . 201,750 238.127 273, 910 366, 136 77.11 Rhode Island . . . 22, 485 27, 217 33, 905 a 46, 087 o 71. 42 Connecticut ... . . . . 62. 683 73, 546 83, 656 111,564 71.88 New York _ _ _ 493, 648 573, 089 642, 984 857, 488 70.89 New Jersey . . . . . 86, 812 115.194 133,286 a 203, 003 a 64. 45 Pennsylvania . 567, 188 601,627 682. 941 854, 640 74. 18 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . . . b 12, 700 17,439 19,649 be 22, 693 be 68. 41 Maryland . . . . 56, 435 85, 778 102, 351 a 132, 685 a 57. S6 District of Columbia. . 10,261 20, 637 28. 184 35, 463 76. 23 Virginia . . . . . . . 77, 402 128, 404 198. 290 a 203, 136 a 56. 72 West Virginia . . . . . 51 , 336 91,604 121,700 151,254 65. 10 North Carolina... . _ . b 73, 000 170, 100 203. 100 206, 918 51.67 South Carolina _ _ _ _ _ b 44, 700 6 90,600 147, 7S9 201,295 71. 43 Georgia . . . . . . 31,377 145, 190 240, 791 298, 237 61.80 Florida . . . b 10, 900 27, 046 64,819 75, 003 68. 90 South Central Division: Kentucky . . . 120, 866 178, 000 225, 739 d 308, 697 d 61.51 Tennessee . . . b 89. 000 208. 528 323, 548 338, 566 69. 76 Alabama . . 107,666 117,978 182, 467 297. 805 79. 10 Mississippi . . . 90. 000 156, 761 207, 704 a 201,593 a 55. 98 Louisiana - - - b 40, 500 6 54, 800 87, 536 146, 323 74. 58 Texas . . . . b 41,000 6 132, 000 291,941 393, 780 6S.09 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . b 46, 600 6 54, 700 b 148. 714 195, 401 62. 10 Oklahoma . . . . . . 63, 718 63. 96 North Central Division: Ohio . . . 432, 452 476,279 549, 269 616, 365 74. 34 Indiana . 295,071 321, 659 342, 275 429, 566 76.07 Illinois . 341,686 431,638 538,310 737, 576 76. 91 Michigan.. . . . . b 193, 000 6 240, 000 b 282, 000 ab 350, 000 ab 70. 19 Wisconsin . . . . b 132, 000 6 156, 000 200. 457 b 309, 800 b 69. 60 Minnesota . . . 50, 694 6 78,400 127, 025 243, 224 60. 93 Iowa — . . . . 211,562 259, 836 306, 309 a 364, 409 a 65. 66 Missouri . . . 187, 024 6 281,000 384. 627 460,012 63. 91 North Dakota - - - } 61,040 8, 530 ( 20, 694 43. 500 56. 08 South Dakota . . \ 48,327 b 68, 000 b 70. 23 Nebraska . . . . . — .. 614,300 60, 156 146. 139 181,874 63. 10 Kansas . . . 52, 891 137,669 2443. 200 261,783 67. 19 Western Division: Montana . . . . 6 1 , 100 b 3. 000 10, 596 b 24. 100 b 61. 12 W yoming . . 6 250 1,920 b 4. 700 b 10, 160 b 70. 00 Colorado. . . 2.611 12. 618 38,715 73, 291 62. 34 New Mexico . . . . 6 880 3, 150 b 13, 000 22. 433 61.07 Arizona . . . . . 0 2. 847 4.702 10, 177 61 . 66 Utah . . 12,819 17,178 20,967 e 50, 595 e 69. 28 Nevada . . . . . 6 1 , 800 5, 401 5,064 4,698 70.37 Idaho . . 6 600 3, 863 b 9, 500 • 21,962 59. 88 Washington . . 6 3, 300 10,546 36, 946 / 64, 192 f 65. 56 Oregon . . . . . . 6 15,000 27, 435 43, 333 64,411 72. 08 California _ _ _ _ 64, 286 100, 966 146, 589 197, 395 73.18 a III 1898- 99. b Approximately. c In 1891-92. d In 1896-97. e Average attendance reduced by the preva¬ lence of contagious diseases. /In 1897-98. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. LXIX Table 7. — (I) Average length of school term at various periods; (/) aggregate number of days ’ schooling given, to cdl pupils; ( 3 ) the same compared icitli the school population and the enrollment ( columns 7 and S ). State or Territory. Average number of days the schools were kept during the year, a Aggregate number of days’ school¬ ing given in 1899-1900. Average number of days’ school¬ ing given for ever:/ child 5 to 18 years of age in 1899-1900. Average* number of days attended by each pupil en¬ rolled in 1899-1900. 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1899-1900. 1 Z 3 4 3 7 8 United States. _ . 132.1 130. 3 134.7 144. 6 1,520,308,438 68. 3 99.1 North Atlantic Division . . 153. 0 159. 2 166. 6 177. 1 465, 975, 4-88 87.5 128. 3 South Atlantic Division - 97. 4 92.4 99.9 112. 0 148, 581, 274 41.9 68.3 South Central Division . 91.6 79. 3 88.3 99. 7 193, 989, 869 41.2 66. 6 North Central Division . 133. 9 139. 8 148.0 155. 6 632, 575, 193 82.2 108. 7 Western Division . 119.3 129. 2 135. 0 145. 7 79, 186, 614 80.5 99.2 North Atlantic Division: Maine . . . . . 98. 0 109. 0 112.0 141.0 13,775,277 80. 6 105. 2 N e\v Hampshire . . 70. 0 105.3 117.7 b 1 35. 3 cd 6, 458, 275 cd 71.0 cd 99. 1 Vermont . - . 115.6 125. 5 136.0 158. 0 7, 311 , 916 86. 7 111.3 Massachusetts _ _ 169.0 177.0 177.0 189. 0 69,199. 704 107. 4 145. 7 Rhode Island . . . . 170. 0 184. 0 188.0 d 187. 0 d 8, 735, 880 cl 85. 4 cl 135. 4 Connecticut . . 172.4 179. 0 182. 5 189. 01 21,086,712 98.6 135. 8 New York . . . 176. 0 178. 5 186.5 175. 0 159, 439, 145 89.3 131.8 New Jersey _ 178.0 192.0 192. 0 d 185. 0 d 37. 555, 555 d 18.4 cl 119. 2 Pennsylvania _ _ 127. 2 133.4 147.6 168. 6 142, 383, 024 80.9 123.6 South Atlantic Division: Delaware _ _ 182.0 158. 0 166. 0 ce 160. 0 ce 3, 640, 881 ce 75. 3 ce 109. 8 Maryland _ _ _ 183. 0 187. 0 184. 0 d 188. 0 cl 24, 944, 780 d 72. 2 cl 108. 8 District of Columbia . . 200. 0 193. 0 178. 0 181.0 6,321,038 89.4 135. 9 Virginia . . 93.3 112.8 118.3 d 119.0 d 24. 173. 184 cl 38. 6 d 67. 5 West Virginia . . 76.8 90. 0 97.0 106. 0 16, 032, 924 49.7 69.0 North Carolina _ _ c 50. 0 50. 0 59. 25 70. 8 14,649,194 21.9 36. 6 South Carolina . . . c 100. 0 70.0 69.6 88.4 17,807,565 35. 8 63. 2 Georgia . . 59.0 c 65. 0 83. 3 112. 0 33, 427, 220 43.5 69.3 Florida 120.0 93. 0 7, 583, 888 43. 2 69 7 South Central Division: Kentucky _ _ c 110.0 102. 0 94.0 cf 115. 4 cf 35, 623, 634 cf 52. 9 c/71. 0 Tennessee _ _ c 77. 0 68. 0 86.0 96.0 32, 502, 336 47.0 07. 0 Alabama _ 66. 5 81.3 73. 5 78.3 23, 318, 132 35. 7 61.9 Mississippi _ 110. 0 74.5 c 86. 0 d 105. 1 d 21, 187, 424 cl 37. 9 d 58. 8 Louisiana _ _ c 65. 0 78. 8 100. 6 120.0 17,558.760 37.8 89. 5 Texas . . c 140. 0 71.7 100. 0 108. 2 42, 583, 758 39.8 73.6 Arkansas _ _ _ _ e 75. 0 77. 5 15, 143,500 32.4 48. 1 Oklahoma . . . 95.3 6, 072, 325 50. 5 61.0 North Central Division: Ohio. _ _ 165. 0 152. 0 166. 5 165.0 101,700, 225 86. 2 122. 6 Indiana _ 98.5 136.0 130. 0 152. 0 65, 294, 032 87.8 115. 6 Illinois . . . . 146. 7 150. 0 155. 4 153. 0 118, 307, 337 86.8 123. 4 Michigan . . . 140. 0 150. 0 156. 0 d 161.8 cd 56, 630, 000 cd 85. 5 cd 1 13. 6 Wisconsin _ 155. 0 165. 0 158. 6 g 160. 0 c 49, 571. 000 c80. 2 c 111. 4 Minnesota _ _ _ c 83. 0 94. 0 128.0 169. 0 36, 643, 091 72. 3 91.8 Iowa _ _ 130.0 148. 0 156.0 d 158. 0 d 57, 576, 622 cl 86. 9 cl 103. 7 Missouri _ ... . 90.0 c 104. 0 129. 4 144. 0 66,442, 210 68.8 92.3 North Dakota _ _ _ f 113.0 155. 7 6, 784, 639 77. 9 87.3 South Dakota _ _ j- c to. u C Vio. u 1 145. 0 b 129. 1 10, 973, 765 93.3 113. 4 Nebraska _ _ _ 72.0 82.0 140.0 135. 0 29, 608, 713 92.0 102. 7 Kansas _ _ _ 116.0 120.0 1-35. 0 126.225 ' 33, 043, 559 71.1 84.8 Western Division: Montana . . . c89. 0 96. 0 142. 7 c 140. 0 3, 372, 689 76. 7 85. 5 Wyoming _ _ c 200. 0 119. 0 c 120. 0 c 110.0 cl, 117,600 c 56. 6 c77. 0 Colorado _ _ 92.0 c 132. 0 144.4 149. 8 10, 978, 992 92. 5 93. 4 New Mexico . . c 111.0 111.0 c67. 0 b 96. 6 c2, 167, 028 c 39. 5 c59. 0 Arizona . . 0 109.0 126.0 125. 0 1.272. 125 40. 7 77.1 Utah _ _ _ 152. 0 128.0 133. 0 151 . 0 7, 407, 852 82.5 Kil.4 Nevada _ _ 142.0 143. 0 140. 0 154. 0 723. 492 78. 1 108. 4 Idaho _ _ _ c 45. 0 94.0 c 69. 8 106. 0 2,327,972 53. 2 63. 5 Washington _ _ _ c 80. 0 c 91 . 0 97. 2 b 148. 0 b 9, 497, 836 b 87. 4 b 97. 0 Oregon . . . c 90. 0 90.0 118.2 116.6 7, 510, 323 GT. 4 84. 0 California _ _ _ 123.0 146.6 157. 6 166. 2 32, 810, 705 93.1 121.6 a Certain States report tlieir school term in months; these months have been reduced, uniformly to days by multiplying by 20. b In 1897-98. c Approximately. cl In 1898-99, e In 1891-92. /In 1896-97. g In 1893-91. LXX EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. Observations on ascertaining the average school term. — The “ aggregate number of clays’ sc hoc/ in g given " to all pupils (see column 6). which is the same thing as the aggregate number of days attended by all the pupils, has been computed for those States which do not make an explicit report of this item by multiplying the average daily attendance of pupils by the average length of school term in days. Conversely, the average length cf school term (column 5) for the United States as a whole and for each of its geographical divisions has been obtained by dividing the aggregate number of days attended by the average daily attendance. By this method the school term of each State, in computing the average term for a number of States, is in fact given a weight proportioned to the school attend¬ ance of the State, as should be done under a correct interpretation of the expres¬ sion "Average length of school term." The result might more properly be called “Average length of attendance." which is essentially what it is desired to know. A method which has been in use in some States for finding the average school term of a county, for instance, is to weight the different school terms of the towns or districts the county is composed of by the number of schools in each. In other words, the total number of days (or months) all the schools of a county were kept is divided by the total number of schools to get the average time each one was kept. So. in finding the average term for the State, the school is taken as the unit instead of the pupil. When the schools differ much in size (number of pupils), as they do in all mixed urban and rural systems, varying from some half a dozen to 500 or more pupils each, the average term obtained by this method varies considerably from that obtained by the Bureau’s method. The long terms of the large city schools not being given their proper weight, the resulting aver¬ age is too small. The same objection applies still more forcibly to weighting the school terms of the different counties or towns by the number of school districts in each. Another method is to divide the total number of months or days taught by the number of teachers. This is better than the preceding method, as it takes some account of the size of the schools — that is, an eighth-grade school with eight teachers has eight times the weight, in determining the average term, that a dis¬ trict school with one teacher has. This is manifestly as it should be. If every teacher taught the same number of pupils, the result would be the same as by the Bureau's method. Care must be taken in working by this method to use the num¬ ber of teachers' places (or number of teachers necessary to supply the schools) for the divisor; for if a teacher teaches a school or grade part of the term, and is replaced by another for the rest of the term, the two should obviously count as one teacher for the combined period of service. The liability to overlook this dis¬ tinction in practice, as well as the inequality in the number of pupils to a teacher, makes this method generally objectionable. Still another and most faulty method is to add together the school terms of the different counties or towns and divide by the number of such counties or towns — i. e.. the simple arithmetical mean is taken. An example of this occurs in a school report, where it is stated that 14,193 pupils in one district attended 1:5 days and 85G pupils in another district attended 160 days, while the average time the whole 15,049 pupils attended is computed at 1724 days, although nearly all (16 out of every 17) attended 185 days. This method, if it can be so called, gives altogether too short an average term, and nothing can be said in defense of it. It is as if, wishing to get the population per square mt.e of Minnesota and Dakota combined, we said, Minnesota, 9.86; Dakota. 0.92: average number of persons per s juare mile in the combined territory (0.92 + 9.86) -s2 = 5.39, instead of dividing the total population of the two States by the combined area in square miles. The “ aggregate number of days' attendance ” is a statistical item of the utmost Simplicity and of great value, about the meaning of which there can be little or no STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. LXXI difference of opinion. Every teacher’s register that records the number of pupils present each day in school, as they all presumably do. contains the data for ascer¬ taining it for that school for the school year by the simple process of addition or summing up. There are a few States that make no pretense of ascertaining how long their schools were taught, and others that use methods so faulty that they also are totally in the dark in the matter. Yet this is one of the most necessary and fundamental items of information in determining their educational status. Table 8. — ( 1 ) Length of school term. (2) The aggregate number of days' schooling given compared with the school population. 1 ear. 4 Avers ge length of school term, in days. Average number of days’ schooling given for every child 5 toY8 years of age. The United States. North Atlantic Di¬ vision. South Atlantic Di¬ vision. South Central Di¬ vision. 1 North Central Di¬ vision. Western Division. The United States. North Atlantic Di¬ vision. South Atlantic Di¬ vision. South Central Di¬ vision. North Central Di¬ vision. Western Division. 1870-71 _ 132.1 9 152. 0 97.4 91.6 133. 9 119.2 48.7 70.2 18.1 21.8 59.6 45.9 1871-72 _ 133. 4 151.9 103. 4 97.7 186. 1 121.8 49.5 68.9 20.3 25. 8 59. 8 46.0 1872-73 _ 129.1 154. 6 97.4 89. 1 129. 6 118.3 47.8 67.9 21.7 23.4 56. 8 45. 0 1873-74 ... . 128.8 154.8 95.6 81.1 132.6 119.0 49.6 70.4 24.5 21.9 59.8 46.1 1874-75 . 130.4 158. 7 95.2 81.0 134.6 132 . 5 51.0 72.9 26.1 23. 5 60.2 53.6 1875-7G . . 133. 1 158. 0 95. 6 82.5 139.1 130. 3 51.4 73. 7 26.8 20. 1 62.2 54.4 1876-77 . . 132. 1 157. 2 91.4 80.3 139. 8 180. 1 51. 1 73. 6 26.3 19. 8 62.3 54. 3 1877-78 . 132.0 157. 6 89.7 86.7 140. 1 129.9 53. 2 75. 6 26. 8 24.3 64.3 54. 5 1878-79 . 130. 2 160. 1 88.6 81.9 136.4 132. 0 52. 0 75. 0 25. 7 23. 9 62.3 56. 7 1879-80 . 130. 3 159. 2 92.4 79.2 139.8 129. 2 .53.1 74.5 29.3 24.2 64.4 54. 9 1880-81 . . 130.1 158. 7 92.4 82.1 138.8 133.8 52. 0 72.2 28. 5 25.0 62. 7 56. 9 1881-82 . . 131.2 160.6 95. 9 82. 5 137. 1 136.2 52. 9 73 . 3 30.6 25. 6 63. 2 58.0 1832-83 _ 129.8 161.0 95. 9 82.5 137. 1 132. 6 58.8 74.4 32. 0 26.8 63.9 57. 3 1883-84 . 129.1 156. 0 95.6 85.9 138. 6 133.8 55. 5 72.5 32. 7 30. 0 67. 7 61. G 1884-85 _ 130. 7 163. 1 83.4 87.5 139. 1 131.8 56.8 77.2 on *•* GO. i 31.4 67.3 58.3 1885-86 . . . 130. 4 161.6 93.4 86.9 140. 4 130. 8 57. 3 76.7 33.7 32.0 68. 7 59. 6 1886-87 _ .. 131.3 165. 9 95. 3 87.5 139. 5 131.6 57.7 77.8 34.8 32.1 68. 7 59. 1 1887-88 . . 132.3 164.4 95. 7 87. 6 144.0 130. 7 58.7 76. 8 35. 5 33.6 71.3 57. 3 1888-89 _ 133. 7 161.1 95. 0 88. 9 147. 5 135. 7 58. 9 76.7 35. 4 34.0 71.6 61.7 1889-90 _ 134. 7 166. 6 99.9 88.2 148.0 135. 0 59.2 76.8 37. 3 33. 9 71.9 61.2 1890-91 _ 135. 7 168.1 103. 8 92. 0 145. 8 136.9 60.4 77. 9 37.9 25. 5 73.0 64.0 1891-92 _ 136.9 169. 1 105.3 94.1 146. S 139.1 61.1 78.5 37.8 37.1 73. 1 68. 7 1892-93 _ 136. 3 169. 6 103. 4 93. 0 146. 6 138.8 61.4 78.5 38.6 36. 6 74.4 67. 5 1893-94 . 139.5 172.3 108.3 97.5 150. 2 137. 1 64.2 81.3 41.5 39. 8 76.9 68. 5 1894-95 . . 139. 5 172. 8 106. 5 92.8 150. 8 142.4 65. 1 84. 2 41.2 36. 1 79.3 75. 0 1895-96 . . 140. 5 175. 5 107. 8 92. 2 151. 9 142. 0 65. 9 84.9 41 . 0 37.5 80. 2 76.1 1896-97 . 142.0 173. 3 110.9 96.3 15.2. 8 143. 6 67. 8 86. 3 41.8 40. 5 81.1 80.8 1897-98 _ 143. 0 174. 3 113.8 97.4 152.8 151. 7 68. 1 87. 6 44.3 40. 5 82.1 84. 0 1898-99 a . 143.2 174.0 112.6 103. 2 152. 2 148.7 68.2 87. 3 42.8 44.3 79.1 81 . 2 1899-1900 a .... 144.6 177. 1 112.0 99.7 155. 6 145. 7 68.3 87. 5 41.9 41.2 82.2 80.5 a Subject to correction. lxxii EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. T \ble 9. — X timber and sex of teachers — Percentage of male teachers. State or Territory. Whole number of different teachers employed. Percentage of male teachers. Male. Female. Total. 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1899-1900. 1 ■T9 3 4 5 O 7 $ United States - 127, 529 293, 759 421, 28S 41.0 42.8 34.5 30.3 North Atlantic Division - 19.110 84, 622 103. 732 26.2 28.8 20. 0 18.4 South Atlantic Division _ 20,107 28,901 49, 008 63. S 62. 5 49.1 41.0 South Central Division . 29, 561 32. 807 62, 368 67. 5 07. 2 57 . o 47.4 North Central Division . 52, 715 129, 201 181,916 43. 2 41.7 32.4 29. 0 Western Division - . - • 6,036 18,228 24,264 45.0 40.3 31.1 24.9 North Atlantic Division: Maine - - - - ... a 1, 085 « 5, 360 6,445 ft 24. 4 a 27. 2 ft 16. 0 ft 16. 8 New Hampshire . . 5258 52, 714 52.970 15. 0 16. 8 9.8 6 8.6 Vermont . . . . 510 3. 232 3, 742 16. 5 16. 8 12.0 13.6 Massachusetts - - 1,196 12, 379 13, 575 12.7 13.2 9.8 8.8 Rhode Island . b 207 51,706 51,913 ft 20. 4 20.2 12.6 b 10. 8 Connecticut _ _ ft 391 ft 3, 769 4. 160 ft 22. 1 « 22. 8 ft 13.4 ft 9. 4 New York . . 5, 188 29, 660 34. 848 22 9 26.0 16.9 14.9 New Jersey . . b 883 5 5, 808 5 8, 689 32. 5 28. 5 18.4 b 13. 2 Pennsylvania _ 9. 39-1 19, 996 29,390 42. 8 45. 5 34. 2 33. 0 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . . . . e 218 c622 c840 o 29. 9 ft 46. 6 o 31. b c25. 9 Maryland. . . . . 51.162 5 3, 965 5 5.127 45.0 42. 6 27.8 b 22.7 District of Columbia . 161 1 . 065 1.226 8.2 7.8 13. 0 13.1 Virginia . . . . 5 2. 909 55.927 5 8, 836 64. 5 6f.8 41.5 632.9 West Virginia . 4. 125 3, 054 7,179 79.0 75. 2 63. 4 Di . 5 North Carolina . — 3, 650 3. 737 . 7. 387 n 73. 2 « 71. 3 59. 1 49.4 South Carolina _ ft 2, 422 « 3, 142 5. 584 62.4 59. 5 49. 6 ft 43. 5 Georgia . 4. 453 5, 667 10, 120 71.4 « 65. 2 53. 3 44.0 Florida . — . 1,007 1.722 2. 729 « 65. 7 61. 6 48.0 36. 9 South Central Division: Kentucky.. . . cl 4, 909 <25.051 d 9, 960 ft 66. 0 64.6 49.8 d 49. 3 Tennessee - - ft 4. 960 « 4, 235 9, 195 ct 75.0 74.4 6i. 8 ft 53. 9 Alabama - - 1.977 4,601 6, 578 66. 8 63.8 62.9 30. 1 Mississippi.. . . . 5 ft 3. 216 5 ft 4, 940 58,156 ft 60. 8 61.2 49.6 ft 6 39. 4 •Louisiana. . . . 1.991 2,166 4. 157 50. 9 46. 1 44.7 47.9 Texas . . 7,348 7,672 15. 020 ft 77. 3 « 75. 0 61.1 48.9 Arkansas _ 4, 156 2. 803 6, 959 ct 75. 6 78.4 68. 5 59.7 Oklahoma . _ 1 . 004 1 339 2, 343 42.8 North Central Division: Ohio . . . 10. 502 15,515 26, 017 43.2 47.8 43.1 40.4 Indiana . . . 7. 208 8. 409 15. 617 60. 5 5T~o 51.1 46.2 Illinois . . 6.950 19. 363 26. 313 43. 5 39. 7 32. 5 26.4 Michigan _ _ _ _ 53,471 512.093 515, 564 26.3 29. 2 22.3 622.3 Wisconsin . . . 2. 403 10, 660 13. 063 ft 28. 8 28.9 19. 8 18.4 Minnesota . . 2, 052 8. 534 10,586 33.7 35.9 23.9 19.4 Iowa . . . . . 5 5, 855 5 22, 839 528,694 39.0 33.6 20. 6 620.4 Missouri . . 6,097 10, 104 16. 201 65. 3 58. 1 44.4 37. 6 North Dakota . . 1.178 2,905 4, 083 l Si Oi 7 r, .in Q f 28. 3 28.8 South Dakota . . 1.172 3. 630 4, 802 | Cl . i t 29. 0 24.4 h ebraska . 2. 062 7, 401 9, 403 51 . 9 40.7 27.1 21.8 Kansas. . . 3, 765 7,748 11,513 47. 2 45.1 40.8 32.7 Western Division: Montana . 202 1,012 1.214 ft 60. 3 38.5 22 9 16.6 Wyoming . . 89 481 570 o 28. 6 44.3 22.4 15. 6 Colorado . . . 753 2. 844 3, 597 48.8 36.4 26.2 20. 9 New Mexico . . . « 533 ft 433 966 ft 91. 7 78.0 ft 62. 2 ft 55. 2 Arizona. _ _ _ 109 290 399 47. 5 38.8 27.3 Utah . . . 535 931 1.466 55. 6 54. 5 46. 6 36. 5 Nevada . . 36 288 324 32.4 46. 7 16.3 11. 1 Idaho - . . . . 331 729 1.060 ft 64. 3 57. 4 « 33. 4 31.2 Washington . . el, 033 e 2, 288 e 3, 321 ft 46. 5 37.4 40.6 e 31. 1 Oregon . . . 1.064 2.678 3,742 « 5 ! . 7 48.3 43.3 28.4 California. . . 1,351 6. 254 7, 605 40.0 33.6 21.4 17.8 a Approximately. 6 In 1898-99. • In 1891-92. din 1898-97. e In 1897-98. * STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. LXXIII Table 10. — Teacher s' salaries — Number of schoolhouses — Value of school property . State or Territory. Average monthly salaries of teachers. Number of build¬ ings used as school- houses. Estimated value of all public school property. Males. Females. i a 3 4 5 United States, . . . . a $46. 53 a $38. S3 247, 321 $-538, 623, 736 North Atlantic Division . . . . . a 56. 70 a 41. 34 42, 433 217. 659, 888 South Atlantic Division . . . . . a 28.48 a 25. 73 35, 854 23, 349, 203 South Central Division . . . . a 37. 49 a 30. 89 50, 517 25, 258, 497 North Central Division . . . 49. 04 39 22 105, 118 230,391,589 Western Division . . . a 58. 77 a 50.05 13.399 41, 964, 559 North Atlantic Division: Maine . . . . . . . . 39. SO 26. 59 3. 995 4, 699, 475 New Hampshire (1888-99) - - 69.75 40. 59 1.902 3, 658, 143 Vermont . . . . . . 33. 48 25, 36 2,240 be 1,800,000 Massachusetts . . . . . . 136. 54 52. 50 d 3. 395 d 39, 077, 405 Rhode Island (1898-99) _ _ _ _ 193. 74 51.00 534 5, 175,045 Connecticut . . . . . . 88.68 44. 40 1,617 10, 837, 695 New York . . . . . 1 1 , 931 8 1 , 768 , 495 New Jersey (1898-99; . . . . . 86. 21 48. 12 1.887 15, 846, 124 Pennsylvania . . . . 44. 25 37. 74 b 14,932 54, 797, 506 South Atlantic Division: Delaware _ . . . . . ce 36. 60 ce 34.08 fg 497 g 904, 426 Maryland (1893-99 ) . . . . f 2, 503 c 4, 750, 009 District of Columbia . . . . 124 4, 346. 284 Virginia (1888-99) . . 32. 09 26. 39 7,218 3, 336. 166 West Virginia _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 5, 816 3.966,014 North Carolina . . . 24. 64 22.21 6, 111 1,097,564 South Carolina . . . . d 25. 98 d 23. 20 4, 736 k 845, 596 Georgia . . . . . . li 6. 306 3. 298. 552 Florida . . . . . . . 36. 16 33. 67 2,443 804, 601 South Central Division: ■Kentucky . . . . i 44. 03 i 37. 18 h 7, 989 k 5.448,814 Tennessee _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7, 185 3, 063, 568 Alabama . . . . . . . 31.00 27. 00 fk 7,058 ck 1,500,000 Mississippi . . . . . k 32. 18 k 26. 69 bf 6,687 l 1, 636. 055 Louisiana . . . . . . 37.06 29. 71 3, 302 ck 1,066,000 Texas . . . . . . . 11. 133 9, 166, 550 Arkansas _ _ _ _ _ 38. 50 36. 50 5,233 2, 616, 537 Oklahoma . . . . . . b 31. 93 b 26.20 1,930 760, 973 North Central Division: Ohio . . . . . . . 50. 00 41.00 13, 073 44,017,179 Indiana . . . . . . . b 48.80 b 43. 55 10, 038 23, 244, 630 Illinois . . . . . . . 60.34 52. 45 12,809 47, 317, 0S9 Michigan (1898-99) . . . . 44. 48 35. 35 7, 973 19, 746, 443 Wisconsin . . . . . . 72. 93 38. 61 7, 212 c 17,630,000 Minnesota . . . . . . 47. 86 35. 20 7,303 16, 101, 029 Iowa (1898-89) _ _ _ 37. 10 31.45 13, 836 16, 908, 076 Missouri. . . . . . . . . d 49. 50 d 42.50 10. 478 18, 866, 156 North Dakota . . . . 41. 73 36. 80 2, 601 2, 5S7, 866 South Dakota. . . . . . . as. oi 30. 25 3, 776 3,964,594 Nebraska . . . . . 46. 70 36.90 6, 733 9, 591, 135 Kansas . . . . . . 42. 04 35.20 9, 256 10, 417, 392 Western Division: Montana . . . . . 69.04 50. 30 696 2,531.942 Wyoming . . . : . . 73. 68 43. 36 524 453, 607 Colorado _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 59. 60 46. 29 1,753 7,128,240 New Mexico . . . . 678 850, 000 A.rizona . . . . . . . . . 76. 90 63. 40 m 257 529; 024 Utah . . . . 63. 71 44. 36 705 2, 932, 745 Nevada... . . . . . . 102. 20 61.53 231 284, 563 Idaho . . . . . . d 56. 11 d 44. 83 756 855, 702 Washington (1897-98).. . . . 42. 13 34. 53 1.941 4,977,679 Oregon . . . . . 44. 415 35. 53 2, 070 2.984.443 California . . . . 80.67 64.44 3, 78S 18, 436. 614 a Average for those States reporting salaries. b In 1898-89. c Approximately. d In 1897-98. e In 1889 -90. / Number of schools. g In 1891-92. A Does not include local systems. i In 1895-98. k In 1896-87. I In 189-L95. m Number of districts. LXXIY EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Taele 11. — Private schools (elementary cincl secondary). Note. — The reports of private schools are more or less incomplete, and the number of pupils as given below may be taken to represent the minimum number of private pupils in the States furnishing this item. In forming the totals the States not reporting are estimated. State or Territory. N umber of pupils enrolled in private schools. Total public and private enrollment. Per cent of pupils in private schools. 1 2 3 4 United States . _ _ _ _ _ _ a 1,351, 722 18, 692, 942 8.10 North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division . . . South Central Division . - . . North Central Division . . . „ . a 547, 212 a 129, 109 a 173, 432 a 448. 813 4. 180, 452 2, 303. 192 3. 086. 130 6.271,882 13. 09 5. 61 5. 62 7. 16 "Western Division . . . . . . . . - . ci 53. 156 851 . 336 6.24 North Atlantic Division: Maine . - _ - . - . - — _ / Nety Hampshire. (1898—99). _ 9 867 75, 060 13. 15 V ermont . . _ _ _ _ - 7,019 72, 983 9. 62 Massachusetts . . . Tl.hode Island 11898-991 _ _ _ _ _ 79.295 16, 162 31, 190 554, 186 80, 699 186. 418 14. 31 20. 03 rVnmectient, . . . . _ _ _ _ 16. 73 New York . . _ _ _ _ _ _ ...... 163, 946 46, 532 1, 373, 520 361, 587 11.94 New Jersey (1898-99) . . . 12.87 Pennsylvania . . . . . . South Atlantic Division: Delaware . . . . . . . . Maryland .. _ _ _ _ _ _ Tli strip t of Columbia, (1895-98) _ _ _ _ _ _ 5, 000 25. COO 47. 464 10. 54 Virginia, 11898—991 . ... _ _ ... _ 283, 825 6. 51 West Virginia (1893-941 . . . . . . . 1.894 220. 709 0. 86 North Carolina 11891-921 _ _ _ _ ... _ 26, 198 361, 556 ty o*- i . 2o ' South Carolina _ _ _ _ _ D-eorpaa, 11892 931 . _ ...... _ 27.285 442. 932 6. 16 Florida (1897-98)' . . . 2,487 5, 400 5, 428 26, 722 14,021 14, 647 111). 942 2.24 South Central Division:. ■, Kentucky (1894-95) . . . .. . . . Tennessee ( 1 891-92) . . . . . . Alabama (1898-99) . . . Mississippi (1898-97) ... . . . . . Louisiana . . . . . Texas . .. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 494.371- 532, 935. 460. 455 381,600 210. 816 5. 34 8. 53 5.80 3. 67 6.95 Arkansas . . . Oklahoma . _ _ .. . . . . . 7,808 322,470 2. 42 North Central Division: Ohio . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . ... _ 27, 327. 856, 487 3.19 Illinois . . . . . 142,496 1.101,407 12. 94 Michigan (1888-89) . . . 45, 568 544. 233 8. 37 Wisconsin . . . . . . . b 5.2, 658 497, 800 10.58 Minnesota ( 1894-95) . . . . . . 20, 073 37. 779 372, 165 5. 39 Iowa ( 1 898-99 ) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 592, 771 6. 37 Missouri . . . . . . North Dakota . . . . . . . a 15, 000 734, 817 2.04 South Dakota (1893-94) . . . . . . 1,888 89, 914 2. 10 Nebraska.. . . .' _ _ _ _ Kansas . . . . . . . . Western Division- Montana (1897-98) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1,873 175 36. 943 11,428 5. 07 Wyoming (1894-95).. . . . . . . 1 . 53 Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 291 120, 846 40. 406 2. 72 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . 3,671 1.212 9.08 Arizona . . . . . . . . 17,716 6.84 Utah ... . . . . . . . . . Nevada . . . . . . 1 728 c 356 74, 770 7,032 2.31 5.06 Idaho . . . . . . . Washington (1897-98) . 3, 853 101,769 3. 79 Oregon . . California . . . . . 10, 744 23, .304 100,149 293. 040 10. 73 7.95 a Approximately. b Number between 7 and 13 who attended t welve weeks or more. c Number reported by school census marshals as attending private schools. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS LXXY Table 12. — School moneys received. Income of From taxation. Total State or Territory. perma¬ nent school funds and rent of school lands. From State taxes. From local taxes. Total from taxation. From other sources, State and local. revenue (exclud¬ ing bal¬ ances on hand and proceeds of bond sales). 1 :s 4 5 6 * 7 United States . $9, 238, 868 $35,079,584 $150, 053, 906 $185, 133, 490 $23, 459, 364 $217,831,222 North Atlantic Division.. 1.060.453 12,172,431 60, 861,572 73.034.003 13,217,358 87,311,814 South Atlantic Division. . 508,854 4, 557, 760 6, 626, 806 11, 184. 566 1, 305, 085 12,-998, 505 South Central Division. .. 1,733, 824 5, 808, 497 6, 272, 857 12.. 079. 354 942.257 14, 755, 435 North Central Division... 5, 025, 306 7, 591, 950 65,649,284 73. 241 . 234 6, 924, 511 85. 191 . 051 Western Division . 909, 931 4, 950, 946 10, 643, 387 15, 594, 333 1.070, 153 17,574,417 North Atlantic Division: M aine . New Hampshire 187, 439 332, 580 1, 258, 756 1,591,336 0 1, 778, 775 (1898-99) . 0 39, 047 864. 547 903, 594 95,962 099, 556 Vermont . . . 51, 835 87, 637 661,981 749,618 86, 171 887.624 Massachusetts . 168, 850 0 13, 550, 396 13, 550, 396 106. 897 13,826.243 Rhode Island (1898-99) 16,669 120, 469 1, 268, 884 1, 387.353 59, 827 ’ ' 1,454,849 Connecticut . . 158, 823 315, 360 2. 317, 259 2, 632, 619 177, 955 2. 989, 397 New York . 245, 000 3, 500, 000 22, 566, 40S 26, 066, 408 7, 970, 867 34. 282. 275 New Jersey (189S-99).. 231,837 2,284, 310 3.674,829 5, 959. 139 5, 450 6. 196,426 Pennsvlvania - - - South Atlantic Division: 0 5, 493, 028 ' 14, 700, 512 20, 193, 540 4, 723, 129 24, 916, 669 Delaware (1889-90) a .. 60, 000 ’ b 6, 000 2G9, 000 215, 000 0 275, 000 Mary lan d ( 1 898-99 ) - 54, 010 725, 034 1, 813. 7 08 2, 538, 742 339, 644 2. 932; 396 District of Columbia. . 0 0 1,228,133 1,228.133 0 1.228,133 Virginia (1898-99) _ 47, 5&3 934, 282 9-1-3, 346 1,907,028 55. 463 2, 010.624 West Virginia. . . North Carolina c 42, 753 a 308, 452 1 , 403, on 1, 771, 463 rviO j 6i i 2, 029, 893 (1897-98) _ 56, 849 760, 460 21 , 522 781, 982 147, 683 986. 514 South Carolina. . . 0 533, 639 112, 254 645, 893 156, 931 862, 824 Georgia . 212,152 1,111,001 3 6v . 815 1.478,816 362; 689 2, 053, 657 Florida _ _ _ _ South Central Division: 35, 557 88, 892 528, 017 616, 909 26, 998 679, 464 Kentucky (1896-97) _ 121,899 1,326,230 1 . 108, 395 2, 434, 625 197, 140 2, 753. C64 Tennessee . 129, 413 0 1. 529, 445 1. 529, 445 150,388 1,809,246 Alabama _ _ _ 150. 000 757. 000 (d) 757, 000 195, 000 1, 102, 000 Mississippi (1898-99) . . . 133, 701 676, 966 508, 418 1, 185, 384 45,353 I , 364, 438 Louisiana _ _ _ 52, 815 289, 594 739,272 i, 028, 866 58, 723 1,140,404 Texas . . .'... 1,112,651 2,213.841 975, 577 3, 189, 418 131, 894 4. 433. 963 Arkansas . . . o3, d*io 413, 213 968, 977 i, 382, ISO 19, 112 1,434.647 Oklahoma _ _ North Central Division: 0 129, 653 412, 773 572, 426 144, 647 717, 073 Ohio . . . . . 263, 064 1, 765, 421 10, 830. 112 12,595,533 534. 647 13, 393. 244 Indiana (1897-98) . 615, 786 1,558, 27'6 4. 806, 354 6. 364. 630 461.130 c 7, 441,546 Illinois . . . 900, 184 1, 000, 000 15. 909, 436 16,969,436 769, 230 18, 578, 850 Michigan (1898—99) _ 322, 932 697, 351 5,190,960 5, 888. 31 1 449. 557 6, 660. 800 Wisconsin . 187,333 588. 799 4, 516, 654 5, 105, 453 516,272 5.869,058 Minnesota . . c 657, 103 a 639, 363 3, 332, 030 3,971.393 /l. 087 . 978 5, 716. 474 Iowa (1898-99) _ _ 118, 139 0 7,640,840 7, 640, 840 920, 913 8, 679-892 Missouri . . . 564,375 924, 931 4, 812, 749 5, 737. 680 844. 692 7,146. v 47 North Dakota . . 446. 626 0 926, 764 926, 764 83, 106 1. 456. 496 South Dakota _ 0 253, 234 1 . 517, 868 1 . 771 , 102 78, 994 1. 850. 096 N ebraska . . . 528,630 164, 575 2, 267, 644 2.432,219 1, 023. 791 3, 984, 640 Kansas . . . Western Division: 421 . 134 0 3, 897, 873 3, 897, 8i3 154,201 4, 473, 203 Montana . . 0 0 740, 210 740.210 : 52,657 792. S67 Wyoming . . 43, 265 0 223,266 223,266 25 229 291. 754 Colorado . . 117,548 0 2, 394. 0S9 2,394,088 . 426,690 2, 938. S27 New Mexico . . . 0 402, 698 37, 245 439,943 0 i 439, 943 Arizona . . 0 11. 100 218, 580 229, 680 48,849 | 278. 529 Utah. . . . 32, 923 295, 532 764, 876 1.060, 408 70, 032 1,163.363 Nevada . . . 113, 826 11.515 100,326 111,841 259 225. 926 Idaho . . 37, 183 168, 146 240. 249 • 408,395 62, 712 ■ 508,290 Washington (1897-98). g 126, 220 h 792, 245 1,128,548 1,920.793 47. 762 2, 094. 775 Oregon . . . . 203, 408 0 1. 220, 676 1. 220, 676 212, 611 1. 636. 695 California _ _ _ 235, 558 3, 269, 710 3, 575, 322 6, 845, 032 I 123,358 7,203,948 a Approximately. b State appropriation for colored schools, cln 1897-98. d Not reported. e $8,182,527 in 1899-1900. /Includes receipts from Bonds sold. g One-half the income of two years. h Includes some local funds. LXXVI EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Table 13. — The school revenue analyzed. State or Territory. Average amount raised per tax¬ payer (i. e. . per adult male). Amount this will provide for each child 5 to 18 years of age. 5 ^ i -H H O p 3 o 0 ^4H — i CD ^ ^ bt 0^4-4 ° *3 Q TJ r* ? ~ '6 ^ c S ^30 O 3 3S C Per cent of the whole rev¬ enue derived from— Hw X £ x S'S s s 3 oi X ■ 42 42 42 i X> rv pH x D X ■U V 0 X o 0 0 Ph O 5 X ?-H ^ cl) 4-2 g x 42 r Permanent funds and rents. X 0 X 42 CD +-> 42 rJi - X V X 42 V o X 0 5 0 X s O 1 2 3 i o a 7 s 9 16 i i 12 United States. .. SO. 15 $1.72 §7.31 SI. 15 * $10. 66 $9. 79 $1.09 4.2 16.1 68.9 10. 8 North Atlantic Div. __ .17 2. 00 9.99 2.17 11. 33 16. 39 .87 1 2 13.9 69. 7 15.2 South Atlantic Div... OP 1.93 2.80 . 55 5. 50 3.67 1.50 3.9 35.1 51.0 10.0 South Central Div ... . 55 1. 85 2. 00 .31 1. 71 3. 11 1.50 11.8 39. 3 42. 5 6.1 North Central Div ... .69 1.01 9. 00 .96 11. 69 11.07 1.05 5. 9 8.9 ’77. 1 8. 1 Western Division .... .59 3.19 6. 85 .69 11.32 17. 86 .63 5.2 28. 2 60. 5 6.1 North Atlantic Div.: • Maine . . .89 1. 57 5. 95 .00 8.11 10.11 .81 10.5 18.7 70.8 0.0 N. H. (1888-99). . .00 .31 6. 76 .71 7.81 11. uo .71 0.0 3.9 86. 5 9.6 Vermont. . .19 .83 6.30 . 82 8.41 10. 48 .81 5. 8 9.9 71. 6 9.7 Massachusetts . . .20 .00 16. 26 .11 16. 60 21. 55 . 1 l 1.2 0. 0 98.0 0.8 R. I. (1898-99).. .11 . 99 10. 13 .12 11.98 11. 23 .84 1. 1 8. .3 87. 1 3. 5 Connecticut _ .58 1. 16 8.50 . 65 10. 89 13. 89 . 78 5.3 10.6 78 . 0 6. 1 New York . . .11 1. 63 10. 53 3. 72 15. 99 19. 20 .83 0.7 10.2 65. S 23.3 New Jersey (1893-99) .11 1. 31 6.98 .01 11.77 12.91 .89 3. 7 36. 9 59.3 0.1 Pennsylvania . 00 3.11 8.39 2.69 11.22 11. 16 1.00 0.0 22.0 59. 0 19. 0 South Atlantic Div.: Delaware (1889-90) a 1.21 5.12 1.32 .00 5. 68 5.68 1.00 21.8 52.2 76. 0 0.0 Maryland 71898-99) . .18 2. 37 5. 92 1.10 9. 57 8.19 1.13 1.8 21.7 61.8 11.7 Dist. of Columbia. . . 00 .00 15. 74 .00 15. 71 17. 77 .91 0.0 0. 0 100. 0 0.0 Virginia (1898-99) ... .11 2.30 2. 25 .11 1. 80 3.21 1.49 2.1 48.0 16.9 2.7 West Virginia . c . 19 a 1. 62 6. 15 .91 8.90 6. 30 1.11 c2. 1 a 18.1 69. 1 10.7 N. C. (1897-98).. .15 1.96 .08 .37 2. 51 1.52 1. 67 5. 8 77. 1 O Q 14.9 South Carolina _ .00 1. 95 .11 .57 2. 93 1.61 1.81 0.0 66. 5 14.0 19. 5 Georgia _ .1-1 2.31 . 1 l . 70 1. 28 2.61 1.6) 10.3 54. 1 17.9 17. 7 Plorida _ _ .27 . 68 1.06 OO 5.23 3. 87 1 . 35 5.2 13.1 77. 7 1.0 South Central Div. : Kentucky (1896-97) . 24- 2.66 o OO .10 5. 52 1.09 1.35 1.1 48.2 40.3 7.1 Tennessee ... .28 .00 3. 32 .33 3.93 2. 62 1. 50 7.2 0.0 84. 5 8.3 Alabama _ OO . OO 1.93 (cl) .50 2. 81 1.69 1.66 13.6 68. 7 (cl) 17. 7 Mississippi (1898-99) .12 2. 11 1.59 .11 1. 26 2.11 1.75 9.8 49. 6 37.3 3.3 Louisiana . .17 .91 2. 39 .19 3. 69 2. 12 1.52 1.6 25. 1 61.8 5.2 Texas _ 1.52 3. 03 1. 33 .19 6.07 1. 11 1.46 25.1 49. 9 22.0 3.0 Arkansas . . . 11 1.38 3. 23 .07 1. 79 3.07 1 . 56 2.3 28.8 67. 5 1.1 Oklahoma _ .00 1.05 3.59 1.17 5.81 5. 96 .97 0.0 18.1 61. 8 20. 1 North Central Div.: Ohio. . . . . .23 1.53 9.11 .17 11.61 11.35 1.03 2.0 13.2 80.9 3.9 Indiana (1897-98) .. .93 2. 35 7. 23 .69 11.20 10.29 1.09 8.3 20.9 61.6 6.2 Illinois _ _ . 67 .71 11.77 . 0< 13. 75 13. 63 1. 01 4.8 5. 1 85. 6 4.2 Michigan (1898-99) .. .16 .99 7.38 .61 9.17 10. 03 .94 1.8 10. 5 78. 0 6. 7 Wisconsin . . . 33 1 . 01 7. 93 .91 1<». 26 9. 39 1.09 3.2 10. 1 77.8 8. 9 Minnesota . . cl. 30 a 1.26 6. 59 e2. 15 11.30 11.28 1 . 00 ell. 5 a 11.2 58. 3 e 19. 0 Iowa (1898-99).. .20 . ofi l . OO 2.24 10. 21 7.3 10. 1 5. 8 72. 3 21.9 South Central Division: Kentucky (1896-97) . . . .80 6. 95 .83 8. 5S 6.0 7.4 9.4 81.0 9. 6 Tennessee . . . . . .35 4. 15 . 67 5. 17 4.3 5.4 0. 7 80.2 13'. 1 Alabama.. . . . (e) 3. 10 (cl 3. 10 4.0 4.0 Mississippi (1898-99) . . . .18 5.58 79 . 1 As 6. 48 5.3 6.2 2.7 r 86.2 11.1 Louisiana . . . . .36 6. 45 .95 r' t a t . ib 5.4 6.5 4. 7 83.2 12.1 Texas . . . . . .46 10.14 . 75 11.35 9.4 10.5 4,1 89.3 6. 0 Arkansas . . . 50 6.19 .32 7.01 8.0 9.0 7.1 88. 2 4.7 Oklahoma . . 2.11 6.06 / 2. 60 10. 77 6. 4 11.3 19.6 56. 2 / 24. 2 North Central Division: Ohio . . . . . 2. 13 14. 74 4. 76 21. 63 8.9 12.8 9.8 68.2 22.(i Indiana (1898 99) . 7.97 11.31 (e) 19.28 7.8 13. 4 41.4 58.6 (e) Illinois . . . . 3.92 15. 68 4.47 24. 07 9.8 15. 0 16.3 05. i 18. G Michigan (1898-99) . 2.17 12. 32 4.19 18. 68 7.6 11.5 11.6 66. 0 22. 4 Wisconsin . . . 2. 28 12. 14 3. 31 17. 73 7. 6 11.1 12.8 68.4 IS. 8 Minnesota . . . 2. 85 15. 80 4. 50 23. 15 10. 5 15.4 12.3 68. 3 19.4 Iowa (1898-99) . 1.37 14. 87 5. 65 21.89 9.4 13.9 G. 8 07.9 25.8 Missouri . . . 3.99 10.18 2.82 16.99 7.0 11.8 23.5 59.9 16.6 North Dakota _ _ _ 6. 97 18.77 7.34 33. 08 12.0 21.2 21. 1 56. 7 22. 2 South Dakota. . 2. 28 15.09 6.14 23.51 9.3 14. 6 9.7 64, 2 26. 1 N ebraska . . 5.30 14. 51 4.41 24. 22 8.9 14.9 21.9 59. 9 18: 2 Kansas . . . <7 4. 36 12. 12 1.18 17. 66 9.6 14.0 g 24. 7 68. 7 6. 6 Western Division: Montana . . . . . . 7. 07 23. 66 4. 71 35. 44 16.9 25.3 20.0 66. 8 13.2 Wyoming . . . . 2.72 17.74 4.49 24. 95 16.1 22.7 10.9 71.1 18.0 Colorado . . . . . 5. 77 22. 31 10. 04 38.12 14.9 25.4 15.1 58. 5 26. 4 New Mexico . . . .86 10. 15 4. 30 15. 31 10. 5 15.8 5.6 66. 3 28.1 Arizona . . . 6. 35 18. 59 4. 51 29. 45 14.9 23.6 21.5 63.1 15.4 Utah _ _ _ 4, 45 12.05 4.71 21.21 8.2 14.5 21.0 56. 8 22. 2 Nevada . . . . . 5. 78 33. 64 8. 39 47. 81 21.8 31.0 12.1 70.4 17. 5 Idaho _ _ _ . 3.42 12.39 2. 41 18.22 11.7 17.2 18.8 68.0 13.2 Washington (1897-98) _ _ _ 2. 47 16.84 8.67 27. 9S 11.4 18.9 8.8 00.2 3] . 0 Oregon . . 3. 25 13. 94 7. 56 24. 75 13.0 21.2 13.1 • 56. 3 30. 6 California . 1.77 27.31 5.92 35. 00 16.4 21.1 5. 1 78.0 16.9 a For city of Wilmington only. b Approximately. c Includes some miscellaneous expenses. dDoes not include cities. e Not reported. /Includes some unclassified expenses. g Includes rent, fuel, and incidentals. ED 1900 ■VI LX XX EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Table IT. — (J) School expenditures per capita of population; (.?) same per capita of average attendance. Expended per capita of population. Expended per pupil. Year. X -4-> xfi North Atlantic Division. -4-) <1.2 ^ > tjS si | ! i South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Divi¬ sion. 1 i North Atlantic Division. A <2 — 1 > 0 X South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Divi¬ sion. 1870-71 - - si. <5 82.38 80. 63 00. 1 3 82. 14 $2. 15 815. 20 818.31 810. 27 .89. 06 814. 87 $21. 87 187 1-73 . 1.83 2.40 . 68 .81 2.31 2.27 15. 93 18. 86 10. 46 9.08 16. 36 23.57 1872-73 . 1.84 2. 44 . 68 .74 2. 31 2. 42 16. 06 19.89 9.25 8.39 16. 53 25. 04 1873-71 _ 1.88 .1. 51 . 76 .68 2. 38 2.40 15. 85 19.89 9.01 7755 167 57 24.36 1874-75 . 1.91 2. 55 .80 .73 2. 36 2. 76 15.91 20.17 8. 98 7. 51 16. 69 26. 85 1875-7G - 1.85 2. 45 . 79 . 00 2.37 2.78 15. 70 19. 14 8. 65 6. 70 16. 91 26.35 1876-77 . 1.72 2.29 .72 . 51 2.21 2. 61 14.64 17. 89 7. 68 6. 25 15. 93 24.69 1877-78 . — 1.67 2.15 .70 . 56 2. 14 2. 73 13. 67 16. 55 7.21 5.98 15. 08 25. 82 1878-79 . 1.56 2. 03 .63 . 55 2.00 2. 53 12. 97 16. 05 6. 76 5. 65 14.22 23.39 1879-80 _ 1 . 56 1.97 .68 . 55 2. 03 2. 41 12.71 15. 04 6. 60 5. 40 14.39 22. 59 1880-81 _ 1.63 2.08 72 . 58 2. 09 2. 54 13. 61 17.14 7. 22 5. 72 15. 19 23.81 1881-82 . 1. 70 2.11 .78 .64 2. 19 2.59 14. 05 17.35 7. 63 6.25 15. 79 24. 32 1882-83 _ 1.80 O pv i V . (VfV .82 . 68 2.34 2. 74 14. 55 18. 17 7. 46 6.17 16.69 25.39 1883-84 - — 1. 88 2. 25 .84 .74 2. 48 2. 83 14, 63 18. 37 7.44 6.26 16. 90 24. 69 1884-85 _ 1. 96 2. 38 .88 .82 2. 53 2. 90 15. 12 19.19 7. 32 6. 74 17. 53 26. 31 1 885-86 - - - 1.97 2.36 . 88 . 87 2.54 2. 88 15. 06 19.11 7. 33 6.93 17.45 25. 52 1886-87 . - 1.97 2. 35 . 90 . 87 2. 55 2. 76 15. 07 19.38 7. 33 6. 88 17. 45 24. 85 1887-88 _ 2. 07 2. 4S . 95 .87 2.68 2.96 15. 71 20. 60 7. 61 6.60 18.29 27.38 1888-89 _ 2. 17 2.59 .98 .94 2. 76 3.28 16.55 21.64 7. < 7 7.12 19.30 29.37 1889-90 _ .2. 24 2.76 .99 .97 2.81 3. 37 17. 23 23. 58 7. 78 7. 28 19. 70 30. 57 1890-91 _ 2. 31 2. 79 1.06 1.04 2. 85 3.78 17. 54 23. 66 8.52 7. 78 19. 42 S3. 42 1891-92 . 2. 40 2.94 1.07 1.06 2.94 4.03 IS. 20 24. 89 8.74 7.82 20. 13 33. 55 1892-93 _ 2. 48 3. 04 1.10 1.06 3. 07 3. 97 18. 58 25.91 8. 65 7. 72 20. 62 33 57 1893-94 . . 2. 53 3.14 1 12 1.07 3. 20 3. 53 18.62 26. 21 8.61 7.58 21.29 29.06 1894-95 . . 2. 54 3. 32 1.13 1.06 3. 12 3.49 18. 41 25.84 8. 58 7. 69 20. 26 27.32 1895-96 _ 2. 60 3.49 1. 15 1.07 3.11 3. 52 18. 76 28. 45 8. 87 7.60 20.09 27.16 1896-97 . . 2.63 3.64 1.19 1.03 3. 07 3. 40 13. 67 28. 77 9.32 7.09 19. 75 25 86 1897-98 _ 2. 67 3. 75 1.19 1.03 3. 07 3.81 18.76 29. 34 8. 97 7. 09 19. 47 28. 29 1898 -99 a . 2. 67 3. 70 1.27 1.03 3. 09 3. 50 18.99 29.11 9. 79 6. 92 20.32 26. 52 1899-1900 a _ 2.83 3. 98 1.36 1.05 3. 23 4.08 20.29 31.72 10. 68 7. 34 20. 85 30. 44 a Subject to correction. CHAPTER I. SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA. The British Empire in India comprises a total area of 1,700,000 square miles, of which 750,000 square miles are under native and the remainder under British administration. The population, according to the census of 1891, was 288,350,000, of whom 66,750,000 belonged to the States under native control. For previous articles on Education in British India, see Commissioner’s Report, 1882-83, pp. ccxxvi-viii; 1883-84, pp. ccxxxviii-xlvi; 1892-93, Yol. 1, Chap. VI,, pp. 261-278; 1897-98, Yol. 1, Chap. X, pp. 339-354. Topical outline. — Introduction: Scope of chapter and salient facts presented. — Pub¬ lic education in British India: Beginnings and general features of the system;; control and classification of universities, colleges, and schools; official statistics, current and comparative. — Detailed view of progress in respect to (1) the study' of English and (2) the extension of elementary education: Antecedent conditions;., English at the arts colleges and in university examinations, and in secondary and. primary schools. — Elementary schools: Management and increase of; educational standards in, proposed and attained; the training of teachers; the education of girls. — Influence of the English system upon native States, progress in Mysore. — Influence over small, concentrated populations, as in Ceylon. — Movement of university education as indicated by comparative statistics of university exami¬ nations. — Educational provision for special classes: (1) Xative chiefs and noble¬ men; (2) backward classes; (3) hostels or hoarding houses for European and for- native children. The purpose of this chapter is to pass in brief review the efforts of the British Government to establish systems of education in the several provinces of India. The efforts of missionary societies in the same direction are not touched upon, save incidentally, for effective and far-reaching in their consequences as these efforts have been, they differ radically in aim and in method from the work of secular and civic education promoted by the Government. This work is impressive because of the enormous population dealt with — nearly 300,000,000 — and the venerable history and high develop¬ ment of the native civilization and culture. The problem of introduc¬ ing a European system under the conditions existing was also the problem of supplanting old systems deeply interwoven with the religious beliefs and social institutions of a proud people. The Eng¬ lish Government assumed the responsibility of education in India in. 1 j 2 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 185-1. Its action has necessarily been limited to instructions as to the general policy to be pursued, the practical development being left to the authorities in India. The instructions have followed the tra¬ ditional policy of England in advising the largest freedom to local initiative, and insisting that Government aid for education should simply supplement and be proportioned to the local expenditure. From the first the importance of higher education was emphasized both in deference to the spirit of the people, and as a necessary means of preparing natives to enter in due proportion upon administrative and official careers. But the earliest instructions showed also a deep sense of the impor¬ tance of elementary education and advised its development by all possible agencies; subsequent instructions have been more and more urgent in this respect, and the better to insure the accomplishment of this purpose, an education department was organized at the outset in each of the larger administrations, a director of education appointed in the smaller charges, and a service of school inspection created. All the conditions of the country and all the tendencies of official action have, however, favored the development of higher education. The four universities, examining bodies whose constitutions were mod¬ eled on that of London University, have controlled and unified the work of colleges, and the anticipated advantages of a diploma have proved a powerful incentive to students. The influence has extended to the secondary schools, especially to those which prepare candidates for matriculation. Primary education, on the other hand, has had slow development and has by no means met reasonable expectations. The commission appointed in 1882 to examine into the workings of J- i. o the system, exposed the shortcomings in this respect and made many recommendations for strengthening and extending this part of the edu¬ cational provision. The report of the commission gave a new impulse to the work, but still the results are not satisfactory. The purpose of Lord Curzon to reform and strengthen the educational administra¬ tion is indicated by his demand for detailed reports from the separate provinces and by the resolution adopted by his Government in view of the conditions set forth in the recently published quinquennial report. The resolution is declared to be a sweeping indictment of the local authorities in charge of education. The text of the resolution has not yet been received in this office. The most serious charges it makes, as set forth in current reviews, arc as follows: The inadequacy of the inspection staff; the diversion of public funds to the support of higher and secondary education without due regard to local provision for these grades and to the neglect of primary education; the failure to give effect to the recommendation of the com¬ mission of 1882, which urged that in the upper classes of high schools there should be two divisions, one leading to the entrance examina- PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA. 3 tion of the universities, the other of a more practical character, intended to fit youths for commercial or other nonliterary pursuits; and the failure to give adequate support and extension to primary education. The statistics of primary education are declared to be entirely unsatisfactory. They show that “ the percentage of the male popula¬ tion of school-going age attending primary schools is barely 18 (an increase of not quite 4 per cent in ten years). The figures for expenditure indicate disregard of the accepted attitude of the Govern¬ ment toward primary education. The increase in total expenditure has been 15 per cent for the quinquennium; in colleges it has been 11, in secondary schools 16, and in primary schools 15.” The expenditure for education in 1896 was $6,837,511, or about 3 cents per capita of the population. Local resources contributed 73 per cent of this amount, and of the total only 31.1 per cent went for primary education, while secondary schools absorbed 39 per cent. This meager expenditure — for even on the basis of values in India it is meager — explains, it is urged, in great measure the small results that have been accomplished. In regard to the education of girls, progress is exceedingly slow. “The proportion of girls in public institutions to girls of school-going age,” as stated in the resolution, “was 1.58 (in 100) in 1886-87, 1.80 in 1891-99, and 9.10 in 1896-97.” The provision for training teachers is found to be entirely inade¬ quate, and this is regarded as one of the chief causes of the meager results of primary education. It is also urged that the tendency of the system of examinations seems to favor cramming* rather than sound educational work. It is noticeable that the resolution places the responsibility for the evils complained of upon the local governments. Native papers are not backward in declaring that the supreme government of India is equally at fault in the matter. However this may be, the present government is undoubtedly in earnest in its purpose to accelerate the progress of the work. In spite of the complaints of weak administration and poor results above noted, it is still of great interest to consider what has been actu¬ ally achieved by the efforts of the past. According to the quinquennial report, 1899-93 to 1896-97, there were under instruction in public institutions of all grades in the last- named year 3,788,389, or about per cent of the population covered by the report (about 81 per cent of the total population of India). Of these pupils a small proportion (360,006) were girls. The enrollment in private institutions, under which head are included all schools that have not accepted the government standards or submitted to public tests, adds to the above total 568,488, making a grand total of 4,356,870 4 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. under instruction, or a little less than 2 per cent (1.8) of the popula¬ tion. Estimating the population of school-going age at 15 per cent of the total population the number of male students is 22.29 per cent of the male population of school age1 and the number of female students 2.34 per cent of the female population of school age,1 or altogether a school enrollment equivalent to 12.5 per cent of the school population. The independent private institutions have been stimulated, indirectly at least, by the government, and even the imperfect reports of their work which the departments are able to secure are of some value, but these schools can not be properly included in an estimate of results achieved by British administration, and are not to be here further considered. The number of girls attending school is so small, and their social conditions so peculiar, that their inclusion in a general survey of edu¬ cation gives a totally false impression of its extent. Confining our attention to boys, we observe that out of every 1,000 under instruc¬ tion 4 are in college, 18 in high schools which prepare for college, 42 in an inferior grade of high school, 118 in the upper primary schools which introduce some notions of geography, history, and very ele¬ mentary science, and 818 in the lower primary stages. According to the latest census, that of 1891, for every 1,000 males there were 109 literates, including pupils under instruction, and 891 illiterates, the corresponding numbers for 1881 being 91 and 909. As to women, the census of 1891 showed only 5 literates in 1,000. There are, however, evidences of progress in respect to the education of girls, especially in Bombay, where it is estimated that 10 women in 1,000 can read. In 1893 a young Indian woman passed with honors the examination for the degree of bachelor of arts at the Calcutta Uni¬ versity and 6 have since passed the matriculation. Gauged by numbers, the education of girls in India seems to have merely begun, but considered in its social and moral bearings this beginning is a matter of great significance. The same may be said of the indications here and there seen that caste lines are yielding as a consequence of the desire for the advantages which the public school offers. As to the success of the policy pursued in creating a demand for the English language and in assimilating higher education to European 'standards, the official reports furnish some interesting statistics. Of boys in primary schools 22 in every 1,000 were learning English in 1896-97, and the demand for English increases in schools of this low grade. Of the boys in secondary schools, 31 per cent (158,753) wTere in ver- 1 In the corresponding ratios quoted from the “resolution,” comparison is made with the whole population of India instead of the 81 per cent covered by the report. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA. 5 nacular secondary schools and above two-thirds (339,834) in English secondaries. In the vernacular secondaries 100 in 1,000 were studying English as against 70 in 1,000 five years ago. Practically all boys in the English secondary schools study English, although it is not obligatory in every class. In the year named 87i per cent were taking English as against 85i per cent live years earlier. All the students in arts colleges and special schools pursue English, and it is noticeable that while the attendance upon arts colleges steadily increases that of the oriental colleges declines. The results that can not be reduced to statistics are even more important. The era of tentative experiments has passed; a system of education has been established in each province, the whole held has been thoroughly surveyed, and certain principles that give stability and flexibility to a system have been firmly engrafted upon educated native public opinion. Among these are the principles of local initia¬ tive, of the cooperation of local and government agencies, of public control and guarantees where public funds are applied. That these principles are gradually permeating the whole of India is shown by the fact that the native states' under their hereditary chiefs are volun¬ tarily adopting the system of education established in the British adm i n i strati o n s . The system is educative beyond the mere acquisitions imparted by the schools; a sense of public responsibility and solidarity grows out of local efforts to maintain schools. The slow rate of progress should not be regarded as merely a sign of neglect or of apathy. It is in part the outcome of the policy which gives large place to the free activity of communities. BEGINNINGS AND GENERAL FEATURES OF THE PUBLIC SYSTEM OF EDU¬ CATION ESTABLISHED IN BRITISH INDIA. The education of the people of India, as already stated, was definitely accepted by the English Government as a state duty in 1854; prior to this time, however, schools of modern learning had been established by the government, by missionary enterprise, and by corporate or pri¬ vate agencies. In the Bombay presidency an excellent foundation for a public system of education had been laid through the combined efforts of missionaries and private societies. These efforts were first directed to the establishment of independent schools; gradually the need of united action and centralized control was recognized, with the result that a board of education was created, charged especially with the extension and management of elementary education. In Burma the missionary influence had been specially successful in exciting private efforts for the maintenance of schools. The development of the work since 1854 6 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. in these two provinces has. continued along the lines already well defined before the government assumed the responsibility. In Bom¬ bay three-fourths of all pupils are now enrolled in public schools sup¬ ported by public funds. Burma, on the contrary, is characterized by the large number of native schools, aided and unaided, which, started by private effort, have sought the stimulus of government supervision. The first general instructions with respect to education in India issued by the English Government — the “dispatch7’ of 1854 — announced a general policy of which the principal features were: (1) The constitu¬ tion of departments for the administration of education; (2) the insti¬ tution of universities at the presidency towns; (3) the establishment of training schools for teachers for all classes of schools; (4) the mainte¬ nance of the existing government colleges and high schools, and the increase of their number when necessary; (5) the establishment of new middle schools; (6) increased attention to vernacular schools, indige¬ nous or other, for elementary education, and (7) the introduction of a system of grants in aid. All of these purposes have been reaffirmed in subsequent instruc¬ tions. but with ever-increasing recognition of the fact that the chief concern of the government must be the maintenance of elementary schools. The education department organized in each of the larger provinces has general control of education, and in some cases the management of public schools, although as a rule these are under the ) 5S3 General education: Secondary . 181 20 24,972 2, 687 Primary . ' . . 1,679 164 51,333 8,982 Special education: Training colleges (normal schools) and other special schools . (5 0) (1,871) Private inst it ut ions. Advanced. . . : . a (2( 111 Elementary . . . . (1,687) (20,341) 1 The population of Mysore comprises the same religious sects as the British provinces. The extent to which the different sects avail themselves of the school provision is reported as follows: Percentage of pupils to population of school¬ going age. Hindoos . 13.346 Mohammedans . 39. 776 Native Christians . . . . . 60. 564 Jains . 7. 159 The total expenditure on public institutions was 987,430 rupees, * equivalent to $191,561. This amount was derived as follows: Amount. Percent¬ age. State funds . Rupees. 563,017 211,694 33, 254 98, 912 80, 553 57. 02 21.44 3.37 10. 01 8. 16 Local funds . Municipal funds . . . Fees . - . - . All other sources . . . . The expenditure on elementary education, including primary, middle, and high schools, was $106,216, or 55.41 per cent of the entire expendi¬ ture for education. The study of English is naturally less extended than in the British provinces. With respect to this branch the official report for Mysore says: “ English is excluded from all primary schools. In English middle schools with primary departments attached to them it is allowable to teach the English alphabet and a primer of English in the third ver- PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA. 27 nacular class. But the amount of English learned in that class is so little that some head masters do not avail themselves of the concession, and prepare their pupils for the lower secondary examination in English in four years’ time after they have passed the third vernac¬ ular standard — that is, after they have received a purely vernacular education for a period of at least four years. While the questions of making primal y education purely vernacular and using the vernacular as the only medium of instruction in lower secondary classes are still hotly discussed in Madras, both these questions were settled in Mysore in 1892, when it was ruled that the study of English should commence after passing the third vernacular standard. There was a great deal of opposition to the new rule from some head masters and parents at the time, and the concession of making a beginning in the teaching of English in the third vernacular standard was made in 1893. Instruc- tion in all subjects has been imparted since 1892 through the vernac¬ ular not only" in all primary classes but also in the lower secondary classes, and at the Mysore lower secondary examination questions have been set and answered in the candidates’ vernacular in all sub¬ jects except English and mathematics since December, 1891.” The extent to which English is pursued by pupils above the primary grade is indicated by the following statistics, showing the number and proportion of students taking this subject in secondary and higher institutions on the 30th of June, 1897-98: Total number of stu¬ dents. Number taking English. Per cent of total. University education: Ai’ts colleges and professional schools . 583 452 77 Secondary schools. . 27, 659 7,779 28 By comparison with the corresponding statements for the British provinces (pp. 19, 20) it will be seen that in these the proportion of pupils taking English is much greater than in Mysore; in secondary schools 63 per cent, as against 28 per cent in Mysore. The matriculation examinations of pupils from secondary schools show poor results in English. The percentages of failures in this branch for three successive years, from 1895 forward, have been 60.2, 63.3, 60.9. With a view to improvement in this study the curriculum of the secondary schools has been recently revised. In comparing results in this state with those of the larger provinces it should be remembered that its population is much less than the smallest of these, Assam, and only one-seventeenth that of the largest, Bengal. Under any circumstances it is much easier to extend an educational system over a small state than over a vast, densely populated empire. 28 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The relative facility with which the work may he accomplished in the smaller state is more apparent where caste distinctions prevail, as in India. The comparative advantage of dealing with a small, compact population is shown in the case of Ceylon, which came under British control in 1815. This island, with a population of 3,391,443, has been well supplied with schools, which are either Government schools, aided schools, or unaided but supervised. According to the official report for 1897 there ivere 184,506 youths, or 1 in 18 of the population, under instruction. Travelers are struck with the large number of natives who understand and speak English. Many of the natives practice medicine and surgery, which they have acquired at the Ceylon Medical College, founded in 1870. The study of law has a special fascination for the natives, and high-class Ceylonese have been members of the supreme court. As an offset to the influence thus acquired by natives it is noticed that the natural passion of the people for litigation has been greatly increased under the new influences. Movement of university education. — The general survey of educa¬ tional progress would be incomplete without some consideration of the outcome of higher education in the British provinces. By reference to Table 1 it will be seen that the colleges registered about 19,000 students in 1896-97, and professional schools (law, medicine, and engi¬ neering) about the same number. The movement of higher education is very clearly indicated by the statistics of university examinations presented in the following table: Results of university examinations, etc., for the two quinquenniums 1887-88 to 1891-92 and 1892-93 to 1896-97. University. For the quinquennium 1887-88 to 1891-92: Madras . Bombay . Calcutta . Allahabad . Punjab . Total . For the quinquennium 1892-93 to 1896-97: Madras . Bombay . Calcutta . Allahabad . Punjab . Total . Grand total . Percentage of increase or decrease in second quinquennium . Matriculation. First arts, etc. B. A., etc. co o> 'S c o m 09 fcJD g3 +-' C o; o o Ph K 0) s 6 0 CO CO Ph 0> bfj 05 0) o Sh 0) Oh CO O) +-> c5 c3 O rd o> CO CO c3 Ph 6 bQ c5 O) a Q 35, 922 15, 352 21,959 5, 626 2, 227 9, 457 4,143 9, 425 2, 508 1,407 26.3 27.0 42.9 44.6 63.2 9, 805 3,030 10, 393 1,642 903 2, 793 1,042 3, 810 704 466 28.5 34.4 36.7 42.9 51.6 3, 238 1,769 4, 835 519 347 1,765 848 1 , 599 291 158 54.5 48.0 33 1 56.1 45.5 81,086 26, 940 33.2 25, 773 8,815 34.2 10,708 4,661 43.5 20, 847 5, 546 26. 6 9, 557 3,243 33.9 4,009 2, 401 60.0 15, 436 4,813 31.2 4, 623 2, 119 45.8 1,200 815 67.9 23, 173 12, 602 54.4 12,525 4, 850 38.7 6,704 1,830 27.3 9, 902 3,621 36.6 2, 807 1,185 42.2 1,298 740 57.0 7,331 4, 397 60.0 1, 775 1,028 58.0 1,002 437 43. e 76, 689 30, 979 40.4 31,287 12, 425 39.7 14, 213 6, 223 43.8 157, 775 57, 919 36.7 57, 060 21,240 37.2 24, 921 10, 884 43.7 — 5 + 15 +21 + 41 +33 +34 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA. 29 Results of university examinations , etc.., for the two quinquennium s , etc. — Continued. University. For the quinquennium 1887-88 to 1891-92: Madras . Bombay . Calcutta . Allahabad . . . Punjab . . . Total . For the quinquennium 1892-93 to 1896-97: Madras . Bombay . Calcutta . Allahabad . Punjab . Total . Grand total . Percentage of increase or decrease in second quinquennium . M. A., etc. Law. Medicine. Engineering. Candidates. er cent, were successful. Low as this average of success seems, it is based upon wide variations, both between different universities and between different years at the same university. These variations, indeed, are too large to be accounted for by any other explanation than a want of uniformity in the standard. The total number of candidates for matriculation decreased from 81,086 in the earlier period to 76,689 in the later period, or at the rate of 5 per cent. This decrease is confined to Madras, where it amounts to no less than one-half. At Bombay the number of candidates is practically unchanged, though the average of success has risen from 27 to 31 per cent. At Calcutta also the number of passes has increased at a greater rate than the number of candidates. The Allahabad and Punjab univer¬ sities are both comparatively new institutions, where it is natural to find the num¬ ber of candidates rapidly increasing, and also the standard becoming somewhat more .severe. Here, as elsewhere, the rate of progress in the Punjab is remarkable, the number of matriculations having passed those at Allahabad and almost equaling those of Bombay. Altogether, though the total number of candidates for matricula¬ tion has fallen by 5 per cent, the total number of passes has risen by 15 per cent, showing either an improvement in the teaching of affiliated schools or possibly a reduction in the standard of examination. ■K* ■X- -X- -X' *5f tv "X- The total number of candidates for the B. A. (including also the B. Sc., at Bom¬ bay) appears to have been 24,921, of whom 10,884, or 43.7 per cent, passed. It is noticeable that the average of success is higher than in the previous examinations, and also that it is constant during the two periods. But there are notable variations between the different universities. Comparing the latter with the earlier period, the total number of candidates has increased by 33 per cent and the number of passes at a slightly higher rate, which would seem to show that the proportion of 30 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. students who proceed with their studies is steadily increasing. At Madras, in par¬ ticular, it is noticeable that the number of passes for the B. A. has increased from 1,705 to 2,401, and the average of success from 54.5 to 60 per cent, which seems to afford a justification for the strictness of the standard at the matriculation and F.*A. At Bombay, on the other hand, the number of candidates has fallen heavily, though the average of success has risen from 48 to 67.9 per cent. At Calcutta the number of candidates has largely increased, supplying nearly one-half of the total, but the average of success has fallen from 33.1 to 27.3 per cent. Here, again, there are wide variations from year to year. The number of passes, which was 273 in 1891-92, rose to 484 in 1893-94, and dropped again to 294 in 1895-96. The two new universities of Allahabad and the Punjab naturally show a smaller proportion of B. A’s. though their numbers are steadily increasing when compared with the F. A’s., and the aver¬ age of success is maintained at a uniform rate. The B. A. is. the ordinary limit of university education in India, as it is also in the University of London. But the most notable feature in the recent history of Indian universities is the growing number of students who continue to work for the severe M. A. course, which usually requires two years of additional and advanced study. Dur¬ ing the ten years the total number of candidates for the M. A. degree was 2,012, of whom 917, or 45.6 per cent, passed. Comparing the later period with the earlier, the number of candidates has increased by 60 per cent, and the number of passes by 63 per cent. Calcutta, while still standing easily first, no longer preserves the practi¬ cal monopoly. At both Madras and Bombay the number of M. A’s. has doubled, though each of them can only show about 8 a year, compared with 66 at Calcutta. The large number at Allahabad seems to be dearly purchased by a reduction in the standard of examination, the average of success there being as high as 65.9 per cent, contrasting with 35.7 per cent at Madras. The Punjab can show 51 INI. A’s. during the last five years, against only 41 at Bombay, while the average of success was the same at both universities. It is not worth while to submit the results of examinations in law, medicine, and engineering, as given in this table, to a minute analysis, for the statistics have mani¬ festly not been compiled on a uniform basis. It is impossible to believe that the number of passes in law has increased from 158 to 859 at Bombay while it has decreased from 855 to 627 at Calcutta; or that the number of passes in medicine has decreased from 420 to 416 at Bombay while it has increased from 351 to 925 at Cal¬ cutta. Enough that the general tendency evidently has been toward progress, and that the average of success seems to be fairly uniform. A new research university . — The latest measure affecting higher education in India is the constitution of a research university, at the instance of and on the basis of a liberal endowment by Mr. J. N. Tata. In accordance with the act of incorporation, this university is to be known as the Indian University of Research. It will have its seat in or near Bombay, and is empowered, so far as the funds and opportunities at its command permit, from time to time, to institute or subsidize chairs and lectureships in science, art, and literature, specially with a view to the promotion of original investigations in all branches of knowledge, and to provide or assist in the provision of suitable libraries, laboratories, and museums, and all other necessary appliances, and to take over from government and other public bodies or private persons willing to transfer the same, any and all such libraries, laboratories, museums, collections, together with any endow- PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA. 31 ments and other funds, properties, and benefits belonging to such institutions, respectively, with the attendant obligations and engage¬ ments, if any. It also has power, upon examinations or such other tests of com¬ petency as it may from time to time approve, to confer fellowships upon persons whose preliminary qualifications to be admitted to such examinations or tests shall be determined by by-laws as here¬ after provided; and, further, to apply its funds to all objects which have for their aim the advancement or diffusion of learning. The governing bodies of the university, subject to the powers reserved to the government of India, are (a) a university court and (b) a university council. His excellency the viceroy for the time being, shall be ex officio the visitor of the university, and the governor of Bombay shall be ex officio the chancellor. The chancellor shall appoint a vice-chancellor, who shall hold office for two years. The prospectus of the university sets forth that its primary aim is to teach and not to examine. The diplomas, therefore, will be conferred on those who have com¬ pleted a certain course of higher education. This work of higher instruction will be conducted on the principles followed now in Europe, e. g., in the German Seminaria, the French conferences, and the English and American research classes. These courses will be the beginning of a purely specialist training. In order not to interfere with the existing agencies, the new institu¬ tion will take up teaching where the colleges of the existing universi¬ ties leave off. The new courses will be post graduate. New specialist courses, which are post graduate, will naturally be professional and technical rather than simply liberal. A school of sanitary science and practice for qualified medical men, a school of pedagogics for those intending to be higher secondary teachers (inspectors, head masters, etc.), and a school for higher technical studies are some of the obvious directions of development. It is not proposed to take all these up at once; the order in which they may be proceeded with will be best arranged by a committee. It is not intended to cut off post-graduate students from education in Europe. It is contemplated to select the best for further training in Europe or America with a view to their future return to their country. It will be necessary to make ample provision for scholarships and fellowships both for the students in the institution and for those who proceed from it to Europe or America. The following are the requirements for admission, as announced: For admission to the research institute (or university), students who have graduated in arts, with mathematics or physics and chemistiy as 32 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. optional subjects; graduates in science, engineering, and medicine, and students who have passed the intermediate examination for the degree of B. Sc., and diplomates in agriculture should be eligible. It has also been decided that the curriculum shall include the follow¬ ing subjects: (a) Physics. — Advanced courses in all departments, including mathe¬ matical physics and electric engineering. (h) Chemistry. — (1) Advanced inorganic chemistry; (2) organic chemistry; (3) analytical chemistry; (4) agricultural chemistry. (c) Technological chemistry applied to different arts and industries. EDUCATIONAL PROVISION FOR SPECIAL CLASSES. The quinquennial report by Mr. Cotton presents, in addition to the general survey of education, detailed accounts of special provisions necessitated by the caste system of the country. These are here reproduced in full. EDUCATION OF NATIVE CHIEFS AND NOBLEMEN. “No special institution exists in Madras for the education of native chiefs and noblemen. A proposal to establish such an institution at Guindy, near Madras city, was brought forward by the then director in 1888, but was rejected by the Government on financial grounds. The court of wards, however, maintains a small establishment at Madras, consisting of a European tutor and a native assistant, to whom is intrusted the education of the more wealthy zamindars, under the care of the court. A few of the other zamindars have private tutors, and some attend the ordinary schools. Statistics are given for the five years ending 1895-96 showing the number of children of zamindars who were known to be receiving some sort of education. In 1895-96 the total was 60, of whom 6 were girls. Only 3 were under the European tutor of the court of wards, 38 were attending secondary schools, and 1 was at college. Six minors were receiving instruction in revenue law and the details of estate management. During the last five years a few passed the E. A. and B. A. examinations of the university. Three princes of the Cochin State attended the Presidency College at Madras during this period, of whom one passed for the B. A. and another for the E. A., while the third joined the College of Agriculture, at Saidapet. “In Bombay the special institutions maintained are the Rajkumar College, at Rajkot, in Kathiawar; the Girassia School, at Wadhwan, also in Kathiawar, intended for a less wealthy class; the Scott College, at Sadra, in the Malii Kantha Agency, and a talukdari school at Vajeria, in the Rewa Kantha Agency. All of these are in Gujarat. The thakore of Gondal (in Kathiawara) has recently opened a special school PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA. QQ o o under an English head master for the bhayats of his family, and at Kolhapur (in the southern Mahratta country) there is a special class in the Rajaram High School for the sons of saidars and jagirdars. In Sind there are two special schools for the descendants of the Mirs (the former rulers of the country). Hie opening of one central school for this class at Hyderabad has been determined upon, but postponed for financial reasons. Of these institutions it may be said that the Rajkumar College and the Girassia School are successful and popular and effectively serve their special purpose. The Scott College also does useful work. Vajeria School is very small, and the two Sind schools are not altogether satisfactory. Apart from special institu¬ tions a large number of children of talukdars, jagirdars, and zamin- dars attend the ordinary schools. In 1896-97 no fewer than 553 boys and 50 girls of this class were returned for the northern circle alone (Gujarat, excluding Kathiawar). It may be stated generally that from year to year the chiefs and talukdars recognize more fully the necessity for education and allow the residence of their children at special schools without alarm or distrust. I can remember the early days of the Rajkumar College, when a constant struggle was waged with parents who would not let their sons rejoin after vacations and who sought for every pretext to withdraw them altogether. In a report received since the close of the year I notice that out of 11 boys on the rolls only one had been absent more than fifty days out of one hundred and seventy-six and two more than forty days. It need hardly be said that under such circumstances education becomes really profitable and the healthy influence of school life can be ade¬ quately developed. ‘’“The number of boys at the Rajkumar College remains at 11, of whom 21 are in the high stage. Their ages range from 8 to 18. In 1896-97 the total expenditure was 18,815 rupees ($9,110), of which 10,733 rupees ($7,902) was derived from fees, the average cost of each pupil being 1,286 rupees ($219.18), compared with 818 rupees ($165) five years ago. After recording the appointment of a barrister on the staff to teach the elements of law to the first class it is thought worthy of record in the report that ‘ the physical side also was strengthened by the appointment of Mr. N. C. Bapasola, the famous Farsi cricketer, as cricket coach.’ It was this college, it may be added, that produced Kumar Shri Ranjitsinhji. 4 The college may be said to be thoroughly efficient and under sympathetic management^ and the only note of anxiety struck by the principal is as to the future of some of the kumars, who leave college full of activity and eager for suitable employment, which they can not always obtain in their own States.’ At the Girassia School at Wadhwan, the number of pupils has risen from 57 to 60, of whom 11 are in the high stage. In 1896-97 the expenditure was 10,172 rupees ($2,030), entirely derived ed 1900 - 3 34 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. from fees, the average cost of each pupil being 166 rupees (§32.20), compared with 148 rupees (§29). This school is also very popular and efficient and plays an important part in educating the sons of the lesser talukdars of Kathiawar. At the Scott College the number of pupils has risen from 30 to 34, of whom 9 are in the high stage. In 1896-97 the expenditure was 3,155 rupees (§612), of which 2,303 rupees (§447) was derived from fees, the average cost of each pupil being 96 rupees (§18.62), compared with 95 rupees (§18.40). None of these institutions receive any aid from public funds. “ In Bengal the only institution of this class is the nawab’s madrasa, at Murshidabad, for the descendants of the late Nawab Nazrin. Though classed as a madrasa, this is really a high school with six English masters, but no pupil has ever passed the matriculation. The number of pupils has risen from 59 to 60, of whom 22 are boarders, but the expenditure has fallen from 15,219 rupees (§2,952.48) to 11,873 rupees (§2,303.36). In accordance with an agreement entered into in 1882, when the pension of the nawab was reduced, the entire cost is borne by provincial revenues. Regarding the native chiefs of the tributary Mahals of Orissa the commissioner writes: ‘When they are minors they are educated at the Ravenshaw College, Cuttack; otherwise they can hardly be said to be educated, which accounts for the appallingly bad chiefs some of them are.’ It should be added that English tutors are frequently employed in Bengal for the education of wealthy minors under the court of wards. “In the Northwest the only institution of this class is the Colvin Lucknow, for the sons of oudh-talukdars. This is not in Mr. Nash’s review, possibly because it was not then in School, at mentioned existence, boarders In 1896-97 the number of pupils was 32, all of them 18 being © There E nglish was no middle Hindus and 14 Muhammadans, matriculation class, but two were sent up for the examination, of whom one passed. * * * “In the Punjab a very suitable provision for the education of the native chiefs and gentry of the province exists in Atchison College at Lahore. Its aim is to give, as far as the circumstances will permit and without interfering with hereditary customs, a healthful and gen¬ tlemanly training on the lines of an English public school. Unfortu¬ nately the advantages of such a training are not as yet appreciated by those who might be expected to be the warmest supporters of the institution. The number of pupils has fallen from 86 to 60, of whom 7 attend lectures in the Government college and 13 are in the high stage. Nothing is said about expenditure or its sources. The report of the inspector is very favorable generally, though a number of minor defects are noticed. At the middle-school examination all the 8 can¬ didates passed, and at the matriculation 3 out of 6. ‘The bearing of the boys is described as excellent; physical training is amply provided PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA. 35 for; the class in boarding equipment is very satisfactory, and the organization and discipline are creditable to all concerned.’ Apart from the Atchison College the degree to which gentlemen of rank in the Punjab are taking to education becomes more apparent every year, and this fact was emphasized in 1S96-9T by the wish of the heir of one of the ruling States to appear at a university examination. Accord¬ ing to returns submitted by the inspectors, out of 600 boys of family rank and school-going age only 13 (some of whom are very young) are not receiving instruction of some kind, while 51-1 are at ordinary schools. ‘The number attending the Atchison College from all the circles except Lahore is very small, especially from Rawalpindi and the Derajat; and it would, without doubt, be of great advantage to the families themselves as well as to the province if more of those who are now content with the ordinary schools were to receive a gentle¬ man's training along with their equals at the Atchison College.’ “ The Rajkumar College, in the Central Provinces, was transferred in 1895 from Jubbulpore to Raipur, where it is more accessible to the numerous States of the Chhatisgarh division. The number of pupils has risen from 8 to 23, the expenditure from 3,110 rupees ($661.51) to 12,769 rupees ($2,177.18), and the average cost of each pupil from 126 rupees ($82.61) to 555 rupees ($107.67). In 1896-97 the receipts from fees produced 61 per cent of the expenditure, the remaining being met from an endowment subscribed by the ruling chiefs of Chhat- isgarh, who are represented by six members on the governing body. The aim of the school is to give a sound English education up to the middle standard, and eventually to qualify boys for admission to the university. One pupil passed the middle-school examination in 1895-96. The progress made under the new principal has been highly satisfactory. The instruction is sound, and care is taken, by the encouragement of such subjects as physical science and drawing, not to make it too bookish. To moral and physical training much atten¬ tion is given, every effort being made to foster a manly spirit by means of games and athletic sports. The boys play cricket and football, and all of them ride. With sanitary surroundings and daily exercise, the physique of the pupils, as might be expected, improves from the time they join the institution.” (Quinquennial Report, pp. 350-352.) EDUCATION OF BACKWARD CLASSES. “The backward classes that receive special attention under the educational system of Madras are the Panchamas, the aboriginal or hill tribes, and the Mappillas. The word Panchama means, literally, the ‘fifth class.’ It has recently been brought into use, not only for the sake of brevity, but also to take the place of the terms Paraiya (pariah), outcast, etc., with all of which some idea of degradation is 30 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. associated, in 1893 the Government sanctioned a series of eight pro¬ posals for encouraging education among the backward classes, which has been considered by missionary and other philanthropic bodies as the Magna Charta of Panchama education: (1) Panchama students in training schools under public management should be given an additional stipend of 2 rupees ($0.39) a month; (2) Panchama students who seek admission into training schools under private management should be granted the higher rates of stipendiary grants under the grant-in-aid code; (3) Local boards and municipalities should be required to open schools for these classes in all large Panchama villages and suburbs where such schools do not exist; (4) Paramboke lands [Government waste] should be granted free as sites for Pan¬ chama schools; (5) For Panchama pupils attending ‘ ‘ salary results ” schools, u results stipends ” should be paid at the maximum rates; (6) The night-school system, which is eminently suited for the education of these and other laboring classes, should be specially developed and encouraged. (7) ‘ ‘Results grants ’ ’ for Panchama pupils in ‘ ‘ results schools ’ ’ should be paid at 50 per cent in excess of the standard rates; and (8) Refund of building grants should not be claimed, if the buildings have been used for school purposes for six years. “ In addition to the above concessions, 19 Government scholarships for boys and 15 for girls are reserved for pupils of the backward classes on the results of the prescribed examinations, and a preference is given to them in awarding the F. A. scholarships. A training school for Panchama teachers has been opened at Madras City. The necessity for a special inspecting agency has not been felt as yet, nor can funds be spared for the purpose. Moreover, the employment of such an agency for the supervision of Panchama schools would, I apprehend, have the effect of perpetuating the idea of the social degra¬ dation of these classes, and would prove a serious obstacle to the gradual disappearance of the existing prejudices against them. “ During the last live years the total number of institutions wholly or chiefly intended for Panchamas has steadily risen from 1,437 to 2,468, or by 72 percent, and the number of pupils in them from 31,659 to 57,894, or by 83 per cent. The number of Panchama boys has risen from 20,970 to 34,527, and of girls from 3,648 to 4,961. The number in the higher stages is still infinitesimal. In 1896-97 the proportion of pupils to the population of school-going age was 8.3 per cent for boys, rising to 49.4 per cent in Madras City, and 1.1 per cent for girls. It should be stated that these figures do not include native Christians, a majority of whom are Panchamas by race. The total expenditure on Panchama schools in 1896-97 was 227,870 rupees ($44,206. 78), of which 39 per cent was borne by public funds and 54 per cent was. derived from ‘other sources,’ indicating the extent of missionary contributions. “ In Bombay special measures have been taken for many years for spreading education among the aboriginal and backward races. The PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA. 37 number of them to be found at school is returned annually for each district, and it may be remarked that their attendance at once falls off when scarcity begins to prevail. Though the number of aborigines proper is not large, those of them that remain in the hills are still practically without education of any kind, and the}" will only be reached when teachers of their own race can o-o and live among1 them. But where the Bhils and Kolis and the Kaliparaj (dark races) have descended into the valleys and taken to a sedentary life, there special schools have been opened for them. 44 The district board of Broach spends 1,000 rupees ($191) on scholar¬ ships for Talavias and other aborigines; in Surat government has given a grant in aid for the extension of education among the Kali¬ paraj, and in the native States of the Rewa and Mahi Kantha agencies special schools are numerous and successful. 44 As regards the depressed races whose caste is a bar to their educa¬ tion, our system does not vary. Public schools are open to all castes, and special schools for low castes are permitted, but the department does not force upon the people the consideration of a question as to which its powers are uncertain. While the last Quinquennial Review gives an interesting account of the success of measures taken in Berar some years ago to place the low-caste boys on a level with others in a school, I can quote an experience in the Kaira district where too hasty action on the part of local officers led to live or six large schools being closed for years, to the huts and crops of the depressed people being burned in one village, and to the imposition of a heavy punitive post on that village for two years. A principle generally accepted by dis¬ trict boards is that the children of depressed castes shall be so placed as to have shelter from sun, rain, and cold, and that they shall receive a due. share of the teaching of the school.” aIn Bengal the educational returns only distinguish the aboriginal races, which they subdivide into Christian and non-Christian. No information is available about the progress of education among the low castes generally, whether they are Hindoos, Mohammedans, or (in Chittagong) Buddhists. The home of the aboriginal races is chiefly in the Chota Nagpur and Bhagalpur divisions, the Orissa tributary Mahals, the South Lushai Hills, the Birbhum and Bankura districts of the Burdnan division, and the northern part of the Mymensingh district of the Dacca division. In all these places special efforts have been made for the encouragement of primary education. The special board schools in Mymensingh and the special departmental schools in Orissa have alreadv been referred to. There are extensive missionary organizations in all the districts of Chota Nagpur, whose efforts to spread education among the wild tribes of Bengal have been conspicu¬ ously successful. There is besides a strong committee at Giridih, the center of coal-mining industry in those parts, which, with liberal EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 38 grants from the department and from the East India Railway Com¬ pany, has done much to educate the children of the numerous colliery laborers, who are mostly of aboriginal or semiaboriginal descent. The Government high school at Eangamati, the Dublin University mission high school at Hazaribagh, and the German mission high school at Ranchi are chiefly intended for aboriginal races. The two latter were started during the period under review. A special deputy inspector is employed for the inspection of Southal schools in the Southal Parganas. The inspecting pandits for the supervision of primary schools intended for aboriginal tribes should, as far as possible, be aborigines them¬ selves; but the director fears that this requirement has not always been attended to. The usual limitation of age in the award of Gov¬ ernment scholarships is not strictly applied to pupils of aboriginal descent. The Bhunyas of the tributary Mahal of Keonjhar in Orissa are quoted as an example of the aversion to education evinced by some wild tribes. After the late disturbance they ceased to allow their children to attend school altogether, so that in 1896-97 the whole State returned only four pupils of aboriginal descent. The}T burned the schoolhouses in the disturbance, and are said to regard police and education as equal forms of oppression. a During the live years the total number of aboriginal pupils in Ben¬ gal has risen from 29,663 to 37,870, or by 28 per cent, compared with an increase of 9 per cent for pupils generally. In the last year the number fell by 1,099, owing to the prevailing scarcity. Those in the collegiate stage have risen from 7 to 22, of whom 15 are Christians; those in high schools from 223 to 400; those in middle schools from 911 to 919. Christians have risen from 4,005 to 6,567; non-Christians from 25,658 to 31,303. Nearly 23,000 of the total are to be found in Chota Nagpur, compared with about 18,000. Passes at the matricu¬ lation have risen from 2 to 6; at the upper primary examination from 51 to 59, and at the lower primary from 313 to 627. At the middle school examination alone is there a decrease from 33 to 13, chiefly on account of the elevation of the German mission school at Ranchi from the middle English to the high English grade. “In 1896-97 the number of schools managed by five different missions in Chota Nagpur was 203, attended by 6,271 pupils, of whom 1,208 were girls. The total expenditure was 49,604 rupees ($9,623), of which only 9,679 rupees ($1,877.72), or 20 per cent, was borne by pub¬ lic funds. The number of schools for the children of miners in the district of Hazaribagh managed by the committee at Giridih was 32, attended by 1,383 pupils. One of these is an industrial school, where the boys learn enough English to understand the technicalities of the work of fitters, carpenters, and blacksmiths. The total expenditure was 2,487 rupees ($4S2.47), of which 1,124 rupees ($218), or 45 per PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BEITISH INDTA. 39 cent, was borne by provincial revenues. The results of the primary examinations were not satisfactory. “In the report for the Northwest nothing is said about any special measures for the education of backward classes, nor of the number of them to be found at school. “In the Punjab the special schools existing for the education of low- caste children are mostly aided elementary schools, which fall under the head of ‘Other schools’ in the table of indigenous schools examined for grants. Though mainly intended for this class, the attendance is yearly becoming more and more mixed. In the Delhi circle these schools consist entirely of those maintained by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and the Baptist mission. Their number has risen from 10 to 21 and the pupils in them from 276 to 518. Scholarships are awarded in the Gurgaon district to induce boys of the Mina tribe to attend school, but less attention than formerly appears to be paid to this matter. In the Jullindur circle 1 schools of this class are said to have been opened recently by the American mission, and the inspector returns 130 low-caste children in attendance at ordinary schools. In the Lahore circle the schools of this class have fallen from 35 to 18, aiid the pupils in them from 531 to 287 ; but the ordinary aided elementary schools largely meet the require¬ ments, and the inspector remarks that the strong feeling against associating with low-caste children is slowly but surely losing ground. In the Ramalpindi circle schools of this class comprise the native Christian training institute at Sialkot, with 119 pupils, which has recently been raised to the grade of a high school; 11 elementary schools in the Sialkot district, with 205 pupils, and 3 such schools in the Gujrat district, with 52 pupils. Included among these are 3 so-called Sansi schools in Sialkot, but less is now being done for the education of this tribe than was formerly the case. In the Derajat circle no special schools exist either for low-caste children or for the predatory tribes. “In the Central Provinces the aboriginal tribes returned in the cen¬ sus of 1891 under the head of ‘Animistic religions’ number 2,081,721, or 16 per cent of the total population. During the last five years the number attending school has risen from 1,957 to 4,136, or by more than twofold; but the proportion to the population of school-going age is still only 1.4 per cent. Living, as they do, in the wilder tracts in small villages or jungle huts, it is difficult to establish schools for them, and still more difficult to get them to attend. The director thinks, however, that the extension of 6 combined-system ’ schools has been the means of bringing a larger number of them to school, as the double rates offered for pupils of these tribes have doubtless been appreciated by schoolmasters, who find their education a paying busi- 40 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. ness. The increase of Gonds in the 1 combined-system’ schools of llaipur was attributed to this cause in the report for 1892-93: Every schoolmaster tries to admit as many Gonds as possible. Promotion in this district means the transfer of a master to a school where aborigines abound. Boys of low caste are to be found in some of our schools, but the degradation of their position and the fact that they are not allowed to live in the village, but are quaran¬ tined in little hamlets of their own, form a bar to their progress. Separate schools for low castes under low-caste schoolmasters exist in some districts. Seven schools for Dhers have been established in Chanda, and a school for Dhers under a Drier teacher was opened in 1893 at Sironcha. A Dher boy obtained last year a scholarship tenable in an Anglo-vernacular school situated in one of the largest cities of the province. The school committee requested me to remove him, as his presence was calculated to offend the susceptibilities of his schoolfellows and would injure the attendance. I declined to do as they wished, and I have not found the attendance at the school decline. “ In Burma special schools are maintained for Karens, Kachins, and some other tribes, as well as for the immigrant Tamil population from Madras. Karen schools, which are confined to Lower Burma, are mainly conducted by the American Baptist Mission. They have made much progress during the quinquennial period, and it has been noticed that the Buddhists among them are beginning to follow the example of their Christian brethren. Anglo-vernacular education is steadily advancing, but the following statistics apply only to primary schools: During the last live years the number of Karen schools has risen from 474 to 516, and the pupils in them from 14,584 to 15,582, of whom a large proportion are girls. Passes in the primary standard have increased at a yet higher rate. In 1896-97 the total expenditure on them from the public funds was 45,476 rupees ($8,822.34). The Karens enjoy special concessions as to teachers. A Karen schoolmas¬ ter on passing the primary test is entitled to pay at the rate of 10 rupees ($1.94) a month, and on passing the secondary test to 15 rupees ($2.91). There can be no doubt that much of the efficiency of Karen schools is due to this system. As a rule, Karen schools are of a higher grade than Burmese schools, because several teachers in a school may be receiving Government pay under these rules. The condition of education among the Karens of Burma is satisfactory. The schools are liberally supported by the people, who take a great interest in them through their village committees. They tax them¬ selves very considerably for their schools and missions. Teachers appear earnest in their work and to be making steady efforts to improve themselves. The Karen teacher is more domesticated. He prefers to work for 10 rupees ($1.94) in his native village rather than to go 20 miles away for three times the amount. This tends to greater stability among Karen schools. The American Baptist Mission has also established two schools for Chins at Sandoway and Thayetmyo, a school for Kachins at Bhamo, and an Anglo-vernacular school for PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA. 41 Shans and Burmese at Bhamo. It is only from the Kachin school at Bhamo that teachers can be procured for the Katchin villages, which are very numerous. There are many private institutions attended by mixed races, including Kachins, in the Bhamo and Myitkyina districts. A few private institutions exist for Manipuris only, Burmese being the language taught, but the majority of this race attend Burmese schools. Pupils classed as Chinese are usually the offspring of a Bur¬ mese mother and attend Burmese schools. Chinese, however, is taught at two Roman Catholic schools at Mandalay. In 1890-97 there were 49 Tamil schools, with 1,173 pupils, on which the expenditure from public funds was 3,035 rupees (f 588. 79). Anglo-vernacular edu¬ cation progresses among them, but the condition of primary education is not satisfactory. The majority of the Tamil and Telugn immigrants from Madras arc either laborers or agriculturists, scattered in small hamlets, so that it is difficult to collect enough children to form a per¬ manent school. The attention of the department has recently been turned to the Talaing schools in the Amherst and Thaton districts, and text-books for elementary instruction in Talaing are now under prep¬ aration. In 1896-97 there were 174 such schools, with 3,125 pupils.” (Quinquennial Report, pp. 355-358.) HOSTELS OR BOARDING HOUSES. The following summary of the condition of the hostels or boarding¬ houses for students is given by Mr. Cotton in the introduction to a detailed account of the same: ‘‘The rapid growth of hostels or boarding houses demands that the subject should have a chapter to itself, though the materials are not very ample, nor do the statistics extend over a long period of time. Some accommodation for resident pupils has always existed under various forms. One example is the Lawrence asylums for the chil¬ dren of European soldiers at hill stations in the Punjab and Madras. Another is to be found in the necessity which missionaries have felt for maintaining as well as educating their converts. Yet a third may be called indigenous to India, where it has ever been recognized as the duty of a religious teacher to feed the disciples that come to him for instruction. The earliest boarding houses in connection with government schools were started in the Northwest and the Punjab, quickly followed by Assam. This movement preceded the education commission of 1882, which confined itself to approving the extension of boarding houses for collegiate students. The strongest stimulus came from a letter of the government of India on discipline and moral training, which was addressed to all the local administrations in December, 1887. Among other recommendations, this letter expressly suggested 4 that hostels and boarding houses should be established at 42 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. the larger schools and colleges in large towns and cities for the accom¬ modation of students whose families are not resident in the place where they arc being educated.’ * * * “The total number of hostels increased from 993 in 1895-96 to 1,270 in 1896-97, and the boarders in them from 35,857 to 40,573, while the expenditure increased from 1,696,391 rupees ($329,099.85) to 1,804,996 rupees ($350,169), toward which public funds contribute less than 11 per cent. But this increase did not extend to all provinces nor to all classes of institutions. It is most conspicuous in Burma and Madras, where the boarding houses largely consist of missionary institutions foi* the accommodation of native Christians under primary instruction. The Central Provinces shove a considerable decrease, which is presuma¬ bly due to famine. The slight decrease in Bengal confined to primary and special schools is less easv to explain. The increase in Bombav, despite the plague, is entirely under primary schools. “ Government hostels, which include the Lawrence asylums and one or two similar institutions for European children, are found chiefly in the Northwest and Bengal. The average strength of each hostel is 37 boarders, ranging from 76 in the Punjab to 21 in Assam. District and municipal hostels are almost confined to the Northwest and the Punjab, their average strength being 10 boarders in the former and 23 in the latter. Aided hostels are more evenly distributed and have a more uniform number of boarders, the average being as high as 52. Unaided also are pretty widely distributed, but their average strength of 25 is a mean between 60 in the large missionary institutions of Madras and 12 in the small missionary institutions of Burma. “Hostels for girls almost all belong to one of two classes — either asylums for European children maintained by Government or mission¬ ary institutions. None are managed by district or municipal boards. The former have the high average strength of 68 boarders; the latter hardly ever fall below 50 or rise above 60. * * * “ The hostel system has been most developed in the Punjab, which has 7,113 boarders, or nearly one-fourth of the total. Here nearly one-half of all the students in arts colleges and just one-tenth of all the pupils in secondary schools are to be found in hostels. Then follow Bengal and the Northwest, both of which also are well repre¬ sented under arts colleges and secondary schools. Madras and Burma resemble one another in having the majority of their boarders in primary schools. Bombay is conspicuous for its small number of boarders, none of whom are in arts colleges. “Of the total expenditure, provincial revenues contribute less than one-tenth. The high figure for Madras includes the cost of the Law¬ rence Asylum, which in the Punjab is paid from imperial revenues. Local and municipal expenditure is almost entirely confined to the Punjab and the Northwest, showing the popularity of hostels in these PUBLIC EDUCATION IN' BRITISH INDIA. 43 provinces. Fees provide 46 per cent of the total expenditure, the proportion rising to TO per cent in the northwest and falling to 30 per cent in the Punjab. Subscriptions, endowments, etc., provide 40 per cent. The high expenditure under this head for the Punjab includes 47,048 rupees ($9,127.31) from imperial revenues, and the still higher figure for Madras indicates the predominance of missionary hostels in southern India. “There are 215 hostels for girls with 11,504 boarders, of whom nearly one-third are to be found in Madras, where returns show that almost all are either Europeans or native Christians; and it may safely be assumed that the same applies more or less to other provinces for which details are not available. In the Punjab, for example, out of 1,388 boarders, no less than 837 are Europeans. In this case, sub¬ scriptions, etc., including 51,330 rupees ($9,958) from imperial reve¬ nues in the Punjab, provide more than half the total expenditure, while the contribution from local and municipal funds is insignificant.” (Quinquennial, pp. 370-371.) CHAPTER II. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS.1 Bv Dr. Pii. Aeonstein. INTRODUCTION. The reform of secondary schools in England occupies to-day a leading place in the public interest. The report of the royal commission upon secondary schools appeared in Novem¬ ber, 1895. In that year the Conservative party in control of the Government attempted to reorganize the secondary schools, and reform the elementary schools in accordance with clerical views, by a new education bill. Unfortunately the first object, which was acceptable to all parties, was defeated on account of its union with the second, which aroused the liveliest party passions. But although the bill was withdrawn provision¬ ally, the measures affecting the secondary schools may be resumed very soon. The requirements of commerce and industry demand a change, and especially has the reawakened fear of German competition in the markets of the world, whose success in this direction the English ascribe to the better schools of Germany, given rise to such a demand. At such a moment it is interesting to give a review of the history of secondary schools in England and trace their beginning and growth . Such a task is not only instructive for educators, but especially so for the English philologist who desires to enter into the spirit of English culture and understand the individuality which is characteristic of the race and which is manifested in such manifold ways, and yet in such a uniform and definite manner. I confine myself at present to the education of boys, because the history of the secondary education of girls is of much later date, being hardly two generations old, and would require a special treatment. The material for a historical treatment of the subject is extraordinarily rich and almost inexhaustible. The monographs upon the celebrated schools and teachers are especially numerous. Notwithstanding this abundance of material, there is still wanting an impartial and connected history of the development of secondary schools in England, and this lack is the reason for writing the present work. The following list contains the books I have used: B. Ackermann. The History of the Colleges of Winchester, Eton, Westminster, etc. London, 1816. Howard Staunton. The Great Schools of England. London, 1865. Great Public Schools, by various authors. London, 1875. A. C. Maxwell Lyte. A History of Eton College (1446-1875). London, 1875. 1 The substance of a lecture delivered at the seventh meeting' of neophilologists at Hamburg in 1896, enlarged and rewritten. 45 4G EDUCATION REPORT, 1899=1900. T. F. Kirby. Annals of Winchester College. London, 1892. Winchester College, by old Wykehamists. London, 1873. Frederic II. Forshall. Westminster School, Past and Present. London, 1S84. A. G. Bradley. A History of Marlborough College. London, 1893. Charles Eyre Pascoe. A Practical Handbook of the Principal Schools of England. London, 1877. C. P. Stanley. Life of Dr. Arnold. London, 1844. Tom Brown’s Schooldays, by an Old Boy (Thomas Hughes). London, 1857. Cli. Wordsworth. Annals of My Early Life. 2d ed. London, 1891. Frederic Seebolim. The Oxford Reformers of 1498, John Colet, Erasmus, and More. London, 1867. Quick. Essays on Educational Reformers. London, 1890. Royal Commission on Secondary Education. Yol. I, Report of the Commissioners. London, 1895. Ernst Gottfr. Fischer. Uber die englischen Lehranstalten in Vergleichungunit den unserigen. Programm des Gymnasiums zum grauen Kloster. Berlin, 1827. C. W. Krause. Betrachtungen fiber den Zustand des englischen Erziehungs- und Unterrichtsanstalten im Jahre 1836. Elberfeld, 1837. Gustav Petri. Uber die Public Schools in England, verglichen mit den deutschen Gymnasien. Programm. Elberfeld, 1862. J. A. Voight. Mitteilungen fiber das Unterrichtswesen Englands und Schottlands. Halle, 1863. Ludw. Wiese. Deutsche Briefe fiber englische Erziehung. Berlin, 1852. 2 Bd. Berlin, 1877. Hegenbarth. On the Discipline in English Schools. Programm. Neubranden- burg, 1856. (Worthless.) Athanasius Zimmermann (S. J.). Englands off entl. Schulen von der Reformation bis zur Gegenwart. Freiburg i. Br., 1892. (Thorough, but influenced by the author’s tendency. ) J. Demogeot et H. Mantucci. De l’enseignement secondaire en Angleterre et en Ecosse. Paris, 1870. Max Leclerc. L’ education des classes moyennes et dirigeantes en Angleterre. Paris, 1894. Max Leclerc. Les professions et la societe en Angleterre. Paris, 1894. Besides the foregoing, English writers and periodicals afford much material — e. g. , Boswell’s Life of Johnson; Addison’s Spectator; the works of Smollett and Gold¬ smith; Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations; Huxley’s collected essays; Ward’s Reign of Queen Victoria, and the Contemporary Review, the Nineteenth Century, Black¬ wood’s, etc. Also, papers upon English schools in communications to Anglia, ATols. I and II, are very valuable. PART I. From the Fourteenth to the Nineteenth Century. I. THE FOUNDING OF THE LATIN SCHOOLS. Schools in which Latin was taught have existed in England since the introduction of Christianity, but they were, for the most part, only appendages to the cathedrals and monasteries, and therefore were devoted solely to the needs of the church, the education of the laity being entirely incidental. Therefore those schools exerted no directing influence upon secondary education. They declined in the later Middle Ages on account of the Wars of the Roses and later through the decline and dissolution of the monasteries. The founding of Winchester College by William of Wykeham, ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS, 47 bishop of Winchester, in 1386 1 marks an epoch in the history of secondary schools. Wykeham was not merely an ecclesiastic, but preeminently a diplomat, a statesman, an architect, and a man of the world, and he founded New College at Oxford in a determined spirit of opposition to monachism,2 and he likewise established a pre¬ paratory school for this college in the old capital of the Anglo-Saxon kings and of his own see. His original plan was to have a warden as director of the school, with 10 fellows, 1 principal, and 1 assistant teacher, 70 poor3 scholars, 3 chaplains, and 16 choristers. In addition to these, 10 paying scholars, the sons of noble and wealthy men who were friends of the institution, were to be admitted.4 This was the first independent educational institution in England and has served as a model, in its principal features, for all subsequent secondary schools. The first of these character¬ istics was its external relations. As already remarked, the school was annexed to a college of the university. Every year some of the 70 “poor and needy” scholars who were taught in it free' of expense went to fill scholarships at Oxford. But the internal organization was of supreme importance. Wykeham was the first to estab¬ lish the monitor system, which is to-day a characteristic of the English public schools. Certain duties and rights are intrusted to the 18 oldest and most advanced scholars, who were called propositors, and later prsepositors, for the maintenance of order.5 Some of them also gave instruction to the younger boys — a feature which was pecu¬ liar to Winchester — so that they held a middle place between teachers and pupils.6 This arrangement owed its origin to economical considerations. Wykeham was also the first to regard schools as national institutions, and he made it one of their prime functions to promote an esprit de corps among the scholars. By means of sports and intellectual competition and all the pleasures and interests of a life in common, he sought to make his institution — unlike the old Benedictine 1 He obtained the papal sanction on May 9, 1380, and the royal permission October 6, 1382. On May 26, 1386, the corner stone was laid. (Kirby.) 2 Monks were excluded from Wykeham’ s foundations as they were from Eton afterwards. (Max¬ well Lyte, pp. 3 and 491.) ^The college shall consist de numero septuaginta pauperum et indigentium scolarium clericorum collegialiter vivencium in eodem. [The college shall consist of 70 poor and needy scholars living together as comrades.] It is called Sancte Marie Collegium, vulgariter Seinte Marie College of Wynchestre. (Kirby, p. 442.) 4 Latin original of the words of the text in Kirby, p. 495. (Statutes XVI.) 5 Statutes CXXXIV (Kirby, p. 495). In cameris sint ad minus tres scolares honesti ac ceteris scolaribus maturitate, discrecione, ac scientia provectiores qui aliis suis consociis superintendant et eosdem diligenter supervideant, et de ipsorum moribus et conversacione studiisque profectu custo- dem, vice-custodem et magistrum instructorem de tempore in tempus, quociens causa sui opus fuerit, sub ipsorum debito juramenti Collegii prestiti supradicto, cum requisiti fuerint, veraciter certificent et inform ent, ut huiusmodi scolares defectum in moribus pacientes sin in suis studiis desides castiga- cionem, correccionem et punicionem recipiant juxta eorum demerita debitas ac eciam competentes. [There shall be at least 3 scholars of good repute in the chambers, who shall be older and more dis¬ creet than the others and further advanced in their studies, who shall superintend and oversee their fellows, and shall truly certify and inform the warden, vice-warden, and master of the morals, manners, and progress in study of the scholars, from time to time, as occasion arises, or when required, in accordance with their oath to the head of the college, in order that by this means those scholars who fall into bad ways or neglect their studies may receive the castigation, correction, and punish¬ ment suited to their demerits.] See also, the Tabula legum paedagogicorum, where it says: Qui ple- beius est, prsefectis obtemperato. Qui praefectus est, legitime imperato. Is ordo vitio careto; ceteris specimen esto. [Let the plebeian obey the prefects [prepositors] . Let the prefect rule justly. Letthat order be free from faults and be a model for the others.] In a poem of the head master Johnson, De Schola Collegiata Wiccamica, occur the following lines (Kirby, p. 87): Praefecti octodecim seniores rite vocantur [The 18 oldest boys are properly called prefecti] ; and again: Sex camerae pueris signantur et una choristis, Ut magis hie mores serventur, et ordo decorus Praefecti camera tres proponuntur in una. [Let six chambers be assigned to the scholars and one to the choristers. In order to maintain good morals and decorum 3 prefects are placed over each chamber.] cThe institution known as “boy-tutors” still exists at Winchester in a more restricted form. 48 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. and cathedral schools — a nursery of patriotism, and to awaken a consciousness of mutual dependence and of devotion to the general welfare among his pupils. He expressly exhorts them at a later date to feel like comrades toward one another.1 But eventually this mediaeval bishop clearly recognized the view that education does not consist in training the understanding and gaining knowledge alone, or even princi¬ pally, but that it should be the development of the whole man — the formation of character. Ilia fundamental maxim that “manners make the man” shows this. He regarded the sciences as in the widest sense the promoter# of culture,2 and added to them the cultivation of a religious but by no means a monastic spirit. But that he was fully in accord with his followers in regard to the means of instruction is shown by the arms of his school (mitre and crosier, pen and ink bottle, sword and long rod) with the legend: Autclisce, autdiscecle ; manet sots tertia csedi. [Either learn or leave; the third alternative is to be flogged]. In 1440 the pious King Henry VI founded a school after the model of Winchester, in sight of his castle of Windsor, which has remained until the present day the lead¬ ing educational institution of England, and which shows most clearly the advantages and failings of the so-called public schools — Eton College. This institution originally combined the character of a collegiate church, a poorhouse, and a school for “poor and needy” children.3 The poorhouse soon fell into disuse, while the church and school have lasted more than four hundred years. The provost and fellows were required to be priests and unmarried,4 but could not be monks.5 Like Winchester, which gave it its first provost and scholars,6 Eton was annexed as a preparatory school to a college at the university, to which it sent its best scholars every year. This was King’s College, Cambridge, which was also founded by Henry VI. Like Win¬ chester, Eton received besides its 70 scholars a number (20) of the sons of noblemen and friends of the college as pupils, but they were required to pay tlieir own expenses. They were called commensales and later oppidani. Besides them there was another class of commensales provided for, who ate at the same tables with the scholars and choristers and paid less than the first class.7 At a later period these two classes were distinguished as “gentleman commoners” and “commoners,” and both increased in numbers greatly after the Reformation.8 The school survived the storm of the Reformation, but not without temporary danger. Henry A71II threatened its existence several times, but finally contented himself with an exchange of estates which resulted in his favor.9 In 1535 the school was so rich that its property was estimated to be worth £1,000. 10 The golden age of founding schools was the epoch of the renaissance and the Refor¬ mation, the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries. One of the 1 Pro perpetuo tanquam personae collegiales ac collegiate simul conversentur ac collegialiter stent et vivant. (Kirby, p. 332.) [Let them associate with each other always as colleagues and comrades and remain and live as such.] 2 In the charter occurs the tine passage: Per literarum scientiam justicia colitur et prosperitas humane eondicionis augetur. [Justice is cherished by the cultivation of letters and human prosperity is increased thereby.] (Kirby, p. 441. ) 3 The college shall consist of a provost, 70 poor scholars, 10 fellows, 10 chaplains, 10 clerks, 1G choristers, a head master, an under teacher, and 13 poor and sick men, so-called bedesmen. (Maxwell Lyte, pp. 7, 21, 489.) 4 After the Reformation this requirement naturally ceased. The first married provost was Sir Thomas Smith. 5 A fellow taking the vows of a religious order shall ipso facto vacate his post. (Maxwell Lyte, p. 491.) 6 William of Waynflete, a teacher of Winchester was the first provost of Eton. He brought 5 fellows and 35 scholars with him from Winchester. 7 Statutes XVI and XVIII, in Maxwell Lyte, p. 49G. 8 Id., pages 428-461. 9 Hence the saying, “ Henricus Octavus took more than he gave us.” (See, upon this exchange, Maxwell Lyte, p. 105 ff. and p. 120 f.) w Maxwell Lyte, p. 107. ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 49 first,1 and by far the most important of the schools which were established at this period was St. Paul’s School, founded by John Colet, dean of St. Paul’s Church. John Colet was one of the most distinguished members of the circle of Oxford humanists which inaugurated the advancement of classicallearning in England. He was wealthy and well born, coming from a genteel commercial family,2 had learned Greek in Italy together with Thomas Linacre and William Grocyne, and after his return to Oxford had given lectures on the Bible, particularly the epistles of St. Paul. There young Thoifias More and the great Erasmus joined him. In 1505 he became dean of St. Paul’s Church in London and acquired great influence by his sermons. Upon the death of his father he inherited great wealth, which he decided to devote to the founding of a school, and in 1509 he established a Latin school in the churchyard of St. Paul’s Church for 153 3 children, with two teachers and a chaplain. It was opened in 1512. After he had built his school, says Erasmus, he intrusted the care of the property and the conduct of the school not to priests, not to the bishop, not to the chapter, nor to a great minister of the court, but to the mar¬ ried laymen of the silk mercers’ guild, men of uprightness and repute. And when he was asked why he made this disposition of his property he answered as follows: That there is no absolute certainty in human affairs, but that as far as his experience went he believed there was less corruption in such a body of merchants than in any other condition or order of men. The merchant’s son here speaks in the pride of his unaided efforts. The first head master of the school was William Lily, who was, like Colet, a humanist of note and a Grecian. He had traveled even as far as Jerusalem, had spent a considerable time in Rhodes,' had visited Rome, and after his return to Eng¬ land had opened a private school in London where he taught until Colet induced him to take charge of his newly-founded institution.4 With Colet and Erasmus as joint authors he wrote a Latin grammar, for which Cardinal Wolsey wrote a preface and directions for use, and which, under the name of Lily’s Latin Grammar, and later as the Latin Grammar of King Edward the Sixth, has been of almost canonical authority in English schools for centuries.5 The school regulations drawn up by Colet (June 18, 1518) breathe a spirit of real piety and learning. The school was to be open to the children of all nations and lands without distinction, a provision which shows how entirely Colet was a son of the renaissance. The children were to be instructed “in good manners and knowl¬ edge” without charge.6 The head master must be a man of sound health and good morals and reputation, and familiar with good and pure Latin literature, and Greek also, “if such can be found.” He may be married or single, or a priest without a parish or any position which would interfere with his duties as master. He must not be absent from the school longer than thirty days in the year and must undergo an annual examination at Candlemas by the trustees of the school, who had the 1 Cardinal Wolsey’s school at Ipswich was founded somewhat later (1525), but its income was later mostly withheld by Henry VIII, so that Elizabeth was compelled to reestablish it in 1565. (Zimmer- maun, p. 6.) 2 His father, Sir John Colet, was twice lord mayor of London. John Avas the oldest of twenty- two children, hut he alone survived his parents and so inherited his father’s wealth. (See Frederick Seebohm, The Oxford Reformers.) 3 The number of fishes caught by Peter. (John xxi, 11.) 4 He occupied the position from 1512 until 1522-23, when he died. 5See for the history of this grammar Anglia, Vol. I, p. 275 ft’., 292 ft., 330 ft., and the Dictionary of Rational Biography, article upon Lily by Lupton. c Colet writes of Lily: Nihil enim Deque milii cordi est in prcesentia quarn ut parvuli Christ! quam piurimum apud te proficiant, cum litteratura, turn bonis moribus. Ad quod si enitiris et Jesum puerorum praesidem tibi tuo studio demereberis et me plane fcelicem reddideris. [For nothingis so near my heart at present as that the little Christs should progress as much as possible under your care, both in learning and good manners. Which if you strive for you will both deserve well of Jesus, the guardian of the boys, by your zealous efforts, and will render me happy.] ed 1900 - 4 50 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. power to dismiss him if he had been remiss in his duties. Similar provisions were made for the surmaister or submagister, who was appointed by the head master and had the first chance of succeeding to his position.1 The catechism was taught in English and instruction was given in Latin both in the classical authors and in the works of the best Christian writers, and, for the first time in an English school, Greek was taught. As to Latin, Colet expressly and emphatically declared that only “pure and chaste Latin” should be taught, while he took pains to banish all barbarous and bad Latin from the school.2 He drew up a list of books which he deemed suitable for reading in school,3 4 although he declined to lay down any hard and fast rule. At the end of his grammar he reminds the teachers that the best way to learn Latin is by reading and not by the study of the grammar, by examples and not by committing rules to memory. Colet’ s writings show all through a fine pedagogical tact and a care for the mental and moral welfare of youth which is free from all pedantic affectations. “Lyft up your lytell whyte handes for me,” he says in the preface to his grammar, ‘ ‘ which prayeth for you to God to whom be all honour and imperyale maieste and glory. Amen. ’ ’ 1 And still more humanly near to us does this great and free spirit seem to be by his retention of certain old symbols and cus¬ toms. It has already been mentioned that the number of free places in the school corresponded to the number of fishes caught by St. Peter at the miraculous draft. The old custom, which was also preserved at Winchester and Eton, by which the choristers elected a boy bishop at Christmas, who held office until the eve of the feast of the Innocents (December 28), was expressly established at St. Paul’s School as well. The scholars were obliged to listen to a sermon by their bishop on the feast of the Innocents and at its close each scholar gave him a penny. On the other hand, cockfights and other similar sports, as well as disputations on St. Bartholomew’s Day, “which is only foolish talk and a waste of time,” were strictly forbidden. Nor could the head master grant other holidays besides those regularly appointed, under a fine of forty shillings.5 Colet made an ample provision for his school. Its income from its estates was some £120 at the start, and is now a hundred times as much.6 It was a seat, of the “new learning,” of the renaissance, and therefore aroused the enthusiasm of the humanists, while it excited the anger of the adherents of the old scholasticism. More compared it to the wooden horse in which the armed Greeks were concealed who were to destroy barbarian Troy. Bishop Fitzjames of London, on the other hand, called it a temple of idolatry.7 ■ Its constitution, as far as instruction is con¬ cerned, became the model for a great number of similar institutions, so that Colet, together with Wykeham, is to be regarded as one of the founders of secondary instruc¬ tion in England. As this diplomat and statesman established a standard for the for¬ mation of character among boarding scholars, so did the day school of the great humanist become a model for intellectual culture and religious education. 1 The statutes are given in full by Howard Staunton. 2 The passage deserves to be given literally. At the end of the statutes Colet says: “I save that fylthiness and all such abusion which the later blinde worlde brought in, which more rather may be called blotterature than literature, I utterly abannyshe and exclude out of this Scole.” 3 The writers he recommends are: Colet’s Accidens, Erasmus’s Institutiones Christiani Hominis and Copia, Lactantius, Prudentius and Proba, Sedulius, Juvencus and Baptista Mantuanus, Cicero. Sallust, Vergil, Terentius, etc. 4 The whole fine passage runs: “ Wherefor I pray you all lytell babes all lytell chyldren lerne gladly this lytell treatyse and commcnde yt dylygently unto your memoryes. Trustyng of this begynnyng yt ye shall procede and growe to parfyte lyterature and come at ye last to be great clarkes. And lyft up your lytell whyte handes,” etc. 5 See the statutes in Howard Staunton, p. 183 ff. G To-day the income is over £12,000. The school has been removed to West Kensington. It has 580 scholars, of whom only 153 pay an admission fee. Other schools for boys and girls have been estab¬ lished on Colet’s foundation, so that about 3,000 children are being educated through his liberality. 7Seebohm, Oxford Ref., pp. 182, 183. The words of More are: “ The enemies of good learning perceive that just as there came forth from the Trojan horse Greeks who laid waste barbarian Troy, so from your school are coming forth scholars who refute and overthrow their ignorance.” ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 51 In the following decades guilds of merchants and wealthy individuals rivaled kings and princes of the church in founding secondary schools. Henry VIII devoted a part at least of the confiscated church property to this purpose, although the greater part fell to the share of his favorites. More than 50 schools are said to have been founded during his reign,1 although only a very few were established by him person¬ ally. The founding of schools reached its highest point under his successor, the young King Edward VI, some twenty schools taking his name, among them being the Birmingham,2 Christ’s Hospital or Blue Coat,3 4 and Shrewsbury schools.1 In all, 39 schools were founded during his short reign.5 During the bloody Catholic reaction under Queen Mary the practice of founding schools decreased but did not cease entirely,6 while the long and peaceful reign of Elizabeth was very favorable to the development of secondary schools, over 75 free grammar schools dating from her time, the Queen herself being the gracious founder of 22. Four of the great “ public schools,” Westminster, Merchant Taylors’, Rugby, and Harrow, date from this period. Westminster school, to be sure, derives its origin from Anglo-Saxon times,7 but it was newly established in 1540, after the suppression of the abbey and monastery of St. Peter, by Henry VIII, and was endowed with the proceeds of the sale of church property by Elizabeth in 1560. It furnished instruction to 40 poor scholars free of cost, and received besides eighty pensionarii, oppidcini or peregrini. Every year at least 6 of its scholars went to take scholarships at Christ Church, Oxford, and Trinity College, Cambridge. Among the earliest teachers of this school the learned William Camden 8 was the most eminent. He wrote a Greek grammar which has enjoyed the same esteem in English schools as Lily’s Latin Grammar. Merchant Taylors’ school dates from 1561 and was founded by the rich guild of merchant tailors for 250 scholars, and was endowed by one of the members of the guild, Sir Thomas White, who had shortly before founded St. John’s College, Ox¬ ford, with 43 scholarships, at that college. The regulations of the school follow almost word for wrord those of St. Paul’s school, of which it is a cop}r. Of the other schools which were founded in Elizabeth’s time, the free school at Rugby, founded in 1567 by Laurence Sheriff of London, merchant, and that at Harrow-on-the-Hill, founded by John Lyon, yeoman, in 1571, have been of special importance on account of their proximity to London, and other circumstances. The former owes its wealth to a small piece of land in Middlesex which then yielded an income of £8, but which now lies in the middle of London and yields £5,000 a year; the latter, wThich was originally intended by the vrorthv yeoman only for the benefit iThe royal schools were Canterbury for 50 free scholars, Worcester for 40, Durham for 18, and Rochester for 24. Oldham founded the Manchester grammar school upon the exact pattern of St. Paul’s school. (See Leclerc, L’Education, etc., p. 153 ft'). 2 Birmingham school was originally endowed with land yielding £20 a year. In 18S1 its income was £22,000. It is hoped by the end of the century this will increase to £50,000. (Leclerc. p. 131. ) 3 The income of Christ's Hospital was £70,000 ip. 1S77. (Pascoe.) 4 This school was founded in 1551 from the funds of a suppressed abbey, but was first opened under Elizabeth in 1562. 5 Among them were Tunbridge school, founded by Sir Andrew Judde in 1552 ; Norwich, King Ed¬ ward Sixth’s school, founded in 1547; Bedford grammar school (1552), and King Edward’s school at Bromsgrove (1553). c According to Zimmermann, 18 schools were founded during her reign, of which 4 were founded by the Queen herself. i William Fitzstephen relates in his life of Archbishop Thomas a Becket that the scholars of three great London schools were accustomed to challenge each other to make verses and contend in gram¬ mar on certain days every year. Stowe, the chronicler, believes that these must have been St. Peter’s Westminster, St. Paul’s, and St. Peter’s Cornhill, and he adds that he had witnessed such con¬ tests when he was a boy, in which the teachers and scholars of St. Paul’s and Westminster pariici- pated. The custom of challenges at Westminster, which was still m existence a few years ago, daces back to this contest. 8 Ben Jonson was one of his scholars and acknowledges his1 indebtedness to him (see epigram XIV, Works, Vol. Ill, p. 22): Camden, most reverend head, to whom I owe All that I am in arts, and all I know. 52 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. of his own parish, owes its success to the circumstance that the teachers were allowed by the school regulations to admit “foreigners” and take from them such pay as they could get. Advantage was taken of this provision for a century after the found¬ ing of the school, which became at first a kind of accessory to, and then a rival of, Eton.1 The income from the original landed property of the school is still compara¬ tively small, but the bounty of its friends has endowed it richly, especially in the present century, with scholarships and prizes.2 Of other schools founded in Queen Elizabeth’s time, that at Uppingham, founded in 1584 by one Archdeacon Johnson, has recently acquired especial importance through the work of the distinguished pedagogue, Dr. Edward Thring. Under James I the ardor for founding schools decreased considerably, yet several important institutions date from his reign. The first of these in importance is the Charterhouse school, which was founded in 1611, together with a hospital, by Thomas Sutton, a wholesale merchant and an industrial, whom the rise of England after the defeat of the armada had enriched, and who, as he was childless, applied his wealth to works of benevolence.3 The income of this institution, which was originally intended for 40 free scholars and 80 needy and meritorious men, amounted even in Sutton’s time to £4,500. It is now some £29,000. The school was removed in 1872 from the densely populated Charterhouse Square to Godaiming in Surrey. It remains to mention Dulwich College, founded in 1619 by Edward Alleyn, the well-known actor and theater director, and the associate of Shakespeare and Ben Jonson. The endowment, consisting of 300 acres of land, which to-day represents an immense value, was for a long time completely wasted, the income was squandered, and a dozen teachers, almost without scholars, lived upon it. This condition has been changed since 1865. To-day Dulwich College has 570 scholars and the excess of its income is applied to charitable purposes.4 Thus England was covered at the beginning of the seventeenth century with a network of grammar schools which gave the youth of the country a knowledge of classical antiquity. Let us now consider more closely the original organization of these schools. II. THE ORIGINAL CHARACTER OF THE FOUNDATION SCHOOLS. All foundation schools were originally intended for poor children of talent. Their statutes contain this provision, and in many cases it was expressly added that chil¬ dren whose parents possessed an income above a certain amount could not be admitted to these schools.5 At the same time there was from the outset the arrangement allow- 1 Of the six head masters of Harrow between 1660 and 1771, five were Etonians. In the beginning of the eighteenth century the school took advantage of the political attitude of Eton, whose head master was suspected of Jacobitism. Therefore the Whig nobility sent their sons to Harrow instead of to Eton, as previously. 2 Between 1819 and 1829 £5,000 were collected for the school, and between 1829 and 1889 some £120,000. (Great Public Schools, by various authors, p. 78.) 3 Yet Ins character had its shady side also. It is related of him that he used to accept gifts from covetous friends on the understanding that, they were to be his heirs. Ben Jonson is said to have castigated him in his “ Volpone.” 4 By the regulations of this school the head master must always be named Alleyn, a requirement that was not done away with until 1858. (Leelerc, p. 113 ft'.) 5 The Winchester statutes declare (Kirby, p. 458) : Nullus habens terras tenementa vel alias posses- siones spirituales vel temporal es, quorum proventus quinque mar car urn sterlingarum valorem annuum exccsserint, in ipsum collegium . . . eligatur, consanguineis nostris duntaxat exceptis [no one haw¬ ing lands, tenements, or other possessions, spiritual or temporal, the income wherefrom exceeds 5 marks sterling a year, shall be elected to the college itself, our own relatives excepted] . A mark was equal to 13s. 4d. There are similar provisions in the statutes of Westminster, Rugby, Harrow, Mer¬ chant Taylors’, etc. ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOE BOYS. 53 ing pay scholars (the commensales or commoners) , whose numbers and importance soon exceeded those of the free scholars (collegers, King’s scholars, Queen’s scholars, or foundation scholars) . Another feature was the local character which the founders usually gave their schools. Winchester gave a preference to the relatives of the founder, the inhabitants of the diocese and the neighboring counties taking a second place.1 Westminster was intended chiefly for choristers and boys of the cloisters, while Harrow and Rugby were originally designed for the inhabitants of the localities of the schools and the neighborhood. Only St. Paul’s school and Merchant Taylors’ school, which was modeled after it, differed from the others in this respect. The pay of the teachers was very small, considering the condition of affairs at the time. The head master of Winchester received £10 sterling besides his house, board, and cloth for clothing, the under teacher receiving 5 marks, or £3 6s. 8d.2 At Eton, a half-century later, the head master received 24 marks, or £16, besides free lodging and £3 18s. for board and £1 for clothing. The pay of teachers at Rugby, Harrow, etc. , was on a similar scale.3 Colet endowed his head master very liberally by assign¬ ing him a salary of £35, a sum which amounted to more than a fourth part of the income of the lord chancellor of the realm.4 In all the schools instruction was given in a large hall, which was only divided by a curtain into two parts for the so-called upper and lower schools. The scholars for the most part slept in a great chamber, as at Eton5 and Westmin¬ ster,6 often, as at Winchester 7 until 1540, upon bundles of straw or the bare stone floor. They had to make their own beds, clean the chambers, and wash themselves 1 Statutes II (Kirby, p. 457) : A'olumus quod in omni eleccione scolarium futuris temporibus in dictum nostrum collegium prope Wyntoniam facienda principaliter et ante alios quoscunque omnes illi qui sunt et erunt de consanguinitate nostra et gencre, si qui tales sint, ubicunque fuerint oriundi seu rnoram traxint, per viam specialis prerogative absque difficultate qualibet, in dictum collegium . . . reci- piantur ac etiam admittentur. [We desire that in every election of scholars to be held in future for our said college near Winchester, principally, and before all others whatsoever, all those who are and shall be of our blood and family, if any such there be, wherever they may have been born or wher¬ ever they may live, shall, by way of special prerogative and without any difficulty, be received and admitted into the said college.] Compare the following: Statuimus preterea quod post dictos consan- guineos nostros pauperes indigentes scolares de loci3 et parochiis in quibus possessiones spirituales et temporales ipsius Collegii prope Wyntoniam ac nostri Collegii Oxonie existant; deinde oriundi de dioc. Wyntonie, ac deinceps seriatim de comitatibus Oxonie, Berk., Wiltes., Somerset, Buk., Essex, Midd., Dorset, Kam., Sussex et Canturbury, etc. [We have decreed, moreover, that after the said our relatives, poor and needy scholars from the places and parishes where there are temporal and spiritual possessions of the college itself near Winchester, and of our college at Oxford, next those born in the diocese of Winchester, and then seriatim those from the counties of Oxford, Berks, Wilts, Somerset, Buckinghapi, Essex, Middlesex, Dorset, Cambridge, Sussex, and Canterbury shall be received.] 2 See Kirby, page 84. The salary of the warden was £20 and that of the fellows £5 each. 3 We must, of course, take into consideration the rapidly decreasing value of money, which was twelve times its present worth in the fifteenth century, but at the end of the sixteenth was only four times. 4Seebohm, page 151: In 1625, more than a hundred years later, the teacher of Charterhouse School received only £30 salary, with board and lodging. Compare with that figure the present salaries of the head masters of Eton, Harrow, etc., which amount to between £5,000 and £6,000. 5 This was the famous Long Chamber, in which 52 scholars slept, while the remaining 18 were placed in small rooms. See for Eton the so-called Consuetudinarium of Head Master Malim, 1561, which describes both the peculiar customs of the school and the daily life of the scholars. (Maxwell Byte, p. 142 ff.) °See, for Westminster, Blackwood’s Magazine, vol. 100, page 62 ff. Howard Staunton says (pp. 136, 137) : “Up to 1846 there was one large dormitory, in which all the 40 Queen’s scholars lived by day and slept by night, without any provision whatever in the shape of private rooms for study.” 7 In 1540 Dean Fishmonger introduced bedsteads and put in board floors. (Howard Staunton, p. 82.) Christopher Johnson, or Jonson, head master from 1550 to 1571, describes the customs of Winchester in his Latin poem called De Schola Collegiata Wiccamica. (See Kirby, p. 255.) 54 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. under a pump.1 The food was very plain, often poor and scanty. As the number of teachers was small, the supervision of the scholars was almost exclusively in the hands of the prefects and monitors, and the smaller boys, known as “fags,” had a hard position. A minister who wrote his recollections of school life at Westminster at the beginning of the seventeenth century complains as follows: “During my servitude as junior of seven months and two weeks I was frightfully ill-treated by the monitors and had to perform the menial duties of a servant. In this way I was diverted from my studies and could not, even after I was freed from this slavery, return to them again, but gave myself up to idleness.” 2 The instruction was confined to Latin3 and Greek almost exclusively, to which Hebrew was added later, and even Arabic and Chaldee were studied by some of the scholars of Westminster.4 The method of instruction seems to have been thorough, and the teachers were not content with superficial or half knowledge.5 Much atten¬ tion was given to writing verses6 in Greek as well as Latin and to learning by heart. The teachers of the great schools were men of ability. I need only mention Nicholas Udall, who was head master of Eton in 1534, and was the author of a work on Latin style as well as of the first regular English play, Ralph Royster Doyster;7 8 William Camden, the great historian and antiquarian, who was made head master of West¬ minster in 1593; 8 Richard Mulcaster, who was made head master of Merchant Tay¬ lors’ school in 1591 and occupied the same position at St. Paul’s School in 1596, and who was one of the earliest English writers upon pedagogics;9 and, finally, Richard Busby, who reigned over 'Westminster school from 1638 to 1695. Discipline was maintained by corporal punishment. Dr. Busby’s10 doctrine that his “birch was the sieve that winnowed the wheat from the chaff of the scholars” 1 Johnson says: “Surgite” Prsefectus clamat; num stertitis? Ohe Jana campana sonat; yos surgite, surgite pigri. Surgendum est; vestes, caiigse, soliseque petuntur; In classem properant; et si campana taceret, Distinct! inciperent psalmum cantare Latinum. Postea sint versse camerse, pexique capilli. Sternuntur lecti, facies sit lota manusque. [“ Get up! ” cries the prefect; are you still snoring? The bell is ringing; get up, you lazy ones! You must all get up and put on your clothes and shoes. They hasten to the class, and when the hell ceases sing a Latin psalm. Afterwards let the rooms be cleaned, the hair combed, the beds be made, and hands and faces washed.] (See Maxwell Lyte, p. 144.) 2 See Blackwood’s Magazine, vol. 100, p. 71. 3 In Eton Latin was almost the only subject taught in 1560. Greek grammar was only begun in the sixth and seventh classes. (Maxwell Lyte, pp. 146, 147.) 4 Evelyn, who was present at an examination at Westminster, writes in his diary May 13, 1661: “I heard such exercises in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic in themes and extraordinary verses, with such readiness and will, as wonderfully astonished in such boys.” 5 See Blackwood, vol. ICO. 6 Samuel Pepys, who visited Eton in 1665, the year of the great plague of London, writes in his diary: “I went to the hall and there found the boys writing verses de peste, it being their custom to make verses on Shrovetide. I read several, and very good they were, better I think than ever I made when I was a boy, and in rolls as long or longer than the whole hall by much.” 'Nicholas Udall was afterwards found guilty of a serious breach of morals and was imprisoned and deposed from his position. About the year 1534 he became head master at the newly founded West¬ minster school. He died soon after. He wrote numerous works. (Maxwell Lyte, p. 119.) 8 Author of the Britannia and of a Greek grammar which, under the name of the Eton Greek Gram¬ mar, was used even into the present century. 0 He wrote two pedagogical treatises: “ Positions wherein those primitive circumstances be exam¬ ined which are necessary for the training up of young children, either for skill in their book or health in their bodie.” And another, entitled “The First Part of The Elementarie, which entreat- eth chiefly of the right writing of the English Tung.” (See Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers; Ellis, On Early English Pronunciation, III, p. 910 If.) 10 Of this celebrated school potentate, who exercised his office during the troubled times of the Revolution and Restoration with vigor and skill, a great number of stories are told in all books upon English schools. ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS EOR BOYS. 55 was generally accepted, and no small portion of a teacher’s powers was exerted in the use of the rod.1 In these schools vacations were short and holidays rare, and sports and bodily exercise did not occupy the prominent place which they held later in the life of the school. The boys played at quoits, ball, and football. At Harrow, even as late as the end of the eighteenth century, there were archery contests, in compliance with the will of the founder, John Lyon, which took place in July or August, and the victor received a silver arrow as the prize. In 1771 Dr. Heath abolished this custom, which had become a nuisance, and replaced it by public speaking, which still exists. At Eton was the ancient custom of the “montem,” when the scholars repaired to Salt Hill and there initiated the new scholars with ceremonies of vari¬ ous kinds. At a later period money was collected from the visiting lookers on with the cry of “salt! salt!” and as much as £1,000 has often been taken up in this way. This custom was abolished in 1847 2 and was replaced by a school anniversary at which speeches and declamations were delivered. This is the so-called June 4 of Eton. It would lead us too far to describe all the different customs and usages which the schools preserved for centuries, even long after their original meaning had disap¬ peared. Many of them were barbarous sports, such as cock fights,3 throwing stones at the head of a live cock buried to the neck in the ground,4 the sheep chase at Eton,5 the badger hunt at Winchester, and the like. Others, like the “challenge” at West¬ minster,6 which is a trial of knowledge or eloquence by alternate speakers, date back to the monkish disputations of the Middle Ages. The theatrical exhibitions are noteworthy. They were especially favored by Queen Elizabeth, who expressly directed that the plays of Terence should be acted at Westminster schools in order that the young men might better acquire an easy appearance and a good delivery and pronunciation. Plautus was also acted, and more rarely English dramas, e. g., the “ Cleomenes” of Dryden, which was acted in 1695. 7 The scholars of Merchant Taylors’ School acted before Elizabeth several times, once on March 18, 1573-74, when the head master, Richard Mulcaster, received 20 marks, besides 20 marks for his board, and again on March 11, 1575-76, when the same teacher received £10.8 So at Eton, where the first English comedy, “Ralph Royster Doyster,” was produced, theatrical exhibitions, mostly of Latin plays, were given for a long time. This feature fell in with the English custom of the period by which boys acted the part of women on the stage. ttt Ixx. THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOUNDATIONS, OR SO-CALLED “PUBLIC SCHOOLS,” UNTIL THE BEGINNING OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. The history of the development of secondary schools in England, from the middle of the seventeenth to the beginning of the present century, does not present a grati¬ fying picture. The aristocracy, which came into power after the revolution of 1688, 1 Blackwood, vol. 100, p. 64. In the Spectator, No. 329, Sir Roger de Coverley cries out, before the tombstone of Dr. Busby: “Dr. Busby! a great man! he whipped my grandfather; a very great man! I should have gone to him myself if I had not been a blockhead; a very great man!” Udall and Malim at Eton, Mulcaster at Merchant Taylors’ school, and others, all whipped in the same way. 2 See Malim, Consuetudinai'ium, in Maxwell Lyte, p. 452. The custom did not begin, as Zimmermann (p. 105) thinks, in the eighteenth century. Disraeli describes a “montem” in Coningsby, Vol. I, ch. 2. 3 The teachers derived an income from this sport, the scholars being compelled to purchase permis¬ sion to witness it by paying the so-called cock-pennies. (Zimmermann, p. 46, f.). 4 Id. and Maxwell Lyte, p. 149. 5 Id., p. 283. c Howard Staunton, p. 135, f. 7 Id., p. 128, f. 3 Id., p. 243 56 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. not only did not increase the inheritance which the enthusiasm of the renaissance and of the Reformation had transmitted to the English people, but even dissipated it. The founding of new schools almost entirely ceased with the beginning of the sev¬ enteenth century. In the following century and a half there was scarcely one new institution which could be reckoned among the “ great public schools. ” 1 Moreover, the existing schools became transformed from educational institutions for the people into exclusively aristocratic nurseries by making the blessing of free education illusory and closing the schools to the poor. In Eton, for example, the weekly board of a free scholar was put at lOd. by the statutes, the same statutes giving an annual income of £10 to a fellow, the teachers receiving a corresponding amount. When the income of Eton became greatly increased through the rise in value of property while the purchasing power of money declined correspondingly, the school authorities held to the letter of the statutes but managed to avail themselves, not always in the most honorable way, of the increased income of the institution.2 Other statutes, such as those forbidding the holding of curacies with the cure of souls, were often disobeyed.3 And yet the statutes declare4 that they ‘‘are to be taken in their simple grammatical sense. The provost, fellows,, and scholars shall solemnly swear that they will not accept any dispensation there¬ from. If anyone, at the instance of the old serpent, shall endeavor to invalidate the statutes, he shall be deemed guilty of perjury.” But why should one who is in the enjoyment of a good income trouble himself about the wording of mouldering parch¬ ments? At Winchester the head of the school early diverted a great portion of its income to himself. In 1636 Archbishop Laud, after a visit to the institution, issued an order against this proceeding,5 but, as it appears, without permanent result. In 1710 a complaint of the subwarden and bursar against the warden declares that so little care was taken of the scholars that they had become a burden to their friends,, and that, while the college was willing to make better provision for them, the warden demanded so much that the income of the institution was not sufficient to meet both requirements, the warden appropriating more for his own use than all the seventy scholars together. The teachers, who also received nothing of the increased income, helped themselves in other ways. By the statutes of Winchester they were expressly forbidden to exact, ask, or claim any pay whatever for instruction, either from the free scholars, their parents, or their friends. Nevertheless £10 was charged in the scholars’ accounts for masters’ gratuities, with the saving clause, “if allowed,” inserted to quiet the conscience of the recipient. This irregularity was suppressed by Dr. Goddard, head master from 1793 to 1810, who bequeathed £25,000 to the college for the benefit cff the teachers. Very similar conditions in this respect existed at Eton also.6 Harrow and Rugby were designed at first, as already remarked, to be schools for children of the inhabitants of the neighborhood, but when they had become wealthy and famous, on account of their situation and other circumstances, the village c.hil- 1 Whitaker’s Almanac enumerates 55 great public schools. Of these none were founded between the establishment of the Bradford Grammar School, 1662, and Haleybury College, 1806. 2 One way in which this was done was as follows: In renewing the leases the provost and fellows of Eton made the tenants pay large sums, which represented the increased value of the rent, and they divided this money among themselves. In the twenty years preceding 1862, £127,700 were received in this way. (Howard Staunton, p. 12.) 3 In taking the oath the fellow simply said when he came to this command: ‘‘ I can not keep this,” or, ‘‘I beg to pass over this,” and believed in this way to save himself. (Contemporary Review, vol.. 4, p. 153). 4 Maxwell Lyte, p. 500. 5 Kirby, p. 320 if. 0 At Eton every colleger was compelled to pay the head master £6. Dr. Hawtrey (1834-1853) was the first to renounce this sum, which was devoted to adding a new wing to the college. (Maxwell Lyte, p. 421.) ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 57 dren were excluded from them, while the requirements of the statutes were complied with by parents removing to Harrow or Rugby in order to obtain cheaper instruction for their children. 1 The provision that only poor children should have an entirety or partly free education is to-day explained in all these schools as applying to the property of the children themselves and not to that of their parents. When we further consider what was provided for the free scholars for whom the- institutions were founded a sad picture is presented to us. As early as 1635 it was said of Eton scholars on the occasion of a disturbance: “They have been deprived of breakfast, clothing, bedding, and even the barest necessaries, which the statutes accord them abundantly, and have been compelled to be content with scanty food of bad quality and a coarse short gown, whilst the revenue of the college has been divided amongst a few individuals.” 2 I have already spoken of the sleeping rooms provided for the scholars. They were not only not improved, but were left as they were — without furniture and with broken windows ; in short, in a lamentable condition. In these bare rooms the boys were left to themselves without the slightest supervision from 8 o’clock in the evening until the next morning.3 The food was altogether insufficient. There was no breakfast, as that meal had not been provided for in the statutes. 4 The dinner at noon was without variety and was often insufficient, so that the smaller boys had to content themselves with the bones left by the others;5 there was no tea, and supper was also a very scanty meal, consisting usually of a kind of gruel.6 Then there were fasts and half-fast days, which were strictly observed even long after the Reformation. Sydney Smith, who was at Winchester, says of his life there that the whole system was one of misdirected economy, neglect, and vice, and the small boys had to manage as best they could.6 Under such circumstances a liberal education was out of the question. Most of the boys had private rooms in boarding houses, where they breakfasted and made up for the insufficient nourishment provided by the school. “ Boys whose parents were not in a condition to pay for a private room had to endure privations which a cabin boy could not have borne, and which it would have been considered inhuman to inflict upon galley slaves.” 7 For this reason, “free” education cost £60 a year at Win¬ chester at the end of the last century, and £80 at Eton, and it was about the same at other schools. It is therefore easy to understand that the free scholarships were not 1 Dr. Vaughan, head master of Harrow from 1845 to 1859, established a day school for the village children, at which the instruction cost only £5 a year, and which is connected with the public schools. The same was done at Rugby. 2 Maxwell Lyte, p. 231. 3 “ If the menial services enforced were incompatible with the position and unfavorable to the training of a gentleman, the want of privacy was quite as injurious to the moral feelings. A boy who passed unscathed the ordeal of a colleger's life must have been gifted in no common degree with purity of mind and strength of will.” (Maxwell Lyte, p. 418.) 4 “ But, as at Eton, there was no special ordinance about breakfast, that meal being a less formal one amongst all classes in old times than in the present ... no breakfast at all was provided for the King’s scholars at Westminster for many generations up to the year 1846.” (Blackwood, vol. 100* p. 318.) 5 The following epigram was written at Westminster: Carnem prima vorat classis sine jure; Secunda Jus omne; omne sibi Tertia sumit olus. Interea mensse qui accumbit Junior imse Vix aura infelix vescitur tetherea. [The first class devours meat without soup; the second eats the soup; the third finishes the vege tables. Meanwhile the juniors at the bottom of the table must live on air.] (Idem.) e Winchester College, by Old Wykehamists, p. 88. 7 Maxwell Lyte, p. 419. 58 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. coveted. In 1840 only 35 of the 70 at Eton were filled.1 It is only since that period that a gradual and thorough improvement has taken place.2 As to the admission to the advantages of the foundation schools — the free scholar¬ ships in the schools, foundations at Oxford and Cambridge, stipends, and fellow¬ ships — a system of patronage and favoritism in appointments prevailed throughout. To be sure, there was generally an examination, but it was simply a form or a farce. At Winchester the free scholars were required by the statutes to know singing (in piano cantu competenter instructos). Consequently scholars who had received appoint¬ ments to foundations were asked whether they could sing, to which they responded, as previously instructed, by singing the line: “All people that on earth do well,” with which the examiner declared himself satisfied.3 If a scholar at Westminster wished to be elected to the coliege or the university he was absolutely compelled to have or to gain a friend among the seven electors. “ There was no dissimulation or secrecy about it; appointments were sought and promised as an entirely natural thing.”4 Foundations at Eton were much sought in the last century because they were usually followed by foundations at Cambridge and fellowships, i. e., places for life. We therefore read that the provost used to receive letters of recommendation from influential persons, and even from the King himself, on the eve of every elec¬ tion, and that ministers obtained these valuable sinecures for their brothers and cousins.5 Such places were handed down in families, so that many families regarded foundations in Eton and fellowships in Cambridge almost as a birthright.6 That state of things lasted until nearly the middle of our century, when it was abolished, and real examinations, open to all, took the place of nominations and sham exam¬ inations. The number of teachers in the schools was entirely insufficient until the beginning of this century. In 1651 Westminster had only 3 teachers for 300 scholars; at Win¬ chester, under Dr. Warton (1766-1793), there were also only 3 teachers, the scholars, to be sure, numbering only 157, and when Dr. Keate came to Eton as head master in 1809 he found 9 teachers to 570 scholars. There were classes of 170 and even 198 scholars.7. Under such circumstances discipline suffered in the greatest degree. It was difficult for the head masters to keep the wild boys in order with so little help. Therefore the annals of the schools are full of rebellions in which the scholars left school in a body, and they sometimes even came to blows with their teachers. These rebellions generally ended with the flogging or dismissal of the guilty ones.8 The traditional means of punishment remains the same in the English public schools to-day as in the time of Colet and Busby, and consists in chastisement with the rod or whip, which is administered by the head master or the second teacher. At Eton no boy was regarded as properly initiated who had not knelt thrice at the celebrated block and there felt the rod. The head masters were extraordinary per- 1 Contemporary Review, vol. 4, p. 149 ff. 2 To-day the commissariat of the public schools is notable, and the expense for free scholars is rela¬ tively small. At Eton, Winchester, Westminster, and Charterhouse they need pay nothing. At Har¬ row, Rugby, Shrewsbury, and St. Paul’s their tuition fees are remitted, or in part. 3 See Charles Wordsworth, p. 218 ff. 4 Blackwood, vol. 100, p. 324. At Merchant Taylors’ and St. Paul’s schools the nominations lay entirely in the hands of the trustees. 5 Maxwell Lytc, p. 224, 209 f. At Winchester the Crown long assumed the right to appoint scholars. Charles II, for example, appointed two or three boys every year; but this system of royal letters ceased in 1726, when the electors were put upon oath to choose the worthiest. 0 Maxwell Lyte, p. 308. 7 Maxwell Lyte, p. 368 f. “ Dr. Keate found himself the sole teacher in a school of about 170 boys, and the number continued to increase. Mr. Edward Coleridge remembers being one of 198 boys in the head master’s division, and, as we might expect, he was only called up to construe twice in the course of a half.” 3 At Winchester rebellions took place in the years 1774, 1793, and 1818. At Eton in 1768, 1773, 1798, 1810, 1818, and 1832. In 1818 there were similar rebellions at Harrow, Charterhouse, and Shrews¬ bury. (See Kirby and Maxwell Lyte.) ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 59 formers in thrashing. Dr. Keate, of Eton (1809-1834) , must have been the cham¬ pion. He took a real pleasure in his execution, and on one occasion thrashed eighty- boys, one after the other,1 yet he was loved and respected by his pupils. It was the same at other schools.2 The scholars themselves did not regard bodily chastise¬ ment a3 in any sense a disgrace. In 1818 Dr. Russell, head master of Charterhouse, wished to introduce fines in place of the rod. The scholars looked upon this penalty as unworthy of gentlemen, and requested that the rod might be reintroduced. Dr. Russell yielded, and the following morning a bundle of birch rods stood in the school, while he was busied with their use for two hours.3 4 Men were of the same opinion as the boys in regard to whipping. Dr. Samuel Johnson had attended the school at Lichfield, the teacher of which, one Mr. Hunter, used to thrash the boys unmercifully and often unreasonably. Nevertheless Johnson remarked to Boswell upon his school experience: “My teachers whipped me well, otherwise nothing could have been made of me.” And on another occasion he expressed himself as follows: “I would much rather that the rod should be a general terror to all, to make them learn than that one should say to a child, ‘ if you do thus or thus, you will be more esteemed than your brothers.’ The rod produces an effect which ends in itself. A child fears a whipping and does his task, and there the matter ends, whereas by exciting competition and a comparison of superiority the foundation of lasting mischief is laid, and even brothers may be brought to hate one another.”1 Other writers, on the other hand, such as Steele and Smollett, condemned flogging in the sharpest terms as barbarous.5 Dr. Arnold upheld bodily punishment in principle, “since it is adapted to the natural subordination of the boy’s age and emphasizes it, and can not, therefore, be especially humiliating for persons of that condition;” but he would restrict it to moral transgressions, and seek to encourage the boys to rise above the naturally low tone of such a punishment.6 Nothing has been so often described and deplored as the misuse of the fagging system. This system was the supplement of the monitorial or prefect system, i. e., of the government of the boys by themselves. Inasmuch as the boys of the highest class undertook certain duties and responsibilities they had a right to the service of the smaller boys. The system, as already remarked, was introduced by Bishop Wykeham, and was initiated in all the other schools, especially, indeed, because their narrow means at first forbade them to pay servants, and later, when they became richer, because the authorities appropriated the income. What was a dis¬ cipline of manliness for youth under proper supervision degenerated into tyranny without it. The shadowy side of the system appears most sharply defined in the eighteenth century. The condition of the foundation scholars was the worst, because, as before observed, they slept together in great chambers with no supervision; the commoners were a little better off. Long descriptions of the sufferings of a fag are given by all writers who have described life at the public schools. At Winchester a small boy in this position had to endure slavery of the worst kind. He had to 1 Maxwell Lyte, p. 372 ff.: Many anecdotes are told of this original, some of which, to be sure, are only good inventions. He is said to have commented as follows: “Blessed are the pure in heart! Mind that; it’s your duty to be pure in heart. If you are not pure in heart I’ll flog you.” 2 See Blackwood, vols. 91 and 100; also Winchester, by Old Wykehamists. 3Zimmermann, p. 84. 4 Boswell’s Johnson, Malone’s ed., 1821, I, 18; II, 233, 236. Also, Johnson and Boswell defended a Scotch teacher who had been dismissed for cruelty. 5 Spectator, No. 168, where it is said of Eton: “Many a white and tender hand which the fond mother had passionately kissed a thousand and a thousand times have I seen whipped until it was covered with blood; perhaps for smiling, or for going a yard and a half out of a gate, or for writing an 0 for an A or an A for an O. These were our great faults! Many a brave and noble spirit has been there broken, others have run from thence and were never heard of afterwards.” (See also Roderick Random, by Smollett, Ch. II.) 6 Life of Dr. Arnold, by Dean Stanley, p. 114 f. 00 EDUCATION RE POET, 1899-1900. awaken his “masters,” kindle the lire, make coffee or tea, run errands, etc., and moreover had to be an ambulatory “variety store” with an inexhaustible supply of pens, pencils, ink, rubber, and paper, and, in short, he had no rest and found no time for study. He was constantly in fear of cruel bullying, cuffs, kicks, and blows, and his life was one detailed system of martyrdom. There were fags of the first and second classes, so that many boys were at once tormentors and tormented.1 There were the same conditions at Charterhouse,2 Harrow,3 Eton,4 Rugby,5 6 7 and Westminster.0 The scene in Tom Brown’s School Days where little Tom is roasted before the lire is said to have actually taken place at Rugby under Dr. James (1778-1 794). 7 This cruelty of the school youth, however, was in harmony with the general man¬ ners of the time and therefore excited no astonishment. As long as there were from 154 to 160 crimes punishable with death, including the theft of an article worth 5s. from a shop, and as long as 150,000 men in each generation, according to Dr. John¬ son’s calculation, died in prison, people concerned themselves very little about the sufferings of the school youth. And, perhaps, these trials were not always a bad preparation for life for the average boy. On the one hand there was something democratic and advantageous for their future lives in a system which compelled young aristocrats to perform for once in their lives the services of hired servants, and, on the other hand, a legally regulated power like the fag system would or ought to prevent the much more severely felt tyrannical and arbitrary dominion of the stronger over the weaker, a view, however, which was not always realized. Finally, the fagging system seemed to many English pedagogues inseparable from the monitorial or prefect system, which was an object of pride as the characteristic mark of the English public-school system. In fact, the experiences of school life tended to strengthen the character of the average boy if it did not ennoble it, but to tenderer natures it did irreparable injuries. The poet Cowper, who became melancholy and finally insane, was a victim, according to his own avowal, to the rough fagging system at Westminster.8 Nor did the life at Eton exert a good influ¬ ence upon Shelley’s sensitive poetic nature.9 But public institutions are not intended for such exceptional natures. To-day the abuses have been reformed, and a fag’s duties are restricted for the most part to helping on the ball ground, while servants attend to the household work. Battles between scholars and outsiders (barbarians, plebeians, called skies at Westminster — Volskies, from the Volsci who fought against the Romans) have also ceased. They used to occur at Westminster, Eton, and elsewhere.10 The instruction given in these schools remained upon the standpoint of the Renais- 1 Blackwood, 100, p. 317 ff. 2 Id., 96, p. 464. 3 Zimmermann, p. 89. 4 Maxwell Lyte, 337, 397, 417: “New arrivals went by the name of Jews, and had to submit to a ter¬ rible amount of bullying. The custom of tossing them in blankets to the line : Ibis ab excusso, missus ad astra, sago, was given up about the year 1832, in consequence of an accident which nearly proved fatal to the late Rowland Williams.” 5 Blackwood, 62, p. 550: “Warming two or three cold beds by one’s own natural caloric was not a pleasant process, neither was running 2 miles and back at 4 o’clock in the morning to take up the night lines which the praepostor had set in the evening the best preparation for first lesson at 7. Blacking shoes, cleaning knives and forks, and carrying up the water from the pump to the dormitory would be thought hard measure by a schoolhouse fag of the present day.” 6 Kirby, p. 406 f.: Where a case of tyranny is described by the victim in a letter to his father, the latter’s letter to Dr. Warton is given, together with an investigation and consequent dismissal of the boy. 7 Tom Brown’s School Days, ch. 8. 8 See the Tirocinium. “The rude will scuffle through with ease enough, great schools suit but the sturdy and the rough.” o Lord Chatham said the same to Lord Shelburne. “ That he scarce observed a boy who was not cowed for life at Eton; that a public school might suit a boy of turbulent, forward disposition, but would not do where there was any gentleness.” (Maxwell Lyte, p.349; id., p. 397-398.) io Blackwood, 100 p., 307 f . ; Maxwell Lyte, p.336; see also Dickens, David Copperiield, Ch. XVIII. ENGLISH SECOND ABY SCHOOLS FOE BOYS. 61 sance during the whole of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the early part of the nineteenth. Classical studies had absolute sway. All the acquirements of the human mind in mathematics and the natural sciences, the whole modern world with its different languages, literatures, and history, even English literature and history, remained a terra incognita at the nurseries of the English aristocracy. At Eton in the last century the younger boys learned a little writing and arithmetic on holidays; those of the fifth class studied a little geography, according, however, to Pomponius Mela, Cornelius Nepos, and Cellarius, and those who stayed long enough took a little Euclid.1 Even at the beginning of this century the writing master at Eton also gave instruction in mathematics, but his position was inferior to those of the other teachers in authority and dignity.2 At Eton the scholars slept late Sunday morning, and at 2 or 3 o’clock in the after¬ noon attended a singular harangue called “prose,” which consisted in the reading of a book (Blair’s Sermons or a pagan writer like Epictetus), during which they made a frightful noise, so that the ceremony was a standing cause of offense to the teachers and was certainly not edifying to the scholars.2 Similar conditions existed at Winchester, Harrow, and other schools.2 Even in the classical studies, which held the field alone, the performances were quite insignificant. The so-called Eton grammars, which were the old Lily’s and Camden’s grammars deteriorated, were used as text-books, besides very defective chrestomathies of Latin and Greek poets and prose writers.3 The works of Horner, Virgil, and Horace wTere completely read, but the instruction was rather external, and there was no thought of entering into the classical spirit and culture. The boys “construed,” as it was called, learned by heart, and made verses, and they became very skillful in preparing Latin and Greek verses. A false quantity or an inaccurate quotation in a speech in Parliament was immediately pounced upon. Dating from the last century, instruction at Eton, and afterwards at most of the other public schools, was not given by the teachers in the school, but privately by tutors. Only recitations were heard in the school, while the lessons were prepared under the supervision of a tutor, who was usually also a teacher at the school and keeper of a boarding house for his pupils. This system, the so-called tutorial system, which is now common to all the public schools, arose from circum¬ stances. With the large classes and the custom of teaching in one room, which was usually sufficiently noisy, any effective instruction, in our sense, was hardly possible. The custom of private instruction, too, was in keeping with the aristocratic charac¬ ter of the school, and was moreover profitable to the teachers. Pupils of rank or wealth would even bring their private tutors to the school with them, who had had charge of their studies.4 The system is naturally very expensive and induces lazy scholars to become dependent, while it gives opportunity to industrious and aspiring ones, under the guidance of a capable teacher, of exceeding the limits of the school curriculum. In this connection a letter of the late Bishop Wordsworth, while a scholar at Harrow, to his brother Christopher (Feb. 13, 1824), is very inter¬ esting. o 1 Maxwell Lyte, p. 319. 2 Id., p. 371 f. 3 There was in particular a collection of extracts to be committed to memory called Epigrammatum Delectus, besides collections under the titles Scriptores Romani et Greeci; Poetse Greed; Selecta ex Ovidio, Tibullo, et Propertio; Pentalogia of Dr. Burton (five Greek dramas, mostly in extracts). Maxwell Lyte says of the Poetse Greeci that it was “ a book then very meagre and insufficient;” of the Scriptores Greeci, “ a wretched compilation;” of the Scriptores Romani, “ an odd but interesting com¬ pilation, bearing, up to the last edition, the impress of a mind which contemplated not merely ele¬ gant scholarship, but the training of young men for a Parliamentary career, for it contained a good deal of fine, hard Latin about oratory and public virtue, and, though it was wofully inadequate as a thread of beads to illustrate Roman history, it betokened a lofty purpose corresponding to Lord Chatham’s ideas, and it was a great relief to the intellect.” (Maxwell Lyte, p. 364 f.) 4 Peregrine Pickle brings his tutor to Winchester with him. (Smollett, Peregrine Pickle, Ch. XV.) 62 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. “It is now,” he writes, “Saturday evening, and I have finished the busiest week of my life. I have done 120 Latin hexameters (subject, a bull fight), a Latin exer¬ cise (50 lines), a translation (lyric verses, 19 strophes), besides construing and learn¬ ing by heart 30 lines of Juvenal every day. The boys are determined to work hard this quarter. Some do six or seven chapters of Thucydides, others Herodotus, others Greek drama, besides Juvenal, Livy, Tacitus, etc., every day extra. Some have ascended so far into the clouds that they read Aristophanes, and always the Nubcs, on account of the jokes.” 1 Another time he writes his brother triumphantly that he has read two Greek dramas and learned by heart a section of Virgil’s Georgies in one quarter.2 In fact, boys who wanted to learn found ample opportunity at their school, but the majority learned very little. Eton was the worst in this respect.3 And the teachers only gave attention to the gifted scholars, who would take prizes and scholarships at Oxford or Cambridge and bring credit to the school, while they allowed the mediocre and dull to go their own way.4 The time given to teaching had been much curtailed since the sixteenth century, while that allotted to sports had correspondingly increased. In summer little work was done, on account of cricket, but in winter those who were so disposed worked somewhat harder.5 The number of holidays had greatly increased. Tuesday was a holiday at Eton; so was Thursday afternoon and Saturday after 4 o’clock, and there was only four hours’ teaching on the other days.6 To these must be added the great number of religious holidays and those devoted to games. It was not, therefore, simply a consequence of the laissez-fcdre theory when Adam Smith, discussing in his Wealth of Nations7 the question whether public foundations are beneficial to education, decides in the negative for the universities and secondary schools. He is rather of the opinion that they lessen more or less the necessity of industry and individual effort on the part of the teachers and therefore pervert the schools and universities. He therefore deems that it would be better if teaching were left to free competition, and would only allow a small subsidy from the state for the elementary schools. But that, with all their faults, the public schools have had great merits, is shown by the long line of great statesmen, generals, parliamentarians, poets, and men of learning who have come from them. It is shown in a much clearer way by the tes¬ timony of these great men themselves and their attachment to the scenes of their early studies. Poets like Gray8 and Byron9 have celebrated their schools. Wel- 1 Charles Wordsworth, p. 19. 2 Id. Letter of Mar. 21, 1825. 3 Maxwell Lyte, p. 318. See, also, the Contemporary Review, 111, p. 557 ff: “ If a boy of parts chooses to work at Eton, Eton will do him justice, and he will do Eton justice. * * * We fear, however, that we must own that these brilliant specimens are, when compared with the numbers of the school, rarte aves. The characteristic which popular opinion attributes to Eton is, alas ! inveterate idleness, an utter want of any obligation to work, the utter fruitlessness of years of nominal education; and popular opinion scarcely goes beyond the truth of the matter. It is a melancholy fact that most boys leave Eton ignorant of the very elements of what they have been learning for periods varying from three to six years.” 4 Zimmermann, p. 76. 5 Ch. Wordsworth, p. 19. 0 Maxwell Lyte, p. 312. 7 Book V, Ch. II, Part III, art. 3. 8 Gray sings in the Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College: Ah, happy hills ! ah, pleasing shade ! Ah, fields belov’d in vain ! Where once my careless childhood stray’d, A stranger j'et to pain ! 9 Byron, Hours of Idleness: The Tear: i Sweet scene of my youth, Seat of friendship and truth, Where love chased each fast-fleeting year. Loth to leave thee I mourn’d, For a last look I turn’d, But thy spire was scarce seen through a tear. ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 63 lington,1 according to the well-known story, declared that the playground of Eton was the place where Waterloo was won, and the renowned statesman Canning, also an Etonian, expressed himself as follows upon the value of the public schools: “ Strangers often ask by what means an uninterrupted succession of men, qualified more or less eminently for the performance of parliamentary and official duties, is secured. First, I answer (with the prejudices perhaps of Eton and Oxford) that we owe it to our system of public schools and universities. From these institutions is derived (in the language of the prayer of our collegiate churches) ‘a due supply of men fitted to serve their country in church and state.’ It is in her public schools and universities that the youth of England are, by a discipline which shallow judg¬ ments have sometimes determined to undervalue, prepared for the duties of public life. There are rare and splendid exceptions to be sure, but in my conscience I believe that England would not be what she is without her system of public educa¬ tion, and that no other country can become what England is without the advantage of such a system.” 2 In these words the principal merit of the public schools is well expressed; it con¬ sists not in the training of the intellect, but of its character. The system of self- government by the scholars, the esprit de corps which, as Bishop Wykeham long ago intended, outlasts the school and makes ties for life, the "open-air sports, ail these are calculated to train the scholars to be free citizens, to inspire them with courage and independence, and produce in them self-restraint and the feeling of responsibility to the State and society. With all their roughness and abuses the English schools, unlike the German, never lost sight of the proper object of school education, which is to lead the boys not to knowledge but conduct, and they preserved, even in times of their worst degeneracy, a wide path and held themselves free from pedantic one¬ sidedness.3 Indeed, even the restriction of teaching to the classics and verse making had its advantages from the point of view of character building, because it kept the young fellows from superficiality and conceit, and those studies are always good mental gymnastics. Especially were the schools nurseries of the national spirit, and 1 To the foregoing verses of Gray and Byron ought certainly to be added the following lines by the Duke of Wellington. To those who read these beautiful and feeling verses for the first time they will be a revelation of an unsuspected side of the character of the great warrior. It was by his own express desire that he was buried at Eton, and he composed these lines for his epitaph: “ Fortunse rerumque vagis exercitus undis, In gremium redeo serus, Etona, tuurn. Magna sequi, et summae minari culmina famse, Et purum antiques lucis adire jubar, Auspice te didice puer, atque in limine vitse Ingenuas verse laudis amare vias. Si qua meum vitse decursu gloria nomen Auxerit, aut si quis nobilitarit honos, Muneris Alma tui est. Alirix da terra sepulchrum, Supremam lacrymam da memoremque mei.” These lines have been translated into English verse more than once, the most graceful rendering of them being that given by another eminent Etonian, who, like the Marquis Wellesley, was at once a scholar and a statesman, the late Earl of Derby: Long tost on fortune's waves, I come to rest, Eton, once more on thy maternal breast. On loftiest deeds to fix the aspiring gaze, To seek the purer lights of ancient days, To love the simple paths of manly truth — These were thy lessons to my opening youth. If on my later life some glory shine, Some honors grace my name, the meed is thine. My boyhood’s nurse, my aged dust receive, And one last tear of kind remembrance give! ” (Maxwell Lyte, p.449.) Tr. 2 Maxwell Lyte, p. 349. 3 This explains the admiration which is extorted from German observers (see Ernst. Gottfr. Fischer, and particularly L. Wiese); the latter says: “In knowledge our secondary schools are far ahead of the English, but their education is more practical because it gives a better preparation for life.” 64 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. as such an effective antidote to the powerful modern centrifugal tendencies which would effect the atomizing of society. The only real aristocracy of modern times has come out of them — an aristocracy which was as selfish as it was proud, and as obstinate for its own privileges as it was liberal minded for the greatness of its country, which made England great abroad but neglected her at home. Characters like the Duke of Marlborough, Sir Robert Walpole, and Warren Hastings might stand, both in their brilliant virtues and their great defects, as characteristic products of the old aristocratic schools. IV. THE PRIVATE SCHOOLS. Although the endowed schools, the largest and best of which — the so-called public schools — had been unjustly appropriated by the aristocracy, had always maintained a certain intellectual elevation, the education of the middle classes, to say nothing of the lower, was in a lamentable condition. On this point authentic information is of course wanting, but instead we have credible witnesses among contemporary observers. Oliver Goldsmith, who was himself for some time an usher at a private school, draws a not very favorable picture of the masters of most boarding schools of the kind. “Is any man unfit for any of the professions,” he says, “he finds his last resource in setting up school. Do any become bankrupts in trade, they still set up a boarding school, and drive a trade this way, when all others fail; nay, I have been told of butchers and barbers who have turned schoolmasters; and, more sur¬ prising still, made fortunes in their new professions.” 1 And how lamentable was the position of the usher. “ He is generally some poor needy animal, little superior to a footman either in learning or spirit, invited to his place by an advertisement, and kept there merely from his being of a complying disposition and making the chil¬ dren fond of him.” He is the butt of the whole school and leads a wretched life.2 “1 have been an usher at a boarding school myself,” says his London cousin to George Primrose,3 “and may I die by an anodyne necklace, but I had rather be an underturnkey in Newgate. I was up early and late; I was browbeat by the master, hated for my ugly face by the mistress, worried by the boys within, and never per¬ mitted to stir out to meet civility abroad. But are you sure you are fit for a school? Let me examine you a little. ‘Have you been bred apprentice to the business?’ ‘No.’ Then you won’t do for a school. ‘Can you dress the boys’ hair?’ ‘No.’ Then you won’t do for a school. ‘Have you got a good stomach?’ ‘Yes.’ Then you will by no means do for a school. No, sir; if you are for a genteel, easy profes¬ sion, bind yourself seven years an apprentice to turn a cutler’s wheel, but avoid a school by any means. ’ ’ ’ Smollett, Disraeli, and Dickens have also described such private schools. The head teacher in Peregrine Pickle is an uneducated German quack whose previous occupa¬ tion had been to attend to the corns of the people of quality, and sell rouge, tooth powder, hair dye, elixirs of life and the like, to ladies. He has a competent usher, however, who does the teaching for a wretched pittance.4 On the other hand, Disraeli complains in Vivian Gray (1826) that the principal disadvantage of private schools is that boys are intrusted to the care of the ushers, who are mostly persons of low character, and often veritable blackguards.5 Finally, Dickens has embodied 1 Oliver Goldsmith. The Bee, No. VI, on Education, Nov. 10, 1759. - Oliver Goldsmith. Ibidem. 3 Vicar of Wakefield, chapter 20. 4 Peregrine Pickle, Ch. XII. 5 Vivian Gray, Book I, Ch. IV: “ Certain powers were necessarily delegated to a certain set of beings called ushers. In the necessity of employing this horrible race of human beings consists, in a great measure, the curse of what is called ‘private education.’ Those who, in all the fullness of parental love, guard their offspring from the imagined horrors of a public school, forget that in having recourse to an academy for young gentlemen they are necessarily placing their children under the influence of blackguards.” ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 65 his views of English private schools in the characters of Mr. Squeers, the proprietor of Dotheboys Hall and Nicholas Nickleby’s principal, and of Mr. Creacle, the proprie¬ tor of Salem House, under whom David Copperfielcl received his first unhappy experiences. To be sure, he sketches the better side of the picture in Dr. Strong’s- school at Canterbury. Notwithstanding such exceptions, however, generally speak¬ ing, private education in England up to the middle of the present century was beneath all criticism. PART II. The Century of Reform. I. DR. THOMAS ARNOLD, HEAD MASTER OF RUGBY, AND HIS INFLUENCE. At the opening of the present century, immediately after the end of the great war against Napoleon, a lively reform movement began in all departments of public life- in England. This new spirit was specially active in matters of education. The ap¬ pointment of the charities commission in 1818, for the purpose of examining the administration of endowed schools, the founding of a nonsectarian university at London in 1828, and the grant of the first government aid to elementary schools in 1833, were the first indications of the newly-awakened interest in popular educa¬ tion. Secondary schools were not taken up until much later. But the intervention of the state marks, in a characteristic English fashion, only the conclusion of a long- series of reforms which owed their origin to the initiative of individuals or corpora¬ tions. The labors of Dr. Thomas Arnold, who was head master of Rugby from 1828 to- 1842, were of great importance for the great “ public schools.” Dr. Arnold was a reformer in the noblest sense of the word, a creative reformer, not a merely negative- subverter. His activity as such was exerted in many directions, but particularly as- a religious and historical writer. He was a champion of the more liberal — the so-called broad church — movement in the English church, and a historian who introduced the German researches of Niebuhr into England. His success in education was due to his knowing how to modify the traditional system in accordance with modern requirements and inspire old forms with new life through his own religious and- moral spirit. His character was fundamentally conservative. A deep but not superstitious- reverence for the past and for historical growth guided him in all his measures.1 He was unwilling to introduce anything absolutely new, but chose to develop the old.. “Another system,” he said, “may be better in itself, but I have been appointed to this one and must see what I can make of it.” 2 He therefore retained the monitorial and fagging systems. “He decided to make use of the existing machinery of the sixth class and of fagging, and to improve it as far as possible.”3 Nor would he abolish the right of punishment of the smaller boys by the prsepositors, since he- regarded it as essential for the maintenance of good order.3 His views upon whip- 1 Stanley, Life, I, p. 108 ft’.: “There is,’’ he said, “or there ought to be, something very ennobling? in being connected with an establishment at once ancient and magnificent, Avhere all about us and all the associations belonging to the objects around us should be great, splendid, and elevating. What an individual ought and often does derive from the feeling that he is born of an old and illustrious race, from being familiar from his childhood with the walls and trees which speak of the past no less than of the present, and make both full of images of greatness, this, in an inferior degree, belongs to every member of an ancient and celebrated place of education. In this respect every one cf us has a responsibility imposed upon him, which I wish that we more considered.” This feeling, adds the biographer, dictated the preservation of the old school institutions as far as it was possible, and he- was very careful not to break through any customs which connected the institution, hoAvever slightly, Avith the past. 2Id.,p. 110. ED 1900 0 3 Id., p.117. 6(3 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ping have already been given. On the other hand, he opposed energetically the roughness and barbarity which prevailed at Rugby,1 and exerted himself to infuse a new moral spirit into the school. “What I would like to see in the school, but can not find,” he used to say, “is an abhorrence of evil.” He regarded the spirit of associations and societies among the boys, when directed against lawful authority, as the principal cause of this lack.2 To this spirit he showed no indulgence, and dis¬ missed every scholar who was not a suitable person to be in the school or who exerted a bad influence upon the others. “It is not necessary,” he used to say, “that this should be a school of 300 or 100 or 50 boys, but it is necessary that it should be a school of Christian gentlemen.” 3 Ilis aim was directed first to giving the scholars a religious education. The business of a schoolmaster was to him, like that of the clergyman, the care of souls.4 Therefore he used every means to exert a religious influence upon the boys. He himself gave religious instruction and preached every Sunday in the school chapel, of which he was made rector in 1831 without salary. In these ser¬ mons he gave the boys his best, and made a lasting impression upon even the most hardened. Moreover, he endeavored to elevate the moral tone of the school and to educate the boys, especially the older ones, through wdiom he reached the younger, to a sense of manliness and of responsibility. He treated them like reasonable beings and inspired them with self-respect by showing them respect on his part and by appealing to their sense of honor and their understanding. Above all, he showed confidence in them and taught them to disdain a lie as an act of cowardice. “A gen¬ eral feeling grew,” says Stanley, “that it would be a shame to lie to Arnold, because he always believed what one said.” It was precisely in this connection that his example exerted such a wholesome influence upon the other schools and through them upon society. In teaching he laid the principal stress upon his ability to form character. He felt only contempt for mere intellectual acumen without some great and compre¬ hensive object. The Greek combination of the ape n) yvuvadriKp with the ape rp povdiKp seemed to him an ideal one, and he therefore favored the cultivation of outdoor games. He upheld the classical languages as the foundation of education in the plan of studies. The classical writers seemed to him the best adapted to teach the principles of all political, civil, and church questions with full freedom, attractive eloquence, and deepest wisdom. He therefore treated the classics less from a grammatical- philological than from a historical standpoint. Versifying, 'which he had at first declared to be one of the most useless forms of intellectual trifling, he afterwards came to regard as useful and allowed the custom to stand. He also introduced Latin and Greek grammars in English, but finally returned to the old Latin text, as he believed that the Latin rules made a deeper impression. Meanwhile he yielded to modern requirements sufficiently to introduce for the first time in an English public school modern history, mathematics, and modern lan¬ guages in a limited amount and as subordinate subjects. He contented himself, to be sure, as far as languages were concerned, with a very superficial grammatical acquaintance, and deferred skill in oral use of foreign languages to later life. For the sake of discipline only English masters were employed to teach these languages. Arnold endeavored to live in a friendly relation with his teachers as colleagues. He held regular conferences with them, in which school matters were discussed. He also endeavored to have the boys change their boarding places from the so-called iSee Tom Brown’s School Days, and also Great Public Schools, p. 150 ff. It is there described how the boys, on his arrival, still adhered to their races, hunting, fishing, etc., and how he introduced one reform after another with decision and wisdom. 2 Id. , p. 117. 3 Td, } p. ii3. 4 Id., p. 10G. ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 67 “Dames’ houses” to boarding houses in charge of teachers, as has been the practice at Eton. So, too, following the model of Eton, he introduced the tutorial system into Rugby. Arnold’s influence was unusually great. He aroused strong enthusiasm in his scholars, as the writings of the most distinguished among them, such as his biogra¬ phy by Arthur Stanley, later dean of Westminster, and the story Tom Brown’s Schooldays, by Thomas Hughes, show. His spirit was also seen in the more earnest, and especially the more religious, character of the students who came from Rugby d Particularly stimulating, too, was his example upon a number of distinguished men, who, in turn, influenced their own students. I only mention Dr. Moberly and Charles Words worth, of Winchester; Dr. Vaughan, of Harrow”; and above all, Edward Turing, the reformer of Uppingham School.2 II. THE FOUNDING OF NEW” SCHOOLS. Notwithstanding the progress they had made, the older schools soon sliov/ed that they were no longer sufficient for the demands of modern life. By the peaceful revolution of 1832, the so-called first reform bill, the autocracy of the aristocracy was broken, and the industrial and commercial classes became emancipated politically. There was now a pressure upon the public offices which it had previously ahvays been the privilege of the aristocracy by birth to fill. The old public schools were no longer sufficient, either in .number or character, to' meet the new demands, and the need was felt of newr institutions which, while not dispensing with the advantages of the old, should manifest a less sovereign contempt for practical and useful knowledge, and should adapt themselves, in the plan of studies and subjects taught, more to the requirements of the new period. Thus there began a movement in the thirties and forties for the founding of new great schools, which should be cheaper, and therefore less exclusive, than the older ones. The first of this kind were the King’s College School (1829) and the University College School (1833), in London, which were connected wdth King’s College and University College, and they were followed by the City of London School (1837), which wTas established on an old endowment. In the following decades a great number of schools were opened in all parts of England, some by stock companies and some upon a system whereby anyone could purchase the right, for a certain sum, to send a boy to the school at a reduced rate. These proprietary schools, as they v/ere called, soon overtook the older schools. The most important among them are Cheltenham College (1841) ; Marlborough College, for the sons of clergymen (1843) ;3 Wellington College (1853), intended especially for the sons of dead officers; Lancing College (1848), a specifically Anglican institution, the creation of the corporation of Sts. Mary and Nicholas;4 Rossall School (1844); Hayleybury College (1862) ; 5 Clifton College (1862); Malvern 1 Stanley, p. 186, Letter from Dr. Moberly, head master of "Winchester. 2 Taring raised the old grammar school at Uppingham to the grade of a public school. He has explained his principles in the booh Education and School, Cambridge, 1864. (See, in regard to him, the Contemporary Review, I, p. 80 ff. 3 Cheltenham College was founded upon the proceeds of the sale of stock; Marlborough College upon a system of appointments whereby any one, by the payment of £50, can become a “governor," and ha3 the right to send a boy to the school at a reduced rate. 4 This corporation has also founded Hurstpierpoint School for the middle classes (corresponding to a German realschule), and Ardingly School for the poor (corresponding to a German higher biirger- schule), in connection with Lancing College, in Sussex. It has, besides, established other institutions in other parts of England. 5 Hayleybury College was the preparatory school for officials of the East India Company until that company was1 dissolved. It then ceased its operations and was reestablished as a public school. 68 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. School (1863); Bath College (1876), and others.1 They imitated the older schools in the principles of their education, and used to take their head masters from them. Rugby was especially preferred by the founders of the new schools on account of its reputation, which was then at its height, thanks to the labors of Dr. Arnold.2 They are somewhat cheaper than the older schools. At Marlborough College, where all the boys eat together in a large chamber, the board costs £80, and for sons of clergy¬ men £50. Those living with the teachers pay 100 guineas. At Wellington College board costs £110, and for sons of officers £80; at Clifton College board is £60 to £70; at Malvern College £80 to £90, etc. These are rather high figures, but they are smaller than those for Eton, Harrow, or Rugby. 3 Through the benevolence of friends, these institutions, like the older ones, are endowed with prizes, stipends, and schol¬ arships, and in time they will become endowed schools.4 Besides their cheapness, these schools differed from the older at the start in their plan of study. Together with the ancient languages, provision was made for mathe¬ matics and natural sciences, history, and modern languages in such a way that, together with the ‘ 4 classical side,” corresponding to German gymnasial klassen, a modern side” was organized, corresponding to the German real klassen. The former prepared its students for the university, while the latter fitted them for official and commercial life. In most of these institutions the modern department is less well attended than the classical, and also does not have the best scholars.5 One of its main objects is to prepare for the competitive examinations which were introduced gradually between 1855 and 1870 for entrance into the military and civil service in the colonies and at home,6 and which have replaced the old system of favoritism and appointments by influence, such as was adapted to the nature of a country where caste prevails. Many of them, such as Cheltenham, Clifton, and Marlborough, have special classes for scholars who intend to go to the cadet schools at Woolwich and Sandhurst, or wish to enter the Indian or home civil service. They ought to replace the “crammer,” in whose hands alone the business of preparing for examinations has lain for a long time. But the spirit of the public schools, the spirit of sport and bodily exercises, is still far too strong in these institutions to make it probable that this consumma¬ tion will be reached in any but a limited degree. Many young boys still attend a public school until they are 15 or 16 years old in order to learn the life there, and then intrust themselves to the hands of such a specialist.7 That this condition indicates some defect in the system of examination, or in the schools, or, which is probable, in both, there is no doubt. We will return to this point later. Besides the new public schools, which stood for the higher callings, there arose great institutions with a more commercial-technical course, intended to provide use- 1 According to Whitaker’s Almanac, 21 of the 53 great public schools have been founded since 1820, and only 3 in the period between 1620 and 1820. 2 Great Public Schools, p. 204 f. 3 At Eton the expenses of board and instruction, with incidentals, amount to over £200 (about £30 for free scholars). At Rugby they amount to £150. At Harrow board amounts to £90, and instruction costs £47 18s., but there are many extras. 4 Clifton College, for example, has been independent since 1877, and is incorporated (Leclerc, p. 195). 5Leclerc, p. 92 If. 0 Parliament first decided to introduce examinations for the Indian civil service in 1853, and in 1854 a commission was appointed for preparing a scheme of examination, of which Lord Macaulay was chairman. The first examination urns held in 1855. Soon after similar examinations were introduced for the military schools of Sandhurst and Woolwich, and in 1870 for the English civil service. (Leclcrc, Les professions et la Societe en Angleterre, p. 11C ff.) 7 At Woolwich, in 1888, 112 candidates out of 251 were prepared by “crammers,” nearly all of wdiom had attended a public or grammar school up to their fifteenth or sixteenth year. In 1892 there were only 80 out of 234 who had been prepared in this way. At Sandhurst the share of the “ crammers” was much greater, viz, 201 out of 307 in 1888; 236 out of 361 in 1890; 222 out of 330 in 1892. (Leclerc, p. 114; see also Escott, England, p. 258; Nineteenth Century, November, 1880, Evils of competitive examinations.) ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 69 ful knowledge for the benefit of' the shopkeepers and mechanics, the so-called lower middle class. They are all day schools and the fee varies from £2 to £8 a year. One of the best of these is the Cowper Street Middle Class School, founded by the corporation for middle-class education in the metropolis and the suburbs, and which corresponds nearly to our [i. e. , German] realistic high schools. Instruction is given in English, geometry, mathematics, arithmetic, writing, bookkeeping, chemistry, draw¬ ing, French, physics, singing; and in special classes, which pay a special fee, Latin, German, Hebrew, freehand drawing, and the violin. The fee is 25s. a quarter.1 The old city guilds have established similar schools, and so have city boards or stock companies in the business and industrial centers in Manchester, Birmingham, Liver¬ pool, Leeds, Bristol,2 etc. They differ from the public schools in their utilitarian spirit, which often forgets education in the eagerness to gain knowledge, and with Philistine-like shortsightedness keeps only practical use in view. Aside from these institutions, the most still remains to be done for the education of the lower middle class. For this class private schools still hold their position. III. THE EXAMINATION SYSTEM. Simultaneously with this activity in founding schools began the first attempts at an organization of the school system itself. It was becoming clearer to all that the education of the middle class as well as the lower should no longer be left to the soulless play of demand and supply. Above all things it was important to find some standard of judging the thousands of private schools throughout the country.3 4 On the one hand parents ought to have expert assistance in protecting themselves against the swindling advertisements of the Squeersand Creacles 1 of their “academies” and “high schools,” and on the other it was important to provide means by which meri¬ torious schools could lay proof of their performances before some recognized author¬ ity. Here, too, in a strictly and characteristically English manner, people shrunk from a direct interference of the Government, and the initiative was taken by pri¬ vate individuals and corporations, who adopted the plan of examinations after the model of the elementary schools as the means desired. In 1846 several principals of private schools met and founded the College of the Preceptors, a corporation whose object was to “promote sound learning and advance the interests of educa¬ tion, particularly in the middle classes,” and this object was to be reached by raising the standard of acquirements of the teachers by means of examinations set both for teachers and scholars.5 In 1849 this society was incorporated by royal charter and has exerted an annually increasing influence ever since.6 Its sphere of action is applied specially to the so-called schools of the second grade, i. e., schools which prepare their pupils for active life and graduate them at 15 or 16 years of age. Since 1854 the college has granted titles and diplomas to teachers (as associates, licentiates, and fellows of the College of Preceptors) who have undergone an examination in pedagogics and other branches of science. It examines scholars in semiannual 1 See details in Leclerc, L’ education, p. 119; also Wiese, p. G2. 2 Leclerc, V-IX. 3 According to the report of the Royal Commission of 1894, their number varies between 10,000 and 15,000, but is hard to estimate. 4 Schools like those which Dickens described certainly could not be found now, but the private schools are still often in the hands of utterly unqualified persons, who pay their teachers worse than servants. 5 The statute reads that the society was formed “for the purpose of promoting sound learning and of advancing the interests of education, especially among the middle classes, by affording facilities to the teacher for acquiring a knowledge of his profession, and by providing for the periodical session of a competent board of examiners to ascertain and give certificates of the acquirements and fitness for their office of persons engaged or desiring to be engaged in the education of youth.” 6 Since 1887 it has occupied its own great building in Bloomsbury square. 70 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. examinations, for which it grants certificates, and it also undertakes the visitation of entire schools. Its certificates of the first class — there are three grades or classes — are recognized as sufficient certificates of general education by the Incorporated Law Society and the General Medical Council. The examinations are only in writing and are not too severe. At the most they set questions like those for one-year volunteers in Germany. Since 1873 the college has given lectures on the theory and practice of educa¬ tion, and it lias recently opened a teachers’ seminary in London (Day Training College) for teachers of secondary schools, in which an opportunity for practical exercise in teaching is given. How great its activity is is shown by the fact that 3,233 private schools undergo its examinations. In 1893 it examined 16,872 scholars of all kinds of schools, principally, to be sure, private.1 These examinations have certainly con¬ tributed very much to elevating the character of the teaching in private schools. The universities have performed a no less great service for the reorganization of secondary instruction. In 1857, at the suggestion of Dr. F. Temple, head master of Rugby since 1858, of T. D. Acland, Rev. J. L. Brereton, and Professor Max Muller, so-called middle-class examinations were instituted, first by Oxford and then by Cambridge, which were to be held semiannually in two divisions, one for junior boys (up to 15 years of age) and the other for senior boys (up to 18 years of age) . Permanent corporations were formed at Oxford and Cambridge, called the ‘ ‘ Oxford delegacy” and the ‘‘Cambridge syndicate,” which undertook the examination of schools at a given place at the request and expense of a local committee, sent out printed questions, appointed an examiner, and corrected and passed upon the papers. In this case, too, the examinations were only written. From the outset they have included all departments of knowledge, such as modern languages, natural science, English literature, and modern history. In selecting subjects for examination great freedom is allowed the candidate; only the most elementary knowledge is obligatory.2 For a long time the efforts of the universities met with little acceptance. The title “middle-class examinations,” which has been changed into the colorless name of “local examinations,” frightened away many of the leading schools, the competition of the two universities had a paralyzing effect, and the great schools which gave tone to the whole secondary system held stiffly aloof.3 Then (in 1873) the two university corporations combined to form the Oxford and Cambridge school examination board, commonly called the joint board, whose object was to examine particularly so-called schools of the first class, i. e. , such as send their graduates to the universities and have a public character. From that time on the success of this step of the old universities was assured. London University and the newly founded Victoria University in Manchester adopted a similar course. To-day the famous old schools Eton and Rugby undergo these examinations, as well as Clifton, Marlborough, and many others. These examinations qualify for the study of medicine, law, architecture, technics, veterinary surgery, pharmacy, etc., and dispense with the entrance examination at Oxford — the “responsions.” The universities also undertake the examination of entire schools.4 1 Report of the Royal Commission, p. 51, 58. In 1875 there were 150 scholars and 2,500 examined. (Wiese, II, p. 156.) 2 The following subjects are obligatory for the younger scholars: English (reading, dictation, gram¬ mar, composition) , arithmetic (four rules, decimal system, simple interest) . The candidate must take at least three of the following subjects: Greek, Latin, history, geography, French, mathematics, physics, German, Shakespeare, chemistry, botany, and zoology. For older scholars the following subjects are obligatory: Arithmetic, English, foreign languages, mathematics, and physics. In indi¬ vidual divisions the candidates have the choice between several. Thus, in English they may take history and literature, grammar, geography, national economy. In languages the knowledge of one is sufficient, and in mathematics the candidate is examined either in algebra, or geometry, or mechanics. Examinations are also held in religion, drawing, and music. (Lecierc, p. 282 ff; see also Wiese, II, appendix, p. 357 ff.) -In 1865 Oxford examined 301 scholars for the higher and 920 for the lower grade. Cambridge examined about the same number. 4 Cambridge since 1862, Oxford since 1877. ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 71 Statistics best show what great results the magnanimous intervention of the old, rich, universities has produced in promoting popular education.1 They have, by this descent into the people, by this patriotic labor for the intellectual welfare of men, shown themselves worthy of their famous names and have earned the thanks of their country. It was practical considerations that first led the English Government to interest itself in secondary education. The great industries which sprang up after the beginning of our century needed technically skillful men and draughtsmen, and such were wanting in England because, as all inquiries showed, there were no schools for train¬ ing them. Therefore Parliament in 1830 granted an annual appropriation of £1,500 for a drawing school to be held in Somerset House,, and from this small beginning gradually2 3 grew the science and art department, i. e., a department for science and art in their relation to industrial life, which to-day has a. budget of £745, 470. a The object of this board, which has- its seat at South Kensington and maintains- the great museum there, is to promote the study of practical science and art in the widest sense. This includes geometry, physics, mechanics, chemistry, geology, mineralogy, zoology, botany, machine drawing, banking and finance, bookkeeping, singing by note, instrumental and orchestral music, economics, seamanship, theoretical and practical pedagogics, veterinary surgery, etc. This board has established a number of model institutions, especially for training teachers, in London, but it usually pro¬ ceeds in an indirect way by subventioning schools and classes in which these subjects are taught. The pupils must he children of the “industrial” classes, i. e., sens or daughters of parents whose income does not exceed £400, or, as it now is, £500. There are regular inspections and examinations, and according to the results of these £2 to £8 per head support is paid; the board also pays for regular attendance.4 There are also prizes for scholarships, contributions for buildings, physical apparatus, museums,, etc. The work of the board is very great. According to the forty-third report, in. 1896 5 the number of assisted scholars in the scientific department was 2,673, the number of classes 9-, 545, and the number of students 193,404. In the art department are 19,838 schools with 2,192,253 scholars, mostly elementary, who take drawing. The work of the science and art department has been of great value. As Huxley remarked, it has brought the means of instruction to the doors of factories and work¬ shops.6 But this great energy has its dark side. The science and art department 1'In 1893 Oxford. examined 1,198 older scholars (372 boys and 826 girls), of whom 827 (259 boys and 568 girls) passed, and 2,539 younger scholars (1,505 boys and 1,034 girls), of whom 1,936 (1,117 boys and 816 girls) passed. The same year Cambridge examined 1,825 older scholars (56-1 boys and 1,261 girls), of whom 1,269 (374 boys and 895 girls) passed; 6,992 younger scholars- (4,961 boys and 2,301 girls), of whom 5,118 (3,349 boys and 1,769 girls) passsed. The large proportion of girls is very interesting. Oxford and Cambridge together have examined 147 schools, of which 18 [78] were boys’ and 69 girls’ schools. In 1893 the joint board examined 145 schools partly or wholly, of which 89 were for boys and 57 for girls; and 1,345 out of 2,547 candidates obtained certificates. Report of commission for secondary education, pp. 57, 58. 2 The individual steps of this development are as follows: In 1836 a normal drawing school was established in Somerset House. In 1840 Parliament appropriated £10,000 for the establishment of similar schools in the provinces-. In 1845 the Normal School of Science and in 1851 the Royal School of Mines- were founded. In 1846 a department of practical art was added to the board of trade. In 1853 the science and art department was organized. In 1856 the science and art department of the newly organized department of education was instituted and installed at- South Kensington. (Leelerc, 221 IT., and elsewhere.) 3 The Times, weekly edition, Aug. 14, 1S96. 4 Rep., p. 27: At the day organized science schools £1 is paid for every scholar who attends 250 times a year. At the evening schools 10s. is paid for an attendance of 60 times a year. 5 The Times, weekly edition, Aug. 14, 1896. cCollected Essays, II, No. 16, p. 419 IT., where he also says: “I dare say you.have heard of that pro¬ ceeding, reprobated by all true sportsmen, which is called shooting, for the pot. Well, there is- such a thing as teaching for the pot — not teaching that your scholar may know, but that he may count for payment among those who pass the examination.” 72 EDUCATION REPORT, 1399-1900. was the first (viz, in 1859) to introduce the system of paying according to the results obtained, which soon afterwards prevailed in elementary schools. This system, which has been characterized as “free trade in instruction,” may stimulate the schools, but not in the proper way. It leads to partiality, mechanical finish, and spiritless “cramming.” Many schools live upon the allowances of the board and regulate themselves accordingly. They teach only or principally those subjects which will bring in something, and therefore neglect languages, history, geography, and English, and do not give instruction so much as they prepare individual boys for the examinations, who are consequently overworked and often injured for life.1 Upon the whole, the examination system, which was the normal outcome of the utilitarian Manchester spirit of a former period, has been overdone and has conse¬ quently introduced a feverish restlessness and unmethodical haste into the school system which can not be beneficial to it in the long run.2 In recent years a general conviction has been growing that this condition is an unhealthy one. The more recent directions of the science and art department, in 1894, breathe a freer and more judicious spirit. They include the so-called “literary” subjects, languages, 1 istory, geography, etc., in their scope, partly replace written by oral examinations, and so raise the department to the position of a kind of board for secondary instruction in general. IV. THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMISSIONS AND THEIR RESULTS AND CONSEQUENCES. Parliament first took a hand in the reform of secondary instruction in 1861. Pub¬ lic opinion had long been busy with the abuses which prevailed in the government and conduct of the great endowed schools, and finally, in 1861, a royal commission was appointed, with Lord Clarendon at its head, which investigated the nine great¬ est public schools — the seven boarding schools, Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, Hanover, Rugby, and Shrewsbury, and the two day schools, St. Paul’s and Merchant Taylors’. Marlborough and Wellington colleges were also drawn within the scope of the investigation. The task was not made easy for the commission. The head masters of the old schools, except Rugby and Shrewsbury, declined to allow them to examine the boys or even to attend the lessons. One of them, Hr. Moberlv, of Winchester, expressed his apprehension that such a step would only be the beginning of a, regular Government examination, and he opposed the proceeding from the outset, since he believed it would prove to be the ruin of the school.3 The commission was consequently compelled to seek information by indi¬ rect means. It sent circulars of inquiry to the teachers of the schools, to former scholars, university professors, etc., and later subjected these and other witnesses to a rigid cross-examination. The report of this commission was published in 1864 in four volumes. It exposed the worst abuses in the management of the funds, as well as great one-sidedness in instruction, with very slight performance. The university teachers of Christ Church and Balliol College, Oxford, expressed their opinion of the acquire¬ ments of the graduates, who were sent up to them, as follows : ‘ ‘Only a few can explain properly a passage from Virgil or Homer which they have read before. We never examine them on passages which are new to them, since there would be no use in doing so. Good Latin prose is a very rare thing with them. Perhaps one piece out of four is free from gross errors, but there is never a good style. The answers to simple grammatical questions are very inaccurate.” 4 The conclusion of 1 At a school at Bradford one scholar stood 19 examinations on 19 different subjects in May, 1888, three scholars stood more than 18 examinations, and several more than 16 and 17. The school repu¬ tation is based upon this compulsory Avork of the best scholars. (Leclerc, p. 227.) 2 See on this point Wiese, II, p. 180 IT. 3 Contemporary ReAdew, IV, p. 168. 4 Report of 1864, in Demogeot and Mentucci, p. 172. ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 73 the report is condemnatory of the instruction in the highest degree. It says: “The best scholars have never learned to translate an easy Latin or Greek passage without the help of a dictionary, or to write a composition which is grammatically correct. Nearly all of them know nothing of geography or natural sciences, and little of arithmetic and geometry. They know no language but their own, and they can not write that correctly; and they have not learned either drawing or music. As they have no intellectual cultivation and no desire to learn, and are destitute of the faculty of observation, we can not avoid the conclusion that their education is a fail¬ ure.”1 While the rod was thus broken 2 over the teaching and management of these schools, yet their great educational importance was spoken of with praise. “Among the services,” the report concludes, “which the public schools have rendered, is doubtless to be reckoned the maintenance of classical literature as the foundation of English education, a service which is not outweighed by the mistake of having adhered to them too exclusively. A second and greater is the creation of a system of government and discipline for the boys, the excellence of which has become gen¬ erally recognized, and which has had the most lasting influence upon the character of the people and social life. It is not easy to estimate the degree to which English¬ men owe to these schools the qualities upon which they pride themselves — their power of governing others and ruling themselves, their talent for combining freedom and order, their patriotism, their strength and manliness of character, their deeply imprinted but not slavish respect for public opinion, and their love of healthy sports and bodily exercises. These schools have been the most important nurseries of our statesmen. In them men of the most different stations in life have been educated upon the common ground of social equality, have entered into lasting friendships, and have formed some of the ruling habits of their lives. These public schools have, perhaps, had the greatest part in forming the character of an English gentleman.”3 The commission made general recommendations for the reform of the public schools with particulars applicable to each. By the public schools acts of 1864 and 1S68, that part of these recommendations relating to the external manage¬ ment of the schools became law. Reform in teaching took place gradually of its own accord. Verse making was restricted by ceasing to be a required subject, although it remained as a recommended one. Modern languages, natural history, physics,4 modern history, and English literature were also introduced into the course of study, although the ancient languages retained the leading place. Usually a “modern side” was organized in addition to the “classical side,” and received, it must be confessed, a somewhat stepmotherly treatment. The old schools are still preeminently classical schools and will remain such, at least as long as a knowledge of Greek shall be obligatory at the universities. Lord Clarendon’s commission had illuminated only the highest summits of education which are visible from afar. But in the lower regions which were inhabited by the mass of the citizens in town and country, caprice and anarchy prevailed under cover of darkness as much after the report of the commission was published as before. In order to improve this condition a second commission under Lord Taunton was appointed on December 28, 1864, to make a thorough examination of the whole domain of secondary instruction 1 Report of 1864, in Demogeot and Mentucci, p. 172. 2 The abuses of administration have been mentioned before. 3 Rep. of 1864. How Englishmen regard “public education” to-day is shown in the following notice in the Times (weekly ed., July 10, 1896): “The chief speaker on speech day at Shrewsbury school last week was Professor Jebb, M. P. He said that the English ideal of manliness, in some respects so much higher than that recognized abroad, was largely a product of public-school training. The cessation of duelling, the decrease of intemperance among the upper classes, and the philosophic work carried on in our great cities were all instances of the development of this ideal.” 4 In 1869 Huxley said (Essays, III, p. 112): “I say it with gratitude and respect for these eminent persons that the head masters of our public schools, Eton, Harrow, and Winchester have addressed themselves to the problem of introducing instruction in physical science among the studies of these great educational bodies with much honesty of purpose and enlightenment of understanding.” 74 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. and compare it with that of other countries. This School Inquiry Commission, as it was called, which was composed of a number of distinguished men,1 published the results of its labors in twenty volumes in December, 1867, and they form a veritable mine for the historian of culture. The commission found that the great majority of endowed schools had degenerated for want of sufficient funds;2 that the education they gave was defective and was very unequally distributed over the country.3 The private schools, in which four-fifths of the children received their education, were still worse. With some praiseworthy exceptions, swindling, sham, and arbitrariness prevailed in them. “The majority of the private schools are as bad as they can be,”4 said the commission. The newly founded proprietary schools were still too few, although ably conducted, to fill the gap in the educational system. Upon the whole, secondary education in England, in 1867, was (1) insufficient in quantity, (2) mediocre in quality, and (3) without any organic connection with the universities on the one hand and the elementary schools on the other. The condition appeared to the commission to he an injustice to all efficient schools and teachers and a disgrace to the country.5 It was no wonder, therefore, that the education of the lower classes in England stood at a lower level than in other countries, especially Scotland and Prussia, whose systems of instruction appeared to the commission in many respects worthy of imita¬ tion. This state of things- it was clear would have to he improved or England would sink to a second-rate power — a kind of greater Holland — in spite of her wealth and energy. The commission, therefore, proposed a number of reforms, which affected partly the management of the income, partly the course of study, and, finally, partly the uniform regulation of the entire secondary school system, including the non- endowed schools. Of their recommendations, which it would be of no interest to discuss in detail now, since another commission has gone over the same ground, only a very small part— -that relating to endowed schools — was embodied in a law by the endo wed-schools acts of 1869, 1873, and 1874. The endowed schools were, with certain exceptions, placed in charge of a commission styled the Endowed Schools Commission,6 * which was united in 1874 with the Charities Commission, and the business of this combined commission was to prepare reforms for the individual endowed schools, upon the final acceptance of which the committee of council on education was to decide. Up to 1894 this commission had worked out and carried through reforms for 902 of the 1,448 schools in its charged Its work has been very successful. It has, above all, done away with the monopoly of the Established Church over the endowed schools and opened them to dissenters of all denominations. The question of religion, which has been such an obstruction to the development of elementary schools, no longer exists for secondary schools. Most of them give undenominational religious instruction, which is ordinarily attended by all the scholars voluntarily,8 although anyone can be excused. But the work of the commission is 1 Dr. Temple, head master of Rugby, made bishop of London in 1885 and archbishop of Canterbury in 1896; Sir Thomas Acland, Sir James Bryce, Lord Roseberry, afterwards prime minister, Matthew Arnold, the son of Dr. Thomas Arnold, and a celebrated critic and poet, Fitch, Fearon, and others. 2 While Christ’s Hospital had nearly £5,000, 7 schools more than £2,000 each, 13 more than £1,000, 55 at least £500, and 220 at least £100, the income of the great majority (more than 2,400) was under £100 each. 3 Lancashire had £9,000 endowment and Cornwall only £400. Of 532' cities 228 had no endowment schools. The entire income of the endowed schools, if equally distributed over the country, would not amount to more than £1 per head of the boys who attend secondary schools. (Rep., pp.283, 434.) 4 Of 255,000 children 200,000 attended private schools. 0 See Matthew Arnold in Ward’s Reign of Queen Victoria, II, 270 ff, where he remarks: ” The reason why no effective remedy is applied to this- serious evil is simply . . . because the upper classes amongst us do not want to be disturbed in their preponderance, or the middle classes in their vulgarity.” 6 The exceptions were the seven great boarding schools, besides all endowed schools which were founded after 1819, fifty years before the passage of the law. (Rep. of 1394, p. 24. ) “Id., p. S and p. 25. 8 Leelerc, p. 212, ff. ; Wiese, II, p. 254, ff. ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOE BOYS. too cumbersome and slow to expect from it a regeneration of secondary instruction. Its plans of reform for the most part only touch the outer side of the schools, and its projects are not uniform and systematic. A single committee on education at the head of local or provincial boards, as the commission proposed, would have been of assistance, but none such was created. After the efforts which Parliament made, as expressed in the laws above mentioned, the subject rested again for two decades. It is a disadvantage of parliamentary government that questions of public welfare, however urgent they may be, are easily set aside by others of much less importance which are party questions and therefore appeal to the passions. FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS (1870-1 S94). However, the last decades have not been fruitless for the cause of secondary edu¬ cation. On the contrary, the seed which was sown at the earlier period lias devel¬ oped, and the foundations have been laid for a flourishing organization of secondary instruction. Such a foundation, and in a certain way a model one, was the regulation of ele¬ mentary instruction provided by the laws of 1870 and 1876, of which Mr. W. E. Forster was the originator. The newly organized school boards even reach the sec¬ ondary schools directly through the higher grade elementary schools which they have organized. These schools exist especially in the cities.1 Their instruction is mostly, if not exclusively, confined to scientific and technical branches, and they are consequently under the science and art department, upon which they are also finan¬ cially dependent.2 Their field of work has hitherto been somewhat limited, hut it is hoped that it will expand and that they will he called upon to fill a great gap, namely, the want of secondary schools of the third grade, i. e., schools intended for small shopkeepers, farmers, and mechanics, and 'corresponding nearly to our second¬ ary burgher schools or vectored schulen. As the regulation of the elementary schools operated from below, so did the sudden growth of university studies exert its influence from above. Oxford and Cambridge are to be mentioned in this connection first of all. After they had gradually opened their doors to all the sciences and after all religious distinctions had become mat¬ ters of indifference (in 1871) the spirit of reform seized powerfully upon these time- honored representatives of learning. As they did formerly, in the thirteenth cen¬ tury, in Roger Bacon’s time, and again in the sixteenth century, the age of Erasmus, Colet, and Thomas More, so they now became the champions of culture, and espe¬ cially the promoters of secondary education. How they affected education through the medium of examinations has already been described. Of even greater importance is the university extension movement (since 1873), which, by means of courses of lectures in connection with correspondence classes and examinations, extends edu¬ cation to those who could not obtain it otherwise. We can not follow here the development of this movement, which now has two fixed seats, in Exeter and Read¬ ing, and had among its students in 1893-94 60,000 persons, men and women, includ¬ ing workmen and shopkeepers, clerks and petty officials, elementary school teachers, and scholars of secondary schools.3 Its significance for secondary schools consists i-In 1894 there were in England, outside of London, 60 such schools and 14 so-called “ex-standard classes.” Of these CO schools 48 were in the large cities and 12 in smaller cities. They gave instruc¬ tion to 4,606 boys and 2,028 girls. In London there are 3 secondary elementary schools and 60 schools with “ ex-standard classes” (which the Germans call Fortbildungs classen), which give instruction to 1,016 scholars. (Hep., pp. 52-54.) 2 Of the 60 secondary elementary schools in England (outside of London), 39 ai'e “organized science schools.” Almost all send candidates to the examinations of the science and art depart¬ ment. Forty-nine have chemical laboratories; 9, physical laboratories; 46 have lecture rooms on natural history; 48 have drawing rooms; 49, workshops; 54, kitchens; and 7, laundries. (Hep., p. 53.) 3 Leclerc, p. 291 ff.; see also Lep. of 1894, pp. 55 f., 249 ff. 76 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900. partly in the fact that it has awakened a need of education and has aroused English philistinism from its intellectual sleep of two centuries, and partly in the fact that the lectures, from a want of preparation on the part of the “students,” can not fol¬ low a university standard, but are compelled to do the work of the secondary schools. The same remark holds good, at least in part and provisionally, of the numerous university colleges which have sprung up since the middle of the century, particu¬ larly in the industrial centers of the middle and north of England, and which are compelled to instruct their scholars— mostly boys of 15 or 16 — the first year in the elements of knowledge instead of teaching science.1 The first of these uni¬ versity colleges was Owens College, Manchester (founded in 1851), which was incor¬ porated as Victoria University in 1880, and has since been united with Liverpool University College, and Yorkshire College, Leeds. Similar institutions arose at Bristol, Birmingham, Nottingham, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Sheffield, etc. In 1891 eleven such colleges received £15,000 from the Government. One point upon which the commission of 1865 commented with energy, but, unfortunately, without result, is the improvement in the position and organization of the teachers of secondary schools. In this respect complete anarchy did and does still prevail in great measure. Anyone can be a teacher, and a situation is obtained in many cases, especially in the great number of private schools, through agents, who, if they are not out-and-out swindlers, yet know nothing of schools or the school system. There can therefore be no teaching as a profession under such circum¬ stances. Many look upon teaching not as a permanent calling, but only as a tempo¬ rary makeshift until they can find some more lucrative employment.2 At the better public schools, indeed, most of the teachers have had an academic training and are graduates of the universities.3 But this is far less frequently the case at the public schools of the second and third grades and the private schools.4 Almost nothing has yet been done to prepare teachers properly for secondary schools. The college of preceptors alone gives lectures, as already mentioned, upon education and examina¬ tions; gives diplomas, and lately, also, gives teachers a practical training. On the other hand, the attempts of the universities in this direction have fallen through for want of support on the part of the authorities of the public schools.5 The prepara¬ tion of female teachers of secondary schools is far better in this respect.6 The reason of this want of support lies for the most part in the prejudice which exists, especially in the public schools, against a systematic training for the calling of teacher. In this is seen the reverence for the opinion that only scientific train¬ ing and natural pedagogical gifts are required in a teacher of secondary schools and that the art of teaching and training must be inborn and can not be learned any more than the art of writing poetry.7 The clerical element among the teachers has diminished a good deal in recent years. Formerly the best positions in secondary schools in England almost seem to have been regarded as intended for clergymen, but to-day that is not the case to the same degree. According to Whitaker’s Alma¬ nac for 1895, out of 961 teachers at the 53 largest schools 185 were clergymen. To be sure, 38 of the directors were clergymen and only 15 laymen; and of these the majority (10) were at day schools. Dr. Arnold was of the opinion that the head of 1 See Wiese, II, p. 80. 2 Hep., p, 209. 3 At 405 public schools in England and Wales 03 per cent of the teachers are graduates. (Ren., p. 193. ) 4 At the private schools only 27.86 per cent of the teachers are graduates. (Id., p. 238.) 5 Rep., p 71. cId. Training colleges for women are: Maria Grey College and Bedford College, London; Cam¬ bridge Training College; Cheltenham Ladies’ College; St. George’s College, Edinburgh; Datchelor Girls’ School, Camberwell, etc. " Rep., p. 198. In Oxford and at Mason’s College provision is now made for training secondary teachers. (Id., p. 71.) ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 77 a public school ought to be a clergyman, but to-day this tutelage is felt to be an injustice.1 There is no fixed position in the teacher’s profession in England in the German sense. The head master is appointed by the governing body and in turn selects his assistants, whom he can dismiss with notice or summarily at any time. The assist¬ ant masters have for a long time desired to secure the right of appeal to the govern¬ ing body2 against this power. The salaries of the teachers are, as a rule, especially when measured by English standards, very small. There are some choice positions the incomes of which, especially through the right of taking boarders, reach an amount which is unheard of among us, but the others are so much the worse. The average salary at the 10 best schools is £242.77 and at the 190 others £105.19. The average of all is £135.22. At many schools the assistant teachers only get £60 to £70 and do not rise above £100 to £120. For this reason many only teach as an auxiliary means of support or as a step to something better. The salaries in the smaller private schools are of course particularly low, and the most unscrupulous exploiting often prevails in them. There are no pensions, generally speaking, in England, but at Eton and some of the other endowed schools the old fellowships have been converted into pensions. Elsewhere everyone must prepare for his old age as best he can.3 In order to improve this condition and to organize the body of secondary teachers as a profession the teachers have followed the same path which the lawyers and doctors took before them, namely, that of combining into societies. The object of these societies is to promote professional feeling, to exclude unworthy elements, and conduct the busi¬ ness of securing places. The smallest but most distinguished of these societies is the Head Masters’ Conference, which was established in 1870, which numbers among its members the head masters of the 89 most important public schools in the kingdom. Others are the Private Schools Association, established in 1883; the Teachers’ Guild, established in 1885, a society which extends all over England and is composed of both men and women and has developed great activity; the Incorporated Associa¬ tion of Head Masters, established in 1890; the Association of Assistant Masters, which is especially occupied in finding places, established in 1892; the Association of Head Masters of Preparatory Schools; the Association of Head Masters of Higher Grade Elementary and Organized Science Schools, established in 1892, 4 and the Modern Language Association, which has for its special object the promotion of the study and teaching of modern languages. All these societies aim at an official regis¬ tration of teachers as the foundation of an organization of the whole body; that is, they ask for a law providing that no one shall teach in a school who has not obtained a certificate of his scientific and practical qualification to teach, granted by a recog¬ nized authority.5 This would be the surest safeguard against the employment of unfit persons and of such as only turn to teaching as a transitory means of support. Of greater importance for the further development of the secondary schools was the formation of county councils or boards by the law of 1888. The plan of reform of 1867 was not the least foiled by the circumstance that there were no suitable pop¬ ular boards to which education could be intrusted. A bureaucratic centralized authority after continental models is a thing that is repugnant to the English mind, and to create newly elected bodies simply for the sake of secondary schools also seemed to be impracticable, judging from the many recent elections. But now the people had in the county councils popular local parliaments, to which the care 1 See The Nineteenth Century, September, 1883: '‘Clergymen as head masters.’' 2 Rep., 212 it. 3 Rep., p. 209 ff. See also Leelerc, Le3 Professions ct la SociOte cn Angleterre, p. 103 ff. 4 Rep., p. 14. Of course there are many associations for women also. 5 As far back as 1879 a bill to this effect was proposed by Sir Lyon Playfair, but did not pass. 78 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. of secondary instruction seemed to belong as a matter of course. This showed itself the next year when the question of technical education came up, which was agitating England at that time. The actuating motive in this case as usual was a practical one. At the end of the seventies and the beginning of the eighties a fear of foreign and especially German competition suddenly seized English merchants and manufacturers. It was recognized that a new and powerful rival of England in the markets of the world had appeared, and fears were felt for the continuance of English supremacy. Even in England itself the competition of young German mer¬ chants and skilled laborers who, in consequence of their better training and low sal¬ aries, excluded their English colleagues, was severely felt. The German clerk, who works' for £1 a week, corresponds in six languages, and, after he has learned the English business, goes home to set up a dangerous competition with it, became a favorite character in novels— I need only refer to Walter Besant’s stories1 — and the newspapers, the street speakers, and the music halls all pointed out with a thousand variations the dangers of a “German invasion.” The cause of this state of things it was thought could only lie in the defective expert training of the English. A commission was therefore appointed in 1880 to examine into the condition of tech¬ nical instruction and its influence upon the economic situation of the country. The report of this commission in 18S4 did, in fact, show that England was behind the continental nations in technical matters, and that this was a consequence of less education in general and of a want of acquaintance with modern languages, eco¬ nomic geography, and other practical branches in particular. Also, compared with the continent, it was found that there was a great need of technical and industrial schools.2 The consequence of this report and of the agitation which preceded and followed it showed itself first in a great enthusiasm for the enlargement of the exist¬ ing and the founding of new day and evening schools for “technical education.” This education, according to the definition of one of its most distinguished advo¬ cates, Professor Huxley, was to be simply a good education with greater attention to natural sciences, drawing, and modern languages than is usually given. 3 It was not the intention to make the school a substitute for practical teaching, but only to give the mechanic a better preparation for bis business than he had had before. 4 In short, the ideal of this education corresponds nearly to our “ realschulen ” and ‘ ‘ gewerbeschulen. ’ 5 Thus there sprang up in London, thanks to the generosity and public spirit of the old city guilds, the Cowper Street School, already mentioned; the City and Guilds of London Institute (established in 1880) ; a polytechnic school; a technical school; and a drawing school. Prizes were provided and scholarships established, and diplomas were granted for scholars in provincial technical schools.5 Similar schools arose in Birmingham, Manchester, Bradford, Huddersfield, etc., partly upon the ruins of the old mechanics’ institutes which had flourished for a short time at about the middle of the century, but had afterwards decayed. The generosity and public spirit of rich individuals also, of a stamp which has never been wanting in England, manifested themselves in a striking manner in founding these schools! But private benevolence was not enough. In order to obtain lasting results the machinery of the State had to be set in motion. This was a matter with which the “society for the promotion of technical education,” founded by Prof. Sir Henry Roscoe and Arthur D. Aeland, with the Duke of Devonshire as chairman, busied 1 Herr Paulus: His Rise, his Greatness, and his Fall, and Catharine Regina. 2 Nineteenth Century, August, 188-1: “Technical education, report of the royal commission,” and Leclcrc, p. 230. 3 Huxley, Collected Essays, III; Technical Education, p. 410. 4 Id., p. 412. 5Leclerc, p. 253 if., and elsewhere. ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 79 itself.1 After a lively agitation and many unsuccessful attempts,2 the society finally succeeded in persuading the Government to introduce a measure known as the technical institution hill, which became law on September 19, 1889. This law intrusted the newly created county councils with the initiative with reference to the organization of technical instruction. Under the law the councils had the right to impose a tax of 1 penny for this purpose. This law, however, would have remained a dead letter, as only a very few county councils made use of their authority, 3 if it had not been supplemented the following year by a new one, which provided the means as well as the authority for furthering secondary education. This was the local taxation act of 1890, by which the excess of the beer and spirit tax was turned over to the county councils for the purpose of furthering secondary education. In this way the 48 country county councils disbursed £396,143 in 1893-94; the London coun¬ cil £57,000, and the 61 city county councils £160,084, which are very considerable sums,4 and were expended for technical and secondary education generally, and, upon the whole, with the best results. To be sure, the want of uniformity and of strict organization made itself often felt, a misfortune which results in waste of money and partiality.5 At all events, England has been covered with a network of industrial schools in the last few years, and has by that means become better equipped for competition in trade and industry. At this same time appeared the first attempt at a uniform regulation of secondary schools in a smaller territory — namely, in Wales. The situation there was par¬ ticularly unhappy. The country was poor, and the endowments which had come down from former times were insufficient in number and value, and, besides, were appropriated for the benefit of the English Church people, who differed from the Welsh and Methodist population both in language and religion.6 * * Lord Aberdare’s commission in 1880 discovered this state of things and published a report upon it in 1882. Seven years later the Welsh intermediate education act was passed, by which an education committee of five members (three of whom were appointed by the county councils and two by the lord president of the privy council) was created for every county in Wales (including also Monmouthshire), and the care of the organization of secondary schools was intrusted to these committees. They were to take charge of the existing endowments and distribute new ones, and, with the consent of the county or city councils, they impose a tax of one-half penny on the pound for education purposes, the government binding itself to make an equal con- 1 Huxley, III, No. 1, and elsewhere. 2 Bill cf July 19, 1887, which was withdrawn, and the bill of Sir Henry Rc-scoe, of February, 1888. 3 In 1893-94 only 6 out of 39 country county councils- and only 7 out of 62 city county councils availed themselves of this right. The entire tax levied that year amounted to £6,044 in the country and £8,656 in the cities, a very small sum. (Rep. 438 ft. ; tables.) 4 Report-, 1894, p. 32 if., and the tables, p. 332 S. As an example of the distribution of the money, the following table is given. In 1893-94 the country county councils distributed: For secondary schools . : . For prizes and scholarships. . For evening and 1 1 ex-standard ’ ’ classes . For classes for elementary teachers . For technical institutes and drawing schools For classes for special industries . . For other classes . For apparatus . Board, etc . . Total . £ s. d. 17, 168 17 10 40,047 19 64 13, 921 14 10 22,781 9 6 56,433 11 8 73,851 7 10| 60,726 13 11 2,934 .. 5 33, Go t 9 5 321,523 5 .. 5 Report, p. 65. °Yvith a population of 1,570,090 there were only 2,896 positions in grammar schools, and only 1,540 tilled — i. e., hardly 1 to 1,000 of the population, much less than in England. See Contemporary Review, 1882 (vol. 41). 80 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. tribution with the parishes. The law has worked extraordinarily well, notwith¬ standing the short time it has been in operation.1 The Welsh people, who are famous for their intellectual quickness, have done honor to their reputation by their generosity. The committees have met, and in a short time have carried through a thorough reform.2 They have given a practical demonstration — an object lesson, as they say in England — of what a systematic organization can do. VI. THE COMMISSION OF 1894-95 AND THE EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. After these different partial attempts the time seemed at length to have come to undertake a reorganization of the entire department of secondary education and to do for the secondary schools what Forster’s law of 1870 had done for the elementary schools. The Liberal party, which has always taken the initiative in matters of education, was also anxious to complete this work. In 1892, Arthur Acland intro¬ duced a bill which empowered the English counties to organize secondary education, but the bill did not pass. But in that year the Liberals came into power, and Acland was made vice-president of the education office. He appointed a new commission in March, 1894, “to discover what would be the best methods of introducing a well- organized system of secondary education into England, taking into account the existing needs and local sources of income, and to draw up plans in accordance there¬ with.” James Bryce, who had already been a member of the commission of 1864-65, and who is an eminent student and political writer,3 was the chairman of this com¬ mission. The commission consisted of sixteen members, including representatives of the universities, of the secondary and elementary schools, clergymen, county commissioners, and, for the first time in English history, three women.4 The com¬ mission began to publish the fruits of its labors toward the end of 1895, a short time after the overthrow of the Liberal cabinet, and the report, with the preparatory matter and documents, fills nine volumes. The report is expressly restricted to the question of external organization, touching only occasionally upon the course of study and methods of teaching. Within these limits it is very complete and gives an exhaustive picture of the present condition of secondary education, with a dis¬ cussion of the necessary reforms. The proposed plan of reform we will briefly sketch. It is based upon that of the commission of 1864-65. Radical changes are rejected, while the proposed reform is built upon existing conditions and endeavors to develop the unconscious tendencies contained in the latter into a national system. The essential features of the plan are substantially as follows: There shall be a minister of education at the head of the entire system of education who shall be responsible to Parliament. Little initiative, however, shall be given him. His prime function shall be to supervise the action of the local boards, advise them, and give them support, and protect the private and society schools against their encroachments if necessary. The minister shall Ire assisted by a council of educa- 1 Report, p. 13: “Although the act has only been four years in operation, enough has already been achieved by it to show the importance of concentrating and correlating the various local forces and influences that can be used to promote education, and in particular to demonstrate the gain to be expected from the establishment of representative authorities charged with functions in that behalf.” 2 According to Leclerc, p. 225 and elsewhere, the Welsh have expended £100,000 in four years for secondary education. Seventy schools are to be founded, and it is estimated that by the end of the century instead of 1,540 children, as in 1888, 8,000 children (5,000 boys and 3,000 girls) will be receiv¬ ing secondary instruction. In the report the following estimates are made for 1893-94 for seven counties of Wales : Endowments of £14,634; from the science and art department, £2,274; one-half the tax and equal contribution from the government, £22,976; local taxation act, £23,779; total, £73,655, for a population of 1,203,576 souls. 3 His two principal works are The Holy Roman Empire and the German Empire, and The American Commonwealth. 4 Lady Frederick Cavendish, a lady of the highest aristocracy; Dr. Sophia Bryant, directress of a secondary school for girls; and Mrs. Henry Sidgwick, head of Newnham College, Cambridge. ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 81 lion to consist of twelve members, of whom four shall be appointed by the Govern¬ ment, four shall be chosen by the universities, and four shall he cooptated. This council shall keep the register of the teachers and decide in contested cases. The initiative in secondary education shall he taken principally by the local boards for that grade, who supervise the secondary schools both in the country and towns of the different counties. They shall have the disposal of the money appropriated for this purpose, can impose new taxes, and superintend the existing secondary schools. Private and society or association schools shall he under their authority only in so far as they desire to be publicly “recognized.” In that case they must comply with the public requirements with reference to plan of studies, installation, dismissal, and salaries of teachers, and shall, therefore, he admitted to compete for scholarships and prizes. The hygienic supervision of the hoards shall, however, extend to all secondary schools. With reference to the internal organization of the schools the commission declines to make any fixed rules. It desires no schematic uniformity like that which pre¬ vails in continental countries. It only recommends that more weight shall be laid upon a solid general education than upon the acquisition of convertible knowledge, and that the endowments, prizes, and scholarships shall he applied rather to making the benefits of education more accessible to the poor than, as has often been the case hitherto, making them cheaper for the well-to-do. An official register of teachers is required in which anyone may he entered who can bring certificates of his scien¬ tific and practical qualification to teach. Teachers also are to have better pay and have the right of appeal against arbitrary dismissal. The overthrow of the Liberal ministry in August, 1895, seemed likely to postpone the reform indefinitely, but the Conservative Government, in which Sir John Gorst represented education, took up the work again, and on March 81, 1896, brought an education bill before Parliament, besides a teachers’ registration bill. The education bill was defeated in June after a stormy debate. The cause of this failure was the attempt of the Government to combine a revolution in the elementary schools with the plan for regulating secondary schools. It united questions which are far removed from partisanship with the contest between denominational and church schools and, like the Zedlitz bill in Germany, inflamed the religious prejudices and so brought to naught those provisions of the law which relate to secondary schools. It is still hoped, however, that the registration provision may yet be saved. In spite of the defeat of the last Government proposal, a speedy solution of the question of secondary schools is certainly to be expected. The conviction of the necessity of Government control of this affair, which is national in its character, has become generally impressed upon the public and is growing daily in strength. Nevertheless, there is in no wise a disposition to break with the past and turn to the Government as an all-powerful preserver. The English system of the future will rather take a middle course between the former anarchy and the French or German state or government school. It will not check the initiative of private citizens, societies, and corpora¬ tions, which has accomplished so much in the past, but rather stimulate, guide, and superintend it. It will not introduce a complete equality nor regulate every minute detail from an office desk, but will leave room for the individuality of the executive authorities and the benefactors and teachers to display itself. It will not be a cen¬ tralized bureaucratic system, but will base its strength chiefly upon locally elected authorities, and so join in with the new system of self-government which has sprung up in England within the last decade. Finally, it will keep in view, above all, the teachings of the past and never forget, even in the hurry of modern push and enter¬ prise, the old principle of the public schools that instruction and education can never be separated, and that of all methods of education only that can be the right one which takes into account the whole man, not simply his understanding, but his will and emotions as well. ED 1900 6 82 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Chronological table of the history of English secondary schools for boys. Events in the history of secondary schools for boys. May 5, 1386. Laying of the corner stone of Win¬ chester College by Bishop Williams, of Wyke- liam. 1393. Opening of the school at Winchester. 1410. Henry VI founded Eton College. 1509-1512. Building and founding of St. Paul’s School by John Colet, dean of St. Paul’s Church. 1512-1522. William Lily head master of Paul’s School. 1518. The statutes of Paul’s School drawn up. 1524. Manchester Grammar School founded by Hugh Oldham bishop of Exeter. 1525. Ipswich School founded by Cardinal Wolsey. 1527. First total edition of Lily’s Latin Grammar. 1534-1542. Nicholas Lclall. head master of Eton ( author of the first English play, Ralph Royster Doyster) . 1551. Shrewsbury School founded. 1552. King Edward’s School at Birmingham founded. 1553. Christ’s Hospital School founded. 1560. Westminster School founded a second time by Elizabeth. 1560-1571. Christopher Johnson, head master of Winchester (author of the Latin poem De Schola Collegiata Wiccamiea). 1560. William Maiim, head master of Eton (au¬ thor of a Consuetudinarium). 1561. Merchant Taylors’ School founded. 1581-1596. Richard Mulcaster, head master at Merchant Taylors’ School. 1567. Rugby School founded by Laurence Sheriff. 1571. Harrow School founded John Lyon. 1584. Uppingham School founded. 1596. Richard Mulcaster becomes head master of Paul’s School (author of several pedagogical works) . 1593. William Camden, head master of Westmin¬ ster (author of the Britannia and a Greek gram¬ mar ) . 1611. Charterhouse School founded by Thomas Sutton. 1619. Dulwich College founded by Edward Alleyn. 1636. Archbishop Laud visits Winchester College and complains that the head master had appro¬ priated the income. 1638-1695. Richard Busby head master of West¬ minster. 1662. Bradford Grammar School founded. 1710. Dispute between the head of Winchester and the other officers of the college on account of the income. 1726. The electors of Winchester College decline to appoint boys recommended by royal letters to scholarships. 1766-1793. Dr. Warton head master of Winchester. 1774. School rebellion at Winchester. 1793. School rebellion at Winchester. 1769, 1773, 1798, School rebellions at Eton. Contemporary events connected with them. 1377-1399. Reign of Richard III. March 5,1380. Bishop Wykeham founds New Col¬ lege, Oxford. 1404. Wykeham died. 1422-1461. Reign of Henry VI. 1441. Henry VI founds King’s College, Cambridge. 1491. Groeyn teaches the first Greek at Oxford. 1497. John Colet gives lectures at Oxford upon the Pauline epistles. 1499. Erasmus at Oxford. 1505. John Coletbecomesdean of St. Paul’s Church. 1509-1547. Reign of Henry VIII. About 50 gram¬ mar schools founded under Henry VIII. 1516. Sir Thomas More’s Utopia published. 1526. Divorce of Henry VIII. Persecution of the Protestants. 1531. Henry VIII recognized as head of the Eng¬ lish Church. 1535 Execution of Sir Thomas More. 1538. Publication of the English Bible. 1547-1553 Reign of Edward VI (in his reign 39 schools were founded, 20 in his name). 1548. The Book of Common Prayer published. 1553-1558. Reign of Mary (18 schools founded in her reign, 4 by her). 1555. Persecution of the Protestants. 1558-1603. Reign of Elizabeth (25 schools founded in her reign, 22 by her). 1559. Reintroduction of the Reformation. 1563. Protestantism made State religion. The 89 articles imposed upon the clergy. 1574 and 1576. Richard Mulcaster has the scholars of Merchant Taylors’ School act before the Queen. 1576. First public theater erected in Blaekfriars. 1588. Defeat of the Spanish Armada. 1603-1623. Reign of James I. 1605. Gunpowder plot. 1625-1649. Reign of' Charles I. 1640. The long Parliament. Civil war. 1649. Execution of Charles I. 1649-1660. The Republic. 1653. Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector. 1658. Death of Cromwell. 1660-1685. Reign of Charles II. I685-16S8. Reign of James II. 1688. The Revolution. 1689-1702. Reign of William III. 1702-1714, Reign of Anne. 1714-1727. Reign of George I. 1727-1760. Reign of George II. 1760-1820. Reign of George III. ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS. 83 Chronological table of the history of English secondary schools for boys — Continued. Events in the history of secondary schools for hoys. Contemporary events connected with them. 1771. The annual archery contest at Harrow abolished by Dr. Heath. Substitution of speeches. 1778-1794. Dr. James head master of Rugby. 1798-1810. Dr. Goddard head master and warden of Winchester. He bequeaths £25,000 to the school as a teachers’ fund. 1809-1854. John Keate head master of Eton. 1810, 1818, 1832. School rebellions at Eton. 1818. School rebellions at Winchester, Harrow, Charterhouse, and Shrewsbury. 1828-1842. Dr. Thomas Arnold head master of Rugby. % 1829. Kings College school founded. 1883. University College school founded. 1808. British and Foreign School Society founded by J. Lancaster. 18li. National Society for Promoting the Educa¬ tion of the Poor in the Principles of the Church of England founded by A. Bell. 1818. Institution of the Charities Commission for investigating benevolent endowments. 1820-1830. Reign of George IV. 1828. University College founded. 1828. King’s College founded. 1829. Catholic emancipation. 1830-1887. Reign of William IV. 1831. Durham University founded. 1832. First Parliamentary reform. 1833. Appropriation of £20,000 for elementary schools. 1834-1853. Dr. Hawtry, head master of Eton. Re¬ form in administration. 1836. £1,400 appropriated by Parliament for tech¬ nical education. Normal drawing school founded in Somerset House. 1837. City of London school founded. 1837. Beginning of Queen Victoria’s reign. 1837. University of London endowed. 1839. Committee of Privy Council for Education organized as a superior board or council of edu¬ cation. 1840. £10,000 appropriated for establishing draw- ing schools in the provinces. 1841. Cheltenham College founded. 1843. Marlborough College founded. 1844. Rossall School founded. 1845. Normal School of Science endowed. 1845-1859. Dr. Vaughan head master of Harrow. 1846. College of Preceptors founded. 1847. “Montem” anniversary at Eton abolished. 1848. Lancing College founded by the corpo¬ ration of Saint Mary and Nicholas. 1849. College of Preceptors incorporated. 1849. Department of “practical art” added to board of trade. 1851. Royal School of Mines endowed. 1853. Wellington College founded. 1853. Science and Art Department organized. 1854. College of Preceptors grants titles and di¬ plomas to teachers. 1856. The Science and Art Department is joined to the committte of council on education. 1857. Oxford, and later Cambridge, institute mid¬ dle-class examinations (later called local ex¬ aminations). 1859. The Science and Art Department introduces the principle of ‘ ‘ payment according to results.” 1861. Appointment of the public schools commis¬ sion under Lord Clarendon. ' 1863. Hayleybury College founded. 1863. Clifton College founded. 1863. Malvern School founded. 1864. Report of the commission under the public schools act. 1864. Dec. 18. Appointment of the schools inquiry commission under Lord Taunton. 1866. Corporation for middle-class education in the metropolis and the suburbs formed. It founds Cowper street middle-class and many other schools. 1867. Report of the schools inquiry commission. 1868. Second public schools act. 1869. Endowed schools act. Appointment of en¬ dowed schools commission. 1870. Head master’s conference is formed. 1851. Owens College, Manchester, endowed. 1853. Introduction of competitive examinations for the Indian civil service decreed. 1854. Appointment of a commission for elabora¬ tion of a system of examinations with Macaulay as chairman. 1855. The first examination. 1856. Establishment of an education department with a vice-president responsible to Parliament. 1867. Second Parliamentary reform. 1869. Girton College, Cambridge, the first college for women, founded. 1870. Forster’s elementary education act. 1870. National union of teachers formed. 1870. Introduction of competitive examinations into the English civil service. 1871. Removal of all religious disqualifications at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. 1871. Newnham College, Cambridge (for women), founded. 84 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. Chronological table of the history of English secondary schools for boys — Continued. Events in the history of secondary schools for boys. 1873. Oxford and Cambridge school examination board, so-called joint board, formed. 1873. The College of Preceptors institutes lectures on the theory and practice of teaching. 1874. The endowed schools commission is united with the charities commission. 1876. Bath College founded. 1880. Commission for intermediate education meets in Wales. 1880. Appointment of commission on technical education. 1880. City and Guilds of Tendon Institute formed; it founds a number of technical schools. Contemporary events connected with them. 1873. University extension begun. 1874. Yorkshire College, Leeds, founded. 1875. Mason College, Birmingham, founded. 1876. Bristol College founded. 1876. Second elementary school law. 1879. Teachers’ Training Syndicate, at Cambridge, founded for examining women teachers. 1879. Somerville College 1 Colleges for women, Lady Margaret Hall] Oxford, founded. 1879. Firth College, Sheffield. 1880. Victoria University founded. 1881. Liverpool University College founded. 1881. Nottingham College founded. 1882. Report of commission for Wales. 1883. Private Schools Association founded. 1884. Report of commission on technical educa¬ tion. 1885. Teachers’ Guild founded. 1886. Association for the Advancement of Tech¬ nical Education formed. 1889. W elsh intermediate education act. 1889. Technical instruction act. 1890. Local taxation act. 1890. Association of Head Masters founded. 1892. Association of Assistant Masters founded. 1892. Association of Head Masters of Higher Grade Elementary and Organized Science Schools formed. 1894. March. Appointment of royal commission on secondary education, under Sir James Bryce. 1895. Opening of a day training college in Lon¬ don by the College of Preceptors. 1895. Modern Language Association formed. 1895. November. Report of royal commission on secondary education. 1896. March 31. Sir John Gorst’s education bill introduced. June 26. Bill rejected. 1883. University Association of Women Teachers founded. 1884. Association of Assistant Mistresses. 1884. Third Parliamentary reform. 1886. Holloway College for women founded. 1888. County councils appointed. 1891. £15, 000 appropriated by Parliament for eleven ! university colleges. 1891. Elementary instruction made gratuitous. 189*1-1895. Liberal government of Gladstone-Rose- berry. Sir Arthur Acland in charge of educa¬ tion.'’ 1895. Overthrow of the Liberals; Lord Salisbury’s ministry begins; Sir John Gorst in charge of education. CHAPTER III. TRUANT SCHOOLS. I. General statement. — Historical sketch; present status; equipment and organization; discipline and instruction ; results; ungraded schools. II. Three representative States. — History of truant schools in Massachusetts; comparison of Connecticut and Massachusetts systems of truancy control; sketch of truant schools in New York. III. Individual institutions. — Statistics; detailed statements relating to cities or schools, as follows: San Francisco, Cal.; New Haven, Conn.; Chicago, Ill.; Boston, Mass.; Truant School of Franklin and Hampshire counties; Essex County Truant School; Middlesex County Truant School; New Bedford, Mass.; Worcester County Truant School; Plummer Farm School; Springfield, Mass.; Hampden County Truant School; Truant School of Norfolk, Bristol, and Plymouth counties; Worcester, Mass. ; Bay City, Mich.; Detroit, Mich.; Grand Rapids, Mich.; Newark, N.J.; Albany, N. Y.; Binghamton, N. YL; Buffalo, N. Y ; borough of Brooklyn, New York City; borough of Manhattan, New York City; Rochester, N. Y; Syracuse, N. Y.; Cleveland, Ohio; Dayton, Ohio; Adlegheny, Pa.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Providence, R. I. IAr. Legislation. — Text of laws relating to the disposition of truants in Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, and Wisconsin. V. Reformatory and allied institutions in Great Britain. — Reformatories; industrial schools; truant schools; day industrial schools. I. GS1EEAL STATEMENT. Historical Sketch. The beginnings of the present-day truant school are to be found in the agitation for prison reform initiated and led by the famous John Howard in the latter part of the last century. Not that reformatories for children were unknown before the time of Howard, or that he was the first English prison reformer. Neither claim would be justified ; work in behalf of juvenile delinquents began in Germany with the Reformation, and the abuses of prisons have been the subject of investigation and legis¬ lation in England at least as far back as the time of Charles II. But it was Howard who first aroused the public to an appreciation of the evils at their doors and brought about the popular interest in the conditions of criminals, convicted or suspected, that has continued to this day. The prison reform associations and allied organizations that have labored so zealously and in the main effectively in behalf of the ameliora¬ tion of the undue hardships of malefactors are the lineal successors of Howard and his associates and owe their inspiration to him. Some of the descriptions that have come down to us of the state of prisons in the eighteenth century almost challenge belief. In the utter lack of sanitation and the impositions practiced upon the unfortunate inmates by those in whose custody they were, the conditions were revolting to the last degree. Overcrowding to an incredible extent was the rule rather than the exception, and any classification of prisoners 85 86 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. beyond that of sex was practically a thing unknown. Even the separation of the sexes was usually a figment of the imagination and was but nominally enforced in most prisons. Men, women, and children, convicted of minor offenses or merely imprisoned for debt, were thrown into close and constant contact with the most hardened of criminals and the vilest of wretches. No employment was provided, and low games and conversation of debasing character were the occupations in which prisoners passed their time. In many cases the wives and children of imprisoned debtors were permitted to live with their husbands and fathers, and thus innocent women and tender children were exposed to the same degrading influences. It was not to be expected or hoped that any would come from such a place with propensi¬ ties other than criminal. A blasted character for those who emerged was as inevit¬ able as sickness and death were for those who remained. The matter of classification, therefore, was found by the reformers to be as urgent a need as the improvement of physical conditions. In working so earnestly and so successfully for the complete separation of women prisoners, and for the general betterment of their surroundings, Elizabeth Fry made a place for herself among the most worthy of English philanthropists. Others, less conspicuously, perhaps, but just as earnestly, undertook a. similar task in behalf of the children. Mrs. Fry’s brother and two brothers-in-law, Mr. Joseph John Gurney, Mr. Samuel Hoare, and Sir T. F. Buxton, were among the most prominent of those who interested themselves in juvenile criminals, and they were leading spirits in the London Philanthropic Society, which had been organized in 1789, 1 and whose object was “to afford an asylum to the children of convicts and those trained to vicious courses, public plunder, infamy, and ruin.” They sought for children in the nur¬ series of vice and iniquity in order to draw them away from contamination and to bring them up to the useful purposes of life. Prisons, bridewells, and courts of jus¬ tice afforded materials upon which the society displayed its bounty.2 And there was ample need for such work. The English criminal records of the early part of this century indicate a deplorable prevalence of juvenile depravity. There were in a single year 3,000 inmates under 20 years of age in the various London prisons. Nearly half the number were under 17, and 1,000 of those had been convicted of felony.3 The Philanthropic Society maintained an institution for the reformation of its wards, and for their instruction in some trade by which they might be enabled to earn an honest livelihood. This institution still exists as the Farm School, at Red- hill, Surrey, the oldest and one of the most famous of the juvenile reformatories. In the prisons themselves further efforts were made to secure the separation of children from the older criminals; and in some cases, as in Newgate, this was, at least for a time, satisfactorily accomplished. Prison schools were established for young convicts,4 and in many other ways marked improvements were made in their surroundings. England was not alone in such work. John Falk founded, in 1813, the Society of Friends in Need and the reformatory at Weimar, Germany, for criminal children and children of criminals; and an asylum for neglected orphans and children of vagabonds and convicts was established by Count Adalbert von der llecke Yolrner- stein, near LKisseldorf, in 1819. Another institution of similar character was founded in Berlin about the same time. The progress of the work in “child saving” in Europe was known in America, and the institutions mentioned had been visited by many philanthropically dis¬ posed persons from this country. Prominent among them was the Quaker scientist 1 Chronicles of Newgate, Griffiths, vol. 2, p. 130. 2 Memoirs of John Griscom. 3 Chronicles of Newgate, Griffiths, vol. 2, p. 15. 4 lb., p. 129. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 87 and teacher, John Griscom. In connection with Thomas Eddy, John Pintard, and others, he had previously established in New York City the Society for the Preven¬ tion of Pauperism, and his visit to Europe was devoted largely to the investigation of institutions whose object was to rescue unfortunate youth from the contamina¬ tions to which they were exposed. Under the influence and guidance of Mr. Griscom the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism was, in December, 1823, merged into the Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents, and as such its work was directed toward a definite end, namely, the establishment and subsequent maintenance of a house of refuge, which should “afford to young offenders an asylum where they could be received with open arms and friendly hearts. ” 1 The necessary steps were taken to collect funds by public subscription and to secure legislative sanction. These being obtained, the House of Refuge for Juvenile Delinquents was opened January 1, 1825. Its original site contained 4 acres of land “about a mile from the habitable portion of the city,” as it was then described, but which is now Madison Square.2 Public attention had already been directed to the evils of promiscuous incarcera¬ tion of criminals without classification in regard to the seriousness of the crime com¬ mitted, and the establishment and work of the New York House of Refuge attracted notice from far and near. Governor De Witt Clinton in an official message pro¬ nounced it “the best penitentiary institution which has ever been devised by the wit and established by the beneficence of man,” and other encomiums equally as enthusiastic were showered upon it. Steps were at once taken in other cities to secure the benefits of like institutions. Boston was then engaged in extending and improving her penitentiary system, and the example of New York came opportunely. An unused building erected in South Boston for a house of correction was available and was utilized in the establishment of a house of reformation for juvenile offenders, which was opened in 1826.3 A house of refuge was opened in Philadelphia in 1828, and a similar establishment in New Orleans in 1847. The first State reform school was that at Westboro, Mass., which was opened in 1848. Since that time the establishment of new schools has been rapid, and now there is at least one in nearly every State in the Union. The total number of such institutions in 1897-98 was 87, with 25,308 inmates. At the very beginning the only idea in view was the separation of children from those older in crime. But it was soon apparent that however beneficent it might be to prevent further contamination from association with the vicious, corrective measures must be taken to eliminate criminal propensities already imbibed, if the child were to be “saved to society.” Then it was but a step from the idea of reformation to the idea of prevention; to remove exposed children from surroundings which threatened to lead them into careers of crime were better than to await the commencement of such a career, involving additional difficulties and responsibilities for those who undertake to save them. In New York conviction for vagrancy or the commission of a criminal offense has always been a requisite for commitment to the house of refuge, but the idea of pro¬ tection was uppermost in the plan of some of the institutions established about the same time. This was particularly true of the school at Diisseldorf, and the same idea seems to have been in the minds of those who framed the scheme for the house of reformation at Boston. Among those who might be sent to it were enumerated “stubborn servants and children,” and “children who live an idle or dissolute life, whose parents neglect to provide any suitable employment for or exercise any salu¬ tary control over them.” The legislative act under which the Philadelphia institu- 1 Half Century with Juvenile Delinquents, Pierce, p. 62. 2 The old quarters having become too small, the institution was removed in 1S54 to its present location on Randalls Island. 3 Municipal History of Boston, Josiah Quincy, p. 106. 88 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. tion was established also emphasized its protective function. It is not likely, how¬ ever, that in practice there has ever been any considerable difference in the character of the children sent to the New York, Boston, and Philadelphia institutions. The reformatory institutions were first brought into requisition as an aid to school discipline in Boston. Soon after the establishment of the house of reformation there, some of the schoolmasters perceived in the expression “stubborn servants and children” an opportunity for an excellent means of dealing with refractory pupils, and for several years incorrigible truants were complained of by teachers as “stub¬ born children,” and as such were committed by the courts to the house of reforma¬ tion. This was not done systematically, but frequently. A few of the masters, it seems, did it habitually; others not at all. Truancy, with its relation to crime, was a frequent topic of discussion in Boston in those days, and many were the means suggested for dealing with it. Among the rest, the use of the reform school was brought up, and the practices of some of the teachers attracted public attention. As a result, it was held by those in authority that there was no proper justification for considering truancy as “stubbornness” in the meaning of the law, and after 1S33 no more truants were permitted to be sentenced unless they were guilty of some offense that brought them clearly within the law. But the idea had taken root. Compulsory education was the rule in Prussia, and some of the more advanced American educators, prompted by that example, began to advocate compulsory universal education for this country as soon as the public-school idea had been fairly launched and the State school systems were ’well under way. Related topics, like vagrancy, naturally shared in the discussions. Truancy and idleness were thorns in the flesh of the Massachusetts school men, and the old Boston plan of confining truants only awaited a favorable opportunity to demand renewed consideration. At last, in 1850, the urgings of Horace Mann and the active efforts of John P/. Philbrick, Mayor Josiah Quincy, and others bore fruit in the passage by the Massachusetts legislature of a law specifically permitting the punishment of truancy by confinement.1 2 Such things are not done in Massachusetts in secrecy and retiring, and the educa¬ tional world speedily heard of the new law. It excited wide interest and comment. In Maine the school code was even then undergoing revision, and the Massachusetts truant law was bodily engrafted upon it when it passed in August, 1850. New Hampshire passed a similar truant law in 1852, and New York did so in 1853. In the same year a bill to like effect was introduced in the Rhode Island legislature; it failed to become a law then, but did pass in 1856. Connecticut adopted a measure of the same sort in 1865. In Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut these laws have scarcely been more than evidences of good intentions J In New York the cities of Rochester and Brooklyn framed regulations and established truant schools which have played a conspicuous part in the history of compulsory education in that State. Naturally, Massachusetts made more of her law than any other State, being the seat of the conditions that most favored such action and the home of the men whose devotion to the cause of universal education evolved it. Many changes and amendments were necessary before the law was entirely satisfactory to the judicial authorities, but the legislature did not withhold the needed assistance and after some thirteen years of trial a workable law was produced. A number of cities, particularly Boston, New Bedford, Lowell, and Worcester, were prompt in taking measures to put the law into effect and earnest in its enforcement afterwards. But the provisions made for the disposition of truants after conviction were far from satisfactory as a rule. Boston, 1 See page 102. 2 See State school reports as follows: New Hampshire, 1868-G9, p. 14; Rhode Island, 1S83, pp. 10 and 116; Vlaine, 1860, p. 10, and 1887, p. 48; Connecticut, 1871, pp. 12 and 13, and 1872, p. 28, etc. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 89 Lowell, Worcester, Salem, and Lawrence all had local reform schools, and mischie¬ vous boys who had shirked the restraints of the schoolroom were sentenced to the constant companionship of youthful criminals, guilty of such offenses as assault, burglary, malicious mischief, larceny, and playing cards on the Lord’s day.1 Other cities and most of the towns that adopted regulations according to the law, ordained that truants be sent to the local almshouse, with its unedifying surround¬ ings of misery, shiftlessness, and poverty, at the very least. So objectionable in some instances were the arrangements made, though they were the best that seemed practicable, that school officers refused to enforce the penalties provided, feeling that the remedy would be worse than the disease. The time had passed when public sentiment would permit the consignment of even the worst malefactors to loathsome prisons, and still more was the condition of children scrutinized when the law had laid its hand upon them. So general was the complaint of the almshouse truant schools, and so difficult did it seem to provide suitable means of confinement for offenders in the smaller cities and in the towns, that in 1873 the Massachusetts legislature required that each county should establish and maintain a county truant school upon the demand of a specified number of towns or cities. Years passed before anything was done under this law, but a beginning was at last made in 1880, and now each county either has a truant school of its own or has joined with some other county in maintaining one. Boston continued to utilize the House of Reformation for its truants until 1895, when the Parental School was opened in response to a mandate of the State legisla¬ ture and the persistent demands of the Boston school committee. For many years the use of the reform school presented no incongruity to the minds of the school officers. The principles of classification had made progress, but not to the extent of creating a demand for the separation of truants. But as time passed the ideas of the Boston school men changed as to the relative seriousness of the offenses which the laws punished by confinement, and the absence of the element of criminality in truancy was more clearly seen. Then, too, the location of the reform school in proximity to the city prisons brought about an attitude of the popular mind which attached to a term in the reform school a stigma far greater than a mere truant deserves. These reasons were potent in the end, and the separation of truants from those guilty of criminal offenses was secured after years of effort. Massachusetts passed a compulsory -attendance law in 1852 providing for the edu¬ cation of all children, but it failed at first to excite the attention that the truant law had received. It lay upon the statute books for years practically unnoticed even in the State and was rarely heard of outside. But after a time the school systems of the several States reached a plane on which questions of organization and means of sup¬ port were less pressing, and matters of internal improvement and expansion could be the better considered. Free education had been provided for all; the next thing to be secured was that all should take advantage of the privileges offered. Compul¬ sory school attendance, therefore, began to be widely discussed, particularly after the close of the civil war. Massachusetts amended her laws from time to time, constantly increasing their strength and widening their scope, and her example was a constant stimulus to other States. A compulsory-attendance law for the District of Columbia was passed in 1864 and one for Vermont became operative in 1867. The agitation was more widely spread during the seventies, and half the States which now have compulsory laws first adopted them during that decade. The elates of adoption in those States were as follows: New Mexico, 1870; Michigan, Washing¬ ton, and New Hampshire, 1871; Connecticut, 1872; California, Kansas, and New York, 1874; Maine and New Jersey, 1875; Wyoming, 1876; Ohio, 1877, and Wiscon- 1 Report of the superintendent of the Lowell House of Reformation for J uvenile Offenders, 1872, p. 11. 90 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900. sin, 1879. In 1876 the South Carolina legislature passed a compulsory-attendance law to apply to Charleston and Columbia,1 which is probably the only instance of such legislation in the States that seceded in 1861. It is probable that in all these States the discussions attending the consideration of the laws both before and after their passage had the effect of stimulating school attendance for a time; but the laws themselves proved to be exceedingly defective, and in only a single instance, namely, that of Connecticut, was any general and per¬ manent result secured.2 New York City took up the work of compelling school attendance during that period, and the work of Brooklyn was strengthened, but in the remainder of the State of New York the law of 1874 had little effect.3 A marked similarity exists in all the new compulsory laws passed between 1870 and 1880. All were based, directly or indirectly, upon the Massachusetts “attend¬ ance law,” and all inflicted the penalty for violation upon the parent or guardian of the delinquent child. In New York and the New England States which had pre¬ viously passed truant laws, those laws remained in force as originally passed or were incorporated in the new laws in somewhat modified form. With the exception of • these States there was no provision anywhere for legal action against the incorrigible child for habitual truancy or any other school offense, even though the child might be entirely beyond parental control. This was, to be sure, a serious defect, but since still graver defects existed in the provisions relating to the enforcement of any part of the laws, the other deficiencies were of no practical importance save as show¬ ing the degree of advancement, or lack of advancement, which the ideas of the time had reached. During the decade of years beginning with 1880, nine other States and Territories adopted compulsory laws, namely, Ehode Island in 1882; Dakota, Illinois, and Mon¬ tana in 1883; Minnesota in 1885; Idaho and Nebraska in 1887, and Colorado and Oregon in 1889. The story of similar legislation during the seventies must be repeated in regard to ail these laws. Aside from a probable temporary stimulating influence the}^ were without direct result.4 All of them were alike in that they held parents and guardians responsible for the nonattendance of children in their charge, without any punishment for the incorrigible child. All were failures in practice, because no effective means were provided for enforcing them. But a law with a laudable purpose once passed prepares the way for a better one, even if the first is in itself a failure, so that during the eighties there were numerous revisions and amendments of the old attendance laws. Separate truant laws have not been in favor since the sixties, but the tendency in the last twenty years has been, after the first futile experiments that have seemed inevitable in every State, to incorporate the principles of the truant laws with the attendance laws and to make a single statute cover the entire ground. We find, therefore, that the revisions of the eighties frequently contained clauses requiring the arrest and committal to some reformatory institution of children guilty of school offenses. The provision of the Michigan law in regard to the establishment of ungraded truant schools 5 and the sentence of incorrigible pupils to the State reform schools was passed in 1883 and amended in 1885. 6 In the latter year New Jersey legally classed habitual truants as “juvenile disorderly persons,” to be sentenced, on conviction, to a reformatory insti- 1 S. C. Statutes at Large, 1875-76, p. 123. 2 School reports of the several States for the period mentioned. See also Education Report for 18S8-89, pp. 470 et seq. 3 See sketch of truant schools in New York, in this chapter. 4 School reports of the several States and letters of the State superintendents to the Commissioner of Education. (See Education Report for 1888-89, Chap. XVIII, pp. 470 et seq.) 5 Such schools have been maintained under this law in Detroit, Grand Rapids, Bay City, and East Saginaw. The first three still exist. G It was again revised in 1895. See text of law in section IV of this chapter. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 91 tution. During the same period Ohio, Wisconsin,1 and other States enacted similar legislation. The law of Illinois, passed in 1889, commanded the arrest of truant children, but provided merely that they be put in school. That example has been followed in Wisconsin and Montana, and such is still the law of those States as well as of Illinois. It is not necessary to dwell upon the legislation of the last ten years, since the events connected with it are still fresh in the public mind. As the most noteworthy instances, however, it may be well to recall the Pennsylvania law of 1897, her initial effort in the field; the laws of New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, more fully described on subsequent pages; the Utah law of 1897; and within the year just passed (1899) the Minnesota statute, similar to that of Michigan, and the truant school law applying to Chicago, Ill. All these, so far as they relate to the treatment and disposition of truants and incorrigibles, are given in detail in this chapter. The laws of those States 2 which have on their statute books compulsory attendance laws, but which make no provision for the judicial punishment of the child for truancy, are not included, since they have no bearing on the subject under consideration. Present Status of Truant Schools. It must be admitted that notwithstanding the long history of truant schools in this country, the list of existing institutions is by no means imposing in its length. Of the regular “ boarding schools ” for truants only, the 6 county schools in Massa¬ chusetts and 7 city schools, 5 of them in New York, 1 in Massachusetts (Boston), and 1 recently established in Illinois (Chicago), comprise the entire number — 13 in all. The average daily attendance in all the schools of the municipalities3 main¬ taining them is 945,403 pupils, while the average attendance in the truant schools is 690 at one time, or 1 in about 1,370 of the whole number of children attending school. This, however, like most statistical statements, requires a good deal of verbal explanation to give it its proper relation. It does not mean that the value of truant schools is so circumscribed that only 1 in 1,370 children is considered a proper can¬ didate for commitment. In some cases, as in Chicago and the borough of Manhat¬ tan, New York City, though the school enrollment is very large, the truant schools have been but recently established and are still in the tentative and experimental stage.4 In the borough of Brooklyn the school established is sufficient to receive but a part of those whom the school officials wish to commit, and in Massachusetts, though a truant school is available for every city and town in the State, only a com¬ paratively small proportion of the municipalities utilize them. These circumstances explain in part the almost infinitesimal proportion of the truant-school population, but even after all allowances have been made, the propor¬ tion of those actually committed is very small, and varies greatly in -different locali¬ ties. In Boston the ratio is 1 to 438 children in average attendance; in Rochester, 1 to 739; in Buffalo, 1 to 1,166; in Syracuse, 1 to 1,213, and in Brooklyn under present conditions, 1 to 1,801. Some of the Massachusetts cities use the county truant schools very freely. Lynn, for example, with an average attendance of 8,549 in 1898, had 30 representatives in the Essex County Truant School, or an average of 1 to each 285 children attending school. The differences which appear in these figures are due to a variety of causes. On the one hand, insufficiency of truant-school accommodations or an inadequate num- iTliis reference is to the famous “ Bennett law,” passed in 1889, but repealed in 1891. A substitute for it was enacted soon after. 2 Namely, California, Colorado, District of Columbia, Idaho, Kansas, Kentucky, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Washington, West Virginia, Wyoming. 3 With the State of Massachusetts, since the truant schools are available for the entire State. 4 The present arrangement in Chicago is considered only temporary. 92 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ber of truant officers prevents a full enforcement of the laws in some cities; mothers the surroundings in which the truant school is located deter school officers from prosecuting many who might otherwise be committed. On the other hand, an undue proportion of “unassimilated” foreigners of the lower class in the populatioh of any city tends to favor the increase of school offenses as compared to other place in which the population is more homogeneous and more accustomed to American institutions. But the most potent cause for the differences in the proportion of children com¬ mitted is to be found, probably, in the wide divergence in opinion and practice as to the degree of culpability which should be reached by a child before he is placed in a truant school. There are those who hold that the influences of family life, even when the family is far from ideal, are more important in character building than those of the best-managed institution; that a term of any considerable length in any such establishment tends to “ institutionize ” the child, and by so much to unfit him for life among his fellows; that the segregation of all the mischievous and unruly elements of the schools produces in the end in the individuals so segregated a worse condition than that which it is expected to cure; that the stigma attaching to a judicial sentence is bound to have a blighting effect in many ways throughout all his life upon every child so dealt with, no matter what pains may be taken to divest the institution of its penal character. Men holding such views are not apt to send a child to a truant school for much less than actual crime or because of home associa¬ tions that are actually criminal coupled with criminal tendency in the child. On the contrary, many believe that the steady habits and wholesome regimen enforced in a proper truant school are, on general principles, beneficial to a boy whose parents neither exercise nor attempt to exercise proper restraint or control upon him, and that such a child should be retained long enough to imbue him with a love of order and a respect for authority which will last him through life; that if no criminals are sent to the truant school, no “taint of criminality” will attach to it and no stigma will rest upon the inmates; and, finally, that it is due to the teachers, to the other children, and to society to take from the ordinary schools any child who by his nonobservance of school regulations is a bad example and a disturbing ele¬ ment. These men are inclined to call upon the truant schools to care for boys who would be classed as simply “troublesome” by those holding the opposite views. Just as great a divergence of opinion prevails as to the proper length of the sentence. On one side the attitude seems to be that the sentence is a punishment for a specific offense, and its length is made to depend on the gravity of the offending. In this view the term must necessarily be short, since none of the purely school offenses are in themselves essentially serious. That may or may not be the prevailing view in those cities, but in New York (borough of Manhattan) the average term of deten¬ tion is from four to six weeks, and in Allegheny the usual term is twenty days. The opposite party see in a truant-school commitment not retribution for an offense so much as an effort to prevent the formation of vicious habits by changing at once the course of life of the child who is in danger. They believe that the child should be taken in the hand of the law in the beginning of his wrongdoing and so trained as to supplant with good his evil propensities before they have had time to become rooted. The upholders of this doctrine consider that a reasonably long term of detention is absolutely essential to the end in view and urge the adoption of the indeterminate sentence, release being conditioned upon satisfactory improvement in the child’s conduct or upon the completion of the period of compulsory attendance prescribed by law. The Utah truant-school law, in fixing as the maximum limit of sentence the com¬ pletion of the child’s fourteenth year and providing for possible release prior to that time by the school authorities, in effect sanctions the indeterminate sentence. The new law applying to Chicago, Ill., definitely provides that children convicted of TRUANT SCHOOLS. 93 truancy shall be kept in the truant school until they reach the age of 14 years unless sooner discharged upon parole under certain conditions. There is no truant school in Utah, and the present arrangement in Chicago scarcely constitutes a satisfactory truant school; so these two laws do not yet possess great significance except as the first instances of legislative recognition of an approved principle as applied to truant schools. In Massachusetts the maximum sentence under the law is two years; the majority of terms are for one year, though many are for the full two years. In New York no sentences may be for longer than the current school year. In both these States pro¬ visions are made for granting paroles under proper regulations. Equipment and Organization. It seems to be almost universally conceded that the proper plan of organization of a truant school is the “cottage system.” 1 In this the inmates are divided into groups of about thirty, the classification being according to character. A separate house is provided for each group, every house having its own “house father” and “house mother,” its own sitting room, playground, and dining room. In the school proper all the inmates come together as in any other school, the classification there being presumably according to advancement in studies. This system affords good opportunities for classification and produces a style of discipline and training more closely akin to that of the family than is possible in the old “congregate plan” of housing all the children in a single building. There are objectors to the cottage plan, of course. They say that the “family” idea is an empty sham, for genuine family feeling can not be produced under such artificial conditions even in the most favorable circumstances; that it is difficult, if not impossible, to get enough employees of the ideal sort to make the system operate successfully; that the superintendent has no proper opportunity to make his own personality felt; and, finally, that the duplication of work and the multiplication of buildings involve expense out of all proportion to the benefits claimed, even if any do exist. Nevertheless the sentiment in favor of the cottage organization is largely in the ascendant. That is, in theory. In practice it has made very little difference whether the projectors of the existing truant schools believed in the cottage system, the congregate system, or no system at all. Most of the schools are small. If one wishes to think that the congregate system predominates he can call them congre¬ gate institutions, because all the inmates are under the same roof; if he favors the cottage plan he may find the truant schools according to his ideas, because not more than 30 or 40 are lodged in the same building. Very few of the buildings used for the purpose were constructed specially for truant schools, according to latter-day ideas. Generally the friends of projected in¬ stitutions have not been in a position to make large demands, and have been content to take what they could get. Unused schoolhouses have been remodeled, dwellings have been purchased, buildings erected for reform schools of a generation ago have been utilized — “anything available” has been the motto which necessity prescribed. The building of the Worcester County Truant School at Walpole, Mass., at the time of its erection was considered a model, but it has been surpassed by the newer school at North Chelmsford. The latter is now frecpiently mentioned as the finest 1 The “cottage system’’ or “family plan,’’ as applied to reformatory institutions, originated with Dr. J. H. Wichern, who established in 1833 what became famous as the “Rauhe Haus” near Ham¬ burg, Germany. With the purpose of founding “a house for the sole object of rescuing children from sin and disbelief,” he and his mother took twelve of the worst boys in Hamburg and with them occu¬ pied an old cottage upon a very rough farm. The worthy pair devoted themselves to the interests of the charges with parental solicitude and with salutary effect. As other cottages were added to meet the demands of growth the same idea of family organization was applied. The plan thus devised has been followed in institutions in nearly every civilized country. 94 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900. institution of the kind in the country. When the Boston Parental School was authorized it was hoped that it would embody all the latest and best ideas. But departures from such ideas were early made in the interest of economy, and latterly the number of children sentenced has been so much greater than the buildings were originally intended to accommodate that some of the most cherished plans of the managers have had to be abandoned. All these schools are described in detail on subsequent pages. Discipline and Instruction. The internal discipline of a truant school is the most important question of all. Upon it depends the success or failure of the whole undertaking — the reformation or the further degradation of the inmates. Originally the methods were essentially those of the prison. Barred windows and high walls prevented’ escape, and the lash and the dungeon preserved order inside. Stern and rigorous treatment little short of cruelty was considered a matter of course. This was to be expected in view of the ancestry of these institutions, for it will be remembered that they were descended first from the prisons and then from the reform schools, in response to the ever increasing demand for better classification. It was natural that the traditions of the older classes of institutions should be associ¬ ated with the newer. Attempts to break away from these traditions were in isolated cases made early, but milder methods were not the rule until a comparatively recent day. The ideal now accepted as the correct one is that the discipline of the truant school should approximate that of a well-ordered family, but only “approximate,” for even if it were possible to make a pleasant home in the best sense cf the word of such an institution it would not be considered wise to do so. After all has been said of the elevating influences of a true home and its advantages in the work of reforma¬ tion, the fact remains that the truant school must be an undesirable place in the eyes of the children outside. If it were otherwise all its deterring effects, its most important feature, would disappear. If a child simply needs a good home, an insti¬ tution established for disciplinary purposes is not the place for him. Only those whose character and conduct make them unfit for the ordinary schools, though without a record or evidences of criminality, should be committed to the truant school, and such commitment must in the very nature of things be looked upon as a punishment. That essential necessarily precludes the complete fulfillment of the conditions of the home. But family discipline is properly marked by considerate and kindly treatment, little recourse to punishments, and a certain feeling of community of interests between children and adults. All this may unquestionably be realized in a truant school under judicious management. In the construction of buildings and in ordering the domestic arrangements the family idea may be still further carried out by the adop¬ tion of the “cottage system,” to which reference has already been made. For the rest, almost constant work and confinement to the institution, nearly as strictly enforced as in a prison, must be the lot of the inmates. School work, man¬ ual training, and labor in the field or garden are the favored means of keeping the pupils busy. Nearly all the truant schools have sufficient land attached to afford opportunity for a reasonable amount of farm work, and several of them have satis¬ factory provision for manual training. The latter is, however, the great desideratum in most of the schools, as the detailed statements show. In regard to the school work proper, the subject-matter must necessarily be that of the ordinary schools. The aim of the truant school is to fit its inmates to return to the schools whence they came, and that without loss of class standing The same studies must therefore be pursued in both classes of schools. But experience has shown that widely different methods must be employed. The ordinary schools TRUANT SCHOOLS. 95 plainly failed to interest the children that had to be sent to the truant school, and the ordinary teachers failed to arouse their ambition. The conclusion immediately apparent is that a high order of teaching is demanded for the special school. The teacher must be chosen with great care and with reference solely to fitness for that particular work. The best teacher for the graded school is not necessarily the best for the truant school, and vice versa. The successful truant school-teacher is not “made” any more than the poet; success depends upon natural aptitude joined with study and experience, but aptitude is the main thing. With the exception of the few larger institutions but little in the way of grading can be clone, and the schools proper are substantially similar in organization to the ordinary country ungraded school. This necessitates small classes, and is an advan¬ tage to that extent, since much individual instruction is desirable; but the multiplic¬ ity of classes required is of course a serious drawback. In the means of retaining children in the institution after their arrival there is a great difference in the practices of to-day and those of ten years or more ago. Then, high walls and bars were relied upon to make escape a physical impossibility. Such means are still used in some of the schools, but advanced opinion is unfavorable to them. The theory now is that the knowledge that escape is easy will lessen the desire to run away, and that by being trusted the boys become worthy of trust. It is admitted that some of the inmates will probably get away, but it is held that the strengthened character that comes to those who feel that they are considered worthy of confidence will more than counterbalance any of the troubles that come from an occasional absconder. Without question it would require a very high type of man and one extraordi¬ narily gifted with the power of reforming to carry out this theory in its full intent. The complete confidence implied would mean an absence of espionage as well as of bolts and bars. The practice, however, does not follow the theory to that extent. Newcomers and. those who give evidence of restlessness are closely watched as long as the necessity exists, and all are kept under a wholesome but unobtrusive observa¬ tion — “paternal oversight,” as it has been expressed. Some experiments have recently been made in the self-government of pupils according to the plan of the well-known George Junior Republic, which have prom¬ ised a satisfactory degree of success. Results. The statements of the managers of individual truant schools do not seem to be suf- ficent for accurate generalizations as to the results of truant school treatment. No extensive or satisfactory records are available of the subsequent lives of former inmates, but general and somewhat vague statements are very common. All the boys that are sent to such an institution are presumably in a bad way, or else they would never have been sent there. If left to themselves many of them would undoubtedly straighten up later in life anyway and become good citizens. How many would do so can only be a matter of conjecture. Rut it is reasonable to suppose that the great majority would be led into lives of crime, at the worst, or would grow to manhood with insufficient education to creditably take part in life’s battle, at the best. If even half, therefore, as the result of their truant school expe¬ rience, receive a sound elementary education and are so strengthened in character and principle as to be enabled to withstand temptation, then the truant school has done a work which should be entitled to the widest recognition and the most cordial support. There can be no doubt that it does this and much more. The estimates as to the number “cured” run from 75 per cent to “nearly all.” Even if we allow for the well-known optimism of such statements, the showing must still be regarded as sat¬ isfactory. Conservative managers of reform schools generally estimate that three- fourths of their pupils become good citizens, and in exceptional cases the claims have 96 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. gone ay high as 96 per cent. The truant schools should succeed equally as well. Reform schools keep their inmates longer, but they are as a rule much more diffi¬ cult cases to begin with than the truant-school boys. All this applies only to those actually sentenced. The real effect of the truant schools, however, is only in part shown upon actual inmates. In the deterrent effects upon those simply inclined to waywardness is to be found the most valuable work of such institutions. The certainty that a boy feels of being deprived of his liberty if he fails in his duties is a most powerful stimulant to which all who have had experience with truant schools and their effects abundantly testify. Ungraded Schools. Besides the boarding truant schools there are 29 day truant schools, or “ ungraded schools,” in 13 cities distributed through 8 States. The terms and hours in which they are in session are usually identical with the ordinary schools; but when two buildings are close together and the truants are likely to mingle with other children on the way to and from school, the hours of the truant school are changed slightly to prevent it. That is about the only exception to the rule, and it does not affect the actual length of daily school time. Children are ordinarily transferred to the ungraded schools by the superintendent of schools without legal proceedings, though usually with somewhat more formality than would be used in the customary routine transfers from school to school. The pupils transferred naturally come from all the grades; and as the number in one disciplinary school is always small, the organization of the ordinary rural school is the only kind practicable. Hence the name “ungraded schools.” Their history is neither a brilliant nor an encouraging one.1 Their path has been beset with difficulties even more trying than those that have surrounded the board¬ ing truant schools. If it requires a man of unusual tact and skill to be successful as principal of an institution in which bad boys are lodged, fed, and taught, always under the eye of an employee, it requires a person doubly tactful and skillful to succeed with the same kind of boys when he is with them but live hours a day and they are free to roam the streets at will during the other nineteen. Precepts learned in school are apt to be nullified by the example of vicious associates outside, and injunctions with good intent are in constant danger from temptations that the school¬ master cannot reach. Removed from association with well-behaved children in school, the boys in the day truant classes are not removed from contact with those whose influence presum¬ ably first prompted truancy or other misbehavior. The work of the teacher must be done under the most unfavorable and discouraging circumstances. ■ It is no wonder that such schools have repeatedly proved unsuccessful, and that, a change in the office of superintendent of schools has so often meant a radical change in the policy toward the ungraded schools. But there are teachers who seem to have been specially created to manage such schools, and when they can be found there is no doubting the usefulness of their work. The idea is certainly plausible. It is not always advisable to shut up a boy for his misdeeds. 1 le may be too bad for the regular schools, but not quite bad enough to make confinement necessary. His home associations may be reasonably good, and to sunder home ties is not a thing to be lightly considered. Then, the cost of day schools is trifling as compared with that of boarding schools, and the interests of sordid economy, even if no higher consideration were involved, demand that the former be utilized when practicable. Nearly all truants justify their conduct by the complaint that “the teacher was down on them.” Whether true or not, and whether deserved or not if true, this 1 Sec the historical sketches of individual institutions in this chapter. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 97 idea in a youthful mind is a fruitful cause of trouble. It often happens that the simple transfer of a pupil possessed of this notion to another regular school will bring improvement, even if the new teacher is no more skillful than the other. Change of atmosphere frequently means as much for a troubled child as for a delicate- woman. Transfers of this sort are regularly practiced in some cities, and there have been instances in which the same child has been sent to six or seven schools before he could find a teacher that he could “get along with.” Such a change implies neither disgrace nor triumph for the pupil transferred. When there is a probability that it may be successful it has proved to be the simplest and best thing to do from every point of view. No rule as to district lines need be so strict as to prevent it. There are children of all shades of character, good and bad, and in the gradations of the bad there next comes a class who are not improved by a simple transfer to another teacher of the ordinary sort with the ordinary duties, or by a series of such transfers. They may be amenable, however, to the discipline of one who has naturally greater aptitude in handling unruly children, and who has better oppor¬ tunities for dealing with them individually. Unquestionably there are many pupils in every school system who would be benefited by instruction under such conditions, and who, after a reasonable amount of it, would resume their places in the regular schools without giving any more serious trouble. That is the justification of the- ungraded school. But the experience of the past goes to show that when it is attempted to make any day school do the work of the boarding truant school, or of the reformatory, disap¬ pointment is inevitable. Each has its proper sphere. The first must he supplemented by the second to receive those beyond its scope, just as the second requires the third. To either class of institutions the one next higher, if it may be so called, is essential; those lower in the scale are important in themselves but not necessary to the success of those above. Some of the worst troubles of the ungraded schools in the past have been due to disregard of this principle. They have undertaken too much, or too much has been imposed upon them. Only a very limited and mild class of offenders can be profitably kept in ungraded schools as they have heretofore been organized in this country. That has been clearly proved by repeated trials. The detailed statements are full of lessens for those who seek to establish new institutions. The “day industrial schools” of England contain features that might be profitably adopted here. They are more highly organized than our ungraded schools, but do not retain the children at night, as our truant schools do. They are at least worthy of careful study. II. TBUAHT SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS, CONNECTICUT, AND NEW 'YORK. TRUANT SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS. The history of compulsory education and of its auxiliary agencies in the State of Massachusetts must in its first stages be written in the history of Boston, so influen¬ tial has that city been in the conception and development of the system. The dis¬ cussions relating to the House of Reformation of Boston prior to its opening in 1826, and its work afterwards, turned attention to the general conditions of juvenile offending. Truancy from school received its due share of attention as one of the factors, for it was observed that truancy generally meant vagrancy, and vagrancy generally meant crime. Special efforts were early made, therefore, “ to check vice at its fountain by securing a more general and more regular attendance of children at school.” 1 1 Special Report on Truancy and Compulsory Education, by John D. Philbrick, 1862, p. hr ED 98 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Similar efforts were made in other cities also, but such was the inchoate state of the school systems that little seems to have come of them. Compared with later standards there were but few public schools of any sort in existence, and even if their facili¬ ties had been ample the public-school idea was too young for the development of a public sentiment favoring obligatory attendance. But the school system of Massa- chusetts has always been of a thoroughgoing- character. The oft-quoted statute of 1642 ordered that “the selectmen of every town in the several precincts and quar¬ ters where they dwell shall have a vigilant eye over their brethren and neighbors, to see, first, that none of them shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their fami¬ lies as not to endeavor to teach, by themselves or others, their children and appren- tices so much learning as may enable them perfectly to read the English tongue, and knowledge of the capital laws, upon penalty of twenty shillings for each neglect therein.” This law was copied by Connecticut a few years later. It may or mav not have been enforced for a time after its passage, but it certainly fell into disuse. Never¬ theless, it is an indication of that popular conception of the attitude of the State toward the individual which has always prevailed in that section of the country more than in any other. And it is not surprising that in the modern development of pub¬ lic education compulsory attendance found the most favorable soil for its growth in Massachusetts and Connecticut. Arguments for compulsion have never, or rarely, been met by outbursts of popular disapproval there such as have greeted such sug¬ gestions in other sections of the country until a comparatively recent period. This attitude on the part of the public made possible in Boston early steps for the suppression of truancy, namely, sentencing truants to the House of Reformation, that could not have been carried out anywhere in the United States outside of New Eng¬ land at that time. The fact that this practice was discontinued after being in use for seven years after the institution was founded detracts nothing from its significance in indicating official opinion, even at that time, that truancy was a semicriminal offense. In 1831 there were at least 53 out of 93 of the inmates of the house of reformation who were sentenced for truancy.1 It was the custom of some of the teachers habitu- « ally to take incorrigible truants to the police court and by complaining of them for “stubbornness” secure their commitment.2 This practice was not strictly according to law and there were frequent complaints of it, but the statutes relating to the insti¬ tution were by no means specific in their provisions, and it was not until 1833 that the court ceased to commit for simple truancy under the guise of “stubbornness.” It was stopped then not because of any prohibitive legislation, but in consequence of an effort to secure a more definite law, which attracted attention to the looseness of the practice in vogue.3 It does not appear that the school committee formally and directly secured the commitment of truants to the house of reformation. It seems that the teachers acted upon their own responsibility in the matter, for they were allowed much greater latitude in those days than they are now. But the school authorities undoubtedly favored it. An elaborate report was made in October, 1831, upon “the daily absences of the pupils of the several English grammar schools, and upon the application of some proper remedy,” and the principal conclusion reached was: “In the applica¬ tion, then, of a remedy against truanting in our public schools, your committee do not hesitate unanimously to recommend the legal removal in all instances of children of an incorrigible -character as fast as they occur to the school of reformation at South Boston.” 4 1 Philbrick’s Second Report on Truancy and Compulsory Attendance, 1862, p. 185. £Ib., pages 1S1 and 186; also Public Education in the City of New York, Boese, p. 122. 3 Philbrick’s Second Report on Truancy, 1862, p. 187. Ub., p. 179. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 99 The same report also advises the appointment of “some municipal officer with whom the names of all cases of truanting, and in some cases of other absences, might be lodged by the instructors, and whose duty it might become to visit the family of such truant and endeavor, by mildness and persuasion, to restore the child to the school, and where every other measure was found to fail of the desired effect that then, after this, the proper steps should be taken for the removal of the individual to the school at South Boston, and let this act be considered that of kindness rather than of partaking at all of a criminal character. To this officer might be assigned, under the direction of the mayor, the duty of looking after the idle, vagrant, and vicious children of the city.” In this the work of the present-day truant officer is substantially described. Still another idea which has since become common appears in the same report, unobtrusively hidden in a letter from Cornelius Walker, one of the four masters who wrote of their experiences for the benefit of the committee. The special day classes for truants which now play an important part in the treatment of the subject were foreshadowed by Mr. Walker, for he says: “Convinced that it is not in my power to prevent the evil, I have not latterly adopted any course respecting it except to receive the truants into the school and place them in a separate class. ’ ’ 1 Here, therefore, as early as 1831, are suggested or in operation in Boston the three agencies which are now considered of such importance in the work of reclaiming truants, namely, truant officers to seek out absentees, special day classes, and the confinement of the worst cases in a separate institution. One can never say with confidence that any occurrence was the first of its kind, nor in this case can it be said certainly that these measures were the germs from which the present ideas grew, for they soon fell into abeyance and may or may not have been responsible for later practices even in the same locality. But they show that the attitude of the men in Boston toward truancy was essentially the same seventy years ago as to-day, and under similar conditions similar remedies are apt to suggest themselves. After 1833, when the practice of committing truants to the house of reformation ceased, the teachers were left again to their own devices in the treatment of truancy. The printing of annual reports on the condition of the schools was not begun in Boston until 1845, and before that time the documents published were of an occasional and special character. None of these indicate that the school committee took any action on the question of truancy between 1833 and 1845. The only reference to it in the report of 1845 is not of a kind that would indicate that the question had been the subject of noteworthy investigation and experiment. It was stated by the com¬ mittee which made the annual examination of the “writing schools” that “the schools suffer severely from the inconstant attendance of the pupils. The absence each day is about one-fifth of the whole school. * * * The committee know no remedy for this evil except by an appeal to the parents and by making the school a more agreeable place for children.” 2 The tone of helplessness about the last sentence does not indicate aggressive activity previously, nor was it calculated to provoke such activity in the future. Far more vigorous were the utterances of Horace Mann in his eighth annual report as secre¬ tary of the State board of education, which also appeared in 1845. In his own force¬ ful style, the author of the Massachusetts school system showed in a way bound to attract attention that fully one-third of the schooling of the children of the State was lost each year by absenteeism, and that the waste was greater than would result if every third year the State should provide and pay the full complement of teachers but without the attendance of a single pupil.3 In the ninth annual report he dis¬ cussed truancy equally as vigorously, dwelling particularly on the moral effects upon 1 Philbrick’s Second Report on Truancy, 18G2, p. 182. 2 Reports of the annual visiting committees of the public schools of Boston, 1845, p. 168. 3 Eighth Annual Report of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, page 58. 100 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. the truant himself. Such a showing could not fail to stimulate effort to cure the unhappy conditions described. Prompted directly or indirectly by it, Mayor Josiah Quincy, of Boston, early in 1846, requested the school committee to cooperate with the city council in an attempt to check the “alarming evil” of truancy. The school committee at once referred the request to a special committee under Prof. Theophilus Parsons, who submitted a report in which they inveighed against the evils of truancy, but concluded that the laws then existing were sufficient if properly executed.1 It was stated that children who would not attend the schools provided for them could be sent to the House of Reformation. Asa matter of fact, the offenses for which children could be sentenced to that institution were the same as they had been since its beginning, and it was no more available for truants in 1846 than when it was found necessary to discontinue such commitments because of legal hindrances in 1833. This, however, either escaped notice or was disregarded, and an elaborate plan was devised for compelling attendance by the aid of city policemen. Grammar- school masters were required to report to the mayor monthly the names of pupils incorrigibly stubborn or habitually truant. Policemen were then sent to bring in the truants. Legal prosecutfon was threatened if they did not attend regularly, and in some cases boys were locked up for a short time. This, however, was soon stopped as illegal.2 On the whole, the aid of the policemen had a good effect at first, but in time the bad boys became accustomed to dealing with policemen and paid no more attention to their threats than they had paid to the flogging of the teachers, and it became necessary to make the threats good. Accordingly, complaints were made against some of the worst truants under the provision of the law which permitted “stubborn children” to be sent to the House of Reformation. But the judges refused to con¬ sider truancy and absenteeism as a species of 4 ‘ stubborness ’ ’ in the meaning of the law, and the prosecutions came to naught. With them failed the plan of police assistance in the management of the schools. The names of delinquents continued to be reported to the mayor, however, and when it was found that they had also committed some minor offense which brought them within the law, the threat of prosecution was held over them, but not carried out as long as they were regular in their school attendance.3 But few pupils were thus reached, however, and the offense of truancy steadily increased, in spite of those measures which it was possible to use in breaking it up, namely, consultation of teachers with parents, requiring truants to make up lost lessons, whipping, etc.4 The visiting committee of 1847 devoted five pages of their report to a discussion of vagrant children and truancy. They showed that about 1,600 children were not attending any city school and that many of them were in a course of education for worthlessness and crime. At that time there were 74 inmates of the House of Refor¬ mation, and during the previous year 456 minors had been sent to jail. The com¬ mittee urged not only that provision be made for the proper education of all, but that means be used to make that provision effective. It is a serious defect in the organization of this board [they say] that there is now no person connected with and acting under direction of the board to ascertain what children of legal school age are not in the schools and to use measures to bring them there. This board is the only one which has, officially, a knowledge of the numbers of children in the schools and of those who ought to be there. It is the one whose duty it is to provide means for the education of all the children. It would be well if it could have authority not only to use means to bring wandering children into the schools, but to provide for the instruction of those portions of the adult popula¬ tion who are without, and who desire, elementary instruction. 1 Philbrick’s First Report on Truancy, 1861, p. 212. sib., p. 215. 3 lb., p.216. 4 Reports of the annual visiting committees of the public schools of the city of Boston, 1846, p. 156. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 101 These suggestions came opportunely, for such was the general interest in the “perishing classes,” as they were so frequently called, that the time was favorable for work in their behalf. The “ Rauhe Haus,” established by Dr. J. H. Winchern, near Hamburg, in 1833, and the “Agricultural Colony,” of Mettray, founded by Frederic Auguste Demetz and Viscount Bretignieres de Courteilles in 1839, liad both achieved remarkable success and had received wide attention because of new and peculiar systems of organization. The House of Refuge at New Orleans, La., was opened in 1847, and the work of organizing the Massachusetts State Reform School1 was even then in progress. The bruit of such occurrences could but arouse interest in the general subject of juvenile crime and its conditions. Horace Mann again put his shoulder to the wheel and in his eleventh annual report, dated December 18, 1847, he argued long and earnestly for universal education, secured by compulsory measures when necessary, as the sovereign means of ‘ ‘ redeeming the State from social vices and crimes. ’ ’ 2 Josiah Quincy was still mayor of Boston. His interest in popular education was unabated, and his belief in the necessity of stringent compulsory measures had evi¬ dently been strengthened by his experience of the previous two years. In his inaugural address for 1848 he adverted to the subject thus: Universal education, both in moral and intellectual nature, being the only solid basis on which our institutions can rest, I hold that the State has a right to compel parents to take advantage of the means of educating their children. If it can punish them for crime it surely should have the power of preventing them from committing it by giving them the habits and the education that are the surest safe¬ guards. There are daily hundreds of children of both sexes who are kept from school to support their parents, often in idleness and drunkenness, by pilfering about our wharves, or any other profitable form of vice, and who are regularly educated for the brothel and dramshop, for the poorhouse and the jail. Their position calls loudly for public and individual exertion, and I recommend that application be made to the legislature for such power as shall enable the city to lie in loco parentis to such children, and that some asylum be provided where such as are morally too weak to be at large may receive the peculiar training that their habits and associa¬ tion may make necessary.3 4 As Mayor Quincy’s ideas were in advance of those of the school committee in 1846, so they were also in 1848, for in their report for that year the committee on the examination of grammar schools say: The evil [of absences and truancy] is a great one, tending in various ways to dis¬ turb the order and interrupt the progress, not only of the delinquents, but of the school. The only remedy which is in the power of the teacher consists in admoni¬ tion and punishment. Nor do we see that it can be prevented by any further regu¬ lations of this board except such as would do more injury than good. The only effectual remedy consists in the power of parents, in the home influences which may be used in discouraging absences and enforcing attendances. Those influences, it is to be feared, are not now properly exerted, especially among the poorer classes of our population.1 If that had been the general attitude, no effective measures to check the “evil of truancy” would ever have been taken. But fortunately other officials than the writer of that report had clearer ideas on the subject as well as a more aggressive disposition in taking measures to accomplish a desired end. Mayor Quincy detailed an officer from the regular police force for the special duty of looking up children not in school and to induce them to attend if possible. This officer, Oliver H. Spurr, proved to be very efficient in the performance of his duties, specially investigating each case that came to his attention through the teachers or through his own searches in places where idle children were wont to congregate, and using such means to induce 1This institution originated in a gift Gf $72,500 from Hon. Theodore Lyman, and was the first of the kind to he organized and managed by officers of a State. 2 Eleventh Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, pp. 38-135. (See Chapter XXVIII, Education Report, 1898-99.) 3PhiIbrick\s First Report on Truancy, 1881, p. 219. 4 Report of the examination of the public schools of the city of Boston, 1848, p. 22. 102 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. them to go to school as each individual seemed to require. Admonitions to parents, persuasion, threats of prosecution, and in some cases temporary confinement of delinquent children (although this was not warranted by law) were the only means at his command. But he used these intelligently and with good effect. Neverthe¬ less there were at the end of the year 1848, by a very incomplete count, 1,066 truant and vagrant children in the city, 184 of them being girls.1 At length the school committee became aroused, and in January, 1849, passed an order inquiring of the mayor, “what had been done to secure the steady attendance of children at school, and authorizing him to apply to the legislature to secure the attendance of scholars.”2 An elaborate report from Officer Spurr was submitted in response to this request, was published in the newspapers and widely discussed, legislative action being gen¬ erally demanded. The school committee, in the March following, formally requested the city government to immediately “devise such measures as shall secure the regular attendance in eur public schools of all the idle and truant children of the city.” THE FIRST TRUANT LAW. Subsequently a bill was introduced in the legislature to give towns power to punish truancy by imprisonment, but it failed to pass the senate, the objections urged against it being that the evil was of a nature to be corrected by domestic discipline rather than by penal law, and that it was inexpedient to bring that law into such close con¬ nection with the common-school system, etc.3 Public sentiment had not then crys¬ tallized in a demand for compulsory education, but the occurrences and developments of the time were fast preparing the way for it. The State Teachers’ Association indorsed the defeated bill, and appointed a committee to urge its passage at the next meeting of the legislature. That committee presented a memorial to the legislature 4 and brought to bear all the influences in favor of the bill which they could muster. The result was that the following law was passed May 3, 1850: AN ACT Concerning truant children and absentees from school. Sec. 1. Each of the several cities and towns in this Commonwealth is hereby author¬ ized and empowered to make all needful provisions and arrangements concerning habitual truants and children not attending school, without any regular and lawful occupation, growing up in ignorance, between the ages of six and fifteen years; and also all such ordinances and by-laws respecting such children as shall be deemed most conducive to their welfare and the good order of such city or town; and there shall be annexed to such ordinances suitable penalties, not exceeding for any one breach a fine of twenty dollars: Provided , That such ordinances and by-laws shall lie approved by the court of common pleas for the county and shall not be repugnant to the laws of the Commonwealth. Sec. 2. The several cities and towns availing themselves of the provisions of this act shall appoint, at the annual meeting of said towns, or annually by the mayor and aldermen of said cities, three or more persons who alone shall be authorized to make the complaints in every case of violation of said ordinances or by-laws to the justice of the peace or other judicial officer who, by said ordinances, shall have jurisdiction in the matter, which persons thus appointed shall alone have authority to carry into execution the judgments of said justice of the peace or other judicial officer. Sec. 3. The said justices of the peace, or other judicial officers, shall in all cases, at their discretion, in place of the fine aforesaid, be authorized to order children, proved before them to be growing up in truancy, and without the benefit of the education provided for them by law, to be placed, for such periods of time as they may judge expedient, in such institution of instruction, or house of reformation, or other suit¬ able situation as may be assigned or provided for the purpose, under the authority conveyed by the first section of this act, in each city or town availing itself of the powers herein granted.5 1 Boston School R,eport for 1849, p. 38. 2 Philbriek’s First Report on Truancy, 1861, p. 222. 3 Boston School Report, 1849, p. 31. 4 Salem, Mass., School Report, 1850, p. 13. 5 Massachusetts statutes of 1850, chap. 294. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 103 CITIES AND TOWNS ADOPTING THE TRUANT LAW. As this law was passed at the instance, primarily, of the Boston officials and for the benefit of that city, it was incumbent on them to adopt its provisions without undue loss of time. Accordingly the school committee in July, 1850, requested the city council to take action in the matter, and that body on October 21, 1850, passed an ordinance, which was approved soon after by the court of common pleas for the county of Suffolk, adopting the provisions of the act, giving jurisdiction under it to the senior justice of the police court, and assigning the House for the Employment and Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents as the place of confinement of the children sentenced according to the third section of the act.1 Three policemen were detailed January 31, 1851, by the mayor and aldermen to act as truant officers under the second section.2 One of these was the same Oliver II. Spurr who had already been acting in substantially the same capacity for nearly three years and who was at that time city marshal.3 Even before Boston had moved in the matter of the adoption of the truant law the school committee of Lowell had taken action with the same thing in view. At their meeting of June 29, 1850, a committee was appointed to consider and report on the subject. The report, made at a subsequent meeting of the school committee, wras strongly in favor of the adoption of regulations by the city, and in conformity with it the mayor was requested to present the subject to the city council and ask the passage of the necessary rules and regulations.4 During the following year (1851) the ordinance requested was passed by the council and was duly approved by the judicial authorities. It imposed a fine of not exceeding $20, or imprisonment, not only in cases of acknowledged truancy, but on every child between the ages of 6 and 15 years who did not attend school and who engaged in no regular and lawful occu¬ pation.5 Children sentenced under these regulations were committed to the House of Employment and Reformation of the city of Lowell, which had previously been established at the almshouse in accordance with the act of the legislature of March 26, 1845. 6 Four children, the first reported, were so committed in 1852. 7 Concord was almost as prompt in taking action, for at the town meeting of Novem¬ ber 10, 1851, the truant law was adopted and regulations were made, which were approved by the justice of the court of common pleas during the December term of that court. The almshouse was assigned as the place of confinement of truants under the third section of the act.8 At Framingham the chairman of the school committee in 1850 was Birdsey G. Northrop, who was afterwards the agent of the Massachusetts State board of education and secretary of the Connecticut State board. The qualities which recommended him for those higher positions were developed in his Framingham experience, and he had already given evidence of that clear perception of educational needs and that intelligent understanding of the proper remedies which in later years made him one of the most prominent school men of his day. The actions of the Framingham school committee bear unmistakable evidence of his influence. In March, 1850, two months before the passage of the truant law, the irregular attendance of pupils was brought to the attention of the town meeting, and a committee was appointed to inquire into the expediency of adopting by-laws and provisions respecting truant children and absentees from school. Pending the report of this committee the State truant law 1 Report of the annual examination of the public schools of Boston, 1853, p. 24. 2Ib., page 25. 3Philbrick’s First Report on Truancy, 1861, p. 229. 4 Twenty-fifth annual report of the school committee of Lowell, Mass., 1850, p. 26. 5 Twenty-sixth annual report of the school committee of Lowell, Mass., 1851, p. 9. cActs and resolves of the general court of Massachusetts in the year 1845, chap. 247, p. 577. 7 Twenty-seventh annual report of the school committee of the city of Lowell, 1852, folding sheet. 8 Report of the school committee of Concord, 1851-52, p. 24. 104 EDUCATION REPORT, ] 899-1900. was passed, and at the town meeting of May 28, 1850, the committee proposed a set of by-laws adopting the law and designating the State reform school as the place of confinement for offenders. Some doubt being expressed about the admission of truants at this institution the matter was postponed for further inquiry, and at the meeting of July 7, 1851, the regulations were adopted by the town.1 Repeated changes were necessary to satisfy the justice of the court, and the final approval of the judicial authority was not given until 1853. 2 But little time was required to develop defects in the law of 1850, and supplemen¬ tary legislation was soon found to be necessary. Accordingly, in 1852, an act was passed limiting the time of detention of convicted truants to one year, and providing that in case a fine was inflicted and not paid the delinquent might be committed to a suitable institution as in cases of nonpayment of other fines.3 THE COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE LAW OP 1852 At the same session of the legislature a general compulsory education law was passed, which did not depend upon the ratification of any local authority for its effectiveness, as did the truant law. This was the first lavT of its kind passed in America since the obsolete laws of the seventeenth century and deserves to be quoted in full. It was as follows: Sec. 1. Every person who shall have any child under his control between the ages of eight and fourteen 3/ears shall send such child to some public school within the town or city in which he resides during at least twelve weeks, if the public schools rvithin such toAvn or city shall be so long kept, in each and every year during Avhich such child shall be under his control, six Aveeks of Avhich shall be consecutive. Sec. 2. Every person who shall violate the provisions of the first section of this act shall forfeit, to the use of said town or city, a sum not exceeding tAventy dollars, to be recoA’ered by complaint or indictment. Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of the school committee in the seATeral towns or cities to inquire into all cases of violation of the first section of this act, and to ascertain of the persons violating the same the reasons, if any, for such violation, and they shall report such cases, together Avith such reasons, if any, to the toAvn or city, in their annual report; but they shall not report any cases such as are provided for by the fourth section of this act. Sec. 4. If, upon inquiry by the school committee, it shall appear, or if upon the trial of any complaint or indictment under this act, it shall appear that such child has attended some school not in the town or city in Avhich he resides, for the time required by this act, or has been otherwise furnished with the means of education for a like period of time, or has already acquired those branches of learning Avhich are taught in common schools, or if it shall appear that his bodily or mental condi¬ tion has been such as to prevent his attendance at school, or his acquisition of learn¬ ing for such a period of time, or that the person having the control of such child is not able,- by reason of poverty, to send such child to school, or to furnish him with the means of education, then such person shall be held not to have A’iolated the pro¬ visions of this act. Sec. 5. It shall be the duty of the treasurer of the town or city to prosecute all violations of this act.4 This law, important a.s it Avas in its final results, did not cause a ripple at the time of its passage, and no attempt avrs made to enforce it, apparently, for years after¬ wards. It Avas not even mentioned in the reports of the State board of education or of its secretaries until 1857 — fhTe years after its passage. I11 fact, Barnas Sears, the successor of Horace Mann, although he continued the Avork of the first secretary in many lines for the upbuilding of the Massachusetts school system, absolutely ignored in his reports the efforts making in the State looking to compulsory school attendance. Not once did he mention the passage of the Iravs of 1850 and 1852 or any action taken under them, although in the nine- 1 Report of tire school committee of the toAvn of Framingham, 1850-51, p. 20. 2 lb., 1853-54, pp. 2 and 25. 3 Massachusetts acts of 1852, chap. 283. 4Ib., chap. 240. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 105 teenth annual report (1856) he enumerated a number of other methods employed to overcome irregular attendance.1 In the report of the board of education itself for 1856, it was stated that the operation of the truant law in towns adopting it had been gratifying; but no reference appears to the general law even there. OTHER ADOPTIONS OF THE TRUANT LAW. From time to time other cities and towns adopted the truant law; New Bedford did so in 1852, 2 Springfield early in 1853, 3 Charlestown in 1855, 4 Chelsea in 1855, 5 Lawrence in 1858, 6 Rockport in 1859, 7 Roxbury in 1859, 8 and North Andover in I860.9 An ordinance to the same effect was passed in Salem in 1853, but it did not receive judicial sanction.10 In nearly all these places efforts were made to enforce the law in earnest. At New Bedford a truant school was at once established at the almshouse and a mixed school was organized for the less incorrigible truants.11 No truant school was available in Springfield until I860,12 but in some of the districts there was a more or less effective enforcement from the adoption of the law.3 A place was provided at the almshouse of Charlestown for convicted truants, and 21 boys were sentenced in 1855, with “a very salutary effect” upon the schools; the school committee objected later to the arrangement for the disposition of truants, but no other institution of reform was provided by the council.13 A “ truancy class” was organized in Lawrence and an elaborate plan was devised for the treatment of truants soon after the passage of the ordinance of adoption.14 An almshouse school was organized for truants in Roxbury in 1859, and for a number of years was an effective aid in securing regular attendance. It was discontinued in 1861, 8 but truancy increased immediately and in four years the school was reopened with the same gratifying results that attended its first estab¬ lishment.15 In Lowell enforcement of the law has been earnest and consistent from the first, and the reform school has been freely used and to good effect.16 LEGAL DIFFICULTIES IN BOSTON. In Boston the first years of the operation of the truant law were marked by diffi¬ culties with the law itself. The amendment of 1852 had scarcely been passed, and machinery provided for the enforcement of the act, when an unexpected difficulty developed in the decision of the police-court justice having jurisdiction in truancy cases to the effect that the law applied only to members of the schools absent with¬ out proper permission. He refused to consider absentees not enrolled in the schools as coming within the scope of the law. This decision offered a loophole of escape for a large class of offenders and seriously interfered with the efficacy of the law. The short term of the sentence specified was also a disadvantage. Under the belief that the other justices would not agree with their brother of the bench in his narrow construction of the law, additional acts were secured from the legislature giving jurisdiction in truancy cases to any justice of the I Nineteenth Annual Report of the Secretary of the Massachusetts Beard of Education, p. 52. -New Bedford City Document No. 6, 1853, p. 102. 3 Springfield School Report, 1853, p. 10. 4 Charlestown School Report, 1855, p. 19. 5 Nineteenth Report Massachusetts Board of Education, p. 11. 6 Lawrence School Report, 1858, p. 10. 7 Twenty-third Annual Report of the Massachusetts Board of Education, p. 121. 8 Roxbury School Report, 1861, p. 8. s Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Board of Education, p. 43. 10-Salem School Report, 1853, p. 35. II See the more extended statement in Section III of this chapter. 12 See Section III of this chapter. 13 Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the State Board of Education, p. 66. 14 Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the State Board of Education, p. 31. 15 Roxbury School Report, 1865, p. 23. 16 Of 81 boys committed to that school during the year 1872-73, 62 were sentenced for truancy. 106 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. police court and extending the maximum term of sentence to two years.1 But those who drafted the new acts had not reckoned with the force of precedent in legal decisions. All the other justices followed the reasoning of the first, and still another act had to be secured in 1862 before the right was conceded to bring forcibly into school children wandering about the streets and not attending school.2 An act had already been passed 3 amending the original truant law by making its enforcement compulsory instead of optional, and the new law largely followed the wording of the old one as amended. A change was, however, made in the ages of required attend¬ ance, they being made from 7 to 16 instead of from 6 to 15, as before. The new law did not satisfy the police justices any more than its predecessors, for it was held to be defective in that it failed to specify precisely who had jurisdiction under it. Recourse was again had to legislation, and still another amendment was passed in 1863 providing that “ either of the justices of the police court of the city of Boston, and any judge or justice of any police court, and any trial justice in this State shall have jurisdiction within their respective counties of the offenses described in chapter 207 of the acts of the year 1862.” 4 Thus it required thirteen years to secure a truant law which might be, in the view of the local authorities, thoroughly workable and effective. But it is not to be supposed that in all this time the truants were having things all their own way in Boston, even if the law were not perfect. Enough law existed all along to make their lot a very unpleasant one. As I have stated, three policemen were detailed for duty in 1851 in connection with the enforcement of the truant law, and from 1852 truant officers — three at first and four later — were formally appointed as such by the mayor and confirmed by the board of aldermen. Cases of truancy in the schools were reported to them and truants were closely watched. Repeated instances of dereliction were apt to lead to commitment to the House of Reformation. Children in the absentee class were often arrested and sentenced for offenses other than absenteeism, though that was the real offense which attracted the notice of the officers and which they desired to punish. The law of 1863, however, brought about the conditions in Boston hoped for and expected at the adoption of the original law in 1850. Its administration was attended with increasing efficiency and success, the judicial officers and truant officers coop¬ erating harmoniously and effectively. The inclusion of absentees in the scope of the law more than doubled its value. The number of vagrant children in the street was speedily diminished and the school attendance was correspondingly increased.5 AMENDMENT OF 1862 GENERALLY INEFFICIENT. It does not appear from the records that the passage of the laws of 1862 and 1863 requiring, instead of permitting, the enforcement of the truant law was followed by any great change in the manner or extent of its application throughout the State. A general compulsory attendance law already existed and no attention had been paid to it. If a community was disposed to compel school attendance there was sufficient authority for it in the permissive law, while if there was not such a disposition no higher authority had the right or power to step in and compel the observance of the new law. Judging from the tenor of the local school documents of the time, the conclusion is justified that the greatest single agency that brought about compulsory education in Massachusetts was the series of “graduated tables” in the reports of the State board of education, devised by Horace Mann. These tables showed the relative 1 Massachusetts acts of 1853, chapter 343, and of 1854, chapter 88. 2 Massachusetts acts of 1862, chapter 207. 3 April 30, 1862; Massachusetts acts of 1862, chapter 21. 4 Massachusetts acts of 1863, chapter 44. 5 Twenty-second semiannual report of the superintendent of public schools of Boston, 1871, p. 224. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 107 attendance of children in school for every city and town in the State, and then gave to each community a relative rank in the State and in the county with reference to its percentage of pupils to school population. The great secretary had inveighed against nonattendance with all the vigor and force of which he was master, both in his official reports and in his addresses throughout the State. He awakened the people to the loss that the State suffered through the ignorance of its inhabitants, and to the loss to the taxpayers through failure to take advantage of the educational facilities they had paid for. Then having awakened them, the graduated tables which he bequeathed to the State kept them awake. Not only did they foster a spirit of emulation in each community to do as well as their neighbors educationally, but they constantly stimulated the desire of the thrifty New England heart to get as much for money spent as anybody else. To this day the graduated tables are regu¬ larly consulted and quoted throughout the State, but they were still more so in the earlier days. And the trenchant arguments and vigorous statements of Horace Mann were repeated, with or without credit, in school reports by the score, and molded public opinion for years after he had relinquished the office that he had made and adorned. Their influence still survives, though naturally it is not as direct and easily traceable as thirty years ago. The school literature of Massachusetts in the sixties teems with discussions of truancy and nonattendance, but references to the necessity of enforcing either of the compulsory law’s for purely legal reasons are rare; Horace Mann’s reasons are constantly in evidence. In the case of Lynn, Mass., the school committee had been urging the passage of truant by-laws prior to the passage of the act of 1862, and that law came opportunely. With its aid the committee were able to induce the city government to take the desired action, and the by-laws were passed August 20, 1862. 1 This was as near to a direct result as the law of 1862 could boast. Other places passed by-laws during the years immediately following, but of their own volition, and without legal pressure. Cohasset did so in 1862; 2 Newdon, March 3, 1863; 3 West Stockbridge, about 1863; 4 Milford, November 21, 1864; 5 Winchendon6 and Somerset7 March, 1865; Newburyport,8 Georgetown,9 Natick,10 and Dalton11 about 1865, and Groton12 April, 1865, etc. In the majority of places the by-laws received but little attention after they were passed. The almshouses in the respective towms were generally designated as the places of confinement for violators of the law, and the impropriety of sending chil¬ dren guilty of truancy only to such a place was so evident that in some cases the school officers flatly refused to enforce a law that would lead to such action. In some cities, howrever, reasonably satisfactory provision vcas made for truants at the almshouses. A u reform school” was put in operation in 1863 at the almshouse in Worcester, after the model of that in Lowell.13 It was controlled by a committee composed of the superintendent of city schools, the city marshal, and the chairman of the committee on the city farm, and continued to receive truants until the opening of the county truant school at Oakdale. The official reports available indicate that its work and general conditions wrere satisfactory, and no complaint is made in them of the unwholesome surroundings which were such a source of trouble in the alms¬ house schools generally. At Roxbury the appointments of the almshouse school 1 Twenty-seventh annual report of the State board of education, p. 23. 2 Thirty-second annual report Massachusetts board of education, p. 251. 8 Twenty-eighth annual report of Massachusetts board of education, p. 72. 4 Twenty-seventh annual report State board of education, p. 134. 5 Twenty-ninth annual report State board of education, p. 161. cIb.,p.l89. " lb., p.278. 8Ib., p. 63. 9Ib.,p. 44. i°Ib.,p. 101. ii lb., p.240. 12 Groton school report 1865-66, p. S. 13 Worcester school report 1863, p. 22. 108 EDUCATION REPOBT, 1899-1900. were in themselves comfortable, clean, and sufficient,1 and the same thing was true of other such schools. But it seems inevitable that the same objections urged so strenuously against an almshouse as a site for a school of detention must have applied to a greater or less degree to all of them. Unquestionably in many instances the conception of the function of these schools was in many cases that they were to be juvenile prisons and no more. In Newton, for example, the by-laws adopted by the town in 1864 provided that “the selectmen of the town shall provide a suitable lockup or institution for instruction or house of reformation, or some other suitable place in the poorhouse belonging to the town, or some other place nT the town * * * which shall be assigned and used for the confinement of persons convicted and sentenced to confinement under said acts.”2 This emphasis upon confinement rather than upon instruction and reformation is to be seen in many, if not most, of the early local ordinances, and the board fence, “carried a little higher than the ambition or agility of the boys will permit them to climb,” was regarded as am essential part of the equipment of a truant school. LIMITED ENFORCEMENT OF TRUANT LAWS. Only a few years’ experience was necessary to disclose difficulties in the way of a satisfactory and general execution of the truant law. In some of the cities, as in Boston, Lowell, and Worcester, there has been no important cessation in its admin¬ istration.3 It has been enforced with increasing efficiency since it was put in opera¬ tion. But in the smaller places this has not been true. The secretary of the State board of education, Hon. Joseph White, gave in his twenty-ninth annual report (1865) 4 a list of 77 cities and towns, out of 334 in the State, which had chosen truant officers and presumably enforced the laws. This number had increased to 98 by 1866. 5 Local reports show clearly, however, that in the great majority of the places named in the list there was no enforcement worthy of the name. The conditions in the following places may be taken as typical of the entire State outside of a half dozen cities: The operation of the law at Newburyport was very successful at first. A truant school was established in 1864, and such was its effect that not a truant was to be seen upon the streets or wharves of the city.6 But the school was expensive and was discontinued in a short time; the truant officer was “'not sufficiently induced” to perform his duty,7 and truancy became as great an evil in the community and as great a hindrance to the schools as ever.6 The by-laws passed in Lawrence in 1853 and reenacted in 1864 were reported as practically inop¬ erative in 1S65,8 and so continued until 1873 when the industrial school was estab¬ lished. The school committee of Groton reported in 1866 that no good results could be seen from the adoption of truant by-laws, and they regarded them as a failure.9 Concord started oil with by-laws early in the history of the truant law, but in 1860, nine years afterward, Supt. A. Bronson Alcott stated that there had been a few cases of truancy, but they could not be reached by any means known to the committee.10 The very existence of truant by-laws had actually been forgotten, or was unknown to the principal school officer. The superintendent in 1876, Bev. Edward Waldo Emerson, complained that he was powerless against truancy in the absence of truant 1 Thirty-first report Massachusetts board of education, p. 256. 2 Twenty -eighth annual report Massachusetts board of education, p. 72. 3 By an unexpected and unexplainable action of the State legislature in 1866 the truant law, so far as it related to Boston, was repealed, but it was restored within a year. 4 Tage G3. 5 Thirtieth annual report Massachusetts board of education, p. 74. 6 Newburyport school report, 1872, p. 14. 7 Thirty-third annual report Massachusetts board of education, p. 76. 8 Lawrence school report, 1865, p. 17. 0 Report of the school committee of Groton, 1865-66, p. 8. 10 Concord school report, 1859-60, p. 11. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 109 laws.* 1 The chairman of the school committee of Haverhill stated in his report for 1869 2 that the system of managing truancy by sending confirmed truants to the town farm was “ very defective,” and urged that some better plan be devised. Holyoke was another town included in Secretary White’s list of 98, but there was no truant school there and no truant ofhcer before 1875. 3 Mr. White said that “ the chief obstacle in the way of a successful administra¬ tion of the truant law has been, and still is, the difficulty of securing proper places for the confinement and proper instruction of the youthful delinquents.”4 But in the light of later developments and experience it is plain that as great as that dif¬ ficulty was the principal trouble lay elsewhere. The lack of proper truant schools occupied the second, not the first, place in the category of hindrances. School officers, though loyal to the compulsory laws in an abstract way, in too many cases became weary of welldoing after a brief attempt to perform the disagreeable duties required, and without the spur of a legal penalty or stimulus from higher authority gradually relapsed into their former laissez faire attitude. Hon. Jacob Batchelder well expressed the situation in his report as chairman of the school committee of Lynn for 1872. 5 He said: Our school statutes have the appearance of the keen-edged blade, but it is left to repose in its sheath, for no official feels authorized, or rather compelled, under pen¬ alty, to draw and test its quality. The town or city is empowered to make its own by-laws regulating school attendance and truancy, and appoint at annual meetings or by the agency of mayor and aldermen, three or more persons, who alone shall be authorized, in case of violation of such by-laws, to make the complaint and carry into execution the judgments thereon. The agents to investigate and prosecute for viola¬ tion of the laws are to be appointed by their own neighbors to prosecute other neigh¬ bors, and all are aware of the influences that, under these circumstances, are wont to paralyze the arm of power. This state of affairs continued without improvement for several years. If there was any difference toward the latter sixties and early seventies the difference was in the direction of still greater laxity. The agent of the State board of education asserted in 1871 that the Massachusetts law was compulsory in its letter and intent rather than in its actual execution, and that no very decided benefit was derived from it.6 At the same time Secretary Whit§ pronounced the law and practice in regard to truancy and absenteeism the weakest and least defensible point in the school system. The several enactments, he said, were ill adapted to their purpose, dis¬ cordant, and incapable of execution, and a thorough revision was required.7 Such a revision was given to the laws by the general court at its session of 1873. A new truant law was passed and approved May 2, 1873, and a new attendance law was approved ten days later. The two laws applied to the same general subject, and its division was not based on any logical reason, but on precedent only. The “truant law” treated of the offense of failure to attend school and the punishment therefor inflicted on the child, and the attendance law covered precisely the same offense and the punishment to be meted out to the parent of the offender. truant law of 1873. The new truant law8 provided that each city and town make all needful provisions and arrangements for habitual truants and children between the ages of 7 and 15 years of age not attending school and growing up in ignorance, make proper by-laws . 1 Concord school report, 1875-76, p. 8; new by-laws were made necessary by the act of 1862. 2 Report of the school committee of Haverhill, 1869, p. 21. 3 Twenty-third annual report of the officers of the town of Holyoke, 1873, p. 36; and report of the school committee of the city of Holyoke, 1875, p. 18. 4 Thirtieth annual report Massachusetts board of education, p. 75, 5 Page 16. 0 Thirty -fourth annual report Massachusetts board of education, p. 88. 7 lb., p. 120. 8 Massachusetts acts of 1873, chapter 262. 110 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. concerning them, and provide suitable places for the confinement, discipline, and instruction of such children, the by-laws to be subject to the approval of a justice of the superior court or of the judge of probate of the county. The several school committees were required to appoint two or more truant offi¬ cers to investigate all cases arising under the by-laws, and in cases of violation thereof to make complaints and execute the judgments rendered. In this was an important departure from the previous law, as it placed the truant officers under the control of the school rather than of the municipal authorities. Minors convicted under the by-laws were to be committed to the “institution of instruction of suitable location ” provided fora term not exceeding two years, and upon proof of amendment, or for other sufficient cause, might be discharged by the court which had passed the sentence. Jurisdiction was given to justices of police or district courts, trial justices of juvenile offenders, and judges of probate. County commissioners were directed to establish county truant schools upon the demand of three or more cities or towns in their respective counties. Any city or town might assign such truant school as the place of confinement for offenders under the act, paying not over $2 a week for the support of those committed. This provi¬ sion was the origin of the county truant-school system, and was in imitation of the act of 1866, which gave to county commissioners the right to establish county reform schools. Secretary White had long urged the establishment of truant schools by and for the counties;1 but it seems that the final adoption of this provision was due to the efforts of Rev. Joseph Osgood, a member the legislature from Cohasset.2 The State primary school at Monson 3 4 was made by the act available for convicted truants, provided the State board of charities assented. Such assent was given to a few towns, but was soon withdrawn, and that institution was never a considerable factor in the treatment of truants. COMPULSORY- ATTENDANCE LAW OF 1873. The new “attendance law” 1 extended the time of annual required attendance at school to twenty weeks, but reduced the ages between which attendance was required to from 8 to 12 years. The enforcement of the lav/ was charged upon truant officers and school committees instead of upon the several town treasurers. Juris¬ diction under the act was given to the same justices specified in the “truant law,” and the maximum fine to be inflicted upon the neglectful parent was fixed at $20. SLOW AND GRADUAL IMPROVEMENT. The passage of these laws awakened interest in the subject anew, and many school committees gravely resolved to enforce the laws, which were declared to be at last perfect, but which had been incapable of being executed before. These resolutions 1 Twenty-ninth annual report Massachusetts board of education, p. 63; thirtieth report, p. 74, etc. 2 Fifty-ninth report Massachusetts board cf education, p. 570. 3 The State primary school was originally designed for the children of paupers in the three State almshouses, and Avas the outgrowth of "a school maintained for the children in the Monson alms¬ house. Its separate existence began September 3, 1866. Association A\dth adult paupers being dele¬ terious to the children, the former AArere gradually Avithdrawn and the almshouse department Avas finally closed May 1, 1872, leaving the primary school in full possession of the field. In 1S70 the school began to be used also for young delinquents, more properly classed as dependent than as crim¬ inal, and from 1S82 it Avas made to receive children committed to the care of the State board of health, lunacy, and charity because of criminal neglect of their parents. In time the school came to Avear the aspect of a reformatory, the majority of its inmates being of the delinquent class. In 1894 the institution aaus giA’en OArer to juvenile offenders only, and the dependent and neglected children were AvithdraAvn and boarded out. During the next year (May 1, 1S95) the institution Avas closed and the 110 inmates then remaining Avere variously disposed of, the Avorst being sent to the State reform school and most of the others being sent to their homes or boarded out. The greatest population of the institution Avas reached in 1882, Avhen there Avere 448 inmates. 4 Massachusetts acts of 1873, p. 279. TRUANT SCHOOLS. Ill may have had some good results, but the extent of the real execution of the law broadened but slowly. One noticeable difference in the immediate results of this law from previous simi¬ lar ones was that it was not followed by any strengthening of existing local truant schools or by the establishment of new ones worthy of the name. The Lawrence Industrial School was opened in a few months, but that can scarcely be credited to the law, since the school had been in contemplation for several years and the act of incorporation was passed in 1S72. The provision for county truant schools naturally prevented efforts that might have been made for local institutions. Petitions to the county commissioners were made instead. Several towns, in adopting new by-laws, designated as the place of confinement “the county truant school when established,” which under the circumstances meant nothing at ail. And the fact remains that in spite of mandatory provisions covering the whole State, only 130 out of 341 cities and towns made even a formal attempt to execute the truant law.1 Secretary White earnestly sought to impress school committeemen with a sense of their duty, and urged them to appoint truant officers whether formal by-laws had been adopted or not. He held that such appointment was a direct legal command and was not con¬ tingent upon any action of the town.2 One hundred and fifty -seven towns and cities claimed to have truant officers in 1878. 3 The cause of compulsory education appeared to be gaining ground, but the progress was slow, and the conditions were satisfactory in but few of the 157 places. Concerned at this poor showing, the State board of education, with the purpose of calling special attention to the subject, published and sent to each town a copy of an approved form of by-laws for truant officers, and, what was decidedly more to the point— certainly toward securing a nominal compliance with the law — they secured. an act of the legislature prohibiting any of the income of the State school fund from being apportioned to any city or town “which had not complied with the laws relating to truancy.” 4 It was made, furthermore, the duty of the school committees to report annually to the secretary of the board, of education whether their respec¬ tive cities or towns had made the provisions and arrangements relating to truants and absentees as required by law. At last an argument had been found which promised to be as powerful as some of those of Horace Mann. His most effective appeals were through the pocketbooks of his constituents, and here was a law which used the same principle in behalf of compulsory education and in a very direct way. Thereafter it meant dollars in the treasuries of those towns which enforced the law either in fact or on paper. Hon. J. W. Dickinson assumed the office of secretary of the board of education in 1877, and by persistent and well-directed efforts he called attention to the next essen¬ tial, namely, county truant schools. But success came slowly. The first institution of that class was not established until seven years after the passage of the act requir¬ ing them. Towns and cities repeatedly petitioned for truant schools according to the law, but without result, the reply usually being that there was no money available for the purpose.5 Nevertheless, constantly increasing attention was given to the truant law in general, and in 1888 there were very few school committees which did not report compliance with its provisions.6 Much of this was of a purely formal and perfunctory character, to prevent loss of school money under the law of 1878, but there was undoubtedly a fair share of conscientious work done. Of 45 cities and towns, all having superintendents, investigated in 1886 by Mr. George A. Walton, agent of 1 Thirty-ninth report Massachusetts board of education, 1874-75, p.1‘24. 2Ib., p. 124. 3 Forty-second report Massachusetts board of education, p. 10 4 Massachusetts acts and resolves, 1878, chapter 234, p. 171. 5 See the statements relating to individual institutions, for a fuller account of the establishment of the county truant schools. 6 Fiftieth report Massachusetts board of education, 1885-86, p. 169. 112 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. the board of education, 27 reported full compliance with the law. Of the remaining 18, nearly all indicated some action of account.1 Even if these 27 places were the only ones in the State at that time in which a satisfactory state of affairs existed — and it is likely that this was true — a considerable gain would have been indicated by that much of enforcement; and the fact that something was done in nearly every town in the State, however bare of results it might have been, meant a great deal, for it was impossible before 1878 to induce the major part of the town officers and school committees to take any notice of the truant law at all. The investigation of Mr. Walton, just mentioned, was the basis for the first of a series of three important special documents that have been issued by the State board on the subject of attendance and truancy. The second was also prepared by Mr. Walton, in accordance with a legislative resolution,2 and appeared in March, 1896.3 4 The third related especially to county truant schools, and was made in accordance with the legal provision that those institutions should be subject to the visitation of the State boards of education and of lunacy and charity, and that those boards should report annually on them to the legislature. This report was prepared by Hon. Frank A. Hill, secretary of the board of education, and was based largely on the reports of the three State agents. It formed a part of the sixty-second annual report of the M assachusetts board of education.1 The value and influence of these special reports have been incalculable in attract¬ ing attention to existing conditions and pointing the way to improvement. And they have been effectively supplemented by the active efforts of the secretary and agents of the board. At no time within the last twenty years has the matter been allowed to rest or public interest to lapse. As a result, the general sentiment has grown con¬ stantly more favorable to compulsory laws, the legal enactments have been strength¬ ened from time to time in places where they have been found to be weak, and the extent of their genuine and hearty enforcement has steadily increased. RECENT LEGISLATION AND PRESENT STATUS. In 1881 5 and 1881 6 the provision relating to county truant schools was amended so as to permit two or more contiguous counties to unite in maintaining truant schools. Encouraging truancy by employing truants was made punishable by a fine of from $20 to $50 in 1885. 7 Truant officers were formally authorized in 1889 to apprehend and take to school without warrant children discovered in the act of truancy,8 and in the same year children who persistently violate the reasonable rules of the com¬ mon schools were included in the category of those who might be sent to a truant school.9 The then existing laws relating to school attendance, truancy, and the care of neglected children10 were consolidated, with but few changes, into one law and reenacted in 1894. 11 Finally, the law now in force was passed in 1898. 12 1 Fiftieth report Massachusetts hoard of education, 1885-85, p. 169. 2 Massachusetts acts and resolves, 1895, chap. 47. 3 It was published in the fifty-ninth report of the Massachusetts board of education, pp. 527-601. 4 Pp. 461-491. 5 Massachusetts acts and resolves, 1881, chap. 144. c Massachusetts acts and resolves, 1884, chap. 155. 7 Massachusetts acts and resolves, 1885, chap. 71. 8 Massachusetts acts and resolves, 1889, chap. 422. 0 lb., chap. 249. 10 In 1866 cities and towns were authorized to make all needful provisions for “ children under 16 years of age, who, by reason of orphanage or of neglect, crime, drunkenness, or other vice of parents, are suffered to grow up without salutary parental control and education, or in circumstances expos¬ ing them to lead idle and dissolute lives.” In the provisions relating to the adoption of by-laws, appointment of officers to execute the act, jurisdiction, and the disposition of such neglected children, this act closely followed the truant law. In 1878 it was made obligatory on all cities and towns of over 5, C00 inhabitants to take action as provided by the law, and the agents of the Massachusetts Children’s Protective Society were authorized to make complaints under it. In practice, truant officers and truant schools were usually named by the towns for the enforcement of the neglected- childred law, and there has always been a close relationship between it and the truant law. Hence their consolidation. 11 Massachusetts acts and resolves, 1894, chap. 498. 12 See text of law in Section IV of this chapter. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 113 Secretary Dickinson and the State agents had for several years urged a general revision involving the elimination of several features of the old law which had proved stumbling blocks and the addition of new agencies to make it more effective. Accordingly, as stated in a previous paragraph, the legislature in 1895 1 called on the State board of education for a report on the general subject of school attendance and truancy, with special reference to means for suppressing the latter. This report was prepared by Mr. George A. Walton, with the cooperation of Mr. Charles IV. Birtwell, of the Boston Children’s Aid Society, and was an exhaustive and able document. In response to further legislative requests, and after three years of active and painstaking study, much revision and submission to legal and educational experts, three bills, relat¬ ing respectively to school attendance and truancy, the employment of children at labor, and neglected children, were drawn by Messrs. Walton and Birtwell and sub¬ mitted to the legislature. As finally passed, some of the important features recom¬ mended were omitted — notably the provision for State control of truant schools and State truancy agents. But these seem to be directly in the line of the evolution of the Massachusetts compulsory system, and manifestly would be of such usefulness that their adoption can not be long delayed. The new law is a great advance over the old one; its application will undoubtedly be more general, and a few years under it will prove, without question, the complete desirability of a more centralized man¬ agement of the whole question. One of the greatest improvements in the lav/ of 1898 is that the requirement of the adoption of local by-lav/s is omitted. While compulsory attendance was a matter of local option, special legislation by the several towns was not inappropriate. Delib¬ erate and formal action in town meeting had its use in bringing the subject into gen¬ eral notice and in securing more cordial popular cooperation in its enforcement if adopted. But after compulsion was made an absolute duty, formal action by the several towns, with the necessity of judicial approval, became not only useless, but a serious and troublesome complication that often of itself completely nullified the law. There was no good reason for its continuance, and the only explanation for it is to be found in the habit common to legislatures of building new laws on the wrecks of old ones. COMPARISON OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT SYSTEMS OF TRUANCY CONTROL. The Connecticut system of compulsory school attendance was developed under very different influences from that of Massachusetts, and in essential respects it is now markedly different. The Massachusetts system began and grew according to the needs of the Boston schools. Its initiation wTas the result of efforts of Boston school officials and with a few exceptions the amendments that have been made were those suggested by the experience of a great city. Notwithstanding recent changes it is now and always has been a system specially applicable to cities and difficult of enforcement outside of them. It was constructed for a municipality willing and anxious to enforce its provisions; all its traditions and its present char¬ acter bear the impress of its origin. In Connecticut, on the contrary, there is no great city to dominate the ideas and formulate the laws of the State according to its own conditions and ideals, as Paris does in France and as Boston does in Massachusetts. New Haven, the largest city in Connecticut, has only about 100,000 inhabitants; Plartford is not far behind in size, and the rivalry between the two places is a part of the history of the State. The ambition of other Connecticut cities, with the presence of several neighboring cities at least equally important, like Providence, Worcester, Fall River, and Lowell, and, above all, the overtowering municipalities of New York and Boston near by, ED 1900 1 Massachusetts acts and resolves, 1895, chap. 47. -8 114 EDUCATION BEPOET, 1899-1900. all prevent either New Haven or Hartford from assuming colossal proportions in the eyes of the inhabitants of the towns and tend to lessen the influence of those cities in the affairs of the State. The effect of this is to be seen distinctly in the legis¬ lation on school attendance. In 1865 the Massachusetts “truant law,” as it theq stood, was copied and enacted by the Connecticut legislature.1 At the very beginning of the act was a proof of what has just been written in the last paragraph; the cities were entirely omitted from the provisions of the law and the omission had to be remedied the next year. Massachusetts had another law on the statute books, the “attendance law,” which inflicted a fine on the parent of a truant from school, but that law was then a dead letter, while the “ truant law ” was enforced with some success in a number of places. It was natural, therefore, when the Connecticut legislators determined to enact com¬ pulsory school legislation that they should copy the only law in the country which had attained any measure of success. No result came directly from the law in Connecticut, and in the revision of the code in 1875 it was practically nullified by making its enforcement optional with the towns and cities instead of obligatory.2 The law authorizing policemen and constables to arrest truants loitering in the streets and directing the committal of incorrigible offenders to a city house of refor¬ mation or to the State reform school (see text of the law in this chapter) was passed originally in 1869. But the real beginning of the Connecticut compulsory system dates from 1872, when the law was passed throwing upon the parent the responsi¬ bility for the failure of his child to be at school; and time has shown that the prin¬ ciple of the “ attendance law ” is better suited to the conditions of Connecticut than that of the “truant law,” and the present laws are chiefly along the lines of the former. As Mr. Giles Potter, the agent of the State board, expressed it: “ Formerly our laws seemed to assume that it was demand on the part of employers for the services of children that kept them from school; then the truancy of children; but lastly, we have come to the true plan, of enforcing parental responsibility.” 3 At the time this sentence was written the provision of the Massachusetts law imposing a fine upon the parent for failing to send his child to school was almost ntirely inoperative,4 and even now it is comparatively seldom brought into requisition. In this, then, lies the essential difference between the Massachusetts and the Connecticut systems: In the one the child suffers the penalty for absence from school; in the other, the parent. It is reasonable to ascribe this difference to the different influences already described as having surrounded the growth of the two systems. In a city, when a child is seen “wandering about the streets and public places,” the one apparent fact is that that child is on the way to ruin, and the first impulse is to save him by restraining him. His home influences do not so readily appear as a factor. His parents are indefinite quantities that are in the background of thousands of other men and women, and their relationship to the boy does not appear until it is sought out. But the wayward child stands forth unmistakably. He it is who first attracts 1 The law as amended in 1866 required that each city and town should make all needful provisions concerning habitual truants and children wandering about the streets, having no lawful business nor attending school, and growing up in ignorance. Suitable by-laws respecting such children were required, the said by-laws to be approved by the superior court. Minors between 7 and 16 years of age convicted of habitual truancy might be fined not over §20 for each offense or committed to an institution of instruction, house of reformation, or other suitable situation for a term not exceeding two years. The several cities and towns were directed to appoint three or more persons (truant officers) who were alone authorized to prosecute for violation of the by-laws. Jurisdiction was given to any justice of the peace or police judge of the proper city or town. — (Conn. Rev. Stats., 1866, Title XIII, Chap. IV, sees. 56-59.) 2 Conn. Rev. Sta*t. , 1875, p. 127. a Report Connecticut Board of Education, 1888, p. 33. 4 Fiftieth Annual Report Massachusetts Board of Education, p. 171. TEUANT SCHOOLS. 115 attention, and it is toward him that remedial or preventive measures are most naturally directed. In less populous communities,, on the contrary, the conditions and relationships of families are more generally and fully known. The father is known before the child. Neglect and ill treatment at home excite attention before their legitimate results, and consequently the measures that first suggest themselves are those that bear on the parent. The confinement or punishment of the child is thought of only when the first steps have proved of no avail or are manifestly useless. Precisely these characteristics mark the Massachusetts and Connecticut systems, respectively. As a result, we see in the one State that the establishment of truant, schools has all along been insisted upon as a prime necessity and their development has reached a more advanced stage than in any other State in the Union. They are intended for a class of offenders in whom there is yet no taint of criminality and undoubtedly receive many children who, under the opposite policy, would remain at home. In the other State there has never been a regularly organized truant school, the nearest approach to it being the “ungraded schools” of New Haven, which will be presently described.1 The parent is held to account for his child’s misdeeds until he declares that the child is beyond his control. Then only is the offender removed to an institution under State control for his reformation. Even an indifferent and inefficient parent over whom the hand of the law is held will control his child unless the spirit of lawlessness is rife within him, and in that ease he is none too good for the reform school. Such is the theory of the Connecticut law. In the machinery of enforcement the provisions in Connecticut are more effective in the towns than in the cities, while the opposite is true of Massachusetts. Of the latter State it may be said with truth that until within a few years the attendance laws were of little account outside the cities, and the difficulties are yet greatest in the small towns. “ The truant officers in the small towns are nearer to the families that may be concerned in violating the law. It is difficult for them to enforce the law against their neighbors. ” 2 The Massachusetts plan has been well called a 1 1 local-option system, ’ ’ 3 since no State officer is charged with its enforcement. F or its effect it must depend entirely upon local officials, and unless these officials are faithful, earnest, and unmoved by feelings of friendship and self-interest the system must fail. On the contrary, it is in evidence that the enforcement in the towns in Connecticut is less difficult than in the cities, because in the thickly populated places absentees and truants escape notice easier. The difficulties experienced in Massachusetts towns are not felt in Connecticut, because of the employment of State agents to cooperate with local officers and hold them up to their duties. These agents were first authorized and employed in 1869, 4 and there are now six in the service of the State. Their work is the most conspicuous feature of the Connecticut compulsory system, as the county truant schools are of that of Massachusetts. Finally, it is to be noted that the tendencies in both these States are in the direc¬ tion of obliterating the differences between their system by the adoption by each of the successful features of the other. The appointment of State truancy agents has long been urged in Massachusetts, and more frequently since 1898 are parents arraigned for the absenteeism of their children. The demand for truant schools in Connecticut is not so urgent as that for State truant officers in Massachusetts, but the need is felt and frequently expressed. It is not necessary to trace the history of the Connecticut attendance laws in this paper, for truant schools find no place in them except to the extent which has already been described. 1 See Section III of this chapter. 2 Letter of Hon. Frank A. Hill, secretary of the Massachusetts boaftl of education, October 13, 1899. 3 Education Report, 1888-89, p. 470. 4 Connecticut Laws of 1869, Chap. CXY, sec. 3. 116 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. TRUANT SCHOOLS IN THE STATE OF NEW YORK. The history of compulsory education in New York is marked by three epochs, beginning, respectively, in 1853, 1874, and 1894. The first epoch was ushered in by the passage of the truant law of 1853, and might be called the period of preparation. There was just enough of enforcement to show what might be done and to prepare the way for better things. The law of 1874 was not brought about by the school men of the State, and the time during which it was in force is characterized largely by indifference or antagonism on the part of the very men upon whose support the law depended for its value. But this also was a period of preparation. In 1894 was the beginning of real compulsory education in New York. The truant law of April 12, 1853, is said to have been the outcome of efforts of the Juvenile Reform Society of Rochester,1 and as such it was a direct result of the movement initiated by John Griscom and his associates in the formation of the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism.2 The law itself was modeled on that of Massachusetts, and provided that if any child between the ages of 5 and 16 years be found wandering in the streets of any city or incorporated village, idle and truant, without lawful occupation, any justice of the peace, on the complaint of any citizen, should cause such child to be brought before him for examination. If the complaint be established, the parent or guardian of the child should be required to enter into an engagement to restrain him from wandering about, to keep him in some lawful occupation, and to cause him to attend school at least four months each year. If no parent or guardian be found, or if no engagement be given, or if it be violated if given, the child should be committed to a suitable place to be provided. Every city and incorporated village was required to provide a place for the reception of children so committed, and for their instruc¬ tion and employment in some useful occupation, and for their proper support and clothing. Such children were to be kept until discharged by the proper officers, or they might be bound out as apprentices. All police officers and constables were enjoined to make complaint of any child found wandering in the condition described. But little came of this law in the State as a whole, and it appears that Rochester and Brooklyn were the only municipalities that ever took any serious action under it, though there might have been a few isolated cases of prosecution in other localities. There was little sentiment favoring compulsory education and no general demand for it. Even among school men the feeling was that such laws were opposed to the spirit of free institutions, and therefore undesirable in this country. The matter of a general compulsory law was brought up in the State legislature in 1866 and again in 1871, and each time the measures proposed were antagonized by the then State superintendent of public instruction. On May 11, 1874, however, a compulsory attendance law was finally passed, though the State school officers were still opposed to it and few of the local officials on whom it depended for effect favored it. In the act were combined an “ attendance law,” an “employment law,” and a “ truant law,” and it was largely copied from the Massachusetts statutes then in force.3 1 See “Rochester” in Section III of this chapter. 2 See p. 87. 3 In substance it was as follows: All parents having children between 8 and 14 years of age were required to send them to school at least 14 weeks each year, 8 weeks at least of that time to be consecutive. No child under 14 years of age might be employed to labor during school hours \mless he had attended school 14 weeks during the preceding year, under a penalty of a fine of $50, to be inflicted on the employer. The school trustees of every district or their officers were required to examine all manufacturing and other establishments under their jurisdiction at least twice each year, to discover violations cf the law. School-district trustees and presidents of union schools or such officers as may be duly designated by boards of education were authorized to see that the provisions of the act were enforced. Violations were punishable by lines of $1 for the first offense and $5 for each subsequent offense, each week of TRUANT SCHOOLS. 117 The reception met by this law was peculiar. The State superintendent, Hon. Neil Gilmore, was opposed to compulsory education in principle, and to this particular act because it was, in his opinion, loosely drawn and obscure in meaning. But as a State official it was his duty to enforce it, and as an honest man it was his intention to do it as fairly and as fully as he could. The circulars he prepared in this frame of mind for distribution among school officers are remarkable documents, and give ample evidence that his heart was not in the undertaking. “Those who were instrumen¬ tal,” he said in one of his circulars, “in procuring the passage of the compulsory education act believe that great good will result from its prompt and strict enforce¬ ment. It is, at any rate, a law of our State, and certainly entitled to a fair trial. I urge that each and all of you clo what you reasonably may to give it such a trial, and that you report to me any defects which you may discover in the practical workings of the law.”* 1 The recipients of the circular for the most part believed as did the sender, and the replies that he received to a special inquiry a year afterward were just as he evidently expected. The law was reported almost universally as unen¬ forced and unenforceable.2 Amendments were made in 1876, more circulars were sent out, and more special reports called for. The result was the same as before, though it was conceded that the moral effect of the law had been good.3 Reports for the next few years indicate substantially the same state of affairs. New York and Brooklyn were the only two cities in which serious and aggressive action had been taken, and the school superin¬ tendents of both those cities at that time wrote disparagingly and unfavorably of the effects.4 In 1880 Superintendent Gilmore was able to say that the compulsory education act was practically a dead letter.5 In time a new set of superintendents came on the scene, and the attitude of the new men was decidedly favorable to compulsory attendance. Draper in the State superintendency, Jasper in New York City, Maxwell in Brooklyn, Ellis in Roches¬ ter, Crooker in Buffalo, and Cole in Albany, the men holding the most important educational positions in the State, were all earnest bejievers in the principle and expediency of compulsion, if necessary, to enforce universal education, and it is not surprising that under such leadership the sentiment among the school men of the State gradually assumed the same aspect. At the meeting of the council of school superintendents in Rochester in Novem¬ ber, 1887, a committee was appointed, under the chairmanship of Supt. C. W. Cole, of Albany, to draft a new compulsory education law and urge its passage by the legislature. The law proposed by this committee differed from that of 1874 in its providing very stringently for its own execution by withholding public moneys from districts in which its provisions were not enforced; in providing a State institu¬ tion to which incorrigible truants might be committed until reformed or discharged by proper authority, and in providing for a longer compulsory period of school attendance each year. A bill containing these provisions was introduced in the assembly in 1888, but it failed to pass.6 failure to send, his child to school being a separate offense for the parent. If the parent state in writing that the child was beyond his control, it was provided that the parent should be relieved of penalties and the child should be dealt with as an habitual truant. Local boards of education were directed to make all needful arrangements, rules, and regulations concerning habitual truants and to provide suitable places for the discipline, instruction, and confine¬ ment of such children, said provisions to be of no effect until approved by a justice of the supreme court of the proper judicial district. Jurisdiction for the trial of cases under the act was given to justices of the peace, civil justices, and police justices. (Act of May 11, 1874.) 1 Twenty-first Annual Report Superintendent Public Instruction of New York, p. 111. 2 Twenty-second Annual Report State Superintendent, pp. 98-114. 3 Twenty-third Annual Report State Superintendent, 1877, p. 32. 4 Twenty-fifth Annual Report State Superintendent, 1879, pp. 65-72. 5 Twenty-sixth Annual Report State Superintendent, 1880, p. 26. e Albany, N. Y., school report, 1887-88, pp. 23 and 24. 118 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The council of school superintendents met in Utica in November of the same year, resolved to continue their efforts, and reappointed the same committee, with instructions to press to its passage a new bill which had been agreed upon at the meeting. This bill passed both houses of the legislature at the session of 1889, but it was not approved by the governor, one of his principal objections to it being the large appropriation it carried for the establishment of a State truant school.1 Having come so close to success, the friends of the measure were by no means dis¬ posed to accept this failure as final. The agitation was continued, and an influential ally was found in Governor Roswell P. Flower. His messages to the legislature in 1S93 and 1894 contained strong recommendations for compulsory education, and on May 12 of the latter year the bill providing for it became a law.2 As was to be expected, defects in the law' soon developed, and in 1896 amend¬ ments v'ere made requiring an affidavit to the notice of the parent that he is unable to compel his child to attend school; requiring common school districts containing incorporated villages and every township to appoint truant officers; authorizing any school district to establish a truant school; authorizing the parole of inmates of truant schools; permitting the State superintendent to employ assistants in liis dis¬ cretion to carry out the law and to fix their salaries, the v'hole amount appropriated for the purpose being $12, 000. 3 Four inspectors are now employed under the compulsory education statutes. A large majority of the cities and larger villages enforce the law' satisfactorily, and the attention of the State officers is given almost entirely to the rural districts.4 It is their practice to visit each district, compare the list of children shown by the census with those on the school records, demand explanations relating to absences, and then commend or admonish the teachers and members of the board of education as the circumstances seem to require.5 Circulars of instruction are issued, reports are required, and meetings of attendance officers are held from time to time to familiar¬ ize all concerned with the requirements and operations of the lawT. All of these measures have had good effects. As to the general results of the law in the State as a v'hole, it may be said that in a year while the number of children of school age (5 to 18 years) increased by 17,091, the number attending school during some portion of the year increased by 27,125, and the average daily attendance by 48,200. The last item is considered the most significant and encouraging feature of the w'ork.6 1 Albany school report, 1888-89, p. 42. 2 By this law children between 8 and 12 years are required to attend school during the entire school session between October 1 and June 1; those between 12 and 11 must attend at least 80 days, and during the remainder of the school term if not employed; those between 14 and 16 must attend when not employed. Private instruction equivalent to that of the public schools may be accepted in lieu of attendance upon the latter. Persons in parental relation to a child between 8 and 16 years must cause such child to attend school or give notice to the school authorities of his inability to do so. Violation of this requirement is punishable by a fine of not over $5 for the first offense and not over $50 for each subsequent offense, or by imprisonment not exceeding 30 days, or both. Employment is forbidden of children between 8 and 12 years old during the school term and of children between 12 and 14 years unless they have a proper certificate of 80 days’ school attendance. A penalty of $50 fine is attached for violation of this section. Accurate records of school attendance are required of teachers. Provision is made for the employment of truant ofncers'by cities or union school districts, the arrest of truants, and the maintenance of truant schools in cities or union school districts. The State superintendent of imblic instruction is authorized to employ an assistant, at a salary of $2,500 a year, to investigate and report upon the extent to which this act is complied with throughout the State. The State superintendent is authorized to withhold one-half of all public-school moneys from cities or districts which omit or refuse to enforce the provisions of this act. (Laws of 1894, chap. 071.) 3 Laws of 1896, chap. 606. 4 Report of State superintendent public instruction, 1896-97, p. 917. 6 Report of State superintendent public instruction, 1895-96, p. 995. eib., 1896-97, p. 922. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 119 In New York, even more than in Massachusetts, there is a general demand from school men for the establishment of truant schools under State control. In Massa¬ chusetts the county truant schools are as much for the rural districts as for the cities, while in New York there is as yet no adequate provision for delinquents in the smaller districts. It is obviously impossible for a small country town to support a truant school of its own. Rural districts may, it is true, make contracts with schools of other places to receive their truants, but that involves inconveniences, formalities, and bargaining that would in any event frequently prevent action. Even if this were not true, there is a dearth of proper schools with which to contract. Of the public truant schools, that at Rochester is the only one whose accommoda¬ tions are sufficient to receive children from outside sources; some of the others are inadequate for even local needs. This condition has brought about what is now a marked feature of the New York system, namely, the utilization of institutions under private control in the commitment of truants and the milder offenders. These institutions are in most cases not well adapted to the care of truant children.1 State truant schools seem to offer the only available solution of the difficulty. Their establishment is considered the most urgent necessity in connection with the proper execution of the compulsory law.2 State Superintendent Skinner desires that they u should be established and conducted along lines that should entirely eliminate any tendency to stamp those in attendance as belonging to the criminal classes. They should be, in fact, schools and temporary homes, not prisons or reformatories. They should provide, as far as possible, the training found in good homes, and the pleasures, pursuits, and interest of home life. To this end it were better that such home schools should be located -in the country, where their pupils would be less exposed to excitement and temptation than in large communities, and where pure water, pure air, and opportunity for healthful exercise tend to promote a vigorous physical development.2 Another particular in which the New York law has been found to be defective in practice is the provision that commitments to truant schools may be for not longer than the remainder of the school year. This is obviously too short a time for the reformation of a great proportion of the children sentenced; and the undue shorten¬ ing of the possible term toward the end of the school year makes the formalities of legal action and trial appear absurd when the sentence can be for only a few days. It would seem, therefore, that the effect of this provision would be to practically let down the bars and license truancy for an important part of the school year. Many sugges¬ tions have been offered as to the proper change to be made. The realization of the principle of the indeterminate sentence would require that all commitments be for the full period of compulsory school attendance, and that the truant-school authori¬ ties exercise a wise discretion in the matter of paroles. This idea is the one which finds the most favor with those most interested in the execution of the law, the shape in which the proposition is definitely made being that the truants under 14 be com¬ mitted up to that age, and those over 14 be committed until they reach the age of 16 years.3 1 Report of State superintendent public instruction, 1896-97, p. xiv. 2 lb., 1895-96, p. XXVII. 3 lb., 1896-97, p. 926. 120 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. III. CONCERNING INDIVIDUAL SCHOOLS. Statistics of truant schools, 1898-99. Location. Kind of school. Sentenced or trans¬ ferred dur¬ ing the year. Average of pnpils in the school. CONNECTICUT. New Haven . ILLINOIS. 5 ungraded day schools 250 Chicago . . . MASSACHUSETTS. Boston . Goshen . Lawrence . North Chelmsford . Springfield . Walpole . Worcester (Oakdale) . MICHIGAN. Bay City . Detroit . Grand Bapids . NEW JERSEY. Newark . NEW YORK. Albany . Binghamton . Buffalo . New York City (borough of Brooklyn). New York City (boroughs of Manhattan a n d the Bronx). Rochester . Syracuse . OHIO. Cleveland . PENNSYLVANIA . Allegheny . Philadelphia . RHODE ISLAND. Providence . 1 ungraded day school; 1 hoarding school 1 boarding school (Boston Parental School) . 1 boarding school (Truant School of Hampshire and Franklin Counties.) 1 boarding school (Essex County Truant School). 1 boarding school (Middlesex" County Truant School) . 1 boarding school (Hampden County Truant School) . 1 boarding school (Union Truant School of Nor¬ folk. Bristol, and Plymouth Counties). 1 boarding school (Worcester County Truant School). 389 171 2 2 33 64 101 29 21 50 50 1 ungraded day school _ do . _ do . 1 ungraded day school 1 ungraded day school . do . 1 boarding school . (1 boarding school . 12 ungraded day classes jl boarding school . |3 ungraded day classes 1 boarding school . . do . 300 60 187 33 41 21 86 27 54 12 100 35 147 67 335 50 106 25 60 12 2 ungraded day schools 1 ungraded day school . 2 ungraded day schools 7 ungraded day schools 242 175 DETAILED ^STATEMENTS RELATING TO INDIVIDUAL CITIES OR SCHOOLS. [Note. — The arrangement is alphabetical according to States, following the order of the preceding table. Sketches of certain defunct institutions not represented in the table appear in their proper alphabetical position.] San Francisco, Cal. The following is one of the sections of an “Act to provide for the support of the common schools of the city and county of San Francisco, and to define the powers and duties of the hoard of education thereof,” approved April 1, 1872: Sec. 9. The board of education of the city and county of San Francisco are hereby authorized to establish in some central locality of said city a school, to which shall TRUANT SCHOOLS. 121 "be admitted only those pupils who shall have been found, upon satisfactory exami¬ nation and trial, too depraved to be permitted to associate longer with the pupils of other schools; but such pupil or pupils may be restored to any school under charge of said board upon satisfactory evidence of thorough reformation of conduct.1 This law is still in force, and the present superintendent of city schools, Hon. R.H. Webster, has recently urged the establishment of a truant school under it..2 In the past the subject has several times been broached, and at one time such a school was actually maintained, but it did not live long. The San Francisco system of school organization is peculiar in one respect, namely, that the superintendent is elected by the people every two years. Frequent changes have resulted, and the list of men who have tilled the office is a long one. Changes of policy have been as numerous as changes of persons. No two men have the same set of ideas; what one superintendent considers of prime importance is not apt to be so considered by his successor, and continuity of purpose for a series of years in the conduct of the office is not to be expected. This is particularly applicable to truant schools. Before Mr. Webster, one only of the superintendents has given the matter airy considerable attention, and his ideas have not been followed up after he left the office. That gentleman, Mr. James Den¬ man, was several times elected superintendent, but his length of service was short in every case. During each incumbency he advocated with earnestness the provision of special means for dealing with unruly and truant children, but was never in office long enough to accomplish what he desired in this respect. During his first term, in 1860, he suggested a floating ‘ ‘ reform school ” to supplement the city industrial school already hi operation.3 In 1868, being once more superin¬ tendent, Mr. Denman urged that the board of supervisors authorize the appointment of “proper officers to put a stop to truancy and vagrancy, which are corrupting and demoralizing the youth of our city.” 4 His recommendation was put into effect, and an extra police officer was appointed “to look after the truant children from the public schools, and to visit the homes of all such as are leading vagrant and dissolute lives, in order to induce their parents to assist in reforming and educating them.”5 There was no truancy or compulsory attendance law, but seven incorrigible truants were sent to the industrial school for reformation during the first year of the truant officer’s service. The knowledge that an officer was constantly searching the city for absentees from school exercised a salutary influence in deterring truancy.5 Later experience has been to the same effect, and truant officers have been constantly employed since. G The measurably successful work of the truant officers spurred Mr. Denman to further efforts in the same line. In 1871 he made a special report to the board of education, in which he recommended, “with no ordinary feeling of earnestness,” the establishment of a school for the reformation of refractory boys. The plan which he considered most practicable was to have one or two central classes in different parts of the city, at which all the most unmanageable pupils be compelled to attend until 1 Acts relating to the government of the city and county of San Francisco, Cal., 1887, p. 175. 2 Annual report of public schools of the city and county of San Francisco, Cal., 1897-98, p. 10. 3 Tenth annual report superintendent common schools of San Francisco, 1860, pp. 31-34. 4 Fifteenth annual report superintendent public schools, San Francisco, 1867-68, p. 26. 5 Sixteenth annual report superintendent, 1868-69, p. 29. cTlre San Francisco truant officers have never been clothed with the legal authority necessary to make their work of the highest usefulness. According to the report of Superintendent Webster for 1897-98, the officer now employed “adapts his work to the circumstances of the case.” Generally he investigates the character of the boy of whom complaint is made, then visits his parents and endeavors to secure their cooperation and assistance. He next admonishes the boy and takes him back to school. In case of repetition of the offense he sometimes locks up the offender for a few hours. This is enough in most cases, but it is not always sufficient by any means. Some boys after being taken to school two or three times and finding no further punishment inflicted, lose all fear of the police¬ man’s badge of authority; for them the only remaining resource is expulsion from school. 122 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. reformed and willing to submit to the authority of the school without recourse to the rod.1 The insertion in the law of April 1, 1872, of the paragraph quoted at the beginning of this sketch was plainly due to the influence of Mr. Denman, since the wording of the statute is similar to that employed in his special report. Within a month from the passage of the law a school of two classes was opened in the basement of a church on Washington street. Fifty-four pupils were transferred to it by the 1st of May, 1872, and 232 during the next year. But the school was a failure and was abolished. Superintendent Denman’s term of office had come to an end in the meantime and the management of the school was in other hands through¬ out. He returned to the superintendency for the third time, however, in 1873, and tried to rehabilitate the school. He claimed that the failure was due to imperfect organization and supervision, and held that if properly reorganized under able teachers the institution would prove a great blessing to the city.2 He was not successful, ‘and the futile experiment of 1872 and 1873 remains the nearest approach to a truant school that San Francisco has had. New Haven, Conn. The reports of Supt. Ariel Parish from 1866 contain references to the prevalence and effects of truancy and absenteeism, and he repeatedly urged that provision be made for truant officers and special schools for truants. No result came of his recom¬ mendations, however, until 1871. The school report for 1869-70 showed the number of truants during that year to have been 350, or one in 20 of the entire membership of the schools. The whole number of cases of truancy was 580. 3 The magnitude of the evil seemed to demand immediate attention, and the board of education directed the superintendent and secretary to investigate the subject and suggest a remedy.4 These gentlemen in reply made a well-considered report suggesting: (1) A school to which scholars exceptional in conduct or attendance can be sent and qualified as speedily as possible to return to the regular schools. (2) The efficient cooperation of trustworthy police officers, under direction of the police commissioners, to whom the names of children guilty of misdemeanors of which the law takes cognizance can be sent. (3) A place for the detention of ungovernable boys, habitual truants, and confirmed vagrants, to be provided by the town.5 The board was determined to take effective action to break up truancy, but the inevitable “ committee stage” had to be passed first. A committee was appointed to confer with the town authorities, and another was sent to visit the truant schools at Springfield and Worcester, Mass. The latter committee, after their visit, reported favorably upon the idea of truant schools, but declared that no truant school whatever would be preferable to one established as a part and parcel of a poorhouse as were the two they had inspected. They stated also that “one or more sensibly managed ungraded schools to which children who are irregular from necessity or from occasional truancy, or who are quite young and yet unmanageable can be sent, is a first necessity,” and that “the cooperation of the police, as alone having authority to make arrests, is nec¬ essary.”6 The three committees having done their full duty only one more was neces¬ sary. The fourth committee outlined definitely a plan of campaign and presented 1 Twenty-first annual report superintendent public schools of San Francisco, 1873-74, p. 58. 2Ib., p. 59. 3 New Haven (Conn.) School Report, 18G9-70, p. 38. 4Ib., 1870-71, p. 5. °Ib., p. 11. e lb., p. 14. TliUANT SCHOOLS. 123 the following resolutions giving it effect, which were unanimously adopted by the board : Resolved , That the committee appointed to confer with the town authorities be requested to call the attention of the police commissioners and the police magistrate to the necessity of an immediate enforcement of the truant laws. Resolved, That the committee on schools be directed to establish one or more ungraded schools. Resolved, That the children who can not be well instructed in the graded schools in consequence of irregular attendance, whether resulting from necessity or other¬ wise, may be sent to such ungraded school or schools. Resolved, That children whose conduct is habitually subversive of good order may, after proper admonition, be sent to such school. Resolved, That in cases of truancy, vagrancy, and other offenses, which by law are misdemeanors, the offender shall be placed on the following course of discipline, sub¬ ject to such modification as the committee on schools may from time to time direct, viz: For the first offense, in addition to the ordinary school discipline, the name of the offender shall be given to such officer of the board as may be appointed for the purpose, whose duty it shall be to see the parents or guardians of the offender, make himself acquainted with the circumstances of the case, and notify them of the con¬ sequences of such conduct if persisted in. For a repeated offense the name of the truant shall be given to the police officers, -who may be appointed by the police commissioners to enforce the law provided for such cases. Whenever a pupil shall prove to be incorrigible under the ordinary discipline of the schools, the police magistrate shall be notified of the same.1 These measures were conscientiously carried out to the immediate improvement of the attendance and benefit of the schools. An ungraded day school was opened September 1, 1871, under a competent teacher, and the general enforcement of the new rules was given to the secretary of the board, who was a man especially competent for the work.2 Seventy-five boys were sent to the truant school during the first year, the greater part of them being mischievous and neglected and woefully deficient in their studies rather than vicious. A few cases of persistent truancy and vagrancy were taken to the police court, but in all these cases, with a single exception, the complaints were made by parents them¬ selves.3 The police authorities cooperated cordially, one officer being specially detailed for truant sendee and the others being instructed to warn vagrant chil¬ dren from the streets during school hours and to return them to their homes or to the schools from which they were truants.4 Substantially the same plans and methods laid down in 1871 have been continuously followed since, excepting that the superin¬ tendent and not the secretary is now charged with the supervision of the details. The location of the original ungraded school has been changed and others have been established, some of them differing from the first in character. But the essential features of the New Haven plan have remained the same. There are now five of the ungraded schools in all, one for truants and incorrigibles (boys only), three for young children who can not speak English, or who are irreg¬ ular in attendance, and one for all these classes. To four of these five schools children are sent who for various reasons are unable to do the work of their grade. One is strictly a school for incorrigibles, and children who are simply backward in their studies are not sent to it. 5 No truant is transferred to an ungraded class for his first offense unless it is very serious; the parents are first notified and the offending pupil is put on proba¬ tion. * The length of the sentence is varied, but is usually for a period of two or four 1 tfew Haven School Report, 1870-71, p. 19. 2 lb., p. 21. s Ilk, p. 22. 4 lb., 1871-72, p. 11. 5 Letter of Hon. C. 1ST. Kendall, superintendent New Haven city schools, September 14, 1899. 124 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. weeks. The truant officer visits the truant schools, and if a pupil of one of them fails to attend regularly his parents are brought into court and he is sentenced to the State school at Meriden.1 Following are the statistics from the last report of the truant officer: Calls on families having children attending schools with reference to their nonattendance . 1,947 Children, boys and girls, found on the streets of the city and at their homes not attending school . 585 Boys and girls transferred to ungraded schools for truancy and other miscon¬ duct . 250 Promoted from the same for good attendance and conduct . 95 Withdrawn from ungraded schools to go to work . . . 44 Sent to high school . 4 Boys presented before the honorable city court sitting in chambers, for reproval and correction for persistent truancy and disobedience to parents . 40 Boys committed to the State School for Boys, at Meriden, by the honorable city court, parents present and consenting, for inveterate truancy, vagrancy, and disobedience to parents . 1 7 Chicago, III. [Statement of Theodore J. Bluthardt, M. I)., superintendent of compulsory education, April 24,1899.] The board of education of the city of Chicago has a thoroughly organized depart¬ ment of compulsory education since 1899 consisting of one superintendent, salary, |2,500; 1 clerk, salary, $1,100; 16 truant agents, for ten months in the year, at a salary of $75 per month, $12,000; total, $15,600. We have only one ungraded class room for truants in one of the schools as an experiment. It works well and gives general satisfaction. The new law2 will give us power to establish one or more parental or truant schools for both boys and girls. I believe in a year or two we will have a very good system to control and prevent truancy in this city. [From the Chicago Inter-Ocean, October 27, 1899.] As the result of a second conference yesterday between W. Lester Bodine, super¬ intendent of compulsory education, and Judge Tuthill, of the juvenile court, the John "Worthy School at the bridewell is to do duty temporarily as a parental school for truants. Although a law on the subject of parental schools has been secured, there is such a shortage of money in the treasury of the board of education that it is not likely a parental school can be provided in less than a year. What to do with habitual tru¬ ants in the meanwhile has greatly exercised Superintendent Bodine and the members of the board. But it is now believed that the problem has been satisfactorily solved l>y Judge Tuthill. Under the juvenile court law the judge has the power to appoint a probation agent for every delinquent child, and there is no limit on the number he may appoint. A probation agent has parental authority over the child, and has the court at his back to inflict penalties when the probation agent recommends it. But the law is so drawn that the only penalty that can be inflicted is a sentence to the John Worthy School. Judge Tuthill, who is greatly pleased at the operation of the law in this respect, offered yesterday to appoint Superintendent Bodine’s truant agents probation agents as fast as may be necessary for all the incorrigible truants with whom they have to deal, and his offer was at once accepted. The result will be that if a truant does not obey his probation agent he will be arraigned in the juvenile court and sentenced to the John Worthy School. This course has been resorted to on account of the discovery of the close connection in this city between truancy and crime. It is found that when boys refuse to attend school they generally run away from home, herd under the sidewalks, read dime novels, and eventually become pickpockets and burglars. So that to send them to school is as necessary for the purpose of saving them from crime as from ignorance. 1 Letter of Hon. C. N. Kendall, superintendent city schools, New Haven, May 16, 1899. sSee page 194. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 125 The police have long known that the most desperate criminals in the city were the juvenile criminals, but they have now waked up to the fact that truancy is the cause of juvenile crime. There are those already who express surprise and disapprobation at Judge Tuthill’s scheme. If the John Worthy School can be used to punish truancy, they say, it ought to have been used for that purpose long ago, and there is no need for a parental school. But they say it will be impossible, as well as highly improper, to use it for that purpose. Only boys who commit crimes and misdemeanors can be sent to the bridewell, and they have always been sent there. As to boys whose only offense is truancy, it would be an outrage and an evil to disgrace them by a bridewell sentence, and they would all be released on a writ of habeas corpus. REPORT OP THE PRINCIPAL OF THE JOHN WORTHY MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. [From the Forty-fourth Annual Report of the Board of Education of Chicago, 1897-98, pp. 69 et seq.] A. G. Lane, Esq., Superintendent of Schools. Dear Sir: Replying to your request, I would state that we had 913 different boys at the John Worthy School from July 1, 1897, to July 1, 1898. The average number belonging during the year was 97, but the average for the month of July, 1897, was only 55, while the average for July, 1898, was 121, showing that the school has increased over 100 per cent during the past year. The average length of time of each pupil is now thirty days. Regarding your question as to range of work done, etc., I would say that the method of treatment seeks to fit these boys for free life again by physical, mental, moral, and industrial training. The school includes instruction classes in the 8 grades of the elementary public schools, but the educational life in the John Worthy School presents a striking con¬ trast to that of ordinary schools. The attendance at school exercises is emphatically compulsory. Every boy committed to the school is on his arrival straightway exam¬ ined and assigned to school work suited to his present capacitjn He has no choice about this. He must belong to the school and do some educationaJ task from the time he enters till he leaves. When it is considered that out of every 109 arrivals about 80 have good natural capacity, and none have education above the merely ordi¬ nary, it will be seen that with these boys the voluntary system has been a failure. In this school what a boy can do he must do, and what he must do he does do. The boys of the John Worthy School are not only assigned to their school wrnrk by the best of careful individual examinations, but from time to time they are reclassified. As the instruction seeks to reach the lowest needs of the weakest mind in the group, there is no need of giving to any boy any help that is not given to all alike. Indeed, the most valuable lesson the boy can learn in any study is that he can and should advance abreast with others like himself, who labor under the same conditions and are beset by the same difficulties. As the average period of detention is about thirty days, time is lacking to pursue the regular course of study as prescribed by the board of education. The course of those boys who remain with us for six months does not require everything given, even in the so-called practical arithmetics and language lessons. Such omissions are made not only on account of lack of time, but for the reason that the knowledge that would be gained by the study would be of comparatively little value to the boys, and the peculiar discipline afforded by a study is obtained in the thorough mastery of a part of that study. In addition to the regular classes, each pupil is obliged to devote five hours per week to free-hand and mechanical drawing, which are both essential to a mechanic. To be unable to make a free-hand sketch of a piece of .machinery, and to make a correct working drawing from that sketch, or to be unable to interpret a working drawing which has been given him from which to make an object, places a mechanic at a great disadvantage — in fact, he lacks one of the qualities which go to make up a skilled workman. There is also an educational value attached to the study of draw¬ ing apart from its utilitarian advantages. It assists to complete and clear conception; it cultivates a habit of careful and accurate observation. Recognizing this value, drawing, both free-hand and mechanical, is taught in all the grades. As far as prac¬ ticable, the boys are required to draw from objects, not models, and in the mechan¬ ical, working drawings of parts of machinery and. tools are required, as soon as pupils can use instruments properly. All the boys of the institution receive manual training in woodwork, including bench work and wood turning. The shop is equipped with 40 single benches, 25 wood-turning lathes, a hand-planing and grooving machine, a circular sawr, an emery grinder, a surface planer, a pattern-maker’s lathe, and 2 grindstones, which 126 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. give accommodation for about 65 boys in each period. Should the school continue to grow as rapidly as it has during the past year it will be necessary to equip one or more additional shops, in order to accommodate the boys, and I should advise that steps be taken in the near future to install a forge and sheet-metal room. Elementary shopwork reaches all the pupils; the advanced course is taken by scarcely one-eighth. Promotion to the advanced course rests upon ability and attain¬ ment; boys who receive it give some promise of becoming good mechanics. It is not attempted to carry all the boys through the elementary course; each one gets as many lessons as the time of his imprisonment will permit. The more capable can complete the elementary course in about thirty lessons of two hours each. The poorer fail at the seventeenth lesson. The dovetail joint is the quietus of many a boy. lie has by this time tried to gain the mastery of some twenty tools. Although he may never make a skilled mechanic, he has gained much in hand skill and learned invaluable lessons of a moral nature. The advanced course consists in more difficult carpentry and in wood turning. The skill and love of tools called forth in our manual-training classes is turned to practical account in a multitude of ways. The boys have made 85 wand racks and 400 sets of arithmetical ratio blocks, 52 to a set, for use in the public schools of the city. The boiler room of the institution is also used as a means of instruction, and here a few of the stronger boys have been taught all that is necessary to know about the care and firing of steam boilers, the care of pumps, economy of fuel, etc. ; an accurate account is kept of the amount of coal consumed in each boiler, the steam pressure maintained, etc. In this way the boys are taught to fire economically. As I have already stated, the average term of these boys is thirty days. This does not give them an opportunity to learn much, either in the academic or manual-train¬ ing departments. No sooner has he learned the routine of the place and gained some rudiments of the work to which he is apprenticed than his time is out or he is released by having his fine paid or by the pardon of the mayor. I should like to see larger fines imposed on the boys so that they should be obliged to remain at the school long enough to accomplish some good to themselves, or, better still, have an indeterminate-sentence law covering their cases, whereby they would be released from the school at the option of the authorities when they have proved themselves worthy of being trusted. There should be a juvenile court with a special and most painstaking judge, and legislative enactments should also be had giving such a judge power to send boys to the John Worthy School on an indeterminate sentence. Very respectfully, Robert M. Smith, Principal. Parental School, Boston, Mass. Though the idea of treating truancy by confining the truant originated in Boston, certainly so far as this country is concerned, and though the most approved and most effective practices in securing universal school attendance are due to the suggestion or initiative of that city, a separate and independent institution for truants did not exist there until 1S95. The Parental School of Boston was the last of the Massa¬ chusetts truant schools to be established. The part played in the early history of the subject by the House of Reformation and Employment of Juvenile Offenders has already been detailed. This institution has never been controlled by the school authorities, though it might properly be called a part of the educational system of the city. At one time it was determined to make it distinctly an adjunct of the schools; the board of directors, by a vote passed in 1S61, decided to exclude all but truants — to make it a truant school solely.1 This determination was not adhered to, but the truant school appears to have been maintained as a separate department thereafter. At that time (1861) there were 136 boys in the institution, and during the year 66 had been sentenced for truancy. The employments of the boys out of school were farming, domestic work, and knitting. The school time was three or four hours a day, the rest of the time being given to work or recreation.2 1 Boston School Report, 1861, p. 266. 2Ib., p. 287. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 127 It lias been repeatedly stated in late years that the reform schools of forty years ago were boys’ prisons, pure and simple, into which the idea of reformation entered but little, if at all. Such statements are but partly true. Much, of course, depends upon the individuality of the superintendent in any institution at any period. The kind of discipline practiced and the measure of success reached in different places varied then just as it varies now, but the aims of reformatory managers of to-day are not higher or nobler than those that animated Supts. Nathaniel C. Hart, of the New York House of Refuge, E. M. P. Wells, of the Boston House of Reforma¬ tion, and their contemporaries. So far as the declarations of the managers have shown, there has been no diminution at any time in the intent to bring about the reformation of those of their charges who required reformation and the protection of those who needed protection from contamination. According to Superintendent Philbrick, of the Boston public schools, the aim of the managers of the House of Reformation (in 1861.) was to render that institution “so much of a penitentiary that a sentence to it would be considered a punishment, and yet to surround the inmates with such influences as would tend to enlighten their minds, to develop their moral natures, to cultivate in them habits of industry, a love of order, a manly self-respect, and a determination to lead the life of a useful and intelligent citizen.”1 The aims of the best reform school or truant school of to-day would not be stated in terms mate¬ rially different. As to the success in reaching these aims the reports were favorable in the main — as much so as later accounts. Ten years later, in September, 1871, Superintendent Philbrick wrote:2 The institution to which convicted truants and absentees are sent is the House for the Employment and Reformation, of Juvenile Offenders, on Peer Island. This reformatory is under the direction and control of the board of directors for public institutions of the city of Boston, the board which has the charge of all the penal and charitable institutions maintained by the city. The whole number of inmates, May 1, 1871, was 307 — 38 girls and 269 boys — of whom something less than half were committed for truancy and absenteeism. The number committed during the last year for these causes was 79, while the number committed for other offenses, chiefly that of vagrancy, was 135. The girls constitute a separate school in a separate build¬ ing; the boys for the purpose of instruction are classified in four schools. In my visits to this institution I have been well pleased with its management. The boys and girls are well taught by efficient and faithful teachers in all the branches of an elementary education. So far as their progress in book learning is concerned they are quite as well off here as they would be in the public schools, even if their attendance were regular. Boys in the higher classes, of more mature age, are employed for six months of the year on the farm and other outdoor work, and for the other six months they are in attendance at school, while the younger boys are retained in the school throughout the year. * * * For my part I believe this alternation of labor and study is no less beneficial intellectually and morally than as a sanitary provision. Indeed, I regard it as one of the best reformatory instrumentalities of the institution. In addition to their regular school instruction the girls of the institution are taught the different branches of housework. * * * Of the reformatory success of the system pursued, the superintendent makes this important statement: “In regard, to the children, we have one fact to record which is very encouraging. It is seldom that any of them ever return to this island.” This we attribute not only to the moral and religious influences exerted over them, but to the common school training they receive. If there was then any serious objection to the truant department of the House of Reformation as a place for truants no hint is given of it in records available here. It is certain that the educational authorities were satisfied with the institution, for the school reports up to less than twenty years ago contained no adverse criticism and much of praise concerning it. In view of recent statements and criticisms, it is fair to presume that “Deer Island” had not then so opprobrious a sound to the popular ear as it had later; that the smaller number of persons in the institutions on that 1 Boston School Report, 1861, p. 268. 2 lb., 1871, p. 235. 128 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. island made it practicable to more nearly maintain entire separation of the inmates of the several classes; and that the boys whom it was thought desirable to send to a truant school then did not include a certain class of “ beginners” now committed, so that whatever there was of contact with “hard cases,” if any, was not so apparently objectionable. It is inconceivable that such palpably inappropriate surroundings as those described more recently should have existed in 1871 and escaped the vigilance of such an alert and enlightened officer as John D. Philbrick. The first note of serious complaint on the part of the school authorities was uttered in 1880 by the Committee of the School Board on Truant Officers. The delay in the trial of truancy cases often made it necessary to detain truants in the city prison for two nights and parts of three days. The prison van, the only means provided by the city for the transportation of persons sentenced, carried hardened criminals at the same time as truant children, and the latter were obliged to listen to the debas¬ ing conversation of the former. These particular evils grew up, it appears, after the abolition of the juvenile court in 1877. 1 The committee sought to mitigate them by arranging to have truancy cases tried more expeditiously, providing a special carriage for children, and by securing accommodations for them when detained other than the cells used for criminals.2 Palliative measures did not remove the difficulties, and in 1883 the same committee determined to urge a radical change. In their report to the school committee at the meeting of November 27, 1883, occurs the following: The committee, with several members of the board, visited the truant school and other institutions at Deer Island, and were convinced of the necessity and wisdom of providing some other place for the retention of truants and absentees. At present the children committed to Deer Island are compelled, more or less, to see, hear, and mingle with criminals. Their transportation and commitment are attended by objec¬ tionable associations. It is, in the judgment of your committee, unwise and unjust, and of lasting injury to the children, to have their offenses classified or connected in any way with the crimes of those who are committed to these institutions. The stigma of having been to Deer Island, associated as it must be with the idea of crime, should be entirely and forever removed from the thoughtless truant, the unaccount¬ able absentee, and the helpless, neglected child. Your committee are so thoroughly satisfied of the imperative demand for a change in this regard that they have appended an order asking the city council to provide accommodations in some other locality than Deer Island, and where, it is hoped, the baneful influence of vice and crime maybe removed, as far as is possible, from the children committed to the truant school. The committee also recommend that an industrial school, properly fitted, be added to the new truant school, so as to enable the children to receive, in addition to their mental training, some practical knowledge, which will prove of lasting service to th'em, and prepare them to better pursue some useful and honest occupation after leaving the institution.3 The order mentioned was passed by the school committee, but the city council failed to comply with the request, or with three others during the next year to simi¬ lar effect, but more vigorously worded.4 The truant committee and the superin¬ tendent, Mr. Edwin P. Seaver, who had become interested in the subject, did not allow the matter to rest, however. Superintendent Seaver’ s report for 1885 urged Mn 1872 the governor was authorized to commission justices for the special purposes of trying juve¬ nile offenders. Chapter 258, Massachusetts acts and resolves of 1874, provided that the trial justices of juvenile offenders in Suffolk County (which includes Boston) should have exclusive jurisdiction of all offenses committed by minors under 17 years of age, and that one of the justices should be in attendance every week day at 10 o’clock for the trial of such offenders. Chapter 210, acts of 1877, abolished this court and gave jurisdiction in such cases once more to “ the several district, police, and municipal courts.” It was provided that juvenile offenders should be tried separate and apart -om the trial of other criminal cases at suitable times designated. -Boston School Report, 1880, p. 260. 3 Mihutes of the school committee of Boston, Mass., 1883, p. 205. 4Ib.,1884, pp. 49, 128, and 217. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 129 that the school be located on the mainland, and that it he placed under the manage¬ ment of the school committee.1 In January, 1886, it was resolved to appeal to the legislature,2 and that body, in response, passed an act requiring the city council, on the demand of the school com¬ mittee, to provide a “parental school,” on the mainland at some place removed from institutions for criminals. The school was to he under the general charge of the directors of public institutions, but the school department was to be subject to the visitation and inspection of the school committee; the teachers were required to hold certificates of qualification from the school committee, and the studies and examinations were to be under the joint control of the school committee and the board of directors of public institutions.3 The school committee lost no time in making the demand specified in the law, the order to that effect passing at the very next meeting of the committee after the pas¬ sage of the bill. But the city council was not so prompt in doing its part. It was the duty of that body to provide the funds — which made its share of the work a much more complex matter than the mere passage of an order. The council urged one reason after another for delay. Objection was found to the provisions of the law for joint management of the proposed school on the ground that misunderstandings, bickerings, and mismanagement would be apt to follow. It was said that as a class the convicted truants were in reality no better morally than the inmates of the reform school, that many of the former were actually more crim¬ inal in their natures than other boys who had been convicted of crime, and that, therefore, division of effort and greater expense to secure further classification were unnecessary. It was attempted to induce the legislature first to strike out the requirement of location on the mainland, and then to permit the truant school and the House of Reformation to be continued together, but located on the mainland. In December, 1890, an ordinance was passed nominally separating the truant school on Deer Island from the House of Reformation by formally assigning the truant school instead of the House of Reformation as the place of confinement of convicted truants. All the arguments, propositions, and ordinances of the council tending to prevent the complete fulfillment of the law were antagonized and defeated by the school officials, but the council gained valuable time, nevertheless. In 1891 the school committee, through its committee on schoolhouses and the superintendent, made an extensive investigation of reformatories and truant schools, and formulated a complete plan for the proposed parental school. For carrying out this plan they asked the council for an appropriation of $125,000 for a school for boys and $25,000 for a school for girls.4 A strongly favorable report on the request was made by a committee of the board of aldermen, in which it was asserted that “any further delay in the matter is not only inexcusable but discreditable to the city.” 5 But the council would not give in without one more struggle, and they again proposed to maintain a reform school and a parental school in conjunction on the mainland. The school committee promptly objected that such action would be in direct opposition to the law,6 and the appropriation of $150,000 was forthwith voted — after a delay of just six years. The parental school for girls for which $25,000 were appropriated has never been established, and such a school is still considered by the superintendent to be one of the educational desiderata of the city. A few girls have been sent to the boys’ 1 Boston School Report, 1885, p. 67. 2 Minutes of the Boston school committee, 1886, p. 18. 3 Massachusetts acts and resolves, 1886, chap. 282. 4 Boston school document No. 20, 1891. 5 Boston city document No. 63, 1892. 0 Minutes Boston school committee, 1892, p. 106. ed 1900 - 9 130 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. parental school, but there were no proper accommodations for them, and now, by the law of 1898, the State Industrial School receives ail girls convicted of truancy. Equipment. — A site was purchased for the boys’ truant school, or, as it is now known, the Parental School, in July, 1892. It consisted of 27f acres in West Rox- bury, fronting on Charles River. A wooden dwelling, barns, and outbuildings were on the place when it was purchased, and the erection of other buildings was begun at once. The institution was finally ready for occupancy in August, 1895, and the first boy was committed September 11, 1895. The buildings of the school and their condition are thus described in the Annual Report of the Children’s Institutions Department for 1897 P 1. The school building, 94 feet 4 inches by 34 feet 8 inches. This building was constructed for use as a graded school building containing four schoolrooms, but the overcrowding of the school has necessitated the taking of the two upper school¬ rooms for dormitories, thus crowding the school work into two small, poorly venti¬ lated cottage sitting rooms. The boys sleeping in the large school building are obliged to go for their meals to the kitchen building described below. 2. The laundry, kitchen, and boiler house, 53 feet 8 inches by 62 feet 6 inches. This building is used as a bakehouse, laundry, kitchen, and boiler room. 3. Ice house, 41 feet 6 inches by 32 feet. 4. Two cottages known as No. 1 and No. 2. These are alike in construction and are 114 feet by 27 feet. Each building provides for a family of 40 boys. The upper part of the building has 40 separate sleeping rooms. The first floor has a kitchen, pantry, dining room, two sitting rooms — one for the boys and one for the officers. The basements are used for play rooms, bathrooms, closets, etc. 5. Farmhouse, 36 feet by 20 feet. The lower floor is used as a manual training school, the upper used for rooms, the basement for storerooms. 6. Hospital, 117 feet by 30 feet. (Now used as a dormitory.) 7. Superintendent’s house, 32 feet by 32 feet, with an L 41 feet by 15 feet. From this it will be seen that this institution is fitted, as far as cottage accommo¬ dation goes, to properly accommodate and instruct some 80 boys, residing 40 in each of two cottage dormitories and attending school in a central school building, where they could be properly graded and physically cared for in well ventilated and lighted and furnished schoolrooms. It has, however, been impossible to carry out the original plans, because of the excessive pressure of numbers. Therefore we found in June last the two upper schoolrooms in the central school building in use as dor¬ mitories, with boys sleeping, in some instances, three together in two beds pushed side by side. To supply the place of the two schoolrooms used as dormitories, schools have been improvised in the utterly unsuitable little hall sitting rooms of the cottages, where ordinary chairs and large tables serve in place of suitable seats and desks. The boys sleeping in the central building have to go to the kitchen building to take their meals, an arrangement which makes it impossible to use a carefully built brick oven opening into the room now used as a dining room, thus crippling the bakery. The number in June at the close of the school year was already 182; during the summer, with releases and no new admissions, the number fell to 168; but with the reopening of the school numbers rose rapidly, till now the situation is very serious. The sleeping in bed together has been put a stop to, but the hospital has been invaded and beds placed in the space over the manual training school, in an old outbuilding, an entirely unsuitable place. The matter is aggravated by the fact that we have in charge three truant girls, who must all the time be kept carefully apart from the boys, and who can not be properly dealt with under present conditions. Perhaps the most deplorable crowding is in the schoolrooms, where too many pupils are necessarily gathered. A similar condition of overcrowding existed in 1898. According to the superin¬ tendent of the school,2 this was the situation: An institution equipped to house, feed, and properly care for less than 100 boys has an attendance of 175, with a certain prospect that the number will increase 'to more than 200 before the summer vacation (of 1899.) Owing to this crowded condi¬ tion, there is not one proper schoolroom on the premises. To make room for the classes the cottages have been invaded, and a room which should bear the charm of 1 Boston city document No. 6, 1898, p. 8. 2 City document No. 6, 1899, p. 40. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 131 a sitting room and study is taken for a schoolroom, and thus robbed of its charm as an assembly room for the family. The classes in clay modeling are conducted in a basement, which is the only play room of 95 boys. Two of the schoolrooms are equipped with double desks, and two have no desks at all — -tables being used instead. There is not on the premises an assembly room in which all the boys can be assem¬ bled. Any one conversant with the handling of boys in numbers will appreciate this deficiency. About 30 boys, though in good health, are obliged to sleep in a building provided for the sick, viz, the hospital. In case of epidemic this arrange¬ ment would be impossible. For about 100 boys there is no assembly room whatever, aside from a basement or the schoolroom. About 100 boys are obliged to take their meals in the room designed for a bakery, or in the kitchen over the boiler room, and to sleep in overcrowded dormitories in the school building. These boys, of course, do not have the advantages of family life which are found in the cottages, where good manners and habits of neatness are more likely to be acquired. * * * The institution manifestly needs at once three cottages for boys, an administration build¬ ing, including storerooms, offices, an assembly hall (which could be used temporarily for a gymnasium), and appartments for officers. Daily routine. — The daily programme of the institution is as follows: Rise, 5.30; rec¬ reation and preparation for breakfast, 5.30 to 6.20; breakfast, 6.20; work, 6.50 to 8.30; recreation and preparation for school, 8.30 to 9; school, 9 to 10.30; recess, 10.30 to 10.45; school, 10.45 to 11.30; recreation and preparation for dinner, 11.30 to 12; work, 12.30 to 1.30; recreation and preparation for school, 1.30 to 2; school, 2 to 3.30; recess, 3.30 to 3.45; school, 3.45 to 4.30; recreation and preparation for supper, 4.30 to 5; supper, 5; recreation 5.30 to 6; preparation of lessons for next day, 6 to 7; reading and preparation for retiring, 7 to 7.30; retire, 7.30.1 The school. — The teaching force in the fall of 1898 included a supervisor, 5 grade teachers and 2 special teachers of sloyd, and of drawing and clay modeling. The course of study and apportionment of time prescribed for the Boston city schools are followed as closely as possible, but many modifications are necessary. During the winter the boys have two hours of sloyd and one and a half hours of drawing each week. The higher classes have also one hour, and the lower classes forty minutes, per week in clay modeling.2 Occupations of the boys. —About half the boys are employed at the domestic duties, in the boiler house, barn, laundry, etc. Those of the others who have sufficient strength do the outside work, including gardening, raking, and clearing up, mowing the lawn in summer, and shoveling paths in the winter. A boy is taught how to work, not so much for the sake of the work itself, but that he may be thoughtful, industrious, careful, faithful, honest, and helpful.3 Bill of fare. — The following dietary was prescribed December 1, 1898 :4 SUNDAY. Breakfast: Oatmeal, with milk and sugar or molasses, hash, bread, butter, cocoa. Dinner: Baked beans, brown bread, pudding, bread. Supper: Gingerbread or buns, bread, butter, milk. MONDAY. Breakfast: Baked beans, cocoa, bread, butter. Dinner: Roast beef, vegetables, bread. Supper: Oatmeal with sugar and milk or molasses, bread and butter. TUESDAY. Breakfast: Hash or warmed-up meat, bread, butter, cocoa. Dinner: Mutton stew, with vegetables, pudding, bread. Supper: Brown bread, sauce, milk, bread, butter. WEDNESDAY. Breakfast: Fried mush, molasses, bread, butter, milk. Dinner: Corned beef, vegetables, bread. Supper: Gingerbread or buns, bread, butter, milk. 1 Report of superintendent of Parental School, in Boston City Document No. 6, 1898, p. 46. 2 Report of principal teacher, in City Document No. 6, 1899, p. 43. 3 Report of the superintendent, in City Document No. 6, 1899, p. 38. 4 Boston City Document No. 6, 1899, p. 46. 132 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. THURSDAY. Breakfast: Hash or corned beef, bread, butter, cereal coffee. Dinner: Roast beef or meat pie, with vegetables. Supper: Rice or hominy, with milk and sugar or molasses, bread, butter, milk. FRIDAY. Breakfast: Oatmeal, with sugar, milk, or molasses, bread, butter, cocoa. Dinner: Fresh or salt fish, vegetables, bread, pudding. Supper: Bread, butter, cracked wheat, milk, sauce. SATURDAY. Breakfast: Fish hash or fishballs, bread, butter, cereal coffee. Dinner: Pea soup or bean soup, meat pie, bread. Supper: Corn mush, molasses, bread, butter, milk. Cost. — The average expense per week per child in 1898 was $3.27.1 2 3 4 The expenses in detail were as follows: Salaries . Food . Clothing . Furniture and bedding . . Fuel and lights . Repairs and improvements . Library and school supplies . Medical, household, and agricultural supplies Miscellaneous expenses . . $12, 498. 51 6, 432. 46 1, 602. 28 653. 37 2,918. 78 1, 728.44 891. 59 1,508.96 1, 058. 61 Total 29, 293. 00 Inmates. — The number of boys in the school February 1, 1898, was 169, and at the corresponding date in 1899, 175. The average daily attendance was 171. One hun¬ dred and eighty-nine were committed during the year and 162 discharged. Thirty- four releases on probation were granted, and 13 of them were revoked and the pupils returned to the school.2 The average age of boys at commitment during 1898-99 was 11 years and 4 months. The average time of detention of those discharged or released was 12 months, 5 days.3 No less than one-fifth of the boys in the school have been charged with or convicted of such offenses as breaking and entering, picking pockets, petit larceny, etc. Several have previously been in reformatories.4 The presence of this element in the school is distinctly contrary to the wishes and ideals of the school authorities, whose leading motive in so persistently urging the establishment of the school was to bring about an entire separation of simple truants from all contact with those of criminal habits or tendencies.5 Paroles from the parental school. — The law governing the release of pupils on parole is as follows: Sec. 1. The institutions commissioner of the city of Boston, with the approval of the superintendent of schools of said city and of a justice of the court which imposed the sentence, may at any time permit any child now or hereafter committed to the parental school of said city to be at liberty upon such terms and conditions as said superintendent of schools and said institutions commissioner shall together deem best. Sec. 2. If any child who is permitted to be at liberty, as provided by the preced¬ ing section, violates, in the opinion of said superintendent of schools and said insti¬ tutions commissioner, the terms and conditions of his release, so that he is, in their judgment, a fit subject to be returned to said parental school, said institutions commissioner, at any time previous to the expiration of the term for which such child shall have been committed to said parental school, may revoke such permit. Sec. 3. Said commissioner, when any such permit to a child has been revoked, 1 Boston City Document No. 6, 1899, folder opposite p. 12. 2 Report of the superintendent, in Boston City Document No. 6, 1899, p. 47. 3Ib., p. 48. 4 lb., p. 38. 5 See for example the report of Superintendent Seaver for 1895 (School Doc. No. 4, 1895), p. 61. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 133 shall issue an order directed to a truant officer or police officer of said city to arrest such child and return him to said parental school; and any such officer holding said order shall arrest such child and return him to said parental school, where he may thereupon be held, subject to the provisions of this act, for the unexpired portion of the term of the original sentence. All costs and expenses incurred by such officer in the arrest and return of such child to said school shall be paid to said officer by the city of Boston, when approved by a justice of the court which imposed the sentence.1 In regard to the operation of this law, Superintendent Seaver writes: The course of procedure under this law has been, first, a petition to the institu¬ tions commissioner signed by the parent or guardian of the boy whose release is sought and by others interested in the case; secondly, an investigation of the case by the superintendent of public schools, for the purpose of ascertaining the proper reasons for giving or withholding his consent to the release; thirdly, a reference of the case to the judge who imposed the sentence, for the purpose of obtaining his con¬ sent to the release; fourthly, release by the institutions commissioner, notice of which act is at once sent to the superintendent of public schools, who takes measures to secure the released boy’s regular attendance in a public school. This regular attendance in a public school is the usual condition attached to the release. Some¬ times, when the boy is over fourteen years of age, the condition is that he enter and remain in the employ of some suitable person, who will exercise a proper care over him. If a boy so released fail to attend school, he is remanded to the parental school to serve the remainder of his term. Of the 15 boys released up to the present time, four have been returned to the parental school for failure to comply with the condi¬ tion of their release, two have left the city with their parents, and nine have attended the public schools regularly. This seems like a good beginning in the administra¬ tion of a useful law. In this connection it may be desirable to set forth the principles which have gov¬ erned me in the exercise of the power intrusted by the law to the superintendent of public schools. First and most important is the principle that release from the parental school is a reward to be earned by the industry and good conduct of the boy himself. It is not a favor to be procured either by parental appeal or by friendly intercession. The second principle, an immediate consequence of the first, is that the boy shall have remained long enough in the parental school to make a record for industry and good conduct worthy of consideration. To release a boy committed for two years at the end of two weeks would be absurd; at the end of two months, some¬ what less so; at the end of six months on a good record, not at a,ll so, but quite rea¬ sonable. The third principle is that the condition of the home shall be such as to make regular school attendance possible and to a degree probable. This principle imposes an unfortunate limitation on the operation of the other two. On a recent visit to the school I took from the records the names of a considerable number of boys with the intention of recommending their release without petition on the ground that their records for industry and good conduct were excellent or nearly so; but after learning the condition of the homes I recommended release in only one case. The other boys would be decidedly safer in the parental school, and their release could not wisely be recommended. The fourth and last principle is that failure to comply with the condition of the release shall be followed immediately by the boy’s return to the parental school. Four boys have been returned, much to the surprise of the other boys; but the effect on them will be wholesome. In order that a close watch may be kept on all the released boys’ school attendance, each master having such a boy in his school has been requested to send me every Friday a postal card stating that the boy’s attendance for the week has or has not been regular.2 BOSTON TRUANT OFFICERS AND THEIR WORK. The use of officers specially employed to look after school attendance may be fairly conceded to have been first developed in Boston. Such officers are indispensable to the enforcement of compulsory laws, but they are not intended as a substitute for the time-honored means of securing attendance by parental authority, attractive schools, and tactful teachers, but as an aid and supplement to those means. In Boston, the truant officers are credited with having contributed very largely to the creation of a sentiment among the more ignorant classes that absence of their children from school 1 Massachusetts acts of 1896, chap. 514. 2 Seventeenth annual report superintendent public schools of Boston, 1897, p. 89. 134 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. except for good cause is not only a disgrace but a crime. They accomplish more through their moral influence than by the exercise of their legal authority.1 The force at present consists of 18 men, one of whom is chief.2 They are carefully selected, judgment and tact being essential requisites. Their salaries are sufficient to secure an excellent class of men, namely, $1,800 q year for the chief, and $1,300 for the others.3 The city is divided into districts and an officer is assigned to each. During the year ending August 31, 1898, 22,256 “cases” were investigated by the truant officers, and 6,700 of them were found to be truants, 270 were complained of as incorrigible, 86 of them were put on probation, and 134 were sentenced to the parental school. When a child is transferred from one school district to another a notification is sent to the truant officer and through the chief to the officer of the district to which the pupil removes. The latter officer must see that the child promptly joins his new school. Six thousand seven hundred and twenty-five of these transfers were looked after during 1897-98. In addition, 448 new pupils were brought into the schools, 7 neglected children were placed in proper institutions, and 13 complaints were made of children for criminal offenses.4 The system under which the truant officers operate has developed from years of experience. To detail the annoyances that have arisen to necessitate each of the regulations now in force would be to fill a volume. In general, the plan of procedure is as follows: A teacher suspecting an absent pupil of being away without the consent of the parents fills out a “truant card,” furnished for the purpose by the school committee, entering thereon the name of the pupil, his age, name of parent, residence, and dates of suspected truancy. These cards are collected by the officer in charge of the dis¬ trict, on his daily visit, and the cases immediately investigated by him. If an absent child is not suspected of truancy, but is supposed to be detained or allowed to remain at home without reasonable excuse, the teacher fills out an “information card,” which is an inquiry as to the cause of the pupil’s absence. In order that the time of the truant officer may not be consumed unnecessarily, the regulations prescribe that the “information cards” shall be examined and signed by the principal of the dis¬ trict before any investigation is made. It often happens that the truant officer is able to state the cause of the pupil’s absence immediately. In such cases the informa¬ tion is at once sent to the teacher, and the card destroyed, and the officer proceeds to investigate the remaining cases referred to him for attention. The work of a truant officer demands intelligence, patience, and tact to a marked degree. It frequently extends into the evening, as it often happens that more can be accomplished by their efforts with the fathers than with the mothers. The per¬ formance of this part of an officer’s duty is often exceedingly difficult of successful accomplishment. The interest and sympathy of the parents in the welfare of the children must be aroused and stimulated, and their cooperation enlisted in seeing that their children are regular and punctual in their school attendance. The result of the truant officer’s investigation is entered upon the back of each card referred to him, and stated to the respective teachers on the day following that on which the card was received by him. If the officer finds that an absentee has returned to the school, he notes the date of the return on the back of the card of such child and signs his name. If a truant has not returned, the officer keeps the card for future investi¬ gation. The completed cards are then taken to the principal of the district for examination. If satisfied with the results of the investigation, he affixes his signa¬ ture as evidence that the truant officer has performed his duty, and the cards are then transmitted weekly to the chief truant officer. The truant officer retains the cards of pupils who have not returned to school and calls daily at the home and school until the child returns to the school, or until a satisfactory explanation of the absence is obtained, when the facts and the number of sessions absent are recorded on the card, which is then handed to the principal as described above. The truant officers are also alert and watchful for truants upon the streets, and, finding such, take them to school and turn them over to the charge of the principal. In the case of a persistent or incorrigible truant, after it has been demonstrated that the persuasive efforts of the truant officers are of no avail, a record is obtained 1 Boston school report, 1874, p. 310. 2 Letter of Hon. E. P. Seaver, March 6, 1SS9. 3 Minutes of the school committee, 1898, p. 476. Boston school document, No. 13, 1898, p. 10. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 135 from the teacher of the dates of suspected truancy for the preceding three months, which the truant officer presents, together with the result of his investigation, to the chief truant officer, who may then give his consent to the case being brought before a court having jurisdiction. The truant officer then brings the matter to the atten¬ tion of the court, procures a summons, and notifies the parents to bring the child into court on a certain day. If they fail to comply, the child is arrested on sight and brought before the court. Except in extreme cases, a truant is placed on proba¬ tion, and if after the expiration of a few weeks it appears that reformation has taken place the case is placed on file. If otherwise, the truant is again brought before the court and sentenced to the parental school for a term of not exceeding two years, in the discretion of the court.1 Truant School of Franklin and Hampshire Counties, Goshen, Mass.2 The home and farm of Mr. W. A. Barrus in Goshen were assigned as the truant school for Franklin and Hampshire counties, October 15, 1889. Only five truants have been sent there since that time, and little, if any, change has been made in the appointments of the place since it was constituted a “truant school.” It remains an ordinary “hill-town” farm of about 200 acres. When there are any boys in the “school” they are taught by the matron, and do the work ordinarily expected of a farmer’s boy. Mr. Barrus receives $350 a year. Board of pupils costs $4 a wrnek. Essex County Truant School, Lawrence, Mass. [Statement of Mr. H. E. Swan, superintendent, March. 7, 1899.] The Essex County truant school was organized and established by the board of commissioners July 1, 1891, at Lawrence, Essex County, Mass., by the purchase of a farm, with buildings thereon, which had been occupied by the city of Lawrence as a reform school, a special act of the legislature transferring the inmates to the truant school during the remainder of the term for wdiieh they were committed. The offi¬ cers or administration of the school consist of superintendent, assistant superintend¬ ent, and seven subordinates. These officers, with all the pupils, reside at the school. We have an ungraded but a regularly organized boarding truant school. Habitual truants are complained of before trial justices or judges of police courts by truant officers of cities or towns in which they reside and are committed to the county truant school. Terms of sentence are variable, not to exceed two years. Paroling is under control of the board of commissioners, and paroles must be approved by the committing officer, board of school committee, or superintendent of schools. Buildings are of convenient size to accommodate the needs of the county. A farm of 33 acres is connected. Vegetables, fruits, and milk are produced for the needs of the school, and the surplus is disposed of at the neighboring city for cash. Pupils are boarded, clothed, and lodged at the school, the county receiving $1 per week from cities and towns making commitments, the county defraying the balance of expenses. Gross cost (1898), including salaries, $9,307.57; receipts (board, sales, boys’ earnings), $5,598.51; net cost to county, $3,709.06. Daily programme. —Rise, summer, 5 a. m. ; winter, 6 a. in.; breakfast, 6.30 a. m.; dinner, 12 m. ; supper, 6 p. m.; work, 7 to 11.30 a. m., 1 to 2 p. m; recreation, 11.30 a. m. to 12 m., 12.30 to 1 p. m., 6.30 to 7.30 p. m. ; school, 2 to 6 p. m. Studies in school are the same as same grades of public schools, as nearly as possible. As pupils are all residents of the school, daily attendance is considered a duty. Number of pupils sentenced, January 1 to December 31, 1898, 33. Highest number in school at one time, 48. Seventy per cent of the pupils do well; 5 per cent have been sent to reform schools. Truant girls are taken in charge by the State board of charities. They are not sent to truant schools, but to the State Industrial School for Girls. 1 Boston school document No. 15, 1897, p. 11. 2 From letter of Mr. W. A. Barrus, March 4, 1899, and sixty-second annual report Massachusetts board of education, n. 479. 136 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. New Bedford, Mass. The city of New Bedford maintained a truant school from 1853 to 1891, in spite of earnest protests of the school board and of successive superintendents. The establishment of the school did not result from a matured design. At the beginning two or three boys were committed under the truant act to the almshouse, simply because there was no other place to which they could be sent. At that time there was no school whatever there. There were a score or more children of the paupers at the institution who had been attending country schools in the neighbor¬ hood, and to accommodate these two classes of children a teacher was appointed to the charge of the “almshouse school,” 1 and this subsequently developed into the truant school of the city of New Bedford. At first there were 26 pupils, and 4 of them only were under sentence for truancy; but in the course of two years the pro- portion was reversed, and four-fifths of the number were truants.2 3 At first the incongruity of the location did not appear, for a reference to the insti¬ tution in the report of the school committee for 1854 indicated their satisfaction with it.8 But before the next report was written the impropriety of the association of paupers and truants had dawned upon the authorities, and a separate “farm school” for the latter was urged, though the existing condition was excused on the ground of necessity. By 1856 complaints had been so frequently made by parents and others interested that the chairman of the school committee for that year refrained from prosecuting truants as far as possible. The teaching of the school was said to be excellent, and during school hours the children were surrounded by the best of influences. But at other times, with no reg¬ ular employment and without proper oversight, they associated freely with the pau¬ per inmates and with each other. Subject to such contaminating influences, many, it was said, left the place at the expiration of their terms morally no better certainly than when they entered.4 A temporary improvement was noted in 1858, when the school underwent a “com¬ plete and thorough change.” In pursuance of a recommendation of the city coun¬ cil, made with the purpose of diminishing as far as possible the evils arising from constituting an almshouse as the place of confinement for truants, the school com¬ mittee placed the school in charge of a male teacher in order that the pupils might have constant care and training. Rapid progress was reported on the part of the boys, and lively satisfaction was expressed at the evident improvement in affairs.5 But the improvement was short-lived. In less than two years the school committee found it necessary to say that the almshouse school, in its relations and conditions as they then existed, was as a reform school a sad and serious failure. “The associa¬ tion of boys already viciously inclined,” they said, “with persons and characters whose habits of intemperance and vagabond life have blunted their moral sensibil¬ ities and developed tempers and attributes at war with virtue and morality does neither reform nor elevate them; and in such an atmosphere they will only sink lower and yet lower in the scale of human degradation.” To this arraignment, how¬ ever, they add: “ But as a precautionary measure, to render society safer and prop¬ erty more secure, and as a penal school for truancy, it unquestionably exerts a salu¬ tary influence, restraining some from leaving school who otherwise would be found in the streets, while in reference to others it affords a cheap method of having their children boarded at public expense. Simply on the ground of prudence we justify its continuance.”6 The usual appeal, always so vainly made, for a separate truant school followed this utterance. !New Bedford City Document No. 6, 1853, p. 102. 2Ib., No. 7, 1855, p. 23. 3Ib., 1854, p. 25. 4Ib., 1856, p. 24. &Ib., No. 9, 1859, p. 38. 6Ib., No. 8, 1860, p. 11. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 137 In consequence of the revision of the State law it became necessary in 1861 to revise the city ordinance relating to truancy in general and to the truant school. The name of the school was changed to the “Farm School,” and it was placed under the direct control of the mayor and aldermen, although the teacher of the school proper was to be employed and paid by the school committee.2 According to a statement made December 22, 1863, by the police justice in charge of the trials of truants, 36 delinquents had been sentenced to the truant school since the new ordinance went into effect (i. e., October 1, 1861). Of the sentences, 10 had been for six months, 8 for one year, 7 for three months, 4 for four months, 2 for seven months, 2 for nine months, and 1 each for two months, five months, and eight months. From the number of boys returned to the school under a second sentence this officer was of the opinion that the efficiency of the system was to be found in its check on incipient truancy through fear of prosecution rather than in the reformatory influence of the school. He regarded the first consideration, however, as sufficiently important to justify the continuance of the school.3 In January, 1869, the “Farm School” contained over 50 pupils, the increase being due to the action of the statute of 1866 relating to neglected children and to the fact that the sentences were longer than formerly. The unsatisfactory conditions as to associations and lack of complete oversight outside of school hours still prevailed.4 The disinclination of the school officials to have boys committed to such an insti¬ tution caused the number of inmates to fall off from time to time, and twice it was temporarily discontinued altogether, once in 1875 and again in 1878. In the mean¬ time repeated demands upon the county officials for the establishment of a county truant school under the law of 1873 were disregarded. In 1879 the schoolhouse of the institution was removed from the inclosure of the almshouse and put in better repair, and commitments were resumed after having ceased for a year or more. Authority was secured in 1885 to employ a male teacher to have charge of the boys at- all times, and who should be competent to give daily lessons in the use of mechan¬ ical tools. The right man could not be found, however, and a woman was employed as teacher, and a competent workman was engaged to give one lesson a week in tool work. The results did not justify the expense, and after an experiment lasting two years the industrial feature was abandoned. After many efforts and disappointments the Union Truant School of the counties of Norfolk, Bristol, and Plymouth was established at Walpole and opened in 1891. It was with an evident sigh of relief that Supt. W. E. Hatch announced the closing of the city truant school in his report for that year. Just what the condition of the New Bedford school was in its latter days may be gathered from the following extracts from the report of Supt. II. F. Harrington for 1882, which is merely a specimen of the utterances of nearly every one of the school officials when they had occasion to write of the school: As things now are, I will not give my assent to the arrest of any boy who has not already crossed the line “to the bad” so far as to be beyond injury by ordinary vicious influences. A boy who is only a confirmed truant, who has not become as yet a mischief-loving petty criminal, we watch, plead with, take to his regular school again and yet again, anything — except to send him to the truant school. * * * The boys, when not in the schoolroom proper under the eye of the teacher, are in charge of a man whom no one will pretend to have been selected for the posi¬ tion with any defined purpose beyond ministering to their necessities and keeping them under orderly control. * * * He has repeatedly said to the committee and the truant officer “he wished he might have at least one boy sent to him who had 2 Annual report of the school committee for 1861, p. 28. 3 Annual report of superintendent of schools for 1863, p. 47. 41b., 1868, p. 25. 138 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. some good in him.” No good is likely to be educed where the germs of it are not supposed to exist. There is good in the boys, however vicious they may be; experi¬ ence elsewhere with such a class proves it. The most of them are wayward, not because they are born base, but because they have been the victims of misuse and neglect. I am afraid that the mistaken spirit of the superintendence of the school is exemplified by the bolted gate, barred windows, the solitary cells, the well-worn cowhide. These appurtenances may be necessary as occasional persuasives; I dare not assert the contrary; but they are revolting to me when taken together as expo¬ nents of the spirit of the management, and in view of what I believe might be the contrasted condition of things. The school is virtually a prison. THE “MIXED SCHOOL.” New Bedford had also for many years an ungraded or “mixed school” which served as an intermediate step between the regular schools and the truant school. Its establishment (September, 1851) antedated the beginning of the latter by two years. As the regulations provided, the school was for “pupils of any age whose continuance in any primary, intermediate, or grammar school shall, by reason of dullness, insubordination, or from any other cause, be deemed prejudicial to the same school.” “Habitual truants” were later specified as another class to be pro¬ vided for. It was commenced as a school for both sexes, but the number of girls being inconsiderable, the committee deemed it expedient to limit the school to boys only. The selection of a teacher was a fortunate one, and many gratifying instances were observed of changed manners and sudden mental quickening on the part of the pupils in his charge. The school committee gave evidence of their appreciation of his wrork by repeated advances in salary till his rank and pay were equal to those of a gram¬ mar school principal. The chairman of the school committee said of the school in 1856: The labor of instructing and disciplining scholars of the character here brought together is by no means one inviting in its nature; yet, judging by the standard of success, the teachers of no school are more deserving of praise, especially when it is considered that it is only by the most patient and indefatigable exertions that suc¬ cess to them is possible. Like most schools of a similar kind, the quarters assigned to it at first were very unsatisfactory in character, and the location, on Market square, was particularly objectionable. The conditions continued thus — excellent teaching amid unwhole¬ some conditions — until the summer of 1859, when the school was discontinued, by the unanimous vote of the school board, for no other reason than that the building was wholly unfit for school purposes. The city government had not heeded the repeated appeals for the removal of the difficulties, and the close of the school was the neces¬ sary consequence. Its principal was assigned to one of the regular grammar schools. The pupils, however, were not turned upon the streets or sent back to their former schools. A room was set apart for them in a new building, and a competent female teacher was provided. This arrangement was considered only a temporary one, and never fully met the ideals of the committee. A return as soon as practicable to its former organization as a separate school under a male principal was always contem¬ plated, and was effected as soon as the necessary quarters were available. The orig¬ inal principal, Mr. Nehemiah Lincoln, was once more assigned to the school upon its second removal, and the number of pupils was gradually enlarged until in 1867 there were 98 registered, with an average belonging of 78 and an average attendance of 66. At that time Mr. Lincoln was aided by two female assistants. The same efficiency which marked the former administration of the school was apparent after its rehabilitation. As the superintendent stated in his report for 1865, Mr. Lincoln “has not only governed and taught with success, but has supplemented TRUANT SCHOOLS. 139 the labors of the schoolroom by calling on the parents of his scholars at their homes and conversing with them about the welfare of their children. By this means he has smoothed over many difficulties and induced the regular submissive attendance of some who otherwise might have been fractious absentees.” When he first assumed the superintendency, Superintendent Harrington seemed doubtful of the wisdom of culling out and bringing together the vicious element in all the schools,1 but a few years more of experience convinced him of the entire propriety of such a policy. In his report for 1889 he gave evidence of his complete conversion to belief in the segregation of vicious pupils by the following paragraph: In every large, compact community like our own there will be an element among its youth that can not be consistently sent to its ordinary schools to mingle at will with their as yet uncontaminated members, and drop in the innocent paths of others the slime of their unfortunate depravation. * * * The corrupting element I have spoken of must not remain in the regularly constituted schools. What then? Shall it be left uncared for, to run at large in the streets, undisciplined, untaught? By no means. It must be gathered into a school by itself, to be subjected to such oversight as will accustom it to wholesome restraint, teach it what it ought to learn, and start it, if possible, in a course of reformation and virtue. * * * We have realized * * * that of all the correlative instrumentalities of our school system, none is more important than the ungraded school. Even stronger is his comment in the report of 1870, the concluding sentence of which was: “ My convictions have undergone no change as to the indispensable importance of this school to our school system.” The enrollment in the school showed a steady decline after 1867, notwithstanding the support of the superintendent apd the favorable attitude of the majority of the school committee. The question came before the committee in July, 1871, for a change of its organization, and when it was proposed during the discussion to abolish the school entirely for a time, the proposition received the assent of the majority of the committee.2 There had been from the first a minority of the school committee who opposed the school because of the lack of sufficient classification of pupils on the basis of morals. It was held by these members that the better class of pupils in the school were so injured by their enforced association with the more vicious that the aggregate result was more harmful than if all were retained in the regular schools. But this con¬ sideration had been counterbalanced by the manifest advantage of ridding the regu¬ lar schools of these same vicious persons, and it was only when the number of pupils fell to a low point that the ungraded school was discontinued. Some of the pupils were returned to the schools, but the others passed out of the notice of the school authorities. It was thought at the time that the discontinuance was only temporary and that it must again be instituted in some form, but it has never been reestablished. Mipdlesex County Truant School, North Chelmsford, Mass. Like the officials of ail the other counties, the commissioners of Middlesex refused, or failed, for many years to comply with repeated requests to establish a county truant school. But they finally did take such action, and the school they established is said to be, by the secretary of the State board, the finest institution of its class in the State, if not in the country;3 The legislature of 1892 authorized the county commissioners to borrow §50,000 for the erection and equipment of a school, and §6,000 of the money thus obtained was used to purchase a lot of 18 acres in Chelmsford, near Lowell, overlooking the Merrimac Liver. It was intended at first to establish two schools, the other being ’■Report for 1865, p. 68, 2 Report of the chairman of the school committee for 1871, p. 19. 3 Sixty-second annual report, Massachusetts board of education, p. 489. 140 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. near Cambridge,1 but that plan was never carried out. The first buildings were completed and the school put in operation in 1894. The accommodations were designed for sixty boys, but the growth of the school was such that that point was soon passed, and provision must now be made for twice that number. The secretary of the State board of education and one of the agents of the board visited the school officially recently, and their reports upon it include the following paragraphs:2 Buildings and land. — The school is located at North Chelmsford, just above the city of Lowell, and overlooks the Merrimac River. There are three buildings, two of them cottages or dormitories, each with its company of boys, its schoolroom, dining room, sleeping hall and other accommodations, and the third a kind of indus¬ trial building, where provision is made for laundry work, sloyd and kindred things. There are 18 acres of land, 8 of which are under cultivation. The rest is used for a playground, roads, lawns etc. The grounds have been made useful and beautiful in many ways, all the work having been done by the boys, under supervision. The buildings are substantial and modern. The new building, in particular, illus¬ trates how much can be done with the judicious expenditure of a comparatively modest sum. Extreme simplicity characterizes all the furnishings. It was not for¬ gotten that this school is no place for luxury or extravagance. Chairs, tables, bed¬ steads, all such things are substantial and durable, but reduced to their lowest terms. To one accustomed to the thousand and one things that gradually work into a home to make it attractive and come in time to be thought of as necessities, it is astonish¬ ing to note how they can be about all parted with in a home like this with manifest advantage to the cleanliness, health, and comfort of the boys. Working organization. — To carry on the work of the school requires the following staff of officers and employees: A superintendent, an assistant superintendent and head matron, an assistant matron, a caretaker of the boys, a laundry matron, a kitchen and dining-room matron, a sewing matron, a cook, a master in charge of the cottage building, a matron at the cottage building, a teacher at the main building, a teacher at the cottage building, a music teacher, and a teacher of manual training. Superintendent' s report. — From the report of Moses A. Warren, superintendent of the school, for the year ending December 31, 1898, the following extracts are made: There were 93 boys in the school December 31, 1897. Admitted during the year . . . 64 Discharged during the year . 51 Remaining December 31, 1898 . 106 Average number for the year . 101 Of those committed, 50 were habitual truants, 12 had wandered about the streets, 1 had violated the rules of school, and 1 was a neglected child. Of those released, 42 were discharged at expiration of sentence, 5 by order of the court, and 4 on pro¬ bation. Of the number committed, 48 could read and write, 4 could only read, and 12 could neither read nor write. The current expenses for the year amounted to $15,857.99, or $3 per capita per week. The amount collected and paid to the county treasurer from cities and towns for support of truants was $8,954.26, and from sundry receipts, $10.80; amount due from cities and towns, $149.28; the total income was $9,114.34. By act of the last legislature, the amount charged cities and towns for support of pupils was cut from $2 to $1 per capita per week, reducing the income derived from this source by one- half. The act also obliged the State board of education to visit the truant schools of the State, and annually report to the legislature their condition. This act is heartily approved by your superintendent, as it gives us the benefit of advice and criticism from trained and experienced educators, putting us more in touch with the public schools of the State. The family building, which was in process of erection at the time of my last report, was completed and occupied in March last. At the opening exercises there wrere present the committees on education and counties from the legislature, and many invited guests. They were welcomed by your chairman, Levi S. Gould, and*addresses were made by Hon. Alfred S. Roe, chairman of the committee on education; Mr. Bosworth, and others. The building vras completed wdthin the appropriation, and is occupied by a family of 50 boys. We close the year with 106 pupils, — a gain in number of 13 pupils for the year. In 1 Cambridge, Massachusetts, school report, 1892, p. 45. 2 Sixty-second Massachusetts board of education, p. 482 et seq. i TRUANT SCHOOLS. 141 my opinion, the increase for the time to come will be at least 10 per cent annually, and the condition of additional room will soon have to be met. I recommend that the unoocupied land lying west of the school, and extending to Princeton street, be taken by purchase or otherwise. It is needed for tillage purposes and in the future, if it should be considered wise to add to the capacity of the institution, the extra space would be necessary. I would also recommend the erection of a central heating plant, with sufficient storage room for a year’s supply of coal. At the present time the buildings are heated by a boiler in the basement of each. The saving in labor and fuel would be large, and a lower price for coal obtained could we purchase a year’s supply, instead of, as now, having to take from time to time only the amount we can store. We were enabled upon the completion of the new building to grade the schools. Another teacher was employed, and more time given to individual work. When you consider that 18 per cent of the children admitted during the year could not read a simple sentence, you will recognize the need of such work. The health of the children has been uniformly good throughout the year. We have had but one serious case of illness, that of pneumonia, from which a good recovery was made. Owing to the wet season the crops upon our most productive land were largely failures, particularly root crops. A larger quantity of berries was raised than ever before. The boys have been employed through the season in the necessary farm work and in grading the ground around the new building. Many cubic yards of earth have been moved in wheelbarrows, gutters paved, ditches excavated, etc. If more land is not acquired, there will be but little outside work for so many boys after this year. Classes in sloyd have been maintained throughout the year with good results. Our annual excursion day was celebrated by a boat ride to Nashua. All holidays have been observed in the usual manner. Religious services have been held each Sabbath. Protestant services have been conducted by various clergymen, and Catholic services by Rev. J. J. Shaw, of Chelmsford. Ages of boys committed during the year. Between 3 and 4 years . 1 Between 7 and 8 years . 1 Between 8 and 9 years . 4 Between 9 and 10 years . . . 8 Between 10 and 11 years . 8 Between 11 and 12 years . 7 Between 12 and 13 years . . . . . . . 13 Between 13 and 14 years . 14 Between 14 and 15 years . 7 Between 15 and 16 years . 1 Total . „ . 64 Domestic condition of hoys committed during the year. Father dead.. . 15 Mother dead . 10 Both parents dead . 4 Parents separated . 4 Total . 33 Nativity of parents of boys comm itted during the year. Father born in United States . 14 Father foreign born (including 11 in Canada) . 43 Unknown . 7 Mother born in United States . . . . 16 Mother foreign born (including 14 in Canada) . 42 Unknown . 6 Educationcd conditions. — The two main buildings have each a schoolroom, one for the lower division of the boys and the other for the higher. These schoolrooms are well heated, lighted, and ventilated. They are commodious and attractive. The desks are good. The blackboards are excellent. The appliances for teaching are 142 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1800. fair; perhaps as good as can be expected at present. The same wisdom that domi¬ nates the school as a whole will doubtless insure a steady improvement here. The teaching is reported to be “fair to good in both rooms.” There is a commendable appeal, so far as it goes, to the self-activity of the boys. The impression gathered from a single visit leads to the suggestion that probably there ought to be a little less reliance in the text-book, a little greater stress placed on the practical side of the various studies. This trend toward a certain bookishness is a natural and common one in the public schools, for which teachers are not wholly responsible. It would help them to counteract this tendency if they were supplied by the public with an abundance of judiciously selected appliances to engage the activities of the pupils and afford them facilities for learning things in their applications. Far more even than in a pul >lic school is it important in a truant school to enlist the motor side in the educative process. The provision for manual training at North Chelmsford is an admirable one for this purpose — a good room, a special teacher, benches where 15 boys can work at a time, and all in constant use. Moreover, it is gratifying to note that the general policy of the school is to make the boys do for themselves in all feasible directions. They wash their own clothes, they scrub the floors, they make their oven beds, they do the gardening, they keep the grounds in order, they clear up the wild lands. All this they do under competent direction, the work being done by groups, and the work for a group being frequently changed to give variety of experience and to break the weariness of monotony. The discipline of the school seems to be excellent. No disorder of any kind was noticed and no means of repression were visible. The behavior of the boys is care¬ fully noted from day to day, but how much use is made of the record, how much the fear of a low mark and its consequences has to do with keeping the boys in order is not reported. There was no “dodging” or evasion on the part of the boys; they seemed natural and happy. The order, regularity, health fulness, and employment of life at this school ought to be the saving of most of the boys. When assembled to listen to addresses from various speakers, the boys appeared to excellent advantage. Among them were many bright faces. Their singing was hearty, expressive, and enjoyable. It embraced a variety of styles and pieces; every boy of the 60 present joined in it. If they do their other work in school as well as they sing they can not but meet any reasonable school demands upon them. Miscellaneous. — The superintendent endeavors to follow up the boys after their discharge. As most of them come from Lowell and Cambridge he is able to keep informed about them through the truant officer and other officials of those cities. He thinks it is a conservative statement to make that 80 per cent of the discharged cases get into no trouble. Boys arrested on criminal charges are not sent to North Chelmsford. In some instances, doubtless, where crimes have been committed by truant boys they are complained of as truants and not as criminals and treated accordingly. Several of the boys in the school have been before the courts on criminal charges, and either released or fined, to be subsequently complained of as truants. Worcester County Truant School, Oakdale, Mass. This school was opened in 1891. For several years petitions had been received by the county commissioners requesting the establishment of such a school, but “lack of available funds,” the usual hindrance, for a long time prevented compliance.1 The. provision finally made, however, was in advance of anything that had been done up to that time, and the Worcester County Truant School was considered a model institution, and as such was held up for imitation by the secretary of the State board of education.2 The building is of brick with stone trimmings. It is 60 feet wide by 90 feet deep, and on each side is a wing 34 by 25 feet. There are two stories, with an attic and basement. On the ground floor are the superintendent’s office, reception room, library, schoolroom, dining rooms, kitchen, pantry, refrigerator, sewing rooms, and attendants’ rooms. On the floor above is a commodious dormitory, provided with a separate bed for each boy, with woven-wire springs and hair mattress. Adjoining this and connected with it is a sleening room for an attendant, and also a room in Jl Cj 7 1 Fifty-third annual report Massachusetts board of education, p. 297. 2 Fifty-fifth annual report Massachusetts board of education, p. 260. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 143 which the boys hang their clothing upon retiring. A large room devoted to manual training is also on this floor. The attic is used principally as a play and drill room. In the basement are the laundry, boys’ lavatories, 16 individual bath rooms with hot and cold water anti lockers for clothing. A large tank in the attic supplies the water used in the institution, and in the basement is a modern gas machine and heating apparatus. Electric bells, etc., have been installed throughout the house. The farm consists of 36 acres and the necessary farm buildings have been con¬ structed. A baseball held and a skating pond are provided for the use of the boys.1 The present value of the plant is about $75, 000. 2 The running expenses of the institution are about $5,000 a year. Of this $3,080 go to the employees, as follows: Superintendent and matron, $1,500; 1 teacher, $500; 1 farmer, $360; 3 domestics, $240 each.3 The number of children in the school varies from 30 to 40. Occasionally, though not often, a child is let out on parole, and if he promises especially well he is discharged outright. There is no fixed rule and no uniformity in the practice, however.3 The daily ' routine is: Rise, 5.30 a. m. ; breakfast, 6.30; school, 9 to 12; dinner, 12.30 p. m.; school, 2 to 4; supper, 5.30; retire, 7.30. There is no fixed rule as to the division of the remaining time between work and recreation.3 The boys assist in the house and farm work, and the school continues the entire year. The course of study is as nearly as possible like that of the regular schools. The majority of the boys are from the city of Worcester, and of the effects of their commitment Hon. Clarence F. Carroll, superintendent of the Worcester schools, writes, under date of March 7, 1899: . Children come back to us from the truant school uniformly improved in manner, and I believe a great .many of them are decidedly benefited by the experience. In other cases we find it necessary to repeat the sentence. As an estimate I should say that 90 per cent are permanently “cured” of the “disease ” of truancy, for which, they are committed. We have sent a few girls to the truant school, but under the law passed last year our judge rules that we can not send any more to this institution. It is possible to send them toa.State institution. This is occasionally done. I should add that there is a difference of opinion on this matter between the court and the State authorities, and that the secretary of the State board of education still believes that we can com¬ mit girls to the comity truant school. It is my judgment that such a school as the one at Oakdale is capable of doing the very best things for a city system. As you of course know, Massachusetts has a statute which provides for such schools in all parts of the State. I think only one or two of the other schools compare at all with ours in point of efficiency. Mr. Johnson, the principal, is a master of his art and does much to build up and recon¬ struct the weak characters that are sent to him. The agent of the State board of education who visited the school in 1898 reported the “educational conditions” to be as follows: The schoolroom in all that respects size, desks, blackboards, beating, lighting, and ventilation is satisfactory. There is a fair supply of teaching apparatus. The sup¬ plementary reading is of a good kind. The work done by the boys on the farm is of a useful kind; it seems to be strictly manual — that is, there is no formal teaching of agriculture or allied subjects in connection with it. There is no shop work or manual training. The teaching in the school appeared to be of good aiTerage quality. The boys were orderly and attentive. The discipline of the school was good, but not severe. When rules were disobeyed deprivation of privileges is a common pen¬ alty. Concert movements were noticed in many things — in washing the face and hands, in saying grace at meals, in beginning to eat — the boys responding to the tap of a hell or a pencil.4 1 The description of the buildings is based on documents furnished by Mr. F. L, Johnson, the super¬ intendent of the school. 2 Fifty-ninth annual report Massachusetts board of education, p. 581. 3 Letter from the superintendent of the school, dated March 7, 1899. 4 Sixty-second annual report Massachusetts board of education, p. 481. 144 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Plummer Farm School, Salem, Mass. Miss Caroline Plummer, of Salem, Mass., died in 1855, and in her will, dated July 23, 1853, was a clause by which the sum of $18,000, together with the residue of her estate after the payment of her debts and other legacies, was bequeathed for the founding of a farm school of reform for boys for the city of Salem, on a plan similar to that of the State reform school. It was directed that the money be paid to trustees chosen by the mayor and aldermen of Salem and duly incorporated by the State legislature. If the amount of the bequest were inadequate for the intended purpose, the trustees were authorized to place the money at interest until it amounted to a sufficient sum.1 The amount available was not at first sufficient, and the estab¬ lishment of the institution was postponed for several years.2 It was finally opened for the reception of inmates in 1870, the city authorities assisting with an appro¬ priation.3 The city of Salem had not had a truant ordinance because of the lack of a suitable place to which delinquents might be sent;4 but that desideratum having been filled by the Plummer School, an ordinance was passed early in 1871. 5 From that time to the present the Plummer Farm School has received all truants convicted in the city of Salem. In cases that threaten a confirmed habit, the truant is brought before the district court on complaint of the truant officer, and as a result of the first hearing the offender is usually “ put on probation.” This is sometimes continued after a second hearing, but a further continuance of the offense almost always results in the com¬ mitment of the truant to the Farm School for two years, which is the term uniformly inflicted.6 No paroles are given.7 Three truants were sentenced during 1898, the average number in the school for the offense being 5. 7 The whole number in the school December 31, 1898, was 28, of whom 5 were truants; 7 were children of pau¬ pers, 6 were boarders, and 10 had been sentenced for minority.8 Three hundred and sixty-six boys have been in the institution since its establishment, and of those that have gone out the most are doing well in the various pursuits of life.9 The employees are the superintendent, matron, assistant matron, female teacher, and male general assistant.10 The gross weekly cost per capita was $3.80 and the net cost $2. 43. 11 The daily routine prescribed for the winter months is as follows: 5.45 to 6.15, rise, make beds, "wash, etc.; 6.15 to 6.45, breakfast; 6.45 to 7, recess; 7 to 9.15, work; 9.15 to 9.30, recess; 9.30 to 11.30, work; 11.30 to 11.45, recess; 11.45 to 12.15, dinner; 12.15 to 1, play; 1 to 2, work; 2 to 2.30, recess; 2.30 to 4.30, school; 4.30 to 4.45; recess; 4.45 to 6, school; 6 to 6.30, supper; 6.30 to 7.15, play room; 7.15 to 7.30, devotional exercises; 7.30 to 8, retire. The school-room work is said to be of a high order. The boys when admitted are backward, dislike to go to school, and are not inclined to study except under com¬ pulsion. To interest them requires a teacher of the highest talent.12 The boys work on the farm during the proper season and the sales of farm prod¬ ucts amounted to $1,527 during 1898. 13 The larger boys are instructed in the use of carpenters’ tools, and cane-seating is the occupation at which all the boys are kept when outdoor work is impracticable. The earnings for seating chairs during the last year amounted to $438. 14 1 Salem school report, 1855, p. 48. 2 lb., 1858, p.22. 3Ib., 1870, p. 21. 4 Several ordinances had been adopted by the council, but had failed to receive judicial sanction. 5 Salem school report, 1871, p. 12. 0 Letter of Hon. John W. Perkins, superintendent city schools of Salem, March 7, 1899. 7 Letter of Mr. C. A. Johnson, superintendent of the school, March 9, 1899. 8 Report of Plummer Farm School for 1898, p. 7. 9 lb., p. 15. 10 lb., p. 4. 12 lb., p. 8. is ib., p. 10. n Ib., p. 7. nib., p. 9. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 145 The school is located in the harbor of Salem, on Winter Island, If miles from the center of the city and within the corporate limits. The island is connected with the mainland by a good road.1 The main building is a substantial three-story frame structure, 42 by 92 feet in its dimensions.2 Springfield, Mass. In many respects Springfield has been one of the most progressive of American cities educationally. It was one of the first places in the country to employ a super¬ intendent, Mr. S. S. Greene having been so engaged in the autumn of 1840, his services continuing for two or three years. After him there was no one so designated for a long time, hut the chairmen of the school committee in the meantime happened to be men with unusual qualifications, and they took great interest in their work. This is especially true of Dr. Josiah Hooker, who was the first chairman after the place was incorporated as a city in 1852, and who continued to occupy that position until 1868. The reports of the school committee during all that period were written by him, and they show in a marked degree an intimate acquaintance with the schools, an understanding of their needs, and a spirit of progress in urging plans for their improvement. Mr. E. A. Hubbard was elected superintendent in January, 1865, and served to April, 1873, when he was succeeded after a brief interval by Mr. A. P. Stone, whose service in this capacity continued until April 1, 1888. These changes in personnel had an important bearing on the policy of the city toward the truant schools. From the very first the subject of truancy has received earnest attention from the Springfield school authorities, and nearly all the early reports contained recommen¬ dations for abating it. In 1842, whim the schools were still under the district system, the teacher of one of the schools became discouraged at the lack of parental support in his efforts to secure proper discipline and regular attendance, and resigned. A meeting of the district was immediately called, and the teacher was requested to state his grievances. A full discussion of the situation ensued, regret was expressed at the apathy existing on the part of parents, and a resolution was unanimously passed pledging to the teacher support and cooperation. Subsequently the resolution was printed, together with new regulations of a stringent sort, and a copy was sent to each family in the district. The superintendent said in commenting upon the matter in his annual report: “The effect in giving to the children an increase of vital action and arousing to greater speed their locomotive powers was truly gratifying. The impossibility of playing the truant without detection has contributed much to the constancy and regularity of attendance. The influence of these regulations enforced by a vigilant board of overseers, created by their provisions, has been as might be expected, most salutary in reducing to order and system these heretofore trouble¬ some though now quiet and submissive schools. It is a fit example for other districts to follow.” This incident shows not only an early example of official action to reduce truancy, but in the creation of a board of overseers specially for the purpose of enforcing attendance it antedated the appointment of truant officers in Boston by several years, and constituted, apparently, the first instance in America of the employment of special attendance officers. In this case, however, it was only a temporary need that brought about such action, and the board of overseers then organized probably went out of existence in a few months at most. In the same report Superintendent Greene estimated that the actual pecuniary loss to the town through nonattendance or irregular attendance of children amounted to not less than one- third of the whole amount spent. The numerous recommendations and discussions of which these are examples do 1 Report of Plummer Farm School, 1898, p. 8. 2 Letter of Supt. C. A. Johnson, March 9, 1899. ed 1900 — — 10 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. 1 * Q. 1-tO not imply that the conditions were any worse in Springfield than in other towns at that time, but they do indicate on the part of the officials a recognition of the evil and an earnest desire to abate it. In the report of the school committee for 1852, Chairman Hooker suggested the establishment of a special school for habitually truant or disorderly pupils, to be called a “reform school.” This should be, he said, under a teacher of peculiar tact in managing such children, and should receive all pupils from other schools who should be adjudged by the committee to belong to this class of delinquents. In the next report, i. e., for 1853, the same recommendation occurs in a somewhat different form. Dr. Hooker in that advocated a “ miscellaneous school ” for back¬ ward pupils who could not he suitably classed in any of the existing grades of schools, and for “all others who are found in any way to be troublesome and diffi¬ cult to manage. * * * This should be supplied by nupils from the different districts, the assignment to be made by the school committee.” He cited New Bed¬ ford as a city in which such a school was successfully conducted. These recommendations did not result at once in the establishment of the special school which Dr. Hooker had in mind, but the constant agitation of the general subject of truancy had its effect and caused various means to be adopted to reduce it. The city council in 1853 passed an ordinance under the State law providing for com¬ pulsory attendance, but little result seems to have come of it at the time, as no truant officers were provided and no general enforcement of the law took place. There had been employed in the city, however, for a number of years a class of officers peculiar to Springfield, called “schoolhouse agents,” whose principal duties related to the oversight of the buildings, purchase of fuel, supplies, etc. The duties of truant officers in no way fell upon them, but some of them voluntarily assumed such duties with excellent results. The “missionary work’'’ of one of them, Col. Warriner, was especially commended by the school committee. With the advent of a superintendent of schools in 1865 the subject of a truant school was again taken up. Mr. Hubbard’s plan of treatment for truancy was the result of a visit to Worcester, and was as follows: First. The teachers in the ordinary schools to search out absent pupils and seek to bring them back to school. This does not, he said, secure the desired result for the worst class, nor does it reach those whose names are not on the register, who are simply children in the street. Second. A truant school to he established not only for truants, but the turbulent, the dis¬ obedient, and refractory from any of the schools are to he sent to it, till they redeem their characters and are permitted to return to their proper school. The master of this school should be made an officer with the right to enter houses in search of a truant. Third. A school to be established a little out of the city proper, with a school yard and a fence that can not be scaled, and with other required means of security. The mayor, the marshal, and the superintendent of schools to constitute a commission, and when a boy can not be reached by former “steps,” this commis¬ sion to make complaint before the police judge, and he is to be sent up to this school. In his report for 1865 Mr. Hubbard stated that the “first step” was already taken; that the school committee itself was competent to establish the school con¬ templated in the “second step,” and that the favor with which the city officials had received his plans encouraged him to hope that the means for the “third step” might be forthcoming. The next report (1866) chronicles the fruition of his plans. The city government provided a place at the city almshouse, remote from the other inmates, for the “ reception, confinement, and instruction” of truants and other vicious, idle, and vagrant children. This institution was “ under a kind and efficient female teacher,” and was called the truant school. Commitments to this school were by the police court, and pupils were detained during the term of their sentence, or until the court, being satisfied of their reformation, discharged them. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 14T For pupils of the irregular class a special school was assigned, styled the ungraded school, in the State street schoolliouse. This was placed in the charge of a compe¬ tent man teacher, who was also made truant officer, and who was aided in the school itself by a woman of long and successful school experience. Whenever children in this school became uniformly regular in their attendance and commendable in their behavior they were allowed to return to the graded schools; but if their conduct was such as to make such a step necessary, they were sentenced to the truant school. Transfers to and from the ungraded school were by order of the superintendent. Both Chairman Hooker and Superintendent Hubbard wrote in enthusiastic terms both of the success of the new schools and of the competency of those in charge of them, and it was said that the invariable testimony of the graded-school teachers was that the effect of the new departure had been excellent upon their own scholars. It became evident almost immediately that the almshouse was no place for the truant school, and earnest endeavors were made by the school committee and the superintendent to have it removed. It appeared, however, that the city had no other place available, and the school continued in its unsatisfactory surroundings as long as it existed. In the new almshouse, which was built in 1873, its quarters were much improved, but much was still lacking which was necessary to the highest state of efficiency. The objections to the location were thus stated by the superintendent in his report for 1869: “It is an annoyance to the aged and the infirm poor to have 25 or 30 boys in the same building with them. The accommodations are not such as to allow as long a sentence to the boys as would be for their greatest good. There is no regular system of labor by which the boys shall learn to work and in part defray the expense incurred for them. There is no provision for girls, and girls are sometimes truants. The expense for food and clothing is now charged to the pauper department, an injustice to that department.” Mr. Hubbard considered that no great institution or expensive building was neces¬ sary; what he desired was a series of family houses capable of accommodating from 20 to 30 pupils, a farm adapted to the purposes required, a workshop for winter work, a matron and teacher, and all under one general supervision.1 One of the great needs of the school was supposed for a long time to be an inclosed space for a playground. While the city authorities were deliberating upon the mat¬ ter, the teacher, Miss Bascom, put the boys upon their honor and allowed them, apparently for the first time, the privilege of playing in the open ground near tire building. Her confidence was but little abused and the effect was salutary upon the boys. After that the demand for a fenced playground ceased so long as that teacher continued in charge.2 Notwithstanding the unfavorable conditions in the main surrounding the truant school, only good reports were made of its work and of its teachers. The latter were selected with great care, and were always women who had had previous successful experience in institutions somewhat similar. It was stated repeatedly that the boys were well fed, well clothed, well taught, and as orderly and well behaved as any 20 boys could be expected to be. One of the greatest causes of regret in regard to them was that they must return to unwholesome home influences at the expiration of sen¬ tences too short to strengthen them sufficiently to withstand evil associations. The ungraded school was equally as fortunate as the truant school in the selection of teachers, and, like the truant school, was an object of especial solicitation on the part of Superintendent Hubbard during his incumbency. Truants who could be held there could be taught at less expense than at the truant school, but not alone for truants was it considered valuable; some pupils who were compelled by circum¬ stances to be too irregular in their attendance to keep up 'with the regular classes 1 Report for 1870. 2 Report for 1875. 148 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. could be well cared for in the ungraded school and were sent there by their parents through preference. The attendance averaged about 25 at first, but it increased to about 50, with a total registration of over 100, after a few years. Its location was changed twice, and its final home was in the old high school building on Court street, a place without objection for the purpose. For a short time the first ungraded school was located inconveniently in Auburn street, and during that time a second school of a similar kind was established in East Union street, to serve for the southern and eastern sections of the city. Both were consolidated, however, when the Court street site was occupied. Upon his arrival and assumption of the duties of superintendent, Mr. Stone seems to have been favorably impressed with both the truant school and the ungraded school, for in his first report (1873) he speaks in high terms of the tact and efficiency of the teachers and of the beneficial and salutary reflex influence of these institu¬ tions upon the schools at large. His subsequent reports, however, contain but scant reference to the ungraded, and little more to the truant school. The following paragraph from his report for 1878 indicates, finally, that his estimate of the value of the ungraded school was decidedly lower than that of his predecessor: Much of the truancy which ultimately brings boys to the truant school could be better checked in its incipiency if the truant officer could give his entire time to looking after this class of boys. * * * The surest remedy for the evil of truancy is prevention, and prevention is best secured by two agencies — a school in which the pupil has such an interest and enjoys with such a keen relish that he shall feel no inclination to absent himself from his daily work; and a sagacious truant officer, ever on duty, and ready to return to school the early wanderers from its duties. Since the truant officer was also the principal of the ungraded school, this recom¬ mendation as it stood meant nothing more nor less than the discontinuance of that school. One is not surprised, therefore, to find in the next annual report (1879) the following paragraphs in the statement of the chairman of the school committee: Owing to the crowded state of the city almshouse, the few boys in the truant school kept in that building were discharged by the proper authorities. The new county truant school building will probably be opened in the spring and offer greatly improved facilities for the teaching and industrial training of this class of children. The ungraded school in the old high-school building was discontinued in April. Tins school at a certain transition period was of great value, gathering in a class of children whose irregular habits of attendance were a great embarrassment to the graded schools. But owing to the hearty cooperation of parents and teachers, and wise modifications in grading, the committee were able to dispense with the school at a saving of expense. In the same building a new primary school of two rooms has been opened. The superintendent in the same report stated that the suspension of the truant school was followed by an increase of truancy, but expressed the hope that the con¬ templated county truant school could be made available to furnish a wholesome check to the vicious habit. He also says that “since the discontinuance of the ungraded school in Court street, Mr. Clark, its principal, as well as truant officer, has given all his time to the subject of truancy. * * * Mr. Clark has performed his duties with good judgment and fidelity, and I have no doubt that many more cases of truancy would have occurred had he given but a portion of his time to this sub¬ ject, as in former years.” The last sentence is evidently by way of justification of the recommendation in the former report. The Hampden County truant school was opened in 1880, and after that time the history of truancy in Springfield differs in no material respect from that of other cities in the Commonwealth. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 149 Hampden County Truant School, Springfield, Mass.1 The first fruit of the Massachusetts law of 1873 providing for county truant schools was borne seven years after the passage of the law. The cities of Springfield, Hol¬ yoke, and Chicopee in 1879 united in a request to the commissioners of Hampden County according to the law, and in response those officers established the Hampden County Truant School, which was opened in .Tune, 1880. It is located 1J miles from the center of the city of Springfield, upon a “farm” of 11 \ acres. The structures provided are a three-story main building, barn, and several outbuildings. In the main building the schoolroom is on the second floor, and the boys’ dormitories are in the third story and attic. The building is also used as the residence of the super¬ intendent, his family, and the help. The first cost of land and buildings (in 1880) was $12,677.96, and the present value is thus reported: Land, $7,000; buildings, $13,000; furniture, $3,000. The employees and’ their salaries for 1898 were : Superintendent and matron, $1,000 a year; teacher, $40 a month; assistant (man), $30 a month; cook, $5 a week; second girl, $4 a week; laundress, $1.25 a day. All the employees are boarded at the school. The amounts received for the board of truants during 1898 were as follows: From Berkshire County . . . . . . . . . . $287. 95 From city of Holyoke . . . 691. 90 From city of Springfield . . . . . 679. 05 From town of West Springfield . . . . . . . . 213. 74 Total . 1,872.64 The expenditures during the same year were: Repairs . . . . . . . - . $550. 66 Furniture . . . . . 134. 70 Beds and bedding . . . . . . . . 222. 21 Fuel . . . . . . . 246. 15 Lights . . — . . 23. 57 Water . 45. 97 Feed and grain . 114. 81 Labor . 29. 35 Provisions . . . 1, 328. 46 Clothing . 588.42 Medicine and medical attendance . 28. 24 Instruction (including salary of teacher and supplies) . 621. 75 Salaries (not including teacher) . . 1, 952. 20 Miscellaneous . . . . . 279. 51 Total . 6, 166. 00 The accommodations of the school were designed for 30 pupils, but for several years the number averaged about 16. Twenty-nine were sentenced during 1898 and the average number in the school at one time during that year was 21. The sen¬ tences are generally for a year, but some are for 6 months, 18 months, and 2 years. The daily routine during winter is as follows: Rise, 5.45; breakfast, 6 to 6.30; yard, 6.30 to 7; work, 7 to_9; school, 9 to 11.45; dinner, 12 to 12.30; yard and extra work, 12.30 to 2; school, 2 to 4; yard, 4 to 5; supper, 5 to 5.30; recreation room, 5.30 to 7; bed, 7 p. m. 1 Compiled from the Forty -fourth annual report Massachusetts board of education, p. 144; Forty-sixth annual report, p. 66; Sixty-second annual report, p. 476; Report of the treasurer of Hampden County, Mass., for 1898, and letter of Mr. Erwin G. Ward, March 9, 1899. 150 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The class-room instruction is of good quality, and includes some manual training. The school possesses a small but well-selected library. The following, though written by a visitor soon after the establishment of the school, seems from later accounts to be true, in most particulars at least, at the present time: The only artificial safeguards for the custody of the inmates consist of a high board fence around a playground that is about one-third of an acre in area, and a heavy “wire mesh” that covers the windows of the sleeping apartments. These simple appliances are deemed necessary, because some of the boys who are sent to the school are determined, at first, to escape if possible, and it is expedient to have the means for holding them until other influences can be brought to bear upon them to change their motives or desires. There is also a strongly bolted cell which can be used for disciplinary purposes, when deemed best to use it. In other respects there is nothing either in the arrange¬ ment or control of the school that has anything of a prison-like appearance. All the boys, at one time or another, sometimes all together, work on the farm in season for such work. They play ball and other games on an open lot of Id acres, much more than they play in their inclosed playground; and they have even accompanied the superintendent to scenes of interest away from the school premises. None have ever tried to escape at such times. The policy is to trust them as soon and as fully as they prove themselves trustworthy. Everything in the care and management of the boys, also in their appearance in their daily duties and amusements, gives a careful observer the idea that the institution is a well-regulated home for them rather than a prison.1 Of the results, the superintendent, Mr. R. C. Barrett, wrote early in the history of the school: As regards the pupils themselves who have been inmates of this institution, we can see in all a fair advance in knowledge of their school studies, and in most, quite a rapid improvement. We think their average advancement in scholarship to be above that of the pupils of the same grades in the schools of this city. While in some instances the improvement in the moral character of these pupils has not equaled their intellectual advancement, yet in a majority we can see a change for the better, and in some instances a very marked improvement in this regard. We know of several of our graduates, being still of school age, who have been regular in their attendance upon school since leaving us. Others are in positions of honorable employment, and we believe many will be better citizens for their training here. As to the effect upon the attendance in the public schools of the county, so far as I have been able to ascertain it, the testimony of superintendents and teachers is unanimous that the existence of this school has very greatly lessened truancy and irregular attendance in those schools.2 Berkshire County established a truant school in 1887 on the petition of seven towns, but it was never well developed and had only three or four pupils at a time at most. It was discontinued in 1898, and Berkshire County now uses the Hampden County school. A very small proportion of the municipalities of either of the two counties are represented in the truant school, most of the boys being from Spring- field, Holyoke, and West Springfield, in Hampden County, and Pittsfield and North Adams, in Berkshire County. Union Truant School op Norfolk, Bristol, and Plymouth Counties, Walpole, Mass. There are a number of cities and populous towns in southeastern Massachusetts in which truancy has received earnest consideration almost from the beginning of the general agitation of the question. New Bedford is entitled to the distinction of being the pioneer in establishing a truant school in an almshouse, a distinction which was never a source of pride to her school officers, but which, nevertheless, has meant much in indicating early and constant attention to a very important subject. Fall 1 Mr. W. W. Waterman, superintendent of city schools of Taunton, Mass., in his annual report for 1882-83, p. 31. 2 Taunton, Mass., school report, 1882-83, p. 30, TEUANT SCHOOLS. 151 Elver, too, maintained an almshouse truant school for a number of years, and Taunton was among the first to adopt by-laws after the passage of the compulsory law of 1861. Ail these cities are in Bristol County, and all were prompt in petition¬ ing the county commissioners to establish a county truant school. New Bedford school officials took action in that direction almost immediately after the passage of the law of 1873, her experience with the local school being such as to make almost any change seem desirable. Petitions to similar effect were sent in from other places in the same county, and like requests were made of the commissioners of the neigh¬ boring counties of Plymouth, Norfolk, and Barnstable by towns and cities in those counties. The idea of a union school, to be maintained by these four counties, was suggested early, and an act of the legislature in 1884 permitted them to unite for that purpose. A great deal of indifference and some active opposition was encoun¬ tered among county officials as well as elsewhere. The authorities of Barnstable County steadily refused to enter into the project, but the joint action of the other three counties was finally secured, and the union truant school was established at Walpole in 1889. Barnstable County made no provision for her truants for a num¬ ber of years afterward, and was relieved by law in 1894 from maintaining a county school of her own. The Essex County truant school at Lawrence is assigned as the place to which truants from Barnstable are committed. The Union School at Walpole is on a plat of 20 acres, with a cottage for general purposes and the usual outbuildings. The three counties jointly meet all the expenses of the institution, including the food and clothing of the inmates, excepting that the respective towns and cities pay §1 a week for each pupil sent to the school. It costs per child about $3.50 per week, net, for all purposes. There are 9 employees, namely, the superintendent, matron, teacher, farmer, assistant farmer, and 4 females in charge of the dining room, kitchen, laun¬ dry, and sewing room, respectively. Fifty boys were received during 1898-99, and that is about the usual number in the school at one time. The hoys are in the school room five days in the week from 9.30 to 11.30 a. m., and from 2.15 to 5 p.m., and they do the necessary work of the institution before and after school. The superintendent, Mr. Aaron E. Morse, writes under date of June 22, 1899: I think the sentence to the truant school should be indetenninate; then the boy has something to work for. I am in favor of treating these boys just as though they were my own, giving each a fair show. I endeavor to make the school as near a New England home as possible. I think very few are actually cured if they return to their former surroundings, but that we have had. good results here we have proof in the lives of some former inmates. The State agent who visited the school1 finds the greatest drawback to the school in the condition of the class-room instruction. There is but one teacher for 47 boys in all stages of progress. “ Here you have,” says the agent, ‘‘all the difficulties of the district school of all grades, with this addi¬ tional difficulty, that while the district school is made up of pupils of whom three- fourths are bright and ambitious to learn, the pupils in the truant schools are boys whom the teachers of the graded city and town schools, with all their superior advantages, have not been able to reach and interest.” The absence of manual training he considers another serious defect. The Ungraded School at Worcester, Mass. The Worcester ungraded school grew out of the old apprentices’ school, which had been established before 1840 at least. This school was kept open during about four months in the winter for apprentices and young men who were not able to attend the ordinary schools regularly. The attainments of the pupils were varied and no 1 See sixty-second report Massachusetts board of education, p. 474. 152 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. attempt was made at grading, the instruction being largely individual. The habits and characters encountered in the school were as varied as the literary attainments, and cleanliness was sometimes the first thing that had to be taught. As for behavior, the city school report of 1842, the first accessible here, states that “the school has always been a difficult one to manage, and often but little benefit has been received from it, on account of the inability of teachers to maintain order.”1 Turbulence and indifference to study were so common that ability to deal with refractory pupils was the first requisite in the teacher. It was expected that he would have to deal with “hard cases” in motley assortment, and he had to be equal to any emergency. Such being the character of the school and such the character of its teacher, it was an easy step from the “apprentices’ school” to the Botany Bay for bad boys from the regular schools. It. is doubtful if the “mixed school” at New Bedford, suggested the change. No mention is made of it in the Worcester reports and the metamorphosis was so natural that no outside suggestion seems to have been necessary. But whatever the cause, the change was formally made in 1862, and though the name “adult school” hung on for several years longer,2 its membership after that date consisted almost exclu¬ sively of boys between 8 and 16 years of age.3 Truancy was then one of the most discussed topics in Massachusetts school affairs, and the special usefulness of the reorganized school in the treatment of truants was speedily recognized. Some of the pupils of the original sort, namely, young men who could attend but a part of the year and who would not fit into any of the grades, continued to be taught, but after 1862 the school was distinctly for truants and insub¬ ordinate pupils. In this role it found immediate favor. In the Worcester school report for 1863 (p. 22), it was stated that “as a reformatory institution the school has proved to be useful, converting many of the most inveterate truants into regular attendants, and restraining many of the mischievous and vicious from their evil course.” Simi¬ lar statements were made in several subsequent reports. The school grew in numbers as well as usefulness, and additional teachers and new quarters had to be provided from time to time. A school for girls on the same plan was organized in 1867 and that, too, was described as having an excellent influence. The “Worcester Truant School” or “Reform School,” as it was variously called, was established at the almshouse in 1863, and a regular system in the management of truancy, by the use of these two institutions, was developed in the course of a few years. When children became so irregular in their attendance or so unruly in their behavior that they could not be retained in the regular schools, they were transferred to the ungraded schools. There, their attendance was closely watched by truant officers, and their conduct was strictly controlled by skillful teachers. If improve¬ ment took place they were in due time returned to the regular schools; if they con¬ tinued incorrigible, the courts were called upon and sentence to the Truant School was imposed. The ungraded school was discontinued in 1874. “It had become unpopular,” and it seemed possible to secure the desired results as to attendance through the constant watchfulness of the truant officers and the influence of the principals.4 It was never reestablished on the old basis, but an “ungraded school” upon a dif¬ ferent plan was opened in 1898, and is still in existence. It is intended for those who for various reasons do not fit into the regular classes, and may be used for truants under some conditions, but it is by no means penal in its character. 1 Report of the board of overseers of schools in the center school district in Worcester, 1842, p. 10. 2 It was called the “ unclassified school” in 1864 and the “ ungraded school ” a few years after. 3 Report of the school committee, Worcester, Mass., 1863, p. 21. 4 Worcester school report, 1874, p. 18. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 153 Bay Oity, Mich. [Statement of Hon. J. A. Stewart, superintendent of city schools, March 7, 1899.] Some years ago we had two room's set apart on opposite sides of the city for ungraded and truant schools combined. One has been discontinued as no longer needed. They were a good thing for our schools, as the fear of being sent to them kept many scholars regular in attendance and well behaved. We have one truant officer — a member of the police force. Transfers to the truant school are made by the city superintendent of schools for an indeterminate period. Pupils are retrans¬ ferred to their former schools when they show likelihood of being regular. At present the school is in a 3-rooni building, one room being used for the ungraded and truant school, and two rooms for first and second grade pupils. The teacher of the truant school is principal of the building, and receives $600 a year. Very few are actually transferred from the regular schools, as the truant school has a strong deterrent effect on truancy. Detroit, Mich. The ungraded school at Detroit has jirobably received more attention and com¬ mendation from persons not connected with it than any other school of its kind in the country. It has done a valuable work in its time, but like all the others, it has at times failed to meet expectations, and now the wisdom of its very existence as an ungraded school is called into question. Its need was felt and its establishment foretold at least ten years before it became an actuality. Supt. Duane Doty in 1873 expressed the opinion that sooner or later such a school would be a necessity, .though he did not urge that the step be taken immediately, and did not enter into any elaborate discussion concerning it.1 Among the improvements in which the next superintendent, Mr. J. M. B. Sill, showed special interest was the abolishment of corporal punishment. In 1876 he said that the elimination of the element of physical force could be easily accom¬ plished at once if Detroit had some sufficient provision for the separate instruction of truants and incorrigibles. He, too, expected that such provision would have to be made sooner or later, but did not follow up the matter very strenuously at the time.2 Three years later he reverted to it, this time in connection with a discussion of compulsory education. The State law passed in 1871 was of no account, and Mr. Sill seemed to be in doubt whether efficient general legislation could be secured, though he thought a law authorizing a “reformatory school,” with proper police cooperation, might be had for the asking.3 In 1882 a determined effort was made to secure such a law, Superintendent Sill, Representative John Devlin, and Hon. C. E. Warner, the president of the board of education, being its most conspicuous advocates.4 The act of May 3, 1883, 5 resulted. It was, in reality, a general compulsory attendance law, but was especially designed to reach truant and incorrigible children, and to provide for ungraded schools in cities, which such children should be compelled to attend.6 The Detroit school board soon availed themselves of the authority granted in the act, and in August, 1883, directed the opening of an ungraded school. It went into operation during the following October, and before the end of the school year 158 pupils had been enrolled, with an average attendance of 45. The choice of a teacher was specially fortunate, and the police authorities cooperated cordially, detailing two officers for truant work, so that the first year’s experience was highly gratifying. The majority of the pupils proved earnest and faithful, and though there were some marked exceptions, the general characteristic was one of rapid progress.7 Some difficulties arose from imperfections in the law, leading to its amendment and reenactment in 1885. Even then it was found that attendance could not be 1 Detroit school report, 1873, p. 57. 2Ib., 1876, p. 94. 3Ib., 1879, p. 68. 4Ib., 1882, p. 51, and 1883, p. 13. 5Ib., 1883, p. 77. 6Ib.,p.l3. Nb., 1884, pp. 13 and 62. 154 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. absolutely enforced, and it was only by the most careful management that parents could be induced to allow their children to attend the ungraded schools.1 In the revision of the compulsory education statutes of 1895 the section relating to ungraded schools received their present form,2 and it was thought that all the diffi¬ culties had been met. But much is still to be desired.3 * 5 The enrollment in the ungraded school has. shown marked fluctuations, nearly all explainable by some circumstance or circumstances extraneous to the school itself. It has been as follows: 1883- 81 1884- 85 1885- 86 1886- 87 1887- 88 1888- S9 1889- 90 1890- 91 158 1891-92 230 1892-93 372 1893-94 301 1894-95 221 1895-96 4 223 1896-97 241 1897-98 307 375 400 379 325 411 387 5 300 The story of the causes of the fluctuation is easily told. For the first three years all seemed to go smoothly. The school officers were enthusiastic and the police department cordial. Then the novelty began to wear off. The policemen detailed for truant duty were frequently called away by their superior officers for other work; school principals failed to make prompt reports of truancy; weaknesses in the laws became more glaring, and parents and children learned how to take advantage of them; the rented quarters assigned the school were so unsatisfactory as to become almost intolerable.6 In short, Detroit felt its share of the troubles so common in the history of ungraded schools, and the attendance showed the effect of them. A new building was erected specially for the ungraded school and first occupied in 1890. It was supplied with a plunge bath and other conveniences needed for the peculiar work of such a school. At once the attendance increased and once more the future seemed bright. The greatest drawback mentioned during the next few years was that the truant officers were not under school control. In 1893-94, five policemen were detailed for the truant service, but were called upon for other work so often that their school duties were necessarily neglected. This was, naturally a great hindrance to the suc¬ cessful operation of the ungraded school,7 since regularity of attendance upon it was dependent largely upon the activity of the truant officers. The passage of the compulsory education law of 1895 caused at once an increase in the ungraded school, the enrollment for 1885-86 reaching the highest point in its history. Four additional truant officers were appointed December 1, 1895, and the increased force was able to practically free the streets of the city of juvenile truants, vagrants, and tramps, such characters being either forced to leave the city or to attend the ungraded school.8 In 1896 the school was removed from the building which had been specially con¬ structed for it in a central location to another on Champlain street. The change was plainly detrimental to the best interests of the school.8 At the present time the conditions are not satisfactory. There is but one school to serve the entire area of 30 square miles covered by the city. Some of the children 1 Detroit school report, 1894-95, p. 109. 2 See page 201. 3 Detroit school report, 1896-97, p. 76. 4 Six girls were enrolled in 1888-89, and from that time to 1894-95 there were from 25 to 30 each year. The number fell to 18 in 1895-96 and to 9 in 1896-97. 5 The average membership was 60 and the average attendance 38. Three teachers were employed in June, 1898. c Detroit school reports, 1885-86, p. 110; 1S80-87, p. 40; 1887-88, pp. 8 and 19; 1S88-89, p. 17, etc. 7 Detroit school report, 1893-94, p. 86. 8 lb., 1895-96, p. 162. 9Ib., p. 162. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 155 must walk 3 or 4 miles every day to reach the school, a state of affairs that would not conduce to regular attendance on the part of a much higher class of pupils than that found in a disciplinary school. In case of an unauthorized absence, if an officer is sent after a truant living in a remote section of the city, the session is about over before he can return with the pupil.1 The establishment of additional schools of the same sort has been frequently urged both by the superintendents and by the principal of the ungraded school. It is evi¬ dent that this must be done if the present system is to be continued. Whether this or the establishment of a parental school would be the wiser solution of the problem, has been under consideration recently. So far as this office is informed, no conclu¬ sion has been reached and no action taken up to this time. Grand Rapids, Mich. [Statement of Hon. F. R. Hathaway, superintendent of city schools, March 1, 1899.] 1. The truancy department of the city of Grand Rapids has been in operation for fourteen years. During this entire time there has been but one truant officer, Mr. F. B. Fee. This man is one of the policemen of the city, and during the long sum¬ mer vacation dons his uniform and serves as a regular officer. During the ten months of the school year he devotes his entire services to the work in the truancy department and is under the immediate supervision of the superintendent of schools. He is paid by the city from the same fund that other policemen are paid, and is appointed by the superintendent of police, at the request of the board of education. 2. We have an ungraded day school for pupils who do not fit into the regular grades; also an ungraded truant school for truants and incorrigibles. Both these schools are day schools. There is no organized boarding truant school. 3. We have a regular report blank which a teacher makes out when she thinks a pupil should be transferred to the truant school. The principal countersigns the same, making whatever comments he desires. This blank is then forwarded to the superintendent, who directs the truant officer to investigate the case, and if that offi¬ cer unites with the teacher and principal in the recommendation, the superintendent authorizes the transfer of the pupil from the regular school to the truant school. Pupils are returned to their regular school upon the recommendation of the principal of the truant school and the approval of the superintendent. 4. All sentences to the truant school are indeterminate. Pupils may make time by good behavior. Indeed, it is our practice to return the pupil as soon as we think it prudent. 5. We do not parole pupils. Every pupil, however, who is transferred to the regular school, is transferred on the sole condition that his conduct shall be such as to merit approval. 6. Our truant school is in a 15-room grammar school. This is a decidelv objec¬ tionable feature. It should be in a building by itself. 7. We have no regular arrangement for feeding and clothing the inmates. Two or three times a year we hold entertainments, securing thereby $200 or $300 to be used in clothing the poor children of the city. This amount is doubled or trebled by pri¬ vate contributions. Children in the truant school are, however, no more liable to be helped from this fund than are children in other schools. 8 and 9. The principal of the grammar school above referred to acts as principal of the truant school. The amount of his salary which could be charged to this school is about $100. One teacher is employed at a salary of $600. The truant officer receives, through the police department, $60 per month. I can not well estimate either the cost of heating the room or the expense of janitoi service. 10. The daily routine of the school, as far as hours are concerned, is the same as in other schools, viz., from 9 to 11.45 and from 1.15 to 3.30. The course of instruction is rather simple, being much like that of an ungraded district school. There are very few frills. We do, however, try to foster the spirit of patriotism by means of songs, readings, and by biographical works. 11. The means employed for enforcing attendance at the truant school are those laid down in act No. 95, public acts of 1895, as amended by act No. 67, public acts of 1897, Michigan. These are served in the order in which they are numbered, begin¬ ning with B. In case a parent wishes to have his child excused under the terms of the statute he makes personal application to the superintendent. His statement is 1 Detroit school report, 1895-96, p. 79. 156 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. taken down in writing, the case is investigated by the truant officer, and decided upon its merits. Other blanks are used in reporting such decision to the parent. 12. During the year ending June 25, 1898, there were 187 different pupils sentenced to the truant school. The average number belonging at any one time was 33, and average daily attendance, 25; per cent of attendance, 77; aggregate tardiness, 196; number of truancies from the school, 98; number returned to other schools, 64; number left to go to work, 12; number who moved from the city, 8; population of the city, 90,000. 13. It is difficult to specify the number “ probably cured,” as different persons might place an entirely different interpretation on the word “cured.” If by that term we mean the number of pupils who are cured sufficiently so that the ordinary day-school teacher could live with them it is probably safe to place the number at 64, as that many were returned to the regular schools. But if by “ cured ” is meant the number who will ultimately become good citizens, Solomon himself could not answer the question. Thirteen pupils were sent to the State reform school during the year ending June 25, 1898, and as the police courts in this city have decided that all juvenile offenders under the age of 16 who are guilty of the so-called “minor offenses” must first pass through our truant school before being sent to the State reform school, this number (13) covers nearly all the cases sent from Grand Rapids to the State school during the time mentioned. In this connection it may be interesting to revert to my experience in Flint, Mien., before coming to Grand Rapids. I organized a truant school in that city and oper¬ ated it three years. During that time the tardiness in the public schools fell off half. The absentees in the public schools decreased 20 per cent. The number of arrests of disorderly juvenile persons for all offenses whatever decreased 65 per cent, and during the three years but three boys were sent to the State reform school for boys and not a girl to the State reform school for girls. The city’s population is 12,000. We fol¬ lowed carefully the fortunes of these boys and found that more than two-thirds of those who left the school, having reached the age limit (16), secured regular employ¬ ment and are now law-abiding citizens. 14. We have no special arrangement for incorrigible girls. Occasionally such per¬ sons are sent to the truant school. These instances are, however, rare. If it becomes necessary to take such a girl from the regular school we try to place her in the ungraded school. 15. I am a firm believer in the day truant school, but have not had an opportunity to investigate the boarding truant school. A necessary adjunct to a compulsory school law is a law forbidding the employment of child labor. The two go hand in hand, and neither can stand without the other. Michigan is fortunate in that she has both laws upon her statute book. Newark, N. J. [Statement of lion. C. B. Gilbert, city superintendent of schools, March 7, 1899.] We have a truancy department with a sufficient number of truancy officers, under the control of police management. These officers investigate all cases referred to them, and make daily reports. They also see that children reported truant are taken to school. We have one central ungraded school for truants and those who have proved unmanageable in other schools. It is in charge of a woman, and has been eminently successful in reforming, apparently, bad boys. The management of the school is placed under the general supervision of a special supervisor, who has this added to his other duties, and who makes personal investigation of all cases. Pupils are transferred by the superintendent of schools from their own schools to the ungraded school when, after investigation by the supervisor, he is satisfied that this course is best. The sentence is indeterminate. Pupils who are deemed worthy are returned to their own schools or transferred to other schools conditionally. The building is a small one-room structure adjoining the building used for a drawing school. It has no grounds. No provision is made for furnishing food or clothing. The only employees are the single teacher, and the janitor who is also the janitor of the adjoining building. The teacher receives $1,200, the janitor a small additional stipend. The routine of the school is that prescribed by the course of study for all subjects, modified for individual cases, according to the judgment of the teacher. We have manual training every day and much nature study. Interest is the keynote of the School. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 157 The teacher has been remarkably successful in securing regular attendance through her personal influence, though a truancy officer calls at the school every morning in order that absentees may be looked after. It is very rarely necessary to employ his services. During the past year 75 cases were reported and investigated, of whom 41 were assigned to the ungraded school. Of these the following dispositions were made: In ungraded school . 21 Returned to graded schools . 6 Entered parochial schools.. . 1 Sent to City Home . 4 Moved out of city . 2 A t work . 5 Sick . 2 Total . 41 There is a penal institution in this city known as the City Home. It is intended as a sort of intermediary institution between the local truant school and the State reform school. It, however, is penal and does not fill the place of a truant home. The city or the county should have such a home. It should be located on a farm at some distance from the center of the city, and to it should be assigned the young boys and girls not yet criminals, but so far unmanageable as to require that they be taken away from their homes. Albany, N. Y. [Statement of Hon. Chas. W. Cole, city superintendent of schools, March 4, 1899.] 1. (a) The superintendent of schools is, by law, the executive officer of the tru¬ ancy department and is aided in this city by two truant officers appointed by the board of public instruction. The latter are styled “attendance officers” in the com¬ pulsory education law of this State; a better title than “truant officer,” because their duties are by no means confined to cases of truancy. (6) These officials and theqprincipals of the several schools are governed by special regulations adopted by the board of public instruction in compliance with the direc¬ tions of the compulsory education act. 2. This city maintains an ungraded room for truants and incorrigibles. It does not maintain a regularly organized boarding school. The city has contracts with two private institutions (one under Roman Catholic and one under nonsectarian manage¬ ment, as required by the State law) for the maintenance of truants and insubordi¬ nates who are not “cured” in the ungraded school. 3. The regulations for the transfer of truants and insubordinates to the ungraded school are as follows: “For violent opposition, irregular attendance, namely, a loss of one-third or more of school time, or for gross misbehavior, the principal may suspend a pupil from attendance either temporarily for not more than one week or for an indefinite period, and in all cases of such temporary suspension shall forthwith give information in writing of the cause thereof to the parent or guardian, and shall apply to the mem¬ ber of the board in special charge of the school for advice and direction. In all cases of suspension for more than one week, the principal shall direct the suspended pupil to attend the ungraded school set apart for this purpose by the board, and shall also forthwith notify the parents or guardian, the attendance officer, and the principal having charge of the said ungraded school, of his action. The pupil thus directed to attend the ungraded school shall so attend until he has given satisfactory evidence of reformation, when he may be returned to the school from which he had been sus¬ pended, unless sooner returned by a vote of the board. It shall be the duty of the attendance officers to see that the pupils suspended for more than a week are punctual and regular in their attendance at the ungraded school, and the principal of such ungraded school shall report each month all facts concerning such suspended pupils to the superintendent of schools.” Those who are not “cured” in the ungraded school are committed to the institu¬ tions above described by the superintendent when the parents or guardians give consent, and by a police magistrate when the parents refuse consent. 4. Commitments to institutions may be for variable periods, but can not be made for a longer time than the remainder of the current school year. All commitments are now made until the close of the school year because experience has shown that short periods of confinement have little or no reformatory influence. Transfers to the ungraded school are indeterminate in length, being until a retransfer to the reg- 158 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ular school is earned by good behavior, the actual terms varying from four months to a year. 5. The power of paroling is vested in the superintendent. I have exercised this power once only during the four years since the law went into effect. The result in that case was entirely satisfactory. 8. One special teacher is employed in the ungraded school, which occupies one room in a regular school building. 9. The only cost is the salary of the teacher, which is $S00 per annum. 10. The ungraded room opens at 8.80 a. m., closes at 12 m.; opens again at 2 o’clock and closes at 4 o’clock p. m. The opening is half an hour earlier and the closing half an hour later than the usual school hours. This prevents the pupils under discipline from mingling with the regular pupils in the building. The teacher works with each individual, the purpose being to prevent the pupils from falling behind the classes from which they are temporarily separated. The results are adequate, as these pupils are always found to be as well advanced as if they had not been suspended. 11. The attendance officers are always notified of absences and follow up each case promptly. The knowledge that truancy from the ungraded room means commit¬ ment to distant institutions for a comparatively long period is a strong incentive to punctual and regular attendance. The per cent of attendance of this room is 97, which is higher than that of any other school. 12. The number of pupils transferred to the ungraded room in the year ending June 80, 1898, was 86; the average number in the school at one time was 27. 13. The number probably “cured” was 77; the number sent to institutions (reform schools) was 9. The total number sent to reformatories was 18 — 13 from public schools. Four of these had been in ungraded school the previous year and 5 were from parochial and private schools. 14. So far we have had no incorrigible girls. 15. The ungraded school is, in my opinion, the most effective agency for the refor¬ mation of truants and insubordinate pupils yet devised. It is also economical, saving several times its cost by disposing of cases that otherwise would have been sent to for¬ eign institutions at large cost to the city. I believe that the ungraded school, in cities of moderate size, is more effective than would be a local, truant school wherein the culprits are confined and maintained at great expense. I believe that State truant schools are far preferable to private institutions as reforma¬ tory agencies. The commitments should be for indeterminate periods, not to extend beyond the compulsory age. The compulsory age should extend from 7 to 16 years, inclusive, attendance for the entire school year being required until the age of 14 is reached, while between 14 and 16 years either attendance or constant lawful employment should be required. Binghamton, N. Y. [Statement of Hon. D. L. Bard well, superintendent of city schools, March 27, 1899.] 1. Our truancy department is organized under the compulsory attendance law of the State of New York. We have one truant officer, who devotes his entire time to the enforcement of the law. Teachers in the schools report to him regularly any absences or suspicious circumstances, and, under the direction of the superintendent, he looks up these cases and takes such action as circumstances warrant. 2. We have an ungraded day school for truants and incorrigibles under the instruc¬ tion of a young man of excellent character and sound scholarship, being a graduate of Yale University. There is also in the city, partially under the supervision of the city authorities, an institution called the Susquehanna Valley Home for orphan children. This institution receives children both from within the city and without it, who are sent to it through various processes, either by the parents or school officials. 8. Pupils are transferred from the city schools to the city truant school by commit¬ ment by the city superintendent. Causes for transfer may be grouped under two heads: (1) Irregularity and lack of punctuality; (2) serious and continued miscon¬ duct. Children are transferred to Susquehanna Valiev Home (1) by parents, (2) by the city authorities, under which circumstances the city pays the board and tuition, and (3) by the board of education, when the charges must be met by said board. 4. The sentence is in every case “indeterminate.” 5. Pupils are paroled from the city truant school whenever conduct and attend¬ ance warrant it, the parole continuing during good behavior. Paroles from the TRUANT SCHOOLS. 159 Susquehanna Valley Home are so varied that a statement can hardly bo made con¬ cerning them. 6. The city truant school is in a separate building away from the other schools, but I am sorry to say that the building is very old and very poor and undesirable in every respect except location. I hope that these conditions will be materially bet¬ tered before another year. The Susquehanna Valley Home has fine grounds, ample for its purpose, at the outskirts of the city. 7. In the city truant school food and clothing are provided by parents when this can be done. When parents are unable to do this one of three private organizations attends to the matter, and when the private organizations can not or do not take care of the children it becomes a city charge. 9. The city truant school costs in salary $1,400, in incidentals, $200. 10. The routine is much like that of a first-class ungraded rural school. 12. During the year 1897-98, 54 commitments were made, the average attendance being about 12. 13. Of these 54, 12 were sent to out-of-town institutions, not, however, to regular reform schools, but to industrial and manual training schools. Of these 54, only G have made it necessary for us to deal with them during the present year. 14. We have not, but need, some special arrangements for incorrigible girls. Buffalo, 1ST. Y. [Statement of Hon. Henry P. Emerson, superintendent of education, March 16, 1899.] 1. Our State law requires school authorities in each city to establish and maintain a truant school, or to contract with another city or with some private institution to take charge of incorrigible truants. Accordingly I opened our truant school Novem¬ ber 27, 1897, at the same time dividing the city into five districts and appointing as many truant officers to look after absentees reported by the principals of the schools in their respective districts, and also boys and girls of school age found running the streets. The truant officers are paid $850 per year. 2. Ours is a regularly organized boarding truant school. 3. Commitments are mostly by consent of parents; otherwise by police justices. 4. The “indeterminate” sentence is used. 5. Paroled pupils must attend regular school. 6. We use an old brick schoolhouse; put it in good condition and made an addition to it, making a convenient building. 7. The principal boards the boys at $1.75 per week. The city furnishes uniforms which are made in State prisons. 8. One male principal and one female assistant are employed; also a man who serves as janitor and watchman. 9. The principal receives $1,000; assistant, $800; janitor, $600. 10. The boys spend part of their time in doing housework, manual training, and bookwork. 11. They are detained in the school night and day. 12. About 100 were sentenced during year. Average number in school at one time, 35. 13. Nearly all show improvement. Probably 60 per cent to 70 per cent attend school regularly when released. None have been sent to reform school. 14. No special provision 1ms been made for girls. 15. It is my belief that the chief benefit of the truant school is found in its deterrent influence. I think that where one boy is committed, probably four others are kept from truancy. City of New York, Borough of Brooklyn. The first annual report of the schools of the consolidated city of Brooklyn, made March 1, 1856, by city superintendent J. W. Bulkley, contained a portrayal of the results of truancy and of tuition in the “street schools,” and also an earnest recom¬ mendation that steps be taken to free the streets of vagrants and idlers.1 Subse¬ quently the mayor of the city called the attention of the common council to the matter, and in December, 1857, $10,000 were voted to establish a “Truant home” under the truant law of April 12, 1853. 2 In due time a building was leased and put in order, a superintendent and teachers vTere employed, and the institution made 1 Brooklyn school report, 1855-56, p. 31. 2 lb., 1856-57, p. 47. 160 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ready to begin operation. Three trnant officers were appointed and entered upon the work of visitation. They visited the schools regularly and sought out truants, inducing them if possible to attend school regularly. They were successful in most cases, but it was necessary .to commit about 70 to the truant home within the first year after its establishment.1 Neither the school nor the truant officers were put under the control of the board of education, but remained under the direct care of the common council. One of the aldermen at the time, Mr. Aaron B. Clarke, was also the principal of one of the public schools, and it was largely to his intelligent interest and energetic efforts that the establishment of the new order of things was due.2 It is likely that his special knowledge of the conditions of truancy, and his fitness for the supervision of agencies for its control, was the principal reason for giving the management of the truant school and officers to the committee of which he was a member. But aldermen are rarely school men, and the control by another body of an institution so intimately connected with the work of the schools was always a source of dissatisfaction to the board of education. For the first few years the management of the school was commended by the school officers, who declared in 1861 that the principal and his assistants were “faithfully, intelligently, and successfully doing their duty.”3 At that time the inmates of the “Home” were almost entirely from the schools, sent there in conse¬ quence of truancy. Commitments were by the mayor, police magistrates, and by aldermen. In April, 1880, there were 101 children in the institution, and 167 had been received during the year preceding. In the same time 136 had been discharged and returned to friends, and 21 had been provided with proper homes.4 All continued to go well for a time, the truant officers rendering valuable assist¬ ance to the teachers and school officers, and the truant home meriting and receiv¬ ing the commendation of all those interested in its conduct. “ That the gentlemanly superintendent and his efficient assistants did all in their power by a careful and wise supervision and faithful and intelligent instruction does not admit of a doubt.”5 The fact that the board of education had not direct control was deplored, but did not apparently affect the cordial relations of the officials or the efficiency of the system. The first trouble came in 1862, when the then mayor took exception to some of the provisions of the law and declined to authorize the payment of the truant offi¬ cers, necessitating the discontinuance of their services.6 Truancy immediately increased, quite naturally. Many of the teachers undertook to make special police¬ men of some of the boys in school by sending them out to hunt up the absentees, but this experiment was a failure. The truants and their associates would lay in wait for the little messengers, beat them severely, and otherwise maltreat them; so that method was soon abandoned.7 The truant home was continued, and the mag¬ istrates sent offenders to it upon proper complaints, but commitments for school offenses fell off, since there were no special officers to prosecute them, and the pro¬ portion of inmates of criminal tendencies and associations increased. The institu¬ tion thus became in effect a city reform school. The board of education was not content to allow this condition of affairs to continue without an effort at improvement, and twice in 1865 sought from the State legisla¬ ture an act to authorize the maintenance of a truant home by the school authorities directly. These efforts failed, but in another direction they were more successful; five members of the sanitary police force were detailed as truant officers and to attend to the general interests of the schools.8 Brooklyn was one of the few places in the State in which the school-attendance law of 1874 was ever more than nominally enforced. The board of education in the 1 Brooklyn school report, 1857-58, p. 50. 3 lb., 1860-61, p. 49. 4Ib., p. 47. Gib., 1862-63, p. 19. * Ib., p. 21. 2 lb., p. 51. 5 Ib., 1863-64, p. 48. 8 Ib., 1865-66, p. 16. TRUANT schools. 161 October following its passage directed that a census be taken of the children of school age in the city, and this was done, though imperfectly, in the following July. Five attendance officers and a superintendent of attendance were appointed, this time by the board of education directly, in October, 1876. These men went to work with intelligence and industry, and secured the discharge from employment of all children found working in violation of law. To compel the regular and orderly attendance of these, and of children found idle in the streets, proved a more difficult matter, and it sorely perplexed the school authorities. To provide means for the reformation of habitual truants, the common council trans¬ ferred the truant home to the board of education, and it was accepted by them June 6, 1876. There was some misunderstanding as to who had authority to commit offenders, and neither those formerly in control nor the attendance committee of the board of education would take any action for several months. The number of inmates as a result fell to 28 at the close of 1877, and the expense of maintenance rose to $300 a year per pupil. The city council then (January, 1878) withdrew its cession of the institution, and thus ended, unfortunately, the control of the truant home, which, during years before and years after, the officers of the board earnestly sought. At that time the premises of the institution consisted of 12 acres of fertile land and two large and convenient buildings, with a capacity of 250 inmates. The expense of maintaining it by the city council amounted to nearly $15,000 a year.1 Two day truant schools, or “attendance schools,5’ were established in October, 1878, and placed in charge of competent men. By the end of the year there were 79 and 34 pupils, respectively, in attendance in them.2 Superintendent Field was highly gratified at the work of these schools and reported in 1879 that not only were the regular schools relieved and improved by the taking away their worst boys, but that those boys themselves were greatly benefited by the change. Absence of humiliating comparisons with pupils of higher attainments had an encouraging effect upon them, and under the constant espionage to which they were subjected their attendance became as regular as the average pupils of the best grammar school.3 No special change in conditions relating to compulsory education is noted in any of the school reports until 1887. The attendance agents increased to 8 besides the superintendent in the meantime, but their plan of work was the same; the two attendance schools* continued to receive those who were not amenable to the disci¬ pline of the regular schools, and boys beyond the power of the attendance schools were sent to the truant home. In October, 1887, the office of superintendent of attendance was abolished and the attendance department was transferred to the superintendent of public instruction, then Hon. William FI. Maxwell.3 That gentleman at once set about to improve the details of the administration of the law, and undoubtedly accomplished many desir¬ able reforms. But he was hampered by the insufficiency of the truant force, by ambiguities of the law which he was required to enforce, and by the unsatisfactory character of the truant home, where boys convicted of no worse offense than truancy were associated with thieves and other malefactors.4 Children were sent there only when it became absolutely necessary, for it was well understood that few indeed were cured of truancy by sojourn in such companionship.5 Nor did the attendance schools meet the approval of the superintendent. The accommodations assigned them were inappropriate and insufficient, and their reformatory influence was not great.6 In 1892 it wras recommended that they be either abandoned or reorganized on an entirely different basis.7 The first alternative was acted upon; the board of education granted no money for their maintenance in 1893, and they were abolished.8 1 Brooklyn school report, 1878, pp. 43-47. 2Ib., p.49. 4Ib., pp. 63-71, and 1888, p. 80. s lb. for 1889, p. 82. 7 lb. for 1892, p. 55. 8Ib. for 1893, p. 49. ED 1900—11 3Ib. for 1887, p. 63. Gib. for 1887, p. 67= 162 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The compulsory education law of May 12, 1894, embodied features that had been urgently recommended for years by the Brooklyn school officials, and its enforce¬ ment brought important changes in the work of truancy department of that city. The provision relating to truant schools made the reorganization of the truant home a necessity, since no person convicted of a crime might be sent to the same institu¬ tion with truants. No truants were committed to the truant home under its former organization after January 1, 1895, and a legislative act in that year1 transferred the control and management of the institution from the city council to the board of edu¬ cation. In October, 1895, all the former inmates having served out their terms, a complete change was effected in the management and surroundings of the institution. The buildings were put in sanitary condition, new ones were added, proper facilities for school work provided, satisfactory arrangements made for the food of the inmates, and other improvements were made. In many respects there had been serious defi¬ ciencies under the old regime, and there was great room for improvement.2 The entire personnel of the management was changed at the beginning. The plans and ideals of those concerned in these changes were admirable and assuredly deserved success. The truant [said Superintendent Maxwell3] is almost invariably untidy and uncleanly in his clothing and personal habits; he is addicted to the use of vile and vulgar language; he is backward in his school attainments, but highly developed in low cunning; and if he ever possessed it, has almost wholly lost the power of sus¬ tained attention. A study of the habitual truants in our truant school confirms the common impression that truancy, if unchecked, is a fruitful source of crime. Obviously, the administration of a truant school should aim at the eradication of these faults". The boy must be trained, in everything he does, to habits of order, cleanliness, and politeness. lie must learn respect for himself as well as for others. He must acquire the power of fixing his attention on a piece of work until it is accom¬ plished. He must be gradually accustomed to recognize the value of school studies as a preparation for a useful life. To design a set of school exercises that will secure these results is a matter requiring much care and thought. A short experiment soon showed that to devote the school day wholly to the ordinary school work would not produce the desired effect. It. was discovered that the. first thing to be done — the sole condition that would render other work profitable — is to train the power of attention. The most effective means we have so far found to this end is military drill. Every morning from 8 untilhalf- past 9 o’clock the boys are subjected to this discipline. The absolute order enforced by the exercises themselves, the close attention required to recognize the commands, and the prompt response required when the command is given, impart to the boys not only habits of order, obedience, and politeness, but a power over themselves that enables them slowly but surely to keep their minds fixed on whatever task is required of them. Next in usefulness to military drill came sloyd work and drawing. The exercises employ the hand and eye as well as the brain. The act of cutting apiece of wood accurately to a line and in order to form a figure similar to a model, is in itself a severe strain on the attention. To perform the act correctly, the thoughts must not wander, the eye must be kept true and the hand steady. Thought is required to direct the muscular action, and the muscular action has a strong reflex effect in steadying the thought. Singing too has been found to exercise a most refining and humanizing influence. Improvement in reading, writing, and arithmetic, almost invariably follows pro¬ ficiency in military drill, manual exercise, and music, and the improvement is even more noticeable in the boy’s deportment and habits of life. The very idea that he is acquiring a power and a know ledge which most boys do not possess, raises him in his own respect and makes him desire the other accomplishments that usually belong to a worthy member of society. The first year’s experience under the board of education w'as measurably success¬ ful. Under the law all inmates must be discharged at the end of the school year, and of the 118 boys committed to the school during 1895-96 it was necessary to 1 New York laws of 1S95, chap. 687. 2 Brooklyn school report, 1895, p. 79. 3 lb., p. 81. TBUANT SCHOOLS, 163 recommit only 16 during the year 1896-97. The rest had either passed beyond the compulsory age or were attending their schools with reasonable regularity.1 The relation of the truant school to the school system was not altered by the merg¬ ing of Brooklyn into the city of New York and no radical change has occurred in the control of the institution. Its present condition and methods are set forth in the following statement of Borough Superintendent E. G. Ward: [Statement of Hon. Edward G. Ward, borough superintendent of schools, April 14, 1899.] 1. A committee of the borough school board, consisting of seven members, has charge of all matters relating to truants and the truant school coming under the provis¬ ions of the compulsory education law. This committee makes rules and regulations for the management of the truant school, and appoints all teachers, care takers, etc., to serve in the said school, and such attendance officers as the borough superintendent of schools may nominate. Its action in all these matters is subject to the approval of the school board. The number of attendance or truant officers in the employ of the board at the present time is ten. These officers work under the direction and control of the borough superintendent of schools. The principals of the schools are supplied by the school board with postal cards by means of which they notify the attendance officers of the absence of children known or suspected to be truants. The police also notify the superintendent of schools of such cases of nonattendance as come under their observation. The factory inspectors also notify the superintendent of cases in which they find children illegally employed in factories. 2. There are but two ungraded classes in our schools. Both are for incorrigibles rather than truants. We have a regularly organized truant school. It is a board¬ ing school in this sense only, that the pupils are confined there until they have earned their way out by good conduct and by work performed. No pay is exacted from parents, the entire cost of maintenance falling upon the department of education. 3. When a child has played truant repeatedly and has repeatedly been placed in school by the attendance officer to whom he has been reported, the parent is required to make affidavit that he is unable to compel his child to attend school. If failing to secure the regular attendance of the child, he refuses to make such affidavit, his neglect constitutes a violation of the compulsory education law (section 4, chapter 106, laws of 1896, State of New York), and said violation is a misdemeanor, punish¬ able for the first offense by a fine not exceeding §5, and for each subsequent offense by a fine not exceeding $50, or b_y imprisonment not exceeding 30 days, or by both fine and imprisonment. Having made the necessary affidavit, the parent signs a consent to have his child attend the truant school. The borough superintendent may then, at his discretion, commit the child to said school. If, however, the affidavit or the consent or both are missing and the truancy continues, the child may be proceeded against as a disorderly person, and upon conviction, sentenced to be confined in the truant school for the remainder of the current school year. 4. I have just answered this question as concerns commitments by a police justice. When the borough superintendent of schools commits a child there is, under our present practice, no definite length of sentence, the child being released as soon as he has earned a certain number of marks for good conduct and laid away or deposited a certain amount of truant school (tin) money. The number of merit marks to be earned is 500, the sum of money to be »saved is $10. The money is given the chil¬ dren for the work that they do, not only in their studies, but in making beds and doing other housework, and in the farming work provided in the inclosure surround¬ ing the school. Out of the money they receive they pay a certain amount for meals, etc. When a boy behaves well and takes good care of his money, his release ought to be accomplished in about three months. 5. The majority of the pupils paroled are sent out to make room for others, our accommodations being far less than, under a vigorous enforcement of the compulsory education law, they should be. Pupils are also paroled in case of the severe illness of near relatives or in case of their own illness. Occasionally they are paroled for religious or other reasons. Permanently paroled or what I may call “ticket of leave” pupils report to me weekly, bringing with them a statement of their attendance and conduct signed by the class teacher and countersigned by the principal. Through these weekly interviews I acquire in most cases a strong personal influence over the delinquents, which I exercise to the best of my ability for their good. After a pupil has reported to me for three months, if his conduct and attendance upon school have been satisfactory, his parole becomes a release. The paroling system has thus far 1 Brooklyn school report, 1896, p. 73. 164 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. been exceedingly successful, most of the pupils with whom I have dealt in this way making better records both in conduct and attendance than the average good pupil. 6. Our truant school is located in a suburban district on a plot of ground belonging to the city, including 15 acres, three-fourths of the ground being available for farm¬ ing, gardening, and nature study. The building has dormitories for 108 scholars. It contains well-lighted class rooms sufficient for that number of children, supplied with adjustable desks and seats, dining and wash rooms, a reception room, an office, and suitable living apartments for the principal and his family. Other buildings on the ground supply suitable rooms for a laundry, for baths, for drills, for hospital purposes, and for chapel exercises. 7. Food and clothing are supplied through the same channels by which books, stationery, and other supplies are sent to the school. 8 and 9. The following is a list of the employees, giving the salary of each: One principal . One matron (wife of principal) . One caretaker (who is in charge of boys when they are not under the care of their teachers) . One caretaker . . One engineer . One seamstress . One night watchman . One cook . One class teacher . One class teacher . One manual training teacher . One drill master . $1, 500 420 480 420 730 360 300 300 1,200 900 1,000 540 10. The hours of duty for the class teachers are from 9 a. m. until 5 p. in., with a recess of an hour in the middle of the day, on all days excepting Saturday, Sunday, and holidays. The hours of duty for the caretakers are from 5 p. m. of each day to 9.20 a. m. of the following day, on all days excepting Saturday, Sunday, and holidays, when they are on duty all the time. They do not go to supper until 6 p. m., and in no instance do both go at the same time. One remains in charge of the pupils until relieved by the other. The time schedule is as follows: 6 to 6.25, boys rise and dress; 6.25 to 6.35, boys make beds, wholly or in part; 6.25 to 7, lavatory; 7 to 7.30, breakfast; 7.30 to 9, military drill, including toilet for 15 minutes, in yard or drill house; 9 to 9.30, open¬ ing exercises and music; 9.30 to 10.30, school work, first period, one-sixth of school outside; 10.30 to 10.45, recess, toilet; 10.45 to 11.30, school work, second period, one- sixth of school outside; 11.30 to 12.30, school work, third period, one-sixth of school outside; 12.30 to 12.45, toilet; 12.45 to 1.15, dinner; 1.15 to 1.45, noon recess, in yard or drill house; 1.45 to 2, toilet; 2 to 3, school work, fourth period, one-sixth of school outside; 3 to 3.15, toilet; 3.15 to 4.10, school work, fifth period, one-sixth of school outside; 4.10 to 5, school work, sixth period, one-sixth of school outside; 5 to 5.15, toilet; 5.15 to 6, recess, in yard or drill house; 6 to 6.30, supper; 6.30 to 6.45, toilet; 6.45 to 8, reading, sewing, singing, whistling, etc.; 8 to 8.15, toilet; 8.15 to 8.30, boys retire. On Saturday, from 6 to 9.10 a, m., the same schedule is observed as on other da3'S. During the remainder of the day and up to 6 p. m. the boys, divided into squads, each squad in charge of a foreman selected from the boys who have received instruc¬ tion during the week, and all under charge of the principal and caretakers, are taken to the farm for work; the usual time is allowed for dinner. When the weather proves unfavorable for work in the field, scrubbing the floors and woodwork of the school building are substituted. During the afternoon the boys, in squads, take their weekly baths. 11. As the pupils are confined to the building and grounds day and night, there is no question of enforcing attendance. 12 and 13. During the year 1897-98 the number of pupils committed was 147. The average number in the school at one time was 67. For the year 1898-99 the figures will greatly exceed the foregoing. During the five months between October 6, 1898, and March 6, 1899, I committed 141 boys to the truant school. Of this number 2 are serving their fourth term, 9 their third, and 38 their second. From these figures and other data it appears that about 70 per cent of the boys committed do not return to their habit of truancy when released. We should undoubtedly make a better showing than this were it not for a provision of law which obliges us to close the school on the 31st of July, dismissing a great many pupils who have not been under TRUANT SCHOOLS. 165 its influence long enough to derive much benefit therefrom. A bill has been pre¬ pared for presentation in the present legislature doing away with the July dismissal and making the school session continuous through the year. I trust we shall have no difficulty in securing its passage. 14. No special arrangements have been made as yet for the care of incorrigible girls. 15. I do not feel like making suggestions at the present time, being in a recipient rather than a communicative frame of mind. The successful execution of the com¬ pulsory education law with all that the phrase implies concerning the reformation of truants involves the solution of many problems of which, as yet, I consider myself only a student. It has been frequently suggested that the Brooklyn Truant School, with the ground surrounding it, should be turned over to the board of education of the city of New York for the use of all the boroughs, but those who have made this proposition have ridiculously underrated the needs of Brooklyn itself. We have but ten attendance officers for the whole borough in which there are more than 120 schools, yet on more than one occasion an individual principal has asked me to assign an attendance offi¬ cer to his school to the exclusion of all other work for at least two weeks, and the demand everywhere for the services of these officers is far greater than can be pos¬ sibly met. I doubt whether 30 officers would be sufficient to do the school work, keep the streets reasonably free from idle and vicious boys, and in general reduce truancy to a minimum; and just as the force needs to be increased does the size of the building need enlargement. In other words, Brooklyn needs a truant school with accommodations at the very least for 300 boys. To provide these with suitable outdoor exercises, farming, gardening, and the nature work so desirable to inculcate habits of industry, to cultivate the observing faculties, and to create a love of nature, the ground around the school is none too great. N ew York City — Borough of Manhattan and the Bronx. The board of education of the city of New York was not organized until 1842, and the only “public schools” existing prior to that time, in this century, certainly were those conducted by the Public School Society. This association was incorporated in 1805 as the Free School Society, its object being “the education of such poor children as do not belong to or are not provided for by any religious society.” Such societies were common in those days. Though they were all, generally speaking, private corporations, they received public moneys, and their functions and official relations made them in fact semipublic affairs. But their schools were essen¬ tially charity schools. After the organization of the New York board of education in 1842, the operations of the Public School Society were greatly restricted, and rivalry sprang up between the two organizations. Their differences were finally settled in 1853 by merging the society into the board of education, the schools of the former then becoming public schools in the sense in which the term is now used. The Public School Society had no authority to compel the regular attendance of their pupils, nor to bring in those who did not willingly attend. But the large number of vagrant and truant children who spent their time in the streets and around the wharves of the city constantly attracted the attention of the society. The first step taken to bring such children within the influence of the schools was the appointment, February 1, 1827, of an agent to devote his time to personal visits to the children of this class and to their parents, with a view to increasing school attendance.1 The agent appointed was Mr. Samuel W. Seton, who continued to dis¬ charge these and other responsible duties in behalf of the society during the entire remainder of its existence. In the first three months he visited 1,700 families, having 3,700 children. He could use no other weapon than argument and persuasion, but he nevertheless induced many to go to school.1 His report in 1831 advised some form of coercive law and the withholding of municipal aid from families that neg¬ lected to send their children to school,2 and his recommendation was repeated in an appeal of the society to the common council. 1 Bourne's History of the Public School Society, p. 119. 2 Public Education in the City of New York, Boese, p. 121. 166 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. In seeking plans for the improvement of the schools, a committee, of which Mr. Seton was a member, was sent in 1832 to visit Boston, whose school system at that time was admittedly the best developed in the country. In their report of this visit the committee called special attention to the superiority of the Boston schools in the matter of regularity of attendance, ascribing it to the fact that “truantship in that city is deemed a criminal offense in children, and those who can not be reclaimed are taken from their parents and placed in an institution called the ‘School of Refor¬ mation,’ corresponding in many respects with our House of Refuge.”1 The com¬ mittee wrote approvingly of this practice, and the general matter of nonattendance was brought before the common council. The result was the passage of the resolu¬ tion previously recommended by the society to the effect that parents who did not send their children to school must consider themselves without the pale of public charities and not entitled in case of misfortune to receive public favor.2 Twenty thousand copies of this resolution were printed and distributed by the agent of the society. The matter was again taken up in 1838, and a resolution was passed by the execu¬ tive committee of the trustees authorizing the appointment of a committee to prepare “a plan which may lead, through the aid of our common council and legislature, to a more general attendance of the children of the poor and laboring classes at school, and prevent the multitudes now roaming through our streets from the continuance of a habit so destructive to good morals.”3 The committee was duly appointed and their report favored the enactment of a compulsory statute, though they doubted if ‘ ‘ the morbidly excitable sensitiveness of our laboring classes ’ ’ would permit it. Never¬ theless the plan they presented included securing the enactment of a law “ subject¬ ing the stubborn and vicious minor to his being committed to a manual labor school or asylum for moral reformation, to be established,” and “ the founding, under the management of the Public School Society, or that of a society to be organized for the purpose, of a manual labor school, in an insular situation, to which refractory chil¬ dren may be sent at the request of their parents, or under the law, the passage of which they now ask for.”4 The report was adopted and a memorial was transmitted to the common council. That body refused to authorize compulsory measures, putting a stop to the entire scheme. The society thereupon employed on their own account four “visitors” to work among nonattendants and vagrants in much the same way that Mr. Seton had done. These men were intelligent and faithful, and brought into the schools sev¬ eral hundred children who would otherwise have remained mere vagrants in the streets. Few of them, however, could be induced to remain, and after a few years of faithful trial the net results were found not sufficient to justify the necessary expenditure, and in 1841 the plan was reluctantly abandoned.5 The controversies that arose with the board of education during the following years were of such overshadowing importance that no marked attention could be paid to compulsory attendance or its related topics, but after the consolidation of the rival organizations and the passage of the truant law in 1853 the question was from time to time attacked with greater or less vigor, but without result. The feel¬ ing was that the masses of the people would not peacefully allow the enforcement of the compulsory law, and both the school and the judicial officers shrank from undertaking new duties so difficult, troublesome, and delicate.6 Thus the matter rested without effective action until the passage of the compul¬ sory attendance law of May 11, 1874. Then it was that the board of education, “aware of the almost insuperable difficulties of carrying the same into effect, but 1 Bourne’s History of the Public School Society, p. 153. 2Ib., p. 154. 3Ib.,p.618. ^Boese’s Public Education in the City of New York, p. 121. 6 lb., p. 127. . 4Ib., p. 62U. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 167 persuaded of the great importance to the thousands of truant children in the city, growing up in ignorance, and to the community in which they are so growing up, undertook cheerfully to carry the law into effect so far as the means at its disposal would permit.” 1 Accordingly a census was ordered to be be taken of all children between 8 and 14 years of age, a superintendent and eight officers of truancy were appointed, and pro¬ vision was made for the commitment of delinquents to Randall’s Island, where they were to be detained, restrained, and sent to school either by the commissioners of charities and corrections of the Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delin¬ quents, in the discretion of the trial justice.1 The commissioners of charities and corrections at that time maintained a “nursery” for neglected and abandoned children on Randall’s Island, and the institution under the Society for the Reforma¬ tion of Juvenile Delinquents was the House of Refuge already described.2 High hopes were entertained of the results to be obtained from the measures con¬ templated, and energetic work was begun as soon as the necessary preliminaries were completed. From March 1, 1875, when the truancy agents entered upon their work, to the close of the year, 10,189 “cases” were investigated; 1,121 nonattendants were brought in; 587 habitual truants were put to school; 44 were committed to the commissioners of charities and corrections and 16 to the Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents. Besides these, 78 children were sent to reformatory insti¬ tutions by their parents at the instance of the truant officers to avoid arrest and court proceedings.3 The superintendent of city schools, Mr. Henry Kiddle, was apparently lukewarm in his support of the compulsory laws, but, nevertheless, stated in his report for 1875 4 that an increase of school attendance and a diminution of truancy had been produced by the operation of the law, and that its indirect influence had been of considerable value in inducing indifferent parents to send their children to school with greater regularity. The “ nursery” of the commissioners of charities and corrections was closed Jan¬ uary 1, 1876, by a legislative act, and the truants confined there were released. Noth¬ ing remained then but to send delinquents from the schools to the House of Refuge. The superintendent of truancy at once saw the inadvisability of doing this, and urged the establishment of a truant school and home under the sole management of the board of education.5 That body seriously considered the proposition,6 but finally, instead, designated7 the New York Juvenile Asylum, and the New York Catholic Protectory 8 as institutions to which truant children might be committed. The boys 1 Thirty-third Annual Report of Board of Education of New York City, 1874, p. 50. 2See page 87. 3 New York School Report, 1875, pp. 420-428. 4 New York School Report, 1875, p. 274. 5Ib., p. 432. cIb., p. 70. 7 lb. for 1876, p. 41. 8 These institutions still receive truants from the New York schools. The New York Juvenile Asylum was chartered in 1851 “to receive and take charge of such chil¬ dren, between the ages of 7 and 14 years, as may be voluntarily intrusted to them by their parents or guardians or committed to their charge by competent authority, and provide for their support, and to afford them the means of moral, intellectual, and industrial education.” Children younger than 7 years are also admitted under certain conditions. The children received during 1897 and the causes therefor were as follows: Destitution . 422 Truancy and disobedience . 196 Disorderly conduct . 315 Pilfering . 46 Peddling . 4 Total . 9S3 The asylum proper is finely situated on One hundred and seventy-sixth street and Amsterdam avenue, where it possesses about 20 acres of land and buildings sufficient for 1,000 children. It has 168 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. from the schools remaining in the House of Refuge, numbering 88, were thereupon discharged. It was found impracticable to carry out to any great extent that part of the law which provided for inflicting a fine upon the negligent parent of a school offender, and that constituted one of the principal grievances that Superintendent Kiddle had against the compulsory measures.* 1 He also argued, generally, that the arrest of street vagrants belonged more appropriately to the police than to the department of public education, and, specifically, that notwithstanding the faithful exertions of the truancy officials, the results were not at all commensurate with the expense incurred.2 The last statement, however, is not borne out by the figures of the superintendent of truancy, for the showing they make seems in the light of later experience to amply justify the expense of maintaining the department. Fourteen thousand seven hundred and nineteen cases were investigated in 1876; of that, number, 3,627 were children kept at home by parents and returned to school at the instance of the agents; 3,966 truants were placed in school, and 253 were sent to various institutions on the complaint of or through the advice of agents.3 This would be considered nowadays a very fair return for the labors of nine men, especially as it does not take into consideration the deterrent influence of such work, always its most important feature. As time passed new difficulties arose to limit the usefulness of the truant agents, and the old troubles became more pronounced. The courts held that bootblacks and newsboys were “laborers,” and not amenable to the law;4 the superintendent of truancy appointed in May, 1877, considered it improper for him to deal with vagrants or thieves;4 the deficiency in school accommodations was a serious obstacle in some districts;5 the formalities required in making arrests were a constant source of delay and difficulty;6 the lack of a suitable place for the detention of truants caused much solicitude and annoyance,6 and the attitude of the city superintendent of schools, as shown by his reports, must have been a great discouragement to the truant officers. Nevertheless, the operation of the law continued to be beneficial on the whole, without question.6 The need of a truant school was constantly felt and persistently urged by the successive superintendents of truancy, but there was no change in the provisions made, and the House of Refuge, the Catholic Protectory, and the Juvenile Asylum continued to receive convicted truants. The office of superintendent of truancy was discontinued January 1, 1881, and the duties of the position were transferred to the superintendent of schools, then Mr. John Jasper.7 That gentleman made many improvements in methods, but no radical changes appear to have been introduced. One of the devices first mentioned in his reports was to make “special visits” to certain districts in which truancy was known to be excessive. On these occasions the entire truant force was put tempo¬ rarily in a single district to gather in by sudden and concerted action all delinquents who had successfully evaded the single agent assigned regularly to that district.7 Superintendent Jasper has consistently favored and regularly recommended the establishment of a system of ungraded classes for the milder cases and a reformatory school for apparently incorrigible cases of truancy. His published reports, however, also two branches, a house of reception in the city and a western agency in Illinois for placing out its children in farmers’ families. The New York Catholic Protectory Avas founded in 1863, and is located at West Chester. It recei\red 1,165 hoys and 271 girls during 1897-98, and the awerage attendance during that year was 2,518. A comparatively small proportion of these Avere committed for serious delinquencies, the majority of commitments being for destitution, disobedience, or disorderly conduct. Besides the ordinary school branches a number of trades are taught, including printing, bookbinding, shoemaking, tailoring, plumbing, harness making, carpentry, painting, and paper-box making. With a feAV exceptions the inmates of the institution are of the Catholic faith. 1Ncav York school report, 1875, p. 274. £Ib., 1876, p. 169. 3Ib., p.277. 4 lb., 1877, p. 321. 5 lb., 1878, p. 58. Gib., 1879, p. 52. ' lb., 1881, p. 165. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 1G9 have not shown or discussed wherein the institutions assigned for the reception of truants have failed to accomplish the ends desired, or what have been the results of confinement in them. From 1881 to 1894 the execution of the truant law continued without marked change or noteworthy incident beyond the fluctuations and numbers that are to be expected. The truant agents increased to 12 in that time, and they investigated from 10,000 to 15,000 cases, returned about 3,000 truants to school, brought in about 1,000 nonattendants, and caused from 40 to 75 to be sent to reformatory institutions each year. The passage of the compulsory attendance laws of 1894 and 1896, however, marked the beginning of a new era. In 1895 the board of education took steps to jorovide and equip the truant school so long desired and so often recommended by the exec¬ utive officers, and increased the number of “attendance officers” (instead of truant agents as before) to 20. 1 The greater effectiveness of the new law is apparent in the statistical reports of these officers. The cases investigated were 16,150 in 1894 and 23,842 in 1896; truants returned to school, 3,768 in 1894 and 6,364 in 1896; nonattendants brought in, 1,143 in 1894 and 3,379 in 1896; children sent to reformatory institutions, 46 in 1894 and 35 in 1896. 2 The consolidation of the several municipalities to form the greater city of New York did not affect the operation of the compulsory attendance laws, and their enforcement remains in the same hands as before, namely, those of Mr. John Jasper, now the borough superintendent. His statement relating to the present status of the truant school follows: [Statement of Hon. John Jasper, borough superintendent of schools, March 28, 1899.] 1. According to the by-laws of the school board for the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, the borough superintendent is held responsible for the enforcement of the New York State compulsory education law. He has a supervisor and as many attendance officers as there are attendance districts. There are at present 21 attend¬ ance districts and 21 attendance officers, one of whom is acting supervisor. Also, 1 special officer is detailed by the police department. 2. We have no ungraded day schools, but there are three ungraded classes for truants in three different schools, and we have a regularly organized boarding truant school capable of accommodating 50. 3. The general process by which pupils are sentenced or transferred is detailed in the compulsory education law. The particulars relating to suspension of pupils are given in section 64 of the by-laws of the school board. The attendance officer brings the boy to the office, and by means of a summons secures the presence of the person in parental relation. The letter from the principal and the officer’s affidavit as to the history of the case are presented. A private hearing takes place. The parent’s written consent for commitment is then taken before a notary. The papers are submitted to the borough superintendent and his signature completes the act. A complete record is made in the commitment book for reference, where also a daily record of the child’s conduct is kept. If the parent will not consent, he is summoned before a magistrate and proceeded against according to section 9 of the compulsory education law, upon the officer’s affidavit. The evidence is placed before the magistrate, who secures, if possible, the parent’s consent, or, in lieu thereof, commits the boy for the balance of the school year to any institution controlled by persons of the same religious faith as the parent. The Truant School, the New York Catholic Protectory, the New York Juvenile Asylum, and the House of Refuge are the only institutions to which truants are committed. In case of incorrigible truants who can not be sufficiently controlled in the Truant School, transfers to any of the aforesaid institutions may be made by similar process. 4. Under the State law, the length of the sentence is for the balance of the school year. ATew York school report, 1895, p. 152. 2 New York school reports, 1894, p. 150, and 1890, p. 159. 170 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 5. The acting supervisor reports to the borough superintendent: “As to the paroling of the boys: If, while an inmate of the Truant School, the boy appears to feel his punishment and endeavors to obey everyone here, has a good record while in the class room, and the attendance officer is willing to place him, or the principal of the school which lie last attended is willing to readmit him, and the parents appear willing to perform their duty in causing said child to attend school, and if the Truant School is crowded, I then have the boy sign a paper addressed to you and he is sent home with his parents or to school with the attendance officer. If the boy is sent home with his mother the attendance officer is notified at once. The boy must report every Friday at the Truant School if his home is near or every two weeks if living at a distance.” 6. The Truant School is located at 215 east Twenty-first street, east of Third avenue, in a four-story brick building. The basement contains laundry, kitchen, play room, wash room, and boiler room; the first story, the office and the dining room; the second story, two schoolrooms and a bedroom; third story, two sleeping rooms; fourth story, two sleeping rooms, a hospital room, a disinfecting closet, and two small bedrooms. There is a small back yard and a narrow entrance to it. There is one main stairway and there are outside fire escapes, 7. Food and clothing are provided as follows: The dry groceries are purchased from responsible merchants; the requisition is signed by the chairman of the committee on special schools; other groceries, such as vegetables, milk, etc., are obtained from a grocer near the school, and meat from a butcher in the vicinity. The bills are approved monthly and sent to the school board. Clothing is purchased from the State prison authorities, according to law. 8 and 9. The employees at the Truant School and their monthly salaries are, as follows: 1 keeper . . . . . . $65. 00 1 cook . . . 25. 00 1 orderly . 25.00 1 laundress . . 20. 00 1 assistant keeper . . . 25. 00 1 watchman . . . 40. 00 1 clerk . 50. 00 10. The daily routine in the school is as follows: 6 a. nr., rising bell, washing and preparing for breakfast; 7 a. nr., breakfast; 7.30 a, nr., washing dishes, dusting class room, making beds, etc.; 8.30 a, nr., playground (outdoor exercises) and preparation for classroom; 9 a. nr., school; 10.30 a. nr., recess; 10.45a. nr., school; 12 nr., dinner; 12.30 p. nr., washing dishes; 1 p. nr., playground; 1.30 p. nr., school; 3.30 p. nr., recess (exercise in open air); 3.45 p. nr., school; 4.30 p. nr., school session over; 5 p. nr., supper (prepare for) ; 5.30 p. nr., supper; 6p. nr., washing dishes; 6.45 p. nr., assemble for military drill; 7.45 p. nr., parade rest, story by drill master; 8 p. nr., retiring to dormitories; 8.30 p. nr., good night. 11. There are no means for enforcing attendance at the Truant School other than those already described. After incarceration, locked doors and watchful guards make escape difficult. The fear of being taken away from home and put into the Truant School operates to a great extent in enforcing regular attendance in the three ungraded classes. 12. In the year 1897-98 there were 335 pupils admitted to the school, with an average of 50 pupils at one time. 13. From October 1, 1898, to February 1, 1899., there were 125 truants committed to the Truant School for a period of from four to six weeks, after which most of them were paroled. Only eight of these broke their parole. Nine proved so incorrigible as to warrant their commitment to the end of the school year. 14. No arrangements have been made for incorrigible girls. 15. We are of the opinion that a school for boys, to accommodate truants from the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, should be established in the Bronx borough; that the present Truant School should be used as a temporary house of detention; that a school for girls should be established; that special schools or classes for delin¬ quents should be established, but that each school should be so organized as to •prevent truancy in its district, so far as possible. Rochester, N. Y. In the earlier part of this paper reference was made to the number of societies that were organized throughout the county in imitation of the Society for the Reforma¬ tion of Juvenile Delinquents in New York City, and for similar purposes. Among TRUANT SCHOOLS. 171 them was the “Juvenile Reform Society” of Rochester. The passage of the New York truant law of 1853 is said to have been secured largely through the instrumen¬ tality of members of this society, the support of the then governor, Hon. Horatio Seymour, having been secured through his attendance at one of its meetings.1 The society promptly took steps to carry out the provisions of that law after its passage. They secured the establishment by the city of a “ House for Idle and Truant Children, ’ ’ and employed an agent to seek out children to whom the new law applied, and to take those steps in regard to them that the circumstances demanded. These meas¬ ures were efficacious, and the society proved a valuable auxiliary to the schools.2 The expense involved, however became too great a "tax on the resources of the society, and it became necessary to retrench by dropping the agent previously employed.3 But the value of his services in bringing idle children into the schools had been proved, and the common council was induced by the managers of the House for Idle and Truant Children, in cooperation with the board of education, to authorize the mayor to appoint a special city officer for that purpose. The person first appointed was acceptable to the board of education, he having been nominated by them, but he was soon displaced by the mayor, and his successor failed to accomplish the good results hoped for by those most interested.4 As the result of this, the charter of the city tvas amended by the legislature so that the board of edu¬ cation was empowered to appoint a policeman who should have the same powers as other policemen and perform such duties as the board might impose. The first appointment under this authorization was made in 1857, and the appointee made his first written report to the board March 4, 1858. 5 In it he described the House for Idle and Truant Children in the highest terms. It was under the control of an efficient board of managers and under the direct care of a competent superin¬ tendent and his wife. The inmates were well cared for and instructed in the com¬ mon school branches. At that time there were 30 in the institution, 18 of whom had been committed during the half year’s service of the school policeman.6 The reports show that for a number of years both the truant school and the school policeman did good service, although it does not appear that their work was at any time as thorough as would be demanded under present-day conditions. The law was not entirely satisfactory, nor was the sentiment of the people or of the board of education itself such as' to justify generally stringent measures. The employment of school policemen was continued until 1862 7 certainly, but probably ceased soon after that, for when the practice was resumed, in 1870, the then superintendent of schools, Mr. S. A. Eli is, expressed the hope that a fair test might be made as to the real value “ of this novel appliance for securing more regu¬ lar attendance in our schools.”8 Memory of the former experience had evidently had time to grow dim. The “ House for Idle and Truant Children” was known after about 1872 as the “Children’s Home,”9 and as such continued until 1877, when it was abolished. 10 After the first few years its inmates were only those who had been committed at the request of parents, or at least by their cooperation, and though several of the school reports mention its good influence upon some boys inclined to be wayward in the regular schools, it plainly fell far short of the usefulness it might have rendered under a more rigid enforcement of the laws. As for the school policemen, they were ham¬ pered by restrictions imposed by superiors not anxious to carry out the provisions of even such laws as existed, and their efforts with the truants consisted of moral suasion only. They came under the special direction of the committee on supplies, and were paid from funds allotted to that committee. This led to their being assigned to the 1 Rochester school report, 1861-62, p. 57. 2 lb., 1853-4, p. 14. 3 II)., 1854-55, p. 17. Ib., 1855-56, p. 32. 3 lb., 1857-58, p. 43. c lb., 1857-58, p. 44. 7 See report of that officer in Rochester school report of 1861-62, p. 55. 8 Rochester school report, 1869-70, p. 41. 9Ib., 1871-72, p. 55. ic lb., 1892-93, p. 164. 172 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. duty of caring for the supplies and delivering them to the schools. In time this formed the greater part of their duties, the rest being to look after damages to school property, and petty criminal and semi-criminal offenses of pupils, including truancy.1 After the passage of the law of 1874, two or more feeble and short-lived attempts were made to enforce it,2 but they amounted to little and did not involve the revival of the truant school. The act of May 12, 1894, however, found the public better prepared for compulsory education and school officers more ready to put it into effect, and at once prepara¬ tions were made to carefully enforce the law. Five attendance officers were appointed January 7, 1895, and a canvass of the city was immediately begun to dis¬ cover absentees, truants, and children illegally employed.3 The necessity for a truant school was plainly evident and the board decided to alter one of the older school buildings for the purpose. The windows were barred and rooms were fitted for sleeping, dining, and play rooms,4 at a cost of $625. 3 The school was opened April 22, 1895. 3 Improvements have been made from time to time since and the institu¬ tion is said to be now a model of its kind.4 The statements appended describe the school as it is at this time. It may be well to state that the efforts to compel parents to enforce attendance of their children have proved unavailing in Rochester. The courts have not given that part of the laws a cordial support and the school authorities are, therefore, compelled to enforce the penalties provided against the offending child in some cases where the parents might more properly be punished. Care is taken not to commit pupils upon the request of parents anxious to relieve themselves of parental duties.5 [Statement of Hon. Milton Noyes, superintendent of city schools, March 7, 1899.] 1. The officers consist of a city superintendent of schools and seven attendance officers, in addition to the employees engaged exclusively in the truant school build¬ ing, mentioned in paragraph 8 hereinafter. 2. We have a regularly organized boarding truant school, receiving truants from this city and others committed from other counties. 3. To show the process of our commitments and paroles, I beg to append a full set of blanks used,6 Nos. 1, 2, and 3 being first distributed where applicable. In most cases parents’ consent (No. 4) is readily obtained, whereupon No. 5 is entered and truant taken into custody and detained in our truant school. If such consent is not given, No. 6 is served upon parent and truant. If after a hearing parents then consent, the earlier order (No. 5) can be used. If they refuse, No. 7 is entered and the truant proceeded against as a disorderly person. Complaint is made before the proper court and upon proper evidence the final commitment after trial (No. 8) is entered and the truant accordingly taken into custody. The parole is No. 9. (An independent remedy by action for fine against parent in police court is given by statute, over which proceedings the school authorities have no jurisdiction.) 4. Length of sentence is indeterminate. 5. Paroles, in the discretion of city superintendent, depend upon pupil’s conduct and progress while detained and promise of future punctual attendance on required school. Average term of detention is about 45 days. 6. We have but one building — a two-story brick structure, formerly a ten-room school house, steam heated, and lighted with electric drops. Surrounding yard suf¬ ficient to permit playground. Nearest public school about one-quarter of a mile. The yard reaches from street to street, with ample exit facilities from building. 7. The food supplies are purchased in market and prepared and served under direction of steward, an experienced cook. Clothing purchased and made up in quantities varying in sizes, etc., of fair quality. 8. Employees consist of principal (who is executive officer) in charge of studies; 1 teacher of lower grades and manual training; 1 steward; visiting physician; janitor; night watchman; matron; and an attendance officer on duty half day — 8 in all. 9. Average cost of operating the school, $2,500, plus $4,320 salaries. 1 Reports of the school policemen in the Rochester school reports from 1882-83 to 1889-90. 2 Rochester school report, 1892-93, p. 164. 3 lb., 1894-95, p. 8. 4 lb., 1896-97, p. 83. 5 lb., p. 29. 6 See blanks, pp. 174 to 179, inclusive. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 1 TQ I l o 11. The city of Rochester is divided into 5 truant officers’ districts, each under constant supervision of one officer while schools are in session. 12. Number of truants committed to the truant school past year 106. Average number detained at one time 25. 13. Number returned to day schools and not recommitted was 87; recommitted 15; sent to State reformatory 2. 14. No arrangement for detention of girls. Nearly all of our female truants reached through home influence and personal efforts of teachers. TRUANT SCHOOL RULES. [From the public school regulations of the city of Rochester, 1898 pp. 24 and 51.] The State law authorizing the establishing of truant schools and the compulsory attendance of truants constitutes the superintendents of city public schools the super¬ vising officers to enforce the provisions of said law. The board of education of the city of Rochester has created a committee charged with the supervision of the details connected with the local truant school, but no changes can be made without the consent of the superintendent. The duties of this committee are as follows: The committee on truant school shall have general supervision of all matters per¬ taining to the school maintained for the reception and detention of truants and dis¬ orderly pupils, and purchase necessary supplies for said school. It shall prepare with the superintendent rules for the government of the school. It shall nominate truant officers, and hire such employees as may be authorized by the board; recom¬ mend changes in the management of the school, and audit claims against it; shall enforce any contracts made for the support of the inmates, and enforce all State and local regulations concerning such school. The committee shall provide for the keeping of accounts, showing separately, in detail, the disbursements (1) for food supplies; (2) for fuel; (3) for help; (4) for officers; (5) for repairs to building; (6) for furnishing; (7) for books and material; (8) for other expenses. The committee shall provide for recording, so far as practi¬ cable, the personal history of the pupils. The following rules shall be observed in the control and management of the school, known as the truant school, for the detention of school truants, while the same is under the jurisdiction of the board of education, until otherwise ordered: Rule 1. Attendance officers shall be on duty at the school during the hours pre¬ scribed in weekly bulletins, as furnished by the superintendent. Rule 2. The attendance officer bringing a boy into school shall search, bathe, dress, and turn him over to the principal or the officer in charge, in proper sanitary condition, before such boy shall be allowed to intermingle with the other inmates. Rule 3. Every attendance officer while on duty at the building shall, in the absence of its executive officer, be in full charge and custody of the inmates and be respon¬ sible for the same. Rule 4. The officer in charge between the hours of 8 p. m. and 7 a, m. shall be responsible for the heat, lights, and condition of the building and custody of the inmates during said time, subject, however, to the direction of the executive officer. Rule 5. The hours of attendance at the school, as laid down by the weekly bulletin, shall not be changed without the consent of the principal and superintendent. Rule 6. The principal shall be the executive officer of the school and shall have full power and control over all matters pertaining to the school and building, sub¬ ject to orders from the committee on truant school. Rule 7. The principal shall receipt for all foreign inmates, notify the superintendent of the name, address, and time of arrival of every inmate; keep the school record as heretofore required; have charge and custody of the inmates and their instruction, exercise, and drill; shall cause all inmates to bathe at least once per week, and to be exercised in the yard at his discretion. Rule 8. The principal shall regulate the sanitary changes of beds and clothing; keep the inmates in custody, and release them only upon the written order of the superintendent of public schools. Rule 9. The principal shall receive all articles intended for the inmates and use his discretion in allowing the use of the same. Rule 10. In cases of disorderly inmates the principal may in his discretion use sufficient means to bring them to subjection without resorting to cruelty. Rule 11. Inmates, when received, shall be examined and all articles, except wear¬ ing apparel, taken from them for safe keeping and restored to them on being released. Rule 12. Suitable text-books shall be furnished for use of said school by the board of education. 174 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Rule 13. Profanity and the use of tobacco shall not be permitted. Rule 14. The building shall be open at all times to the public. Rule 15. Hours for inmates: 7 a. m. to 8, rising and preparation; 8 to 8.30, break¬ fast; 8.30 to 9, dormitory duties; 9 to 12, school, with intermission; 12 to 1 p. m., dinner; 1 to 3, school: 3 to 5.30, reading and games; 5.30 to 6, supper; 6 to 9, games and reading; 9, to bed. [From the Fiftieth Annual Report of the Rochester Public Schools, 1897-98, p. 9.] Under the subject of compulsory education our city truant school naturally deserves attention. That school was opened April 22, 1895, in the building on North street, formerly used by public school No. 16. Since that time 388 different lads have been committed to the school. The purposes of the school have been well carried out and much good thereby accomplished. It has stimulated respect for obedience, love of study, and wish for attendance upon required instruction. Kindness, with firmness, has prevailed in the institution. The humane interest shown to the boys has been appreciated by them. Their better natures were developed. They have displayed genuine and abiding interest in right living. As far as possible the superintendent has made inquiries concerning their conduct, subsequent to being paroled, and finds that many of the older boys arc now filling positions of trust and responsibility. The order in fjie school, during the past year, has been excellent and general con¬ ditions surrounding its management have been heretofore unequaled. The yearly session began November 17, 1897, and closed June 25, 1898. During that time there were received 106 boys, 15 of whom were recommitted, making 121 total commitments. Ages as follows: 8 years . 3 9 years . 6 10 years . 9 11 years . - 16 Parentage as follows: German . 32 American . 28 Irish . 24 Hebrew . . . 6 English . . . 5 12 years . 22 13 years . 31 14 years . 11 15 years . * 8 Italian . 5 Canadian . 3 French . 2 African . 1 These inmates were received from 26 public schools, 11 private and parochial schools, and 9 out of town schools. Ninety-one were received at the hands of our attendance officers, upon parent’s consent, under commitments by the city superintendent of schools. Applications to commit from parents anxious to relieve themselves of the custody of children have been refused. The total expense of improving and operating the truant school from July 1, 1897, to July 1, 1898, amounted to $2,389.67. BLANKS USED IN CONNECTION WITH THE TRUANT SCHOOL.1 1. — Notice to Parent. Office 6f Superintendent of Public Schools, Department of Public Instruction, Rochester , N. Y, January 7, 1895. Please take notice that - , a child residing at No. - street, Roches ter, N. Y., does not attend public school or upon lawful instruction as required by the provisions of the compulsory education law, chapter 671 of the laws of 1894. The persons in parental relation to said child, whether parents, guardians, or other persons, one or more, lawfully having the care, custody, or control of said child, a^e required to comply with said act, an extract of which is herewith presented. Milton Noyes, Superintendent of Public Instruction. Required attendance. — Every child bet ween eight and sixteen years of age, in proper physical and mental condition to attend school, shall regularly attend upon instruc- 1 For explanation of the use of these blanks see page 172. TRUANT SCHOOLS. tion at a school in which at least the common school branches of reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, and geography are taught, or upon equiva¬ lent instruction by a competent teacher elsewhere than at a public school as follows: (1) All children between eight and twelve years of age must attend during the entire period public schools are in session between the first of October and the first of June following. (2) All children between twelve and fourteen years of age must attend at least eighty consecutive days during the same period, and the whole period, unless lawfully and regularly engaged in useful employment or service. (3) All children between fourteen and sixteen years of age must attend when not lawfully employed. Sec. 4. Duties of persons in parental relation to children. — Every person in parental relation to a child between eight and sixteen years of age in proper physical and mental condition to attend school shall cause such child to so attend upon instruc¬ tion or shall give notice to the school authorities of his city or district of his inability to do so. A violation of this section shall be a misdemeanor, punishable for the first offense by a fine not exceeding five dollars, and for each subsequent offense by a fine not exceeding fifty dollars, or by imprisonment not exceeding thirty days, or by both such fine and imprisonment. Courts of special sessions shall, subject to removal as provided in sections fifty-seven and fifty-eight, of the code of criminal procedure, have exclusive jurisdiction in the first instance to hear, try, and determine charges of violations of this section within their respective jurisdictions. 2. — Notice to Employees. Department of Public Instruction, Rochester, N. Y., December 17, 1895. To manufacturers and employers: The compulsory education act now in force forbids employment of children between the ages of 12 and 14 years unless they have attended upon instruction at some school at least 80 consecutive days each year. The school authorities have resolved to enforce that provision in this city, com¬ mencing Monday, January 6, next. This will enable deserving boys to remain at work through the holiday season. Many parents prefer that t-heir children should work at all times and devote their small earnings to family support. The aid which children 12 years of age can render to families is slight and tem¬ porary in duration, while the loss of instruction would be great and lasting to such children and to this community. It is poor policy to deprive future citizens of the instruction which it is the aim of the State to give. Not wishing to cause any hardship in deserving cases, you are therefore notified in advance that your employees, if any, between the ages of 12 and 14 years, will be expected to commence attendance upon required instruction by the 6th day of January, 1896. Evening schools do not furnish “equivalent instruction,” within the meaning of that law. Kindly give attention to the following extracts, if applicable to any of your employees. Respectfully, Milton Noyes, Superintendent of Public Schools. Sec. 5. Persons employing children unlawfully , to be fined. — It shall be unlawful for any person, firm, or corporation to employ any child between the ages of eight and twelve years in any business or service whatever, during any part of the term during which the public schools of the district in Which the child resides are in session; or to employ any child between twelve and fourteen years of age who does not, at the time of such employment, present a certificate signed by tne superintendent of schools of the city or district in which the child resides, certifying that such child has complied with the law relating to attendance at school during the school year between September and July, then current; and any person who shall employ any child contrary to the provisions of this section shall, for each offense, forfeit and pay to the treasurer of the city in which such offense shall occur, a penalty of fifty dol¬ lars, the same, when paid, to be added to the public school monies of the city or district in which the offense occurred. Required attendance. — Every child between eight and sixteen years of age, in proper physical and mental condition to attend school, shall regularly attend upon instruc¬ tion at a school in which at least the common school branches of reading, spelling, 176 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. writing, arithmetic, English grammar, and geography are taught, or upon equivalent instruction by a competent teacher elsewhere than at a public school, as follows: (1) All children between eight and twelve years of age must attend during the entire period public schools are in session between the first of October and the first of .Tune following. (2) All children between twelve and fourteen years of age must attend at least eighty consecutive days during the same period, and the whole period unless lawfully and regularly engaged in useful employment or service. (3) All children between fourteen and sixteen years of age must attend when not lawfully employed. 3.— Notice to Teachers. Department of Public Instruction, Rochester , N. Y.,- November 27 , 1895. To principals and teachers: Inclosed herewith you may find a copy of a report adopted by the board of educa¬ tion of this city, November 18 instant, relating to the compulsory education law. The purpose of the act was not only to prevent truancy but to stimulate, by its judicious enforcement, desire for attendance upon proper instruction in some school. We are all in accord respecting the purposes of that act. Sections 2, 7, 8, and 9 place upon this department the burden and expense of enforcing the act in Rochester. We call your attention to section 6 (embraced in said report), and ask your coop¬ eration. Possibly many of you already preserve the required records, which are similar to the “daily register” — used in public schools. If you will kindly preserve such records and notify us of all cases of truancy in your school, you will materially aid in the proper observance of the act. Also report to us at the close of each school month the total number of children between 8 and 16 years of age who have been instructed at your school in the required topics, viz, reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, and geography. Inclosed you will find blank reports for that purpose, covering the present school year beginning with November. Children between 7 and 16 years of age, who are habitual truants from instruction, or who are insubordinate or disorderly during attendance, or who are irregular in attendance, may be confined, maintained, and instructed either in a truant school or a private school, orphans’ home or similar institution controlled by persons of the same religions faith as the persons in parental relation to such children. Such confinement is to be conducted with a view to the improvement and restora¬ tion as soon as practicable of the child to the school upon which he was required to attend. Milton Noyes, Superintendent. 4. — Parents’ Consent. Rochester, N. Y., - , 189 — . To the Superintendent of Public Schools and Attendance Officers of said City: I, - , hereby certify that I am - the 1 - of the boy, - who now lives at No. - , - street, in said city; and that said boy is - years of age; that lie has sufficient health to render his attendance upon public instruction expedient; that he is a truant from school, and that I, - , have been notified concerning his case, and an opportunity for a hearing has been given after due notice to said boy and persons in parental relations. I, - , consent and hereby request that said boy be forthwith taken to your public truant school, in said city, and con¬ fined therein for discipline and instruction until released by the superintendent of city public schools. / 1 Father, mother, or guardian, TRUANT SCHOOLS. 177 5.— Order to Commit on Parents’ Consent. - Public Schools, Board of Education , - , - , 1S9 — . In the Matter of Committing > Order to commit on consent. A Truant from Instruction, to the Public Truant School at Rochester, N. Y. It having been made to appear that the boy, - - - , who resides at No. - , - street, in the - of - , N. Y., is between 8 and 16 years of age; in proper physical and mental condition to attend upon lawful instruction as required by the compulsory education acts, and is a truant therefrom; And notice having been given to said truant and to the persons in parental relation to comply with such law, and having failed therein, and a reasonable notice having further been personally served upon such truant and the persons in parental relation to him, that said matter would be considered by the board of education, or the - , at a session thereof, held on the - day of - , 189 — ; And said case having been duly considered at said time by said public school authorities, and an opportunity given for all persons to be heard in relation thereto; And it further appearing from such proceedings that said child is now - years of age, and is a truant from lawful instruction and in proper condition to attend thereupon, and that he is not regularly and lawfully engaged in any useful employ¬ ment or service, and upon filing the written consent of the persons in parental rela¬ tion to said child: It is therefore hereby determined and ordered that said child be forthwith committed to said city public truant school in the city of Rochester, N. Y., pursuant to the provisions of chapter 606 of .the laws of 1896, and be there maintained and instructed until discharged or paroled by the superintendent of public schools of said city, not exceeding the remainder of the current school year. It is further ordered that the attendance officers of this - - convey said child to said truant school, and the executive officer of said school is hereby required to receive and detain him according to the terms of this order, the provisions of law, and the local regulations applicable thereto. Given by direction and pursuant to action of the board of education, or the - -, of the - of - , N. Y., this - day of - , 189 — . ■, President. •, Clerk. ■, Trustee. 6.— Notice to Truant and his Parent to Appear before Superintendent. Department of Public Instruction, Office of Superintendent of Public Schools, Rochester , N. Y., - , — — , 189 — . Complaint having been made that - , a child between 8 and 16 years of age, residing at No. - street, Rochester, N. Y., does not attend upon lawful instruction as required by the provisions of the amended compulsory education law; And a notice having heretofore been given to such child and to the persons in pa¬ rental relation to him, requiring them to comply with said act respecting attendance upon instruction; And such child being still a truant, you and each of you are hereby notified that said matter will be considered by the superintendent of public schools at the office of said superintendent, Free Academy building, on the - day of - , 189 — , at 3 o’clock, p. m., at which time and place an opportunity will be given you to be heard in relation to said case. In default of your appearance or consent that such child be maintained at the public truant school in this city or other similar institution as required, then the said child may be proceeded against as a disorderly person before the police "justice of this city, pursuant to said act. Attendance Officer , - -, Parent or Guardian , and - , Truant. ED 1900 - 12 To 178 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 7. — Order to Proceed against Truant. In the Matter of Committing Rochester Public Schools, Board of Education, - , - , 189 — ►Order to proceed against truant. A Truant from Instruction. It having been made to appear that the boy - , who resides at No. - - street, in the city of Rochester, N. Y., is between 7 and 16 years of age; in proper physical and mental condition to attend upon lawful instruction as required by the compulsory educational acts, and is a truant therefrom ; And notice having been given to said truant and to the persons in parental rela¬ tion to comply with such law, and having failed therein, and a reasonable notice having further been personally served upon such truant and the persons in parental relation to him, that said matter would be considered by the board of education at a session thereof, held on the - day of - , 189 — ; And said case having been duly considered, and an opportunity given for all per¬ sons to be heard in relation thereto; And it further appearing from such proceedings that said child is now - years of age, and is a truant from lawful instruction and in proper condition to attend thereupon, and that he is not regularly and lawfully engaged in any useful employ- mentor service, and the persons in parental relations to said child refusing to consent to his commitment to a school, It is therefore hereby determined and ordered that said child be deemed a dis¬ orderly person and proceeded against, pursuant to chapter 671 of the laws of 1894. Given by direction and pursuant to action of the board of education of the city of Rochester, N. Y., this - day of - , 189 — . - , President. - , Clerk. 8. — Warrant of Commitment. State of New York, - County , - of - , ss. - court, in the name of the people of the State of New York. In the Matter of Committing A Truant from Instruction, to the Public Truant School at Rochester, N. Y. Commitment after trial. To any attendance officer of said town or peace officer of said county: It having been made to appear to me on oath that the boy — - - - , who resides at No. - street, in the - of - , N. Y., is between 8 and 16 years of age, in proper physical and mental condition to attend upon lawful instruc¬ tion as required by the compulsory education acts, and is a truant therefrom; And notice having been given to said truant and to the persons in parental relation to comply with such law, and having failed therein, and a reasonable notice having further been personally served upon such truant and the persons in parental relation to him that said matter would be considered by the public school authorities on the - day of - , 189-; And said case having been duly considered at said time by said public school authorities and an opportunity given for all persons to be heard in relation thereto; And it further appearing that said child is now - years of age and is a truant from lawful instruction and in proper condition to attend thereupon, and that he is not regularly and lawfully engaged in any useful employment or service, and the persons in parental relation to said child refusing to consent to his commitment to a proper institution ; And thereupon it was ordered that such conduct of the child lie deemed disorderly conduct, and that he be proceeded against as a disorderly person; And whereas the undersigned magistrate at once caused said truant to be brought before him, charged on oath with being a disorderly person within the meaning and intent of the statute; and such proceedings were thereupon had before me pursuant to the provisions of chapter 606 of the laws of 1896 and the general statutes of this State relating to disorderly persons, that I, the undersigned, did adjudge and deter¬ mine that said truant, - , was guilty of being a disorderly person as afore¬ said, and he was thereupon, on the - day of - , 189-, convicted of said offense by me, and it was adjudged and determined that he should be committed to the public truant school at the city of Rochester, N. Y., and be confined and maintained therein for a term not exceeding the remainder of the current school year, said TRUANT SCHOOLS. 179 offender having previously been required to attend upon lawful instruction in a public school in this State; And whereas a certificate of such conviction has been accordingly filed in the office of the clerk of this county, These are, therefore, to command you, the said attendance officer or peace officer, forthwith to deliver him, the said - , into the custody of the city public truant school in the city of Rochester, N. Y., pursuant to the provisions of chapter 606 of the laws of 1896, to be there maintained and instructed until discharged or paroled by the superintendent of public schools of said city, not exceeding the remainder of the current school year or discharged by law. Said truant school and the executive officer of said school are hereby required to receive and detain him according to the terms of this warrant, the provisions of law, and the local regulations applicable thereto. Given under my hand at the said - of - , New York, this - day of - , 189- Justice - of - , County of - 1, N. Y. 9.— Parole. Department of Public Instruction, Rochester , N. Y. , - , 189 — . , To the principal and attendance officers in charge of the truant school : Whereas, the boy - , formerly residing at No. - street, Rochester, N. Y., was, on the - day of - , 189—-, placed in the public truant school for instruction and maintenance; and whereas, such confinement was con¬ ducted with a view to the improvement of said boy and to his restoration, as soon as practicable, to the school upon which he was lawfully required to attend for public instruction ; And he having promised to faithfully attend such instruction in the future, Now therefore, upon application made on his behalf for release from such con¬ finement, and relying on said promise, and upon receiving the written assurance indorsed hereon, of the person in parental relation to him, You are, by virtue of the authority granted under the provisions of chapter 606 of the law of 1896, of the State of New York, and the action of the board of education of said city of Rochester, heretofore taken in the premises, hereby authorized to forthwith release said boy from such confinement at said truant school, on parole, and deliver him to the person in parental relation to him. Superintendent of Public Schools. Guaranty of attendance. In consideration of the granting of the foregoing parole, I hereby promise to cause said boy to attend upon school instruction, as required by law. I further consent, that if he becomes a truant from such instruction, or irregular in attendance thereon, or disorderly or insubordinate during attendance, in either of such cases, the public- school authorities of this city, or any attendance officer thereof, may proceed with¬ out process and at any time hereafter take and confine said boy in the public truant school of this city, for further instruction and maintenance, anti that he may be kept- in said school until released by the superintendent of public schools. Rochester, N. Y., - , 189 — . - , Parent. 10. — Circular to Other Boards of Education. ROCHESTER TRUANT SCHOOL. Department of Public Schools, Rochester , N. Y., November 18, 1897. To public school authorities: We take this method of answering numerous inquiries concerning the school organized here in 1895 as a home for the detention and instruction of male truants under the provisions of the compulsory education acts. This school is now opened under new management. Inmates are lodged, fed, and instructed in one building, and are under constant supervision of a male teacher, a matron, and an attendance officer. A watchman is on duty nights and a house physician is employed, free to inmates. The building used exclusively for this purpose is a two-story brick structure, with JKame of office in full. 180 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. large rooms, electric lighted, steam heated, and well ventilated. Playground at¬ tached. The building was formerly used for a public school. Substantial, plain, and well-cooked food is furnished, and suitable hours are afforded for exercise and play. Contract system of furnishing meals has been abandoned. The studies pursued correspond to grade schools for boys of like ages and abilities. No truants are received who have ever been convicted of crime or misdemeanor (other than truancy), and who are not pronounced by the house physician free from disease. The confinement is conducted with a view to the improvement and restoration, as soon as practicable, of the child to his own proper school. Reading matter is furnished to the inmates, and attention given to stimulating a wish for study. In the division of each day six hours are devoted to class study, ten to sleep, and eight to reading and recreation. Manual-training instruction is given. The school is located on North street, near the intersection of Hudson avenue, and three minutes’ walk from the New York Central Railway depot. The board of education of this city has resolved to receive male inmates from other cities or villages, if properly committed, at the rate of $5 per week each, payable by the authorities committing the truant, or by county where commitment is made in towns having no superintendent of schools. In order to properly charge the county we have written contract to be executed with the committing authorities. If you desire to avail yourselves of this institution under the foregoing conditions you may send your attendance officer with the truant and the commitment direct to the building, when the principal will receipt for him. Also send, with the officer, sufficient funds for the truant’s return home at expiration of term of detention. We are often asked, “ How may a truant be sent to the Rochester school?” In most cases the parents’ written consent is sufficient to base a commitment upon if made by school authorities, after a notice has been served upon the truant and per¬ son in parental relation to him, and an opportunity for them to be heard has been given. If such consent is not given before a trial in which the truant is proceeded against for disorderly conduct, under the compulsory education acts, he may be sen¬ tenced to this school upon conviction by the court if the pupil had been required to attend a public school. Any further particulars relating to the school, or necessary blanks for commitment, may be had on application. Respectfully, Milton Noyes, Superintendent of Public Schools. Syracuse, N. Y. [Statement of Hon. A. B. Blodgett, superintendent of city schools, March 2, 1899.] 1. Our truancy department was organized four years ago. 2. We have no ungraded classes for truants or incorrigibles outside of the regularly organized boarding truant school. 3. We secure the written consent of the parents, if possible to do so, or sentence them through the police court if parents do not consent. 4. The length of sentence is nominally for the balance of the school year, but we parole them upon good behavior or a prospect of better attendance and deportment in the graded school. 5. The following is the form of the parole: Parole. Syracuse, N. Y., - , 189-. Being permitted to leave the truant school I promise to be punctual and regular in attendance; to conduct myself properly, and in a polite, gentlemanly manner faith¬ fully to observe all rules, regulations, and requirements of the school I shall hereafter attend. - . - - - , Witness. If the above pledge shall be wilfully or negligently violated by said - , - hereby consent that he shall be immediately returned to the truant school. - , Parent. - , Parent. - Street. The above permit is approved when properly signed and witnessed. - , Superintendent. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 181 6. Our building and grounds are inadequate. At present we are using an old dwell¬ ing house, which has been fitted up for the purpose. 7. Children are clothed at city’s expense and boarded in the truant building. 8. We employ a man and wife as general custodians of the building and grounds, a night watchman, two truant officers, and a teacher. We pay the custodian an annual salary of $720, the night watchman $500, two truant officers $900 each, and the teacher $650. 9. The custodian and wife board the inmates at $1.68 per week. 11. As the inmates of the school are confined at all times we have no difficulty in enforcing attendance. 12. The number committed during the past year was 60, and the average daily attendance was 12. 13. The attendance officer’s annual report gives the total number of investigations as 898; 687 of these were returned to schools from which they were absenting them¬ selves; 60 were placed in the local truant school, and 18 sent to State or other insti¬ tutions; 137 others amenable to the law were permitted, in most cases temporarily, to remain at work or at home. 14. No special arrangements were made for incorrigible girls, as we have no accom¬ modations for them. 15. Our experience has been that the best features of the law are found in its deter¬ rent effect. This has been more and more apparent, as truants, incorrigibles, and parents as well have come to understand the good effects of the law and that it would be enforced. We are very much gratified at the excellent effects attained through the enforcement of the law. Cleveland, Ohio. Established in March, 1876, the Cleveland day truant schools are the oldest exist¬ ing institutions of their class in the United States; their beginning occured during the superintendency of Hon. A. J. Rickoff. They have been criticised, reorganized, and reformed by every superintendent, with a single exception, who has held the office since, and because of those criticisms, reorganizations, and reformations the history of the Cleveland truant schools is interesting and instructive. At first a single school was established in Marion street, and the name given it, “ ungraded school,” was chosen because it could not of itself carry any opprobrium with it. It was designed for those whose influence was found to be pernicious to their associates, and who were incorrigible by means of discipline fit to be used in the schools at large. Its principal purpose was to guard the masses of the children in the school from daily contact in the class room and on the playground with chil¬ dren whose example tended to corrupt everyone about them, to protect the young and vreak from those whose domineering habits or violent tempers make them unsafe companions. 1 It was not considered that the salaries paid to the teachers of this school added to the cost of the schools, since the other teachers retained their full quotas, and in some cases were able to take care of a greater number than before, since they were relieved of the most troublesome element of teaching. The number of pupils transferred to the ungraded school was small at first,2 but the effect upon the regular schools was at once so evident as to leave no doubt in the mind of the superintendent as to the wisdom of the establishment of the school. The supervisors, Messrs. H. M. James and L. W. Hay, wrrote as favorably as Mr. Rickoff of the wholesome influence of the new schools upon the discipline of the city at large. Many vicious boys, it was said, who had previously been the cause of constant hindrance and trouble, strove to their utmost to merit the approbation of their teachers and thus avoid being transferred to the unclassified school.3 The rules relating to the school provided that when it appeared that the attend¬ ance of any pupil, either by reason of incorrigibility or immoral conduct, was per- 1 Report oi the city superintendent (A. J. Rickoff) for 1876, p. 105. 2 The average number belonging in 1876 was 9. Nineteen in all were transferred to the unclassified school during that year. 2 Report of the city superintendent for 1876, pp. 139 and 145. 182 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. nicious to the school of which he was a member, the case should be referred to the superintendent. After conference with the child’s parent the superintendent might transfer the delinquent to the ungraded school if there were no objections from the parent. In the event of such objection the case was referred to the committee on discipline and disposed of by them. On sufficient evidence of good conduct the superintendent was empowered to return a pupil from the unclassified to the regular schools, but not during the term for which he was transferred.1 It will be observed that the primary purpose in view in maintaining the school was the relief of the schools in general of the undesirable elements among the pupils. But the reformation of the bad boys entered also into the calculation, as the follow¬ ing sentence in the report of Mr. James shows: “ That they should not be deprived of all school privileges by being sent into the street, but should rather be collected and placed under the care of a good teacher and surrounded by such influences that they can be controlled, and, in a measure, reformed, seems equally plain.” Recommendations by Mr. Rickoff and his associates resulted in the establishment of a second unclassified school in York street in 1877-78 to satisfy the needs of the western part of the city as the Marion street school had served the eastern. In that year 45 pupils were sent to the former school and 39 to the latter, the average num¬ ber belonging being 17 and 18, respectively. Both schools, steadily grew for several years without receiving especial attention at the hands of the school officials — at least they were not specially mentioned in the school reports, though their statistics appear with those of the other schools. Superintendent Rickoff retired at the close of the year 1882-83; Mr. B. A. Hinsdale was appointed in his stead and continued in the office until the close of 1885-86, when he was succeeded by Mr. L. W. Hay. In none of Mr. Hinsdale’s reports did he make any comment upon the unclassified schools, and it does not appear that any impor¬ tant changes were made during his administration. During Mr. Day’s term of office a third school was added to the list, the process of transferring pupils to them was modified, their name was changed from “ unclassified schools” to “boys’ schools,” and in classification and management they were made more nearly like the ordinary schools. The old name came to have a very offensive signification in the popular mind, and the change in title was supposed to relieve the pupils in them from the stigma attaching to the members of the “unclassified schools.” Superintendant Day explained in his report for 1888-89 2 that the pupils in the “boys’ schools” were not necessarily bad or vicious but “simply overmischievous or perversely troublesome. ” “Under restraining influences,” he remarks, “they often make very satisfactory progress, and turn out well.” The pupils assigned to the schools were grouped as follows: (1) Those who openly and persistently defied the authority of the teacher. (2) Those who were persistently truant. (3) Those whose conduct was not satisfactory and whose parents requested such assignment. The boys were described as “generally bright, nervous, rattling fellows, needing more special personal attention than can be given them in the regular schools.” Twenty- five boys were as many as were assigned to any one school, as a rule. “ The upheaval ” in the Cleveland schools came in 1892. The circumstances are well known, for because of their results they occupy a prominent place in the educa¬ tional history of the country. A new scheme of school government was inaugu¬ rated and new men with new policies were brought in to administer it. The new men came in with the conviction that radical reforms were needed. Mr. A. S. Draper, the superintendent, afterwards said:3 With false diplomacy, lack of aggressiveness, and insufficient confidence in the people on the part of the superintendent’s office, the school system of the city came face to face with the question whether its old plan of organization was equal to the preservation of its own life. The cit}r was being sold out on the business side of its 1 Manual of the schools of Cleveland, 1S76, p. 16. 2 Page 102. 3 In his report for 1893-94, p. 89. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 183 school administration, and the unprepared and unworthy who had influence were swarming into the rapidly increasing teaching force and getting places of highest trust and emolument in the service. The result was the degradation of the force and paralysis and desolation in the work of the schools. This being the attitude of a superintendent all powerful in all matters relating to teachers and instruction, a revolution naturally followed. Everything was to be altered and improved, the boys’ schools along with the rest. There had been five of those schools in three different buildings; the number was reduced to three. Corporal punishment was found to be inflicted in some of the schools with frequency and considerable severity; all corporal punishment was promptly forbidden, and other changes intended to be equally as radical were made. As for the surround¬ ings at that time, the rooms were poor and the furnishings dilapidated. Mr. Draper declared his intention to give these schools close attention, and hoped to be able to place them on better footing and make them instrumentalities of greater good. Manual training was especially prominent among the improvements which it was intended to introduce. “The boys’ unclassified schools should be made specially bright and cheerful,” said the superintendent, “and should be in the hands of teachers specially steady, manly, kind, and tactful; should be free from all that can further brutalize or degrade an unfortunate boy, and should be filled with the influences which are calculated to arouse his moral nature and appeal to his own future interests and his self-respect. The moment be can be trusted he should be returned to his proper place in the ordi¬ nary schools.” 1 Notwithstanding the special attention, the next year brought little improvement. No change was made in the location of the schools. They were “housed in rooms as good as would be likely to be found for any school outside of our regular school buildings, and they can not be housed in the regular buildings, but still the rooms are not inviting. The furnishings are not modern; the atmosphere is depressing; the conditions hard.” 2 It was with an evident feeling of discouragement that Mr. Draper wrote! I am beginning to conclude that there should he a radical change in the plan, and that an institution should be provided, not penal in character, into which boys who are a menace to the good order of the school might be taken and given the oversight, training, and education incident to a home. Until such boys are taken into the exclusive custody of such an institution day and night, and washed, combed, dressed, fed, trained, and inspired to better things, the outlook will be discouraging. Their associations for nineteen hours of the day will count for more against them than their work with an unclassified school for five hours can possibly do for them.2 © The school director, Mr. Id. Q. Sargent, believed even more strongly than Mr. Draper that a boarding school was a necessity. He expressed the opinion unequiv¬ ocally that in the greater number of cases the unclassified schools were unequal to the task of reclamation, and that experience had shown conclusively that the boys must be removed from their unfortunate environment and placed in a public home.3 Believing that no single subject connected with the schools was of more vital impor¬ tance, he urgently requested the school council to designate one or more of its mem¬ bers to act with the superintendent of instruction and himself “in an earnest endeavor to effect a radical change in the conditions surrounding these unfortunate boys.” Whether such a commission was appointed does not appear; but if so, it accomplished nothing toward the establishment of the “public home” suggested. A permissive law was secured from the legislature,4 and an effort was made to induce the city council to establish a “city farm school,” but without success.5 1 Report for 1S92-93, p. 74. 2 Forty -eighth annual report of the board of education, 1893-94, p. 80. 3 In his message for 1894-95, p. 22. 4 Act of the Ohio general assembly, passed February 8, 1894. 5 Report of the president of the school council, 1895-96, p. 75. 184 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. In the meantime Mr. Draper had resigned the superintendency and had been suc¬ ceeded by Mr. L. H. Jones, and Mr. Jones in his turn had plans for another reor¬ ganization and reformation of the unclassified schools. The tangible changes made at his suggestion consisted of establishing two schools, each having one male and one female teacher, instead of three schools, each having one male teacher; and of making the school hours conform to those of the district schools instead of the high schools. This meant simply that there were to be two sessions daily instead of one, with an intermission of an hour between them for dinner. One of the teachers was required to remain at the school during that hour, and only those boys were allowed to go home for dinner whose conduct had been satisfactory. As for the rest, Superintendent Jones stated:1 Men and women have been selected for this work who, it is believed, have especial adaptedness to secure good order by humane means, and instruction has been given them to teach in every way possible the value of institutional life; while securing the respect and affection of these pupils, to make them wish to get back into the regular schools and into harmony with the social organized life from which by their own actions they have separated themselves. Whenever this desire to live a life in harmony with others has been developed in the boy he is fit to be returned to the regular schools, but not until then. * * * It is in many instances real teaching that is needed rather than harsh measures of physical correction. I have great hopes that we have at least begun upon this difficult problem. These aims and these views differed in no particular from those held and expressed by Mr. Draper, and but little from those of Mr. Rickoff and Mr. Day. The two lat¬ ter had not nominally the same power over the teachers that Mr. Jones has, but it is clear that all of them sought teachers of special qualifications for the work; that they themselves gave personal attention to the unclassified schools; and that, with the exception of Mr. Draper, they all held the same opinion of the good results of the schools as they, respectively, conducted them. Still, every one of these superintend¬ ents found it necessary to entirely reorganize the schools as they had each found them. In his report for 1895-96, Superintendent Jones expresses gratification at the out¬ come of the year’s experiences, and his statement made to this office in March, 1899, though meager, is hopeful in its tone.2 A peculiar circumstance may be noted in regard to the situation in Cleveland. The chief truant officer, Mr. Alex. McBane, has held that position for a number of years. His efficiency has been often commended in the reports of his superior offi¬ cers, and his own reports bear internal evidence that the commendation was deserved. In not one of his recent reports has he mentioned the ungraded schools as an aid to his own work, or indeed in any other way, even statistically. He has constantly and consistently urged the establishment of a parental or a home training school, describing as the proper candidates for such a school the very class of children who are supposed to be sent to the unclassified schools, yet he ignores the very existence of those schools. This, in connection with the large number of children sent annu¬ ally to the State Reform School at Lancaster — averaging about forty a year-— seems to indicate that the boys now retained in the unclassified schools are offenders of a type too mild to give a truant officer any concern, and that those schools differ from the ordinary schools less than in most cities where similar schools are maintained. The following paragraph occurs in Mr. McBane’ s report for 1895-96: I would like to present another subject to which I have given much thought, viz, the need of a home training school. I have protested in all my annual reports against sending truant children to the reform school at Lancaster. I still protest, not that the reform school is not well conducted — it is as well conducted as it i3 pos¬ sible to be under present conditions. What facilities can be afforded for reformation in a place where criminals of all grades and conditions are classed together? To this same reform school, where we are compelled to send truant boys, guilty of no crime, 1 Report for 1894-95, p. 73. 2 See page 1S5. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 185 are frequently committed those who are totally unfit to he classed with other boys because of their evil propensities and their already deeply perverted nature. To the same school from the city goes the truant boy of the widow with the criminal boy of the slums. And not long since on the streets of Cleveland might have been seen a truant boy chained to a boy horse thief on their way to Lancaster, seeking reformation at the same school. Cleveland needs a training school where these defective boys may have some sort of a chance to grow up useful and respected citizens. 1 [Statement of Hon. L. H. Jones, superintendent of city schools, March 2, 1899.] Three truant officers are employed and act under the State law. Tire compulsory age is 8 to 15. There are two ungraded schools for boys, each with two teachers. Pupils are transferred to them by the city superintendent on information of the proper principal, and are returned to their own schools when they can be trusted. The number probably cured is very large; 36 were sent to the reform school in 1898. These schools are places for helping boys to reform, and not merely places of detention. Dayton, Ohio. [From the report of the superintendent of instruction (Dr. W. N. Hailmann) for 1898-99, page 117.] The two ungraded classes which were organized in April of this year were unsatis¬ factory. It is true they afforded relief to the classes from which the pupils were selected, so that the efficiency of the teachers in these classes was increased. On the other hand, the equipment of the ungraded schools was scanty, and the teachers failed to grasp the problem in all its bearings. The successful operation of such schools demands a richer supply of appliances and teachers who by disposition, equipment, and experience are especially fitted for that work. I shall therefore defer my recommendation for the reopening of these classes until the board shall be in con¬ dition to meet these requirements. . Allegheny, Pa. [From the twenty-fifth annual report of the superintendent of public schools, 1897-98, p. 53.] The truant school has been in operation about a year, with Prof. George A. Smith as teacher. The results attained, the difficulties encountered and overcome, the expenditure of time and money necessary to keep the school in operation, are subjects for the serious consideration of all good citizens. The city superintendent was made responsible at the outset for the management of the school, and all prosecutions were intrusted to the secretary of the board, with one controller in the district where the delinquent resides. In compliance with this arrangement the following rules were adopted by the board of controllers December 7, 1897. RULES. Paile 1. As soon as five days of unexcused absence have accumulated against a pupil he shall be sentenced by the city superintendent to attend the truant school for the next twenty school days. Rule 2. For the first half day’s absence from the truant school without a proper excuse he shall be sentenced to five days additional attendance. Rule 3. For the second half day’s unexcused absence he shall be sentenced to ten additional days attendance. Rule 4. For the third and every succeeding day’s absence from the truant school, unexcused, the parent shall be prosecuted according to law. Rule 5. Whenever the principal of a school shall report a pupil for incorrigibility or insubordination the city superintendent shall, after an investigation of the case, sentence the pupil to the truant school for such time as, in his judgment, the offense deserves. Under the above rules the principals of the different schools notified the superin¬ tendent when they had pupils who were either persistent truants or incorrigible. On receipt of such notification the superintendent immediately investigated the case and sent the offender to the truant school, if, in his judgment, the evidence justified such action. Three half days of unexcused absence from the truant school made the parents liable to prosecution. It has been necessary to prosecute a number of parents, and it is just a little odd, 1 Sixtieth annual report of the board of education, 1895-96, p. 69. 186 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. too, that most of them, after paying one fine and costs, amounting to about $5, were able after this to find a way to get their children into school. Very few of the parents have been so obstinate as to need a second introduction to the alderman, and only two or three in the whole city were sufficiently stubborn to stand the third prosecution. One man, a Bohemian, went to jail rather than pay the third fine, but two or three days later changed his attitude altogether. He paid the alderman’s charges and left the county prison a wiser if not a better man. The total number of truants sentenced to date is 99. Of these 17 have been returned and*served the second sentence in the truant school. One term of twenty days, however, has been found sufficient to greatly improve the behavior of many of these children. A few, though, seem to have neither power nor inclination to do better. Indeed, it ought not to be a matter of great surprise that some of these children are so perverse as to be apparently incapable of any good when it is remem¬ bered that one or both of their parents are in prison most of the time on account of dissolute habits. Other parents, although not dissipated, have so little force of char¬ acter and judgment in the management of their homes and children that the family environment could not well be worse than it is. With this constant pernicious home influence surrounding the children, their control and attendance at school become a most difficult and perplexing problem. Some of the parents, too, after disregarding the law until they have to be brought face to face with the alderman, resort to all sorts of subterfuges and false statements to screen their children. To such an extent is this policy pursued that it is often difficult to make out a case against the most flagrant offender. There are so many roads leading to the total depravity of these children that it is very hard to see any¬ thing for them better than Morganza, Claremont, or Riverside. After a child is 13 years of age the enforcement of the law gives its parents the following options: To send it to school, put it to work, pay fines, send it to Morganza, or get it out of the city. If can not be put to work before 13. Not a few parents try to work themselves into the belief that selling papers, black¬ ing shoes, doing odd turns about home, hunting work, etc., will fill the requirements of the law, but no such frivolous and evasive interpretation can or will be accepted. The class of people thus far under discussion comprise not more than 2 or 3 per cent of the entire school population. The other 97 per cent of the children are orderly, industrious, and a credit to their parents. The truant law has very greatly improved the ward schools in discipline and attendance. It has put into the truant school a class of children that defied all law and order. These children no longer run the streets at will, furnishing an evil example for other children to follow. The turbulent element in all the schools is much more easily managed, and all classes of children attend school more regularly than ever before. Everything considered, the law has been very successful. [From the report of the compulsory education committee of the board of controllers, 1897-98, in the forty-fourth annual report of the board of controllers, p. 71.] A truant school was established November 1, 1897, in one of the rooms of the old Second ward building, and a male teacher and janitor employed. * * * This school has been of immense value in freeing the other schools of unruly and undesir¬ able pupils, one of whom in a room formerly monopolized a teacher’s time, at the expense of every other pupil. These unruly spirits are now grouped together where they may be disciplined as severely as they deserve. There has been in the truant school an average attendance of about 25. Out of each 25 pupils sent there, about 18 return to their own schools at the end of one term practically cured. They attend regularly, and are obedient and industrious often for the first time in their lives. Four or five out of each 25 require a second sentence, and three or four only persist in truancy and bad conduct until their parents are obliged to confess that they can not control them and send them to Morganza. During the year 15 pupils have been sent to Morganza by their parents. In all these cases truancy was but a small part of their offending, and Morganza is unques¬ tionably the very best place for them. Seventeen suits were entered, and in every case the law was upheld and obedience enforced. In 14 cases one suit was sufficient, and in 2 cases three suits were required. In one of the latter the boy is now in Morganza. In the other the grandfather moved out of the city after the third suit, confessing that he could not make a boy of 11 obey him, and choosing this alternative rather than send him to Morganza. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 187 Philadelphia, Pa. [Statement of Hon. Edward Brooks, superintendent of public schools, March 1,1S99.] There are 15 truant officers. We have organized two ungraded schools and expect to establish more. Pupils found on the street or suspended from the regular schools are sent to them. The principal of each school receives $800 a year; assistants, $600. The daily routine is similar to any ungraded school. We have manual work in •our special schools. The special schools receive both girls and boj^s. IV e have started a course of great value to our city. Our special schools are not a year old yet, but they have already demonstrated their necessity as a part of a school system in a large city. I mail you one of my annual reports, in which you will see my views upon the subject, and also a brief statement of the organization of the department of compulsory attendance. [From the annual report of the superintendent of public schools for the year 1897, pp. 104 et seq.] . Early in the year the board of public education took steps to put the compulsory education law into execution. A committee was appointed, called the committee on compulsory education, with Mr. Rudolph Walton as chairman. Lists of pupils between 8 and 13 years of age, taken by the assessors of the city, were furnished to the board, and the committee arranged to have them properly tabulated, appointing a number of clerks for this purpose. These clerks began their work in July, and spent several months upon the lists, endeavoring to determine the children who were in school and those who were not attending school as required by law. As the com¬ mittee studied the problem it became apparent to them that the most efficient execu¬ tion of the law could be effected through the department of superintendence. This department was in intimate relations with the schools, had cognizance of their con¬ dition, of the number in attendance, what schools were overcrowded, and where vacancies existed, and could thus unify the attempt to gather in the truants and other nonattendants, with the general oversight and supervision of the schools. Early last autumn, therefore, the committee decided,, after electing thirty attendance officers, to place the execution of the law under the direction of the superintendent of schools. The superintendent selected, to assist him in the work, one of his assist- amts, Dr. Edgar A. Singer, and took immediate steps to organize the department. The assessors’ rolls, with the result of the work of the clerks upon them, were placed in the superintendent’s hands. These rolls were intended to contain a list of all the children of the city between the ages of 8 and 13 years, their names, addresses, and schools, if any, which they attended. It was soon found that these lists, based upon the assessors’ work, were of little value to us, and we decided to rely for the present on the information obtained from the public schools, the parochial schools, and the Friends’ schools, and upon the information which the attendance officers could gather upon the streets and at the homes of nonattendant children. The next step taken was to divide tire city into thirty districts, to be known as attendance districts. The basis of the division was partly the school population and partly the area of territory to be supervised. The attendance officers were then called together and their duties explained to them. The superintendent endeavored to impress them with the idea of the respon¬ sibilities of the position to which they had been elected and the obligations they were under for the faithful performance of their duties. The law was designed to secure the interests of the individual and the State; they were to execute this law; and only as it was properly executed would its purpose be accomplished. The delicacy of their duties was also pointed out, and the necessity for the exer¬ cise of good judgment and tact in disposing of difficulties which were sure to arise in the execution of the law. The several elements of a successful execution of the law, the superintendent urged, were fidelity, good judgment, tact, patience, and good, common sense. They were further advised that though the law was called a ‘‘compulsory law of education,” yet no compulsion wras to be used at present. Many people did not know there was a law of compulsory attendance, and to pro¬ ceed against them by applying the penalties of the law would be both unjust and unwise. People must be gradually educated to understand and obey the law. The first object, therefore, was to instruct the people in respect to the law and its require¬ ments. No threats should be made at present, but in case of negligence there should be a patient explanation of the nature of the law and the necessity of a compliance with it. This applies both to parents neglecting to send their children to school and 188 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. people employing children in violation of the law. The glove was to be kept upon the iron hand at first; it could he taken off after a while in dealing with people who were persistent violators of the law. It was also explained that in cases of indigent children who were unable to attend school on account of want of clothing, no attempt should be made to force them into school, but that all such cases should be reported to the superintendent, who would endeavor to secure the interest of benevolent organizations in their behalf. No attempt, either, should be made to force vicious and incorrigible children into the schools, but all such cases should be referred to the superintendent. After giving the attendance officers their verbal instructions, a copy of the law was placed in the hands of each, and a list of nonattendants, as obtained from the assessors’ lists. They were directed to visit the schools and become acquainted with the principals, to make themselves acquainted with their respective districts, to obtain a list of parochial and other private schools, and to report the same to the office. Arrangements were made for weekly meetings of the officers at the rooms of the superintendent to present reports of their work and to receive further instruc¬ tions. In the meantime a circular was prepared for their direction, giving explicit instructions in respect to their duties. Regular and systematized information was desirable in respect to all nonattendants and truants that might be found on the street and in their homes, the reasons for this nonattendance, as the neglect of parents, inability to control their children, or the incorrigibility of the pupils when in school, the indigent circumstances of parents, the illegal employment of children, the physical or mental conditions, or other urgent reasons for not attending school. For this purpose blanks were prepared and placed in the hands of the attendance officers for a weekly report. It was also desirable to have a complete summary of each week’s work, and appropriate blanks were prepared for this information. In order to secure the attendance of children whose nonattendance was due to neg¬ lect or willful violation of the law on the part of parents or persons in parental rela¬ tion, the attendance officers were instructed to notify all such persons that they must comply with the law, and suitable blanks were prepared for such notification. The efficient execution of the law, as is evident, depends upon the cordial and intelligent cooperation of the principals of the public schools. Principals are there¬ fore required to keep an accurate record of the attendance of pupils between the ages of 8 and 16 years, and to report at the end of each month on blanks furnished for the purpose the names of all pupils who have been absent five days without lawful excuse. Principals are also requested to forward promptly to the attendance officers the names of irregular attendants, truants, pupils suspended, transferred, or withdrawn, with the age of each, parents’ names, residence, and any other needed information. In addition to this they will probably be required once a year to make a list of the pupils in their respective schools, with the residences, ages, parents’ names and addresses, for the use of the attendance officers in verifying the lists of children obtained by their enumeration. The experiment of executing the law so far has been as successful as could have been anticipated. Several thousand children have been put into the schools, and the regularity of attendance in many schools has been increased by virtue of the fact that children and their parents have learned that the law is to be executed. Many cases of irregularity have been discovered and the alarming fact made more apparent that a large number of boys and girls are being educated on the street and are growing up in ignorance and vice. Statistics of these cases are being collected, which can be used to show the necessity of “special schools ” as soon as the board is ready to enter upon the consideration of that subject. It will not do to force vicious and incorrigi¬ ble children into the schools with virtuous and well-behaved children, and “special schools” will have to be provided in this city, as has been done in other cities where the effort has been made to carry out a compulsory law of education. Many cases of real destitution have been discovered as a reason for not sending children to school, which merit the attention of the charitable organizations of our city. In some parts of the city it has been the custom of teachers to provide cloth¬ ing and shoes for indigent children that they might attend school during the winter season. This charity has inmost cases been worthily bestowed; but in some instances the clothing and shoes have been found in pawn shops, having been pawned by the parents for money to buy liquor. This phase of the matter is a serious one and demands the attention of the public-spirited citizens of the city. Children who are thus neglected by their parents should be taken from them and placed in special schools, as contemplated by the law. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 189 SPECIAL SCHOOLS. In order to execute the law and secure the results contemplated by the law of compulsory attendance, the board of public education will find it necessary to estab¬ lish “special schools” for exceptional children in different parts of the city. This has been the experience of every city where a compulsory law of education has been in force, and such schools are contemplated by the law of our State. These schools should provide for two or three -classes of exceptional children. First, there will be found a number of children in the city whose education has been neglected through the shiftlessness of their parents, or because they could aid their parents in procuring a livelihood by selling papers or doing errands, etc. These children could readily be placed in the schools, but being so backward in their education it would be necessary to put them in the lower grades with children much younger than themselves. This would not only be a humiliation to the pupils and interfere with their progress, but it would have other serious disadvantages. Such children should be placed in small ungraded special schools under special instruction adapted to their age and condition. A second class of children needing special schools consists of the habitual truants, whose truancy is not the result of criminal tendencies, but of carelessness of parents and a lack of interest in study. The ordinary teacher is unable to secure regularity of attendance, and continued absence results in expulsion, so that the children are growing up ignorant and indolent and shiftless. Many of these children, under the right kind of teachers, can be taught to feel an interest in study and to acquire the habit of regular attendance, as has been shown in other cities where the experiment has been tried. Such children are worth saving, and it is the duty of the State to provide means by which they may be saved. It is quite probable that this class of children, at least many of them, could be placed in the same school as the class pre¬ viously named. These schools for neglected children and for habitual truants have been found of great value, truancy in most cases being easily cured; and even many children considered incorrigible hav.e been completely reclaimed, so as to be taken out of the special schools and sent to the regular schools without the least danger to the other pupils. A third class of children for which special schools are imperatively needed is that of incorrigible and vicious children — children who can not be controlled by the ordinary teacher, and children with criminal tendencies whose education upon the street, if not counteracted, will land them in the penitentiary. There are hundreds of children of this class in our city. They can be seen stealing coal on the railroads, playing games of chance in secret corners of houses whose inmates lure them on to the gambling habit for the few pennies they can get from them. Young girls can be seen with vicious companions in secret alleys and disreputable places, learning les¬ sons of vice that can lead only to lives of infamy. These children should be taken out of their surroundings and placed in special schools where, under teachers with special adaptation to their work, they can be trained to habits of virtue. Such schools, standing intermediate between the ordinary school and the House of Reform, have in other cities been appropriately called “parental schools;” and we shall need to provide a number of these parental schools if we would save hundreds of boys and girls who, without them, are being educated to a life of vice and crime.1 The dual system of school control threatens to interfere with the efficient estab¬ lishment and working of these special schools. The proper place for the establish¬ ment of the first class of special schools is in the immediate neighborhood of neglected and truant children and in buildings already occupied by the regular schools when there are vacancies in them and when no other suitable buildings can be secured. If we organize such a school remote from the residences of these children, we shall meet with a difficulty in securing their attendance. If local boards interpose effec¬ tual objections to the use of vacant rooms in buildings already occupied, it will add to the expense of the enforcement of the law and, unless suitable accommodations can be secured, may defeat it. It is to be hoped that local boards will realize the neces¬ sity of working in harmony with the central board in carrying out the new law of attendance, which, under the most favorable circumstances, will be attended with many embarrassments. 1 “We need and are arranging- for two classes of special schools— the ordinary ‘ special school ’ and the ‘parental school.’ ” — (Letter of the superintendent.) 190 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. Providence, R. I. [Statement of Rhoda A. Esten, supervisor of discipline and schools of special discipline and instruction, March 30, 1899.] The organization of our truancy department consists of one truant officer and one clerk. The salary of the truant officer is $1,500, that of his clerk, $480. We have no regularly organized truant schools, but care for our truants mainly in our schools for special discipline and instruction. Trhants are placed in these schools by the supervisor of discipline upon the recommendation of the truant office, the parents, or the teachers. All truants who do not reform either in the regular or disciplinary schools are sentenced by the court to the State juvenile reformatory schools, viz, the Oak Lawn School for Girls and the Sockanossett School for Boys. Our disciplinary schools do not wholly solve the question of truancy, but would do so if we could command the pupils’ attendance in school until his interest in the school work was aroused. The great need of our city is a parental school, where boys and girls can be placed whose parents are unable through lack of control to compel attendance in our regular or disciplinary schools. SCHOOLS FOR SPECIAL DISCIPLINE AND INSTRUCTION. The purpose of these schools is to provide suitable instruction and discipline for pupils for whom our present graded system of schools is not well adapted and who gain comparatively little benefit therefrom. The immediate occasions for the establishment of these schools were the abolition of corporal punishment in the grammar grades and its very great restriction in the primary, combined with a strict enforcement of the truant law. The change in the mode of enforcing discipline in our regular schools caused great confusion at first. Pupils recognized at once the new regulations and behaved accord¬ ingly. Discipline became more difficult and some means of restraining those who seemed without restraint were needed. At first, the remedy against insubordination was suspension and sending home to parents, but there is hardly anything that, on the whole, brings the school more into disrepute and the teacher into contempt, than frequent and wholesale sending pupils home for misconduct. The parent becomes exasperated and deals more severely with the child than he deserves, or denounces the teacher in the presence of the child, and in many cases allows the child to remain at home altogether. Those suspended were turned loose upon the street. The strict enforcement of the truant law compelled these pupils to return to school, also com¬ pelled the attendance of a class of children who never relish the confinement of the school — the truants and children of the street. Those forced into school are never welcomed nor helpful. They are older and in some respects wiser, or at least more forward, than those with whom they are put; they have not the habits of study nor the familiarity with books of the other chil¬ dren; they submit less willingly to restraint ; they can not do as much as the regu¬ lar pupil, can not get on so fast, and are deficient and discouraged from the beginning. The committee recognized that some provision must be made for these pupils, and met the issue by establishing special schools whose work in part was to provide for this class. Six of these schools were established during the school year 1893-94, and one in October, 1894. Of the pupils provided for in these schools, perhaps the most deserving are those who, by reason of poverty or lack of means, can attend school only one term of the year and, in consequence of this loss of time in school, fail to keep up with their grade work. The boy who gets behind his fellows and has grown old in years and become maturer in powers, but deficient in his studies, is not well provided form our graded schools. He enters school after a year’s absence, perhaps, and is classed with pupils younger and smaller than he, upon whom he looks down in the playground and who look down on him in the schoolroom. This is galling to his pride. If he be a boy of good ability, to whom opportunity has been lacking, he can do much more than his classmates, but has.no opportunity to go faster. If he be dull, staying at- home has not increased his power of acquisition, though some development has come with years. In a manufacturing city like Providence the number of pupils of this class is large. Our superintendent and committee recognized the needs of this class early in the school year 1887-88 and urged the necessity of establishing ungraded schools with a course of study adapted to meet the needs of this class, who can only go to school for a few years. The committee concurred with the superintendent, but the council failed to act. TBUAhTT SCHOOLS. 191 These pupils are now provided, for by our special schools and rooms for individual work. There are other pupils who, from absence and lack of self-control, fail to do well and become a disturbing element in the regular schools, requiring so much of the teacher’s dime to manage as to prevent her from doing justice to the large num¬ ber of regular, obedient, and studious children under her charge. In these schools, under teachers strong in self-control, patient, and tactful in management, these pupils are brought to a state of obedience and self-respect. Pupils who for some cause are disaffected and out of harmony with their sur¬ roundings are much benefited by a short sojourn in these schools. Intelligent foreigners who desire to obtain a knowledge of the English language, and are too old to enter the grades in which their present advancement would place them, have derived much benefit from these schools. The larger class, and perhaps the most difficult and least meritorious, and yet most needful of the pupils provided for in these schools, are the children forced into school — the unfortunate neglected ones who, from lack of sympathy or control at home, have become indifferent, unruly, and unwilling to attend school. With no disposition to work, it is impossible for these to take up the regular work of our graded schools, yet these pupil3 are compelled by law to attend school. These schools give to such pupils an opportunity to become educated respectable citizens. There is no class of pupils that it will pay any State or city better to dis¬ cipline and educate than this. In many instances these pupils have become indus¬ trious, ambitious, orderly, and respectful. Characteristics of the teachers. — Great care, wisdom, and judgment were exercised on the part of the authorities in the selection of teachers for these schools. Strong- willed, self-reliant, self-possessed, cultured, kind, and sympathetic teachers are essen¬ tial for these schools. Such teachers were selected from among the best in our schools. These teachers have shown great eagerness to qualify themselves for their work. They have not felt that experience and native tact were a sufficient basis for the best success, but have been anxious to learn those general principles which underlie school management and whose knowledge prepares for the exercise of personal pow¬ ers. To this end they have had meetings with the supervisor weekly for study and consultation. They have in the past two years studied critically Abbott’s Gentle Measures in the Training of the Young, White’s School Management, Parker’s Talks on Pedagogics, and Donaldson’s Growth of the Brain, supplementing this study with a course on neurology at Brown University. A round table for child study has been maintained, and each teacher has subscribed for the Child Study Monthly, discussing its contents and testing its suggestions, especially the chapters referring to defective children. In doing good to others we invariably benefit ourselves. This has been verified in the case of the teachers of these schools. A marked growth of power and tact is manifested in their work. The work for the present year is the continuation of the round table for child study and a careful and thorough study of Herbart. Books. — Herbart’s Introduction to Science and Practice of Education, translated by Feikin; the Science of Education, Felkin. The number of pupils to a teacher in these schools is limited to 20 or 25, better work is done with 20. Pupils sent for discipline are required to remain in these schools until, in the judgment of the teacher, they have acquired sufficient self- control and respect for lawful authority to enable them to enter the regular schools with a fair prospect of remaining. Some of these pupils are so peculiar in their dis¬ positions that they probably can never go back with a prospect of success. As pupils of all grades below the high school are sent to these schools, attempt is only made to keep them strictly to their respective grades in arithmetic and language. In spelling and reading, writing and music, grade work is combined — i. e., 4 A and 5 B, etc. In geography and history pupils* are kept as nearly to grade as time and thoroughness will permit. Discipline. — As the aim of these schools is mainly the upbuilding of character the discipline is corrective not punitive. Great pains are taken by the teachers to implant in the minds of these pupils a just conception of their duties to themselves and to those around them and a whole¬ some respect for lawful authority, thus taking in addition to school training the home training in a marked degree. The teachers of these special schools receive these pupils kindly and show a per¬ sonal interest in learning their attainments and preferences, and in pointing out to them what they can do. The past is ignored and a new start taken. In other words, they are made to feel that they are wanted and are of use in life. 192 EDUCATION KEPOBT, 1899-1900. Teachers are allowed to use corporal punishment if they deem it useful in any case. They are not to endure disrespect and impertinence tamely, in order to make a repu¬ tation of managing bad boys without punishment. At the same time they are to avoid it if it arouses antagonism, and by all means, so far as possible, to have no altercation with a pupil in the presence of others. To solect these unfortunate children and place them in these special schools, before giving them a chance in the regular schools, would imply on the part of the authori¬ ties a grave doubt of their ability to behave, hence, with a few exceptions, all are entered in the regular schools on an equal footing. Pupils of the above class or of any class who fail in respect for and obedience to the rules of schools and can not be brought to a proper state of control through the means at the command of the teacher are referred first to their parents, who are requested to call and cooperate with the teacher. This throws the responsibility on the parents and gives them the opportunity to make the pupil obedient. Should the parent fail to appear within twenty-four hours or, appearing, and, through lack of power or anility, fail to bring the pupil to a proper state of obedience, he is then sent to the office of the superintendent. Here he is dealt with in a firm, kind manner, his duties explained, his errors pointed out, and, if his heart can be reached, an appeal is made to him to give his best to his work and to form habits of respect for proper authority. If the pupil responds to his admonitions and expresses the desire to have another trial, unless the offense is a very grave one, he is given the oppor¬ tunity to return to his school again on trial. If he is again sent to the office a transfer to the special school is at once given. Supervision. — These schools are under the immediate charge of the supervisor of discipline, who is expected to spend at least one hour a week in each school, study¬ ing the pupils, noting the interest which they manifest in their work, and their progress, mainly, in two essentials, habit and disposition. These teachers meet wTeekly with the supervisor and discuss the best means of governing and disciplining their pupils and of inculcating in them right motives of action, correct habits, also x>roper respect for lawful authority. These discussions are held at the round table for child study. Our superintendent gives much thought and time to them, making valuable sug¬ gestions to both supervisor and teachers. They are also visited once a week by the truant officer, wdio inquires into the cases of absence and truancy. He has rendered valuable service to the supervisor in looking up these boys in their homes and impressing the parents with the majesty of law and the necessity of cooperating fully with the teachers. Records. — Two records of each pupil are kept at the office of the superintendent of schools — first, his record in the school from which he came, embracing the following particulars: Name of pupil, age, name of parent, residence, name of school from which pupil was sent, room, teacher, date of referring to office, offense, action taken, result (the latter item may not be recorded until the end of the school year) ; second, his record in special school, including the following: Name of pupil, age, name of parent, residence, date of entering school, from whence pupil came, grade, number of days belonging, number of days attending, conduct, where gone, date of referring to office second time, remarks. Child-study record. — Each child as he enters these schools is made an object of study by the teacher. His physical, mental, and moral defects are noted, and, as far as time permits, a written record is made of the same. Care is taken to note the effect of certain methods of discipline and punishment. Our schools for special instruction and discipline help us to make good schools the rule. They bring relief to the regular schools by freeing them from disturbing influ¬ ences and relieving the regular teacher from the severe strain of discipline; thus she is enabled to devote herself the more fully to the needs of the ordinary and more responsive pupils. By their aid wTe have successfully/ reclaimed and properly instructed and disci¬ plined many persistently unruly pupils who could not be retained in our ordinary graded schools, with whom the only alternative was suspension, thus throwing upon the streets the very class most needing instruction and discipline. These schools are now placed upon a firm basis and are a potent auxiliary in our school system. The following statistics will show something of the work of these schools since their organization. From the organization of these schools to June 30, 1895, was a period varying in the several schools from nearly two years to a year and three months. During this period 373 different pupils were enrolled, and of these only 5 were sent to the reform school (for truancy) and but one expelled. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 19$ At the beginning of the school year 1895-1896, 92 pupils remained in the disci¬ plinary schools from the previous year. To these 231 were added, making 323 cases-, treated. Sixteen, however, were sent to these schools for other reasons than miscon¬ duct. Of these 323 pupils 120 Avere returned to the regular schools, where 100 main¬ tained themselves in good standing, and 20, having failed to be satisfactory to the teachers, Avere returned to the disciplinary schools. Sixty-four left to go to work; 5- went to private and parochial schools; 11 moved from the city; 2 died; 10 Avere sent, to the reform school (truancy and outside conduct), and 30 were reported at home,, 7 on account of sickness; 23, having attended the required eighty days, were assisting; their parents. One hundred and one remained members of the special schools at the- beginning of the present year. The table that follows shows the grade of the pupils in these schools for the school year 1895-96: 1 B . 4 1 A . 3 2 B . 5 2 A . 13 3 B . 14 3 A . 25 4 B . 20 4 A . 40 5 B . 23 5 A . 33 6 B . 50 As Avill be noticed, these pupils Avere of all grades but one beloAV the high school,, but the greater number Avere of the middle grades, those of the third to the seventh year. One grade, the 6 B, stands out conspicuous from its number. These Avere. the boys just entering the grammar schools and coming into neAV combinations of pupils and under the control of men. Among the essentials for the success of these special schools are: (1) A limited’ number of pupils in each school; (2) quarters aAvay from regular school buildings* (3) special methods of discipline; (4) child study; (5) The very best teachers,,, teachers especially apt in teaching, governing, and disciplining children. 7 B . 21 7 a . ir 8 B . 12- 8 A . . . 10 9 B . 0. 9 A . 1 Ungraded . IT Total . 323; IV. DAWS RELATING TO THE DISPOSITION OF TEUAHTS AND mCOBBXGIBLES. Connecticut. [From Connecticut School Document No. 5, 1898. — Laws Relating to the Schools, pp. 13-15.] Sec. 26. ’Each city and toAvn may make regulations concerning habitual truants from school, and children between the ages of seven and sixteen years wandering about its streets or public places, having no laAvful occupation, nor attending school,, and growing up in ignorance; and such by-laws, also, respecting such children, as shall conduce to their Avelfare and to public order, imposing suitable penalties, not exceeding twenty dollars for any one breach thereof; but no such toAvn by-laws shalL be valid until approved by the superior court in any county. Sec. 27. Every town, and the mayor and aldermen of eAmry city having such by- laivs, shall annually appoint three or more persons, Avho alone shall be authorized to prosecute for violations thereof. All warrants issued upon such prosecutions shall be returnable before any justice of the peace or judge of the city or police court of the toAvn or city. Sec. 28. The police in any city, and bailiffs, constables, sheriffs, and deputy sheriffs in their respective precincts shall arrest all Idovs between eight and sixteen years of age who habitually Avander or loiter about the streets or public places, or anyAvliere beyond the proper control of their parents or guardians, during the usual school hours of the school term; and may stop any boy under sixteen years of age during such hours, and ascertain Avhethcr he is a truant from school; and if he be, shall send him to such school. Sec. 29. Any boy arrested the third time under the provisions of the preceding section, if not immediately returned to school, shall be taken before the judge of the criminal or police court, or any justice of the peace in the city, borough, or town Avhere such arrest is made, and if it shall appear that such boy has no laAvful occu¬ pation, or is not attending school, or is groAving up in habits of idleness or immorality. ed 1900 - 13 194 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900. or is an habitual truant, he may be committed to any institution of instruction or correction, or house of reformation in said city, borough, or town, for not more than three years, or, with the approval of the selectmen, to the Connecticut School for Boys. Sec. 30. Officers other than policemen of cities shall receive for making the arrests required by the two preceding sections such fees, not exceeding the fees allowed by law for making other arrests, as may be allowed by the selectmen of the town in which such arrests are made; but unless a warrant was issued by a judge of the criminal or police court or by a justice of the peace the officer shall, before receiving his fees, present to the selectmen of the town a written statement showing the name of each boy arrested, the day on which the arrest was made, and, if the boy was returned to school, the name or number of the school to which he was so returned. Sec. 31. In all cases arising under the provisions of the three preceding sections a proper warrant shall be issued by the judge of the criminal court of the city, or by a justice of the peace in the borough or town where such arrest is made, and the father, if living, or, if not, the mother or guardian of such boy shall be notified, if such parent or guardian can be found, of the day and time of hearing. The fees of the judge or justice shall be two dollars for such hearing, and all expenses shall be paid by the city, borough, or town in and for which he exercises such jurisdiction. Sec. 32. After the hearing in any such case, such judge or justice of the peace may, at his discretion, indefinitely suspend the rendition of judgment. Sec. 33. The selectmen of any town may appoint committees of school districts and janitors of school buildings, and other persons, on nomination by the school visitors of the town or board of education of an incorporated school district, special constables. Said constables shall have power in the town in which they reside, and in adjoining towns when offenders have escaped thither, to arrest for truancy and other causes named in section 28, and for disturbance of schools and school meetings and damage to school property, and to serve criminal process in all such ca.ses. Sec. 34. Upon the request of the parent or guardian of any girl between eight and sixteen years of age, a warrant may be issued for her arrest in the same manner and on the same conditions as is provided in sections 29-32 with respect to boys; and thereupon the same proceedings may be had as are above provided, except that said girls may be committed to the Connecticut Industrial School for Girls. Illinois. [From act approved July 11, 1S97, section 3, in Illinois School Law, 1897-93, p. 96.] The board of education in cities, towns, villages and school districts, and the board of school directors in school districts, shall appoint, at the time of appointment or election of teachers each year, one or more truant officers, whose duty it shall be to report all violations of this [compulsory education] act to said board of education or board of directors, and to enter complaint against and prosecute all persons who shall appear to be guilty of such violation. It "hall also be the duty of said truant officer, so appointed, to arrest any child of school-going age that habitually haunts public places and has no lawful occupation, and also any truant child who absents himself or herself from school, and to place him or her in charge of the teacher having charge of any school which said child is by law entitled to attend, and which school shall be designated to said officer by the parent, guardian, or person having control of said child. In case such parent, guardian, or person shall designate a school with¬ out making or having made arrangements for the reception of said child in the school so designated, or in case he refuses or fails to designate any school, then such truant officer shall place such child in charge of the teacher of the public school. And it shall be the duty of said teavher to assign said child to the proper class and to instruct him or her in such studies as he or she is fitted to pursue. The truant officer so appointed shall be entitled to such compensation for services rendered under this act as shall be determined by the boards appointing them, and which compen¬ sation shall be paid out of the distributable school fund: Provided , That nothing herein contained shall prevent the parent, guardian, or person having charge of such truant child, which has been placed in any school by the truant officer, to thereafter send said child to any other school which said child is by law entitled to attend. [An act to enable boards of education or boards of school trustees to establish and maintain parental or truant schools. Passed April 13, 1899.] Section 1. In cities having a population of 100,000 inhabitants or more, there shall be established, maintained, and conducted, within two years from the date of taking effect of this act, one or more parental or truant schools for the purpose of affording a place of confinement, discipline, instruction, and maintenance of children TRUANT SCHOOLS, 195 of compulsory school age who may be committed thereto in the manner hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. For the purpose of establishing such school or schools, sites may be pur¬ chased and buildings constructed or premises rented in the same manner as is pro¬ vided for in the case of public schools in such cities; but no such school shall be located at or near any penal institution. And it shall be the duty of the board of education to furnish such schools with such furniture, fixtures, apparatus, and pro¬ visions as may be necessary for the maintenance and operation thereof. Sec. 3. The board of education may also employ a superintendent and all other necessary officers, agents, and teachers, and shall prescribe the methods of discipline and the course of instruction, and shall exercise the same powers and perform the same duties as is prescribed by law for the management of other schools. Sec. 4. No religious instruction shall be given in said school except such as is allowed by law to be given in public schools; but the board of education shall make suitable regulation, so that the inmates may receive religious training in accordance with the belief of the parents of such children, either by allowing religious services to be held in the institution or by arranging for attendance at public service else¬ where. Sec. 5. It shall be the duty of any truant officer or agent of such board of educa¬ tion to petition, and any reputable citizen of the city may petition, the county or circuit court of the county, to inquire into the case of any child of compulsory school age who is not attending school, or who has been guilty of habitual truancy, or of persistent violation of the rules of the public school, and the petition shall also' state the names, if known, of the father and mother of such child, or the survivor of them; and if neither father nor mother of such child is living, or can not be found in the county, or if their names can not be ascertained, then the name of the guardian if there be one known; and if there be a parent living Avhose name can be ascertained, or a guardian, the petition shall show whether or not the father or mother or guard¬ ian consents to the commitment of such child to such parental or truant school. Such petition shall be verified by oath upon the belief of the petitioner, and upon being filed the judge of the county or circuit court shall have such child named in the petition brought before him for the purpose of determining the application in said petition contained. But no child shall be committed to such school who has ever been convicted of any offense punishable by confinement in any penal institution. Sec. 6. Upon the filing of such petition the clerk of the court shall issue a writ to the sheriff of the county directing him to bring such child before the court; and if the court shall find that the material facts set forth in the petition are true, and if in the opinion of the court such child is a fit person to be committed to such parental or truant school, an order shall be entered that such child be committed to such parental or truant school, to be kept there until he or she arrives at the age of four¬ teen years, unless sooner discharged in the manner hereinafter set forth. Before the hearing aforesaid notice in writing shall be given to the parent or guardian of such child, if known, of the proceedings about to be instituted, that he or she may appear and resist the same, if they so desire. Sec. 7. It shall be the duty of the parent or guardian of any child committed to this school to provide suitable clothing upon his or her entry into such school, and from time to time thereafter as it may be needed, upon notice in writing from the superintendent or other proper officer of the school. In case any parent or guardian shall refuse or neglect to furnish such clothing, the same may be provided by the board of education, and such board may have an action against such parent or guardian of said child to recover the cost of such clothing, with 10 per cent addi¬ tional thereto. Sec. 8. The board of education of such city shall have power to establish rules and regulations under which children committed to such parental or truant school may be allowed to return home upon parole, but to remain while upon parole in the legal custody and under the control of the officer and agents of such school, and subject at any time to be taken back within the enclosure of such school by the superintend¬ ent or any authorized officer of said school, except as hereinafter provided; and full power to enforce such rules and regulations to retake any such child so upon parole is hereby conferred upon said board of education. No child shall be released upon parole in less than four weeks from the time of his or her commitment, nor there¬ after until the superintendent of such parental or truant school shall have become satisfied from the conduct of such child that, if paroled, he or she will attend regu¬ larly the public or private school to which he or she may be sent by his or her parents or guardian, and shall so certify to the board of education. Sec. 9. It shall be the duty of the principal or other person having charge of the 196 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, school to which such child so released on parole may he sent to report at least once each month to the superintendent of the parental or truant school, stating whether or not such child attends school regularly, and obeys the rules and requirements of said school; and if such child so released upon parole shall be regular in his or her attendance at school and his or her conduct as a pupil shall be satisfactory for a period of one year from date on which he or she was released upon parole, he or she shall then be finally discharged from the parental or truant school, and shall not be recommitted thereto except upon petition as hereinbefore provided. Sec. 10. In case any child released from said school upon parole, as hereinbefore provided, shall violate the conditions of his or her parole at any time within one year thereafter, he or she shall upon the order of the board of education, as herein¬ before provided, be taken back to such parental or truant school, and shall not be again released upon parole within the period of three months from the date of such reentering; and if he or she shall violate the conditions of a second parole he or she shall be recommitted to such parental or truant school and shall not be released therefrom on parole until he or she shall remain in such school at least one year. Sec. 11. In any case where a child is found to be incorrigible and his or her influ¬ ence in such school to be detrimental to the interests of the other pupils, the board of education may authorize the superintendent or any officer of the school to repre¬ sent these facts to the circuit or county court by petition, and the court shall have power to commit said child to some juvenile reformatory. Sec. 12. Boards of education in cities having a population of over 25,000 and less than 100,000 may establish, maintain, and operate a parental or truant school for the purposes hereinbefore specified, and in case of the establishment of such a school, the boards of education shall have like power in their respective cities as is hereinbefore expressed: Provided , That no board of trustees or board of education under this sec¬ tion shall put this law into effect until submitted to a vote of the people and adopted by a majority vote at some general election. Indiana. [From school laws of the State of Indiana, 1899, pp. 51-54.] Sec. 2. The county superintendent of schools of a county, together with the secre¬ tary of the State board of charities and one member of the State board of education designated for such, purpose by said board, shall constitute a board of truancy, whose duty it shall be to appoint one truant officer in each county. The truant officer shall see that the provisions of this act are complied with, and when, from personal knowledge or by report or complaint from any resident or teacher of the township under his supervision, he believes that any child subject to the provision of this act is habitually absent from school he shall immediately give written notice to the parent, guardian, or custodian of such child that the attendance of such child at school is required, and if within five days such parent, guardian, or custodian of child does not comply with the provisions of this section then such truant officer shall make complaint against such parent, guardian, or custodian of such child in any court of record for violation of the provisions of this act. Any such parent, guardian, or custodian of child who shall violate the provisions of this act shall be adjudged guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be fined in any sum not less than five (5) dollars nor more than twenty-five (25) dollars, to which may be added, in the discretion of the court, imprisonment in the county jail not less than two nor more than ninety days. Sec. 3. A city having a school enumeration of five thousand or more children may, in the discretion of the board of truancy, constitute a separate district for the admin¬ istration of this act, and the truant officer or officers of such city shall be appointed by the superintendent of schools of such city, the secretary of the State board of charities, and one member of the State board of education designated for such pur¬ pose by such board. Cities containing a school enumeration of ten thousand children or less shall have but one truant officer. Cities containing a school enumeration of more than ten thousand and less than twenty thousand children may have two truant officers. Cities containing a school enumeration of twenty thousand and less than thirty thousand children may have three truant officers. Cities containing a school enumeration of thirty thousand and less than forty thousand children may have four truant officers. Cities containing a school enumeration of more than forty thousand children may have five truant officers. The truant officers of cities shall enforce the provisions of this act in the manner and under such penalties as are prescribed by section two of this act. Sec. 4. The truant officers provided for in this act shall receive from the county treasury two dollars for each day for actual service, to be paid by the county treas- TRUANT SCHOOLS. 197 ury upon a warrant signed by the county auditor: Provided , That no county auditor shall issue a warrant on the county treasury for such service until the truant officer shall have filed an itemized statement of time employed in such service, and such statement shall have been certified to by the superintendent of schools of the cor¬ poration in which such truant officer is employed: Provided further, That no truant officer shall receive pay for more days than the average length of school term in the county or city under his supervision. ■%: Sec. 7. School commissioners, trustees, and boards of trustees are empowered to maintain, either within or without the corporate limits of their corporations, a parental home for incorrigible and truant children. Any child or children not being over twelve years of age who shall be truant or incorrigible may, with the common consent of the school trustee or board of school trustees, or commissioners and parent, guardian, or person having charge of such child or children, be compelled to attend such parental home for an indeterminate time. If the parent, guardian, or person hav¬ ing charge of such incorrigible or truant child or children shall refuse his consent to the attendance of such incorrigible or truant child or children at such parental home the superintendent of schools or the principal supervisor or teacher of any school may file complaint in the circuit or superior court of the county, and such court shall have the power, upon the hearing of the case, to order the compulsory attendance of such incorrigible or truant in such parental home for an indeterminate time, not longer than one hundred and twenty (120) days. Maine. [From laws of Maine relating to public schools, 1899, pp. 9 to 12.] Towns may make such bv-lawrs, not repugnant to law, concerning habitual truants, and children between six and seventeen years of age not attending school, wdthout any regular and lawful occupation, and growing up in ignorance, as are most condu¬ cive to their welfare and the good order of society; and may annex a suitable penalty, not exceeding twenty dollars, for any breach thereof; but such by-laws must be first approved by a judge of the supreme judicial court. Sec. 22. Such towns shall, at their annual meeting, appoint one or more persons, who alone shall make complaints for violations of said by-laws, and shall execute the judgments of the magistrate. Sec. 23. Said magistrate, in place of fine, may order children proved to be growing up in truancy, and without the benefit of the education provided for them by law, to be placed for such periods as he thinks expedient in the institution of instruction, house of reformation, or other suitable situation provided for the purpose under sec¬ tion twenty-one. Sec. 25. Cities and tow-ns shall annually elect one or more persons, to lie desig¬ nated truant officers, who shall inquire into all cases of neglect of the duty pre¬ scribed in section 24 1 and ascertain the reasons therefor, and shall promptly report the same to the superintending school committee, and such truant officers, or any one of them, shall, when so directed by the school committee or superintendent in writing, prosecute, in the name of the city or town, any person liable to the penalty provided in said section; and said officers shall have power, and it shall be their duty, wdien notified by any teacher that any pupil is irregular in attendance, to arrest and take such pupil to school when found truant; and further, it shall be the duty of such officers to enforce the provisions of sections one hundred and fourteen to one hundred and sixteen, inclusive, of chapter eleven of the revised statutes. Every city or town neglecting to elect truant officers, and truant officers neglecting to prose¬ cute when directed as required by law, shall forfeit not less than ten nor more than fifty dollars to the use of the public schools in the city or town neglecting as afore¬ said, or to the use of the public schools in the city or town where such truant officer resides. The municipal officers shall fix the compensation of the truant officers elected as prescribed in this section. Superintending school committees shall have power to fill vacancies occurring during the year. Sec. 26. If a child without sufficient excuse shall be absent from school six or more times during any term, he shall be deemed an habitual truant, and the super¬ intending school committee shall notify him and any person under whose control he may be that unless he conforms to section 25 of this act the provisions of the two following sections will be enforced against them; and if thereafter such child continues irregular in attendance, the truant officer or any -of them shall, when so 1 Which requires the attendance at school of all children between 8 and 15 years of age. 198 EDUCATION EE POET, 1899-1900. directed by the school committee or superintendent in writing, enforce said pro¬ visions by complaint. Any person having control of a child who is an habitual truant, as defined in the foregoing section, and being in any way responsible for such truancy, and any person who induces a child to absent himself from school, or who harbors or conceals such child when he is absent, shall forfeit not exceeding twenty dollars for the use of the public schools of the city or town in which such child resides, to be recovered by the truant officer on complaint, or shall be imprisoned not exceeding thirty days. On complaint of the truant officer, an habitual truant, if a boy, may be committed to the State reform school, or, if a girl, to the State industrial school for girls, or to any truant school that may be hereafter established. Snc. 27. Police or municipal courts and trial justices shall have jurisdiction of the offences described in sections 24, 25, and 26. M A SS A CH USETTS . [From chapter 4S6, acts of 1898.] Sec. 22. The county commissioners of each county, the counties of Barnstable, Berkshire, Dukes County, and Nantucket excepted, shall establish and maintain either separately or conjointly with the commissioners of other counties as herein¬ after provided, in a suitable place, not at or near a penal institution, a truant school for the instruction and training of persons committed thereto as habitual truants, absentees, or school offenders. The county commissioners of two or more counties may at the expense of said counties establish and maintain a union truant school, to be organized and controlled by the chairmen of the county commissioners of said counties. The county commissioners of each of the counties excepted as aforesaid shall assign a truant school established by law as the place for the instruction and training of persons committed within their respective counties as habitual truants, absentees, or school offenders, and shall pay for their support in said school such reasonable sums as the county commissioners having control of said school may determine. For the purposes of this act the parental school of the city of Boston, established under chapter two hundred and eighty-two of the acts of the year eight¬ een hundred and eighty-six and acts in amendment thereof and in addition thereto, shall be deemed the county truant school of the county of Suffolk, and the towns of Revere and Winthrop and the city of Chelsea shall for this purpose be considered as located within the county of Middlesex. When an habitual truant, absentee, or school offender is committed under this act to a county truant school the town or city from which such child is committed shall pay to the county within which such town or city is located one dollar a week towards his support in said school: Provided , That the towns of Revere and Winthrop and the city of Chelsea shall pay to the county of Middlesex for the support of each child committed to the truant school of said county two dollars and fifty cents per week, and such additional sums for each child as shall cover the actual cost of maintenance. Sec. 23. County truant schools shall be subject to visitation by the State board of education and by the State board of lunacy and charity; and said boards shall report thereon annually to the legislature. Sec. 24. Every habitual truant, that is every child between seven and fourteen years of age who wilfully and habitually absents himself from school contrary to the provisions of section twelve of this act, upon complaint by a truant officer, and con¬ viction thereof, may be committed, if a boy, to a county truant school for a period not exceeding two years, and if a girl, to the State Industrial School for Girls, unless such child is placed on probation as provided in section twenty-eight of this act. Sec. 25. Every habitual absentee, that is every child between seven and sixteen years of age who may be found wandering about in the streets or public places of any town or city of the Commonwealth, having no lawful occupation, habitually not attending school, and growing up in idleness and ignorance, upon complaint by a truant officer or any other person, and conviction thereof, may be committed, if a boy, at the discretion of the court, to a county truant school for a period not exceed¬ ing two years, or to the Lyman School for Boys, and, if a girl, to the State Industrial School for Girls, unless such child is placed on probation as provided in section twenty-eight of this act. Sec. 28. Every habitual school offender, that is every child under fourteen years of age wffio persistently violates the reasonable regulations of the school which he attends, or otherwise persistently misbehaves therein, so as to render himself a fit subject for exclusion therefrom, upon complaint by a truant officer, and conviction thereof, may be committed, if a boy, at the discretion of the court, to a county truant school for a period not exceeding two years, or to the Lyman School for Boys, and, TRUANT SCHOOLS. 199 if a girl, to the State Industrial School for Girls, unless such child is placed on probation, as provided in section twenty-eight of this act. Sec. 27. Any court or magistrate by whom a child is committed to a county truant school may make such order as said court or magistrate deems expedient concerning the payment by the parents of such child to the county, of the cost of the support of any such child while in said school, and may from time to time revise and alter such order, or make a new order, as the circumstances of the parents may justify. Sec. 28. Any court or magistrate by whom a child has been convicted of an offence under this act may in his discretion place such child on probation under the over¬ sight of a truant officer of the town or city in which the child resides, or of a proba¬ tion officer of said court, for such period and upon such conditions as said court or magistrate may deem best; and within such period, if the child violates the condi¬ tions of his probation, such truant officer or probation officer may without warrant or other process take the child before the court, and the court may thereupon proceed to sentence or may make any other lawful disposition of the case. Sec. 29. County commissioners, whenever they think it will be for the best interest of any child committed to a county truant school under their control, and after due notice and an opportunity to be heard have been given to the superintendent of schools, or, where there is no superintendent, to the school committee of the town or city from which such child was committed to said school, may permit such child to be at liberty, upon such conditions as said commissioners may deem best; or, with the approval of a justice of the court which imposed the sentence, they may discharge such child from said school; and in case of such parole or discharge the trustees shall make an entry upon their records of the name of such child, the date of such parole or discharge, and the reason therefor, and a copy of such record shall be transmitted to the court or magistrate by whom such child was committed, and to the school com¬ mittee of the town or city from which such child was committed. If any child who is permitted to be at liberty, as provided by this section, violates, in the opinion of said commissioners, the conditions of his parole at any time previous to the expiration of the term for which such child was committed to said school, they may revoke such parole. Upon evidence from a superintendent of schools or a school committee, satisfactory to said commissioners, of the violation by a child of the con¬ ditions of hi3 parole, it shall be the duty of said commissioners to revoke such parole. Said commissioners may issue an order directed to the truant or police officers of any town or city to arrest such child wherever found and return him to said school; and any such officer holding such order shall arrest such child and return him to said school, which may thereupon hold him, subject to the provisions of this act, for the unexpired portion of the term of the original sentence. Said commissioners shall meet the expense attending such arrest and return, so far as approved by them, at the cost of the county or counties maintaining said school. But releases from the parental school of the city of Boston shall be governed by the provisions of chapter five hundred and fourteen of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and ninety-six.1 Sec. SO. Any inmate of a county truant school who persistently violates the reason¬ able regulations of said school, or is guilty of indecent or immoral conduct, or otherwise grossly misbehaves, so as to render himself an unfit subject for retention therein, upon complaint by the county commissioners in control of said school, and conviction thereof, may be committed by the court, if a boy under fifteen years of age, to the Lyman School for Boys; if a boy over fifteen years of age, to the Massa¬ chusetts Reformatory at Concord. The period of commitment to said institutions shall be determined by the laws and regulations governing commitments thereto. Sec. 31. Any person having under his control a child between seven and iourteen years of age who fails for five day sessions or ten half-day sessions within any period of six months while under such control to cause such child to attend school, as required by section twelve of this act, the physical or mental condition of such child not being such as to render his attendance at school harmful or impracticable, upon complaint by a truant officer, and conviction thereof, shall forfer and pay a fine of not more than twenty dollars. Any person who induces or attempts to induce any child to absent himself unlawfully from school, or employs or harbors while school is in session any child absent unlawfully from school, shall forfeit and pay a fine of not more than fifty dollars. Sec. 32. Police, municipal, and district courts, trial justices, and judges of probate courts, shall have jurisdiction of all cases arising under this act relating to persons residing in their respective jurisdiction. Upon a complaint for an offence under this act a summons shall issue instead of a warrant for arrest, unless in the judgment of the court or magistrate receiving the complaint there is reason to believe that the !See p. 132. 200- EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. accused will not appear upon a summons. A warrant may issue at any time after the issue of such summons, if occasion arises, whether or not the summons has been served. Such summons or warrant may be served, at the discretion of the court or magistrate, by a truant officer or by any officer empowered to serve criminal process. Upon complaint against a child under this act the parents, guardian, or custodian of the child shall be notified as is required by law in the case of a juvenile offender. No child under seventeen years of age shall be committed under this act, except to a county truant school, and no child against whom complaint as an habitual absentee is brought under section twenty-five of this act by any other person than a truant officer shall be committed under this act, unless due notice and an opportunity to be heard have been given to the State board of lunacy and charity. Sec. 33. The school committee of every town and city shall appoint and fix the compensation of one or more persons to be designated as truant officers, and shall make rules and regulations governing said officers. Truant officers shall not receive fees for their services. The school committees of two or more towns or cities may employ the same truant officer or officers. Sec. 34. The truant officers of towns and cities shall inquire into all cases arising under sections eleven, twelve, twenty-four to twenty-six, inclusive, and thirty-one of this act, and may make complaints, serve legal processes, and carry into execution judgments thereunder. They shall perform the duties of oversight of children placed on probation as may be required of them under section twenty-eight of this act. A truant officer of any town or city may apprehend and take to school, with¬ out warrant, any truant or absentee found wandering about in the streets or public places thereof. [From an act relative to the temporary release of children from truant schools. Approved -April 12, 1898.] Children committed may, upon satisfactory proof of amendment or other sufficient cause, be discharged from * * * places of confinement by the judge or justice who committed them; and in case of death or serious illness in the immediate family of an inmate of a truant school such judges or justices may order such inmate to be temporarily released for a specified time, either with or without the custody of the superintendent or other officer, and may revoke, extend, or otherwise modify such order, the expenses incurred in serving such order to be approved and paid like other expenses of such institution. RESPECTS WHEREIN THE MASSACHUSETTS LEGISLATION OF 1898 CONCERNING THE ATTEN¬ DANCE OF CHILDREN AT SCHOOL DIFFERS IN ITS PROVISIONS FROM THE LEGISLATION PREVIOUSLY IN FORCE. [From a circular of the State board of education.] Establishment of truant schools. — Section 22 is largely a reenactment of the old law requiring county commissioners to establish and maintain county truant schools in their respective counties. The principal added provisions in the present law are: 1. The county commissioners of Barnstable, Berkshire, Dukes, and Nantucket counties are exempt from establishing truant schools, but are required, instead, to assign a truant school established by law as the place for the instruction and training of persons committed to truant schools from their respective counties. 2. For the purposes of this act the parental school of Boston is to be deemed the county truant school for Suffolk County. 3. For the purposes of this act Chelsea, Revere, and Winthrop are to lie considered as belonging to Middlesex County. 4. For the maintenance of each child sent to a truant school, towns and cities other than the above named are to pay one dollar a week (instead of two dollars, as here¬ tofore) , the above named being required to nay two dollars and fifty cents a week and such additional sums as shall cover ffie actual cost of maintenance. Visitation of truant schools. — Section 23 provides that the State board of education and the State board of lunacy and charity shall visit the county truant schools and report concerning them annually to the legislature (new). Habitual truants, absentees, and school offenders. — Sections 24, 25, and 26 name and more fully describe three classes of children that may be committed to truant schools, or elsewhere, under this act, namely: 1. Habitual truants — children between seven and fourteen years of age who wil¬ fully and habitually absent themselves from school. 2. Habitual absentees — children between seven and sixteen years of age who may be found wandering about in the streets or public places, having no lawful occupa¬ tion, habitually not attending school, and growing up in idleness and ignorance. TRUANT SCHOOLS. *201 3. Habitual school offenders — children under fourteen years of age who persist¬ ently violate the reasonable regulations of the school which they attend or otherwise misbehave so as to render themselves fit subjects for exclusion therefrom. Commitments of such children, in case of conviction, if boys, may be made to county truant schools (old), or, in certain cases, to the Lyman School for Boys (new); if girls, to the State Industrial School for Girls (new), or they may be placed on pro¬ bation, as provided in section 28 of this act (new). Support of a child in a truant school to he paid for by the parent if so ordered. — Section 27 provides for the payment, at the discretion of the court, by the parent or guardian for the support of a child while an inmate of a truant school (new). Probation. — Section 28 provides for placing upon probation under a truant officer or a probation officer a child convicted of an offence under this act, and for other disposition of such child in case he violates the conditions of his probation (new). Parole and discharge. — Section 29 makes new provisions (1) for the parole and dis¬ charge of a child committed to a county truant school; (2) for revoking such parole and for the arrest of the paroled child; and (3) for the right of the superintendent or the school committee to be heard upon a proposal to parole or to revoke a parole. Releases from the parental school of Boston are to be governed by the provisions of chapter 514 of the acts of the year 1896. Transfer from truant schools in certain cases. — Section 30 provides for the transfer, by order of the court, from a county truant school to the Lyman School for Boys or to the* Concord Reformatory of any inmate who persistently violates the reasonable- regulations of said truant school or who is guilty of indecent or immoral conduct while connected therewith (new). Penalties for neglect to send children to school and for inducing unlawful absence. — Section 31 provides: 1. That any person who, having under his control a child between seven (instead of eight, as heretofore) and fourteen years of age, fails for live day sessions or for ten half-day sessions within any period of six months (this period is new) to cause such child to attend school, as required by law, shall forfeit and pay a tine of not more than twenty dollars. The child’s attendance is required for the full time the school is kept, instead of thirty weeks, as heretofore, and the allowance of two weeks for unexcused absence is no longer permitted. 2. That a fine of not more than fifty dollars (instead of not less than twenty nor more than fifty) shall be imposed upon a person for inducing any child to absent himself unlawfully from school, or for employing or harboring a child unlawfully absent from school. Jurisdiction and procedure. — Section 32 tells what courts shall have jurisdiction in cases arising under this act and indicates the method of procedure (partly new). Truant officers. — Section 33 requires the school committee of every town and city (1) to appoint one or more persons (instead of two, as in the old law) to be designated, as truant officers; (2) to make rules and regulations governing said officers; and (3) authorizes school committees of two or more towns or cities to employ the same truant officer or officers (new). Duties of truant officers. — Section 34 directs truant officers to inquire into all cases arising under this act and authorizes them to make complaints, serve processes, and carry into execution judgments thereunder. The old provision that they shall do this “under direction of the school committee” is dropped. They are to proceed directly under the provisions of this act, by-laws having been done away with. They are also to serve as probation officers as required by section 28 (new). Michigan. [From act No. 95, Public Acts of 1895, as amended by act No. 67, Public Acts of 1897. In General School Laws of Michigan, 1898, pp. 68 et seq.] Sec. 2. The district board or board of education in each school district in the State which has been organized as a graded-school district or as a township district, according to the laws of the State, shall, at its first meeting after this law goes into effect and pre¬ vious to the tenth day of September of each year, appoint a truant officer for the term of one year from and after the first Monday of September of each year. In town¬ ships wdiose districts have been organized under the primary-school law the chair¬ man of the township board of school inspectors shall be the truant officer and shall perform all the duties of truant officer, as provided for in this act, so far as the pro¬ visions of this law apply to the territory over which he has jurisdiction: Provided , That in cities having a duly organized police force it shall be the duty of the police authorities, at the request of the school authorities, to detail one or more members of said force to perform the duties of truant officer. The compensation of the truant 202 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. officer shall be fixed in graded-school districts by the board which appoints, and in townships by the township board, and in no case shall such compensation be less than one dollar and fifty cents per day for time actually employed under the direction of the school board in performance of his official duties. The compensation of truant officers shall be allowed and paid in the same manner as incidental expenses are paid by such boards. Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of the truant officer to investigate all cases of truancy or nonattendance at school and render all service within his power to compel chil¬ dren to attend school. * * * Sec. 4. In all city school districts in this State having a school census of five hun¬ dred or more pupils the school board or officers having in charge the schools of such districts may establish one or more ungraded schools for the instruction of certain children, as defined and set forth in the following section. They may, through their truant officer and superintendent of schools, require such children to attend said ungraded schools, or any department of their graded schools, as said board of educa¬ tion may direct. Sec. 5. The following classes of persons between the ages of eight and sixteen years, and in cities between the ages of seven and sixteen years, shall be deemed juvenile disorderly persons and shall, in the judgment of the proper school authorities, be assigned to the ungraded school or schools, as provided in section four of this act: Class one, habitual truants from any school in which they are enrolled as pupils; class two, children who while attending any school are incorrigibly turbulent, disobedient, or insubordinate, or are vicious or immoral in conduct; class three, children who are not attending any school and who habitually frequent streets and other public places, having no lawful business, employment, or occupation. Sec. 7. When, in the judgment of school boards of primary and township school districts or the superintendent of city schools and the truant officer, it becomes cer¬ tain that all legal means have been exhausted in their attempts to compel the attend¬ ance at school of a juvenile disorderly person, the truant officer shall, in case the person in parental relation to the child neglects or refuses to do so, make a complaint against such juvenile disorderly person before a court of competent jurisdiction, that said child is a juvenile disorderly person as described in section five of this act. The justice of the peace or court shall issue a warrant and proceed to hear such complaint ; and, if said justice of the peace or court shall determine that said child is a juvenile disorderly person within the meaning of this act, then said justice of the peace or court shall thereupon and after consultation with the county agent of corrections and charities sentence such child, if a boy, to the Industrial School for Boys at Lansing for a term not extending beyond the time when said child shall arrive at the age of seventeen years, unless sooner discharged by the board of control of said Industrial School for Boys; or, if a girl, to the Industrial Home for Girls at Adrian, for a term not extending beyond the time when said child shall arrive at the age of seventeen years, unless sooner discharged by the board of control of said Industrial Home for Girls: Provided , however, That such sentence shall, in case of the first offense, be suspended. [Act No. 1, Public Acts of 1897.] Section 1. That every boy between the age of ten and sixteen years, or any girl between the age of ten and seventeen years, who shall frequent or be found lounging about saloons, disreputable places, houses of ill lame, or who shall be an inmate or resident, or a member of a family who reside in any house of ill fame, or conduct any other disreputable place, or who shall frequent other rooms or places where dis¬ solute and disreputable people congregate, or where intoxicating liquors are kept for sale, or who shall, against the command of his or her parents or guardian, run away or wilfully absent himself or herself from the school he or she is attending, or from any house, office, shop, firm or other place where he or she is residing or legitimately employed with labor, or who shall against such command of his or her parents or guardian for any immoral, disorderly or dishonest purposes be found lounging upon the public streets, highways or other public resorts or at places of amusement of dis¬ solute or improper character, or who shall against any such command foi any such disorderly or dishonest purposes attend any public dance, skating rink, or show, shall be deemed guilty as a truant or disorderly child. Sec. 2. Upon the complaint upon oath and in writing made before any justice of the peace, police justice, or other criminal magistrate by the parent or guardian or other person knowing of the facts of his own knowledge that any girl between the age of ten and seventeen years, or that any boy between the age of ten and sixteen years, or by the supervisors of any township, or mayor of any city, or president of any village, and in any city of over eight thousand population by the chief of police, mayor or other person knowing of the facts of his own knowledge that such minor TRUANT SCHOOLS. 203 has been guilty of any of the acts specified in section one of this act, such justice or other criminal magistrate shall issue a warrant for the arrest of such minor, and upon conviction such minor, if a boy, may be sentenced by such justice or criminal magis¬ trate to the Industrial School for Boys at Lansing, and, if a girl, to the State Indus¬ trial Home for Girls at Adrian, boys until eighteen years of age, and girls until twenty-one years of age, unless sooner discharged according to law : Provided , That no person or persons shall be sent to said Industrial School for Boys or to the Indus¬ trial Home for Girls until the sentence therein has been submitted to and approved by one [of] the judges of the recorder’s court of the city of Detroit, or judge of the superior court of the city of Grand Rapids, or any circuit judge of the county in which such conviction shall be had. Minnesota. [From the Act of April 14,1899.] f Sec. 2. The school board or board of education of each such school district or city may appoint and at pleasure remove one or more truant officers, whose duty it shall be to investigate all cases of truancy or nonattendance at schools, to make complaints, serve notices and processes, and enforce all laws and school regulations respecting truant, incorrigible, and disorderly children, and the attendance of children at schools. Such truant officer shall have power without warrant to apprehend and take to school any truant or other child who is not, as in this act provided, excused from attendance at school, and he shall act under the supervision of such board, or, when directed by said board, under the supervision of the superintendent of the schools of the district or city for which they are appointed. For the services rendered by such truant officers, they shall receive no fees, but shall receive a fixed salary, to be determined by the board appointing them. Sec. 3. Such board of any such school district or city may establish and maintain one or more ungraded schools for the instruction of the following classes of children in such district or city, who are of or between the ages of 8 and 16 years, to- wit: Class 1, habitual truants from any school in which they are enrolled as pupils; class 2, children who, while in attendance at any school, are incorrigible, vicious, or immoral in conduct; and, class 3, children who habitually wander about the streets or other public places during school hours without lawful employment, business, or occupation. All such children shall be deemed juvenile disorderly persons, and may, by such board of such school district or city in which they reside, be assigned to and required and compelled to attend such ungraded school or any department of the graded public schools of such district or city as such board may determine. Sec. 4. Any member of such truant or ungraded school who renders himself an unfit subject for retention therein by indecent or immoral conduct, by gross misbe¬ havior, or by persistent violation of the reasonable regulations of such school, may, upon complaint of any truant officer or the superintendent of schools or other school officer of the district or city wherein such member resides, and upon due conviction, be committed by the court to the State training school at Red Wing, in said State of Minnesota. Montana. [From the School Laws of the State of Montana, 1899, p. 65.] Section 1924. In every school district having a population of two thousand or more the board of trustees may appoint one person who shall be designated as “truant officer,” whose duty it shall be, acting discreetly, to apprehend on view all children between eight and fourteen years of age, who are residents of the said district, who habitually frequent or loiter about public places, and have no lawful occupation, and place such children when so apprehended in the public school. And such officer shall report all cases of truancy to his respective board of trustees immediately. Upon the receipt of such information from such “truant officer,” any member of the board of school trustees shall forthwith proceed to prosecute the person so offend¬ ing as prescribed in section 1920 1 of this title. Such officer shall be entitled to such compensation as shall be fixed by the board appointing him, which shall be paid out of the school fund. ' This section provides that the parent or guardian of the offending child shall be fined. 204 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. New Hampshire. [From School Laws of New Hampshire, 1898, pp. 29 and 33.] * School boards are authorized to appoint truant officers for their districts, and to fix their compensation at a reasonable rate, which compensation shall be paid by the towns. Truant officers shall hold office for one year, and until their successors shall be appointed, but they may be removed by the school board at any time for cause. Truant officers shall, under the direction of the school board, enforce the laws and regulations relating to truants and children between the ages of six and sixteen years not attending school and without any regular and lawful occupation. Truant officers shall, if required by the school board, enforce the laws prohibiting the employment of children in manufacturing establishments who have not attended school the prescribed time. Districts may make by-laws, not repugnant to law, concerning habitual truants and children between the ages of six and sixteen years not attending school and not hav¬ ing a regular and lawful occupation, and to compel the attendance of such children at school, and may annex penalties for the breach thereof not exceeding ten dollars for each offense. # Any offender against such by-laws, upon conviction, may be sentenced to pay a fine and to be committed to the industrial school until it is paid or he is otherwise dis¬ charged, or he may be sentenced to the industrial school for a term not exceeding one year. The court or justice imposing a fine upon any such offender may remit it upon proof that he is unable to pay it, and has no parent, guardian, or person chargeable with his support, able to pay it, and may discharge him from the industrial school if he has been committed there for nonpayment thereof. Any such offender so convicted may give bond to the district in the penal sum of twenty-five dollars, with sufficient sureties, approved by the court or justice before whom he was convicted, conditioned to attend regularly some school kept in the dis¬ trict for one term next ensuing, to comply with the regulations thereof, and to be obedient and respectful to the teacher; and his fine may thereupon be remitted by such court or justice upon payment of the costs. New Jersey. [From New Jersey School Law, 1897, pp. 79-81.] All children between the ages of seven and fifteen years, who are habitual truants from school, or who, while in attendance at any public school, are incorrigible, vicious, or immoral in conduct, and all children between the said ages who absent themselves habitually from school, and habitually wander about streets and public places during school hours, having no business or lawful occupation, shall be deemed juvenile disorderly persons, and subject to the provisions of this act. In cities having a duly organized police force, it shall be the duty of the police authority, at the request of the inspectors of factories and workshops, or of the school authority, to detail one or more members of said force to assist in the enforce¬ ment of this act, and in districts having no regular police force, subject to this act, it shall be the duty of the board of education or the school district officers to designate one or more constables of said city, township, or village, whose duty it shall be to assist in the enforcement of this act, as occasion may require, and said board of edu¬ cation shall fix and determine the compensation to be paid said police officer or con¬ stable for the performance of his duties under this act. Members of any police force, or any constable designated to assist in the enforcement of this act as provided in this section, shall be known as truant officers: Provided , That in districts where no constable resides the said board shall have power to appoint some other suitable person as truant officer. It shall be the duty of any such truant officer or officers detailed to enforce the provisions of this act to examine into all cases of truancy, when requested so to do by the inspectors of factories and workshops, or by the district school board, and to warn such truants, their parents or guardians, in writing, of the final consequences of truancy, if persisted in, and also to notify the parents, guardian, or other person having the legal charge and control of any juvenile disorderly person that the said person is not attending any school, and to require said parent, guardian, or other per¬ son to cause the said child to attend some recognized school within five days from said notice; and it shall be the duty of said parent, guardian, or other person having the legal charge and control of said child to cause the attendance of said child at some recognized school. If said parent, guardian, or other person having the legal 205 TRUANT SCHOOLS. charge and control of said child shall willfully refuse, fail, or neglect to cause said child to attend some recognized school, it shall be the duty of said officer to make or cause to he made a complaint against said parent, guardian, or other person having the legal charge and control of said child, in any court of competent jurisdiction in the school district in which the offense occurred, for such refusal or neglect, and upon conviction thereof said parent, guardian, or other person, as the case may be, shall be punished by a fine of not less than ten dollars nor more than twenty-five dollars; or the court may, in its discretion, require the person so convicted to give a bond in the penal sum of one hundred dollars, with one or more sureties, to be approved by said court, conditioned that said person so convicted shall cause the child or children under his or her legal charge or control to attend some recognized school within five days thereafter and to remain at said school during the term prescribed bylaw: Pro¬ vided , That if said parent, guardian, or other person in charge of said child shall prove inability to cause said child to attend said recognized school, then said parent, guard¬ ian, or other person shall be discharged, and said court shall, upon complaint of said truant officer or other person that said child is a juvenile disorderly person within the meaning of this act, then said court shall thereupon sentence said child to a juvenile reformatory until such child shall arrive at the age of sixteen years, unless sooner discharged by the board of control of said juvenile reformatory: Provided , however , That such sentence may be suspended, in the discretion of said court, for such time as the child shall regularly attend school and properly deport himself or herself: It is further provided, That if, for any cause, the parent or guardian or other persons having charge of any juvenile disorderly person, as defined in this act, shall fail to cause such juvenile disorderly person to attend said recognized school, then complaint against such juvenile disorderly person may be made, heard, tried, and determined in the same manner as is provided for in case the parent pleads inability to cause said juvenile disorderly person to attend said recognized school: And it is further provided, That no child under the age of nine years shall be sent to a juvenile reformatory under the provisions of this act. New York. [From chapter 606, Laws of 1896.] Attendance officers. — The school authorities of each city, union free-school district, or common-school district whose limits include in whole or in part an incorporated village, shall appoint and may remove at pleasure one or more attendance officers of such city or district, and shall fix their compensation and may prescribe their duties not inconsistent with this act, and may make rules and regulations for the perform¬ ance thereof; and the superintendent of schools of such city or school district shall supervise the enforcement of this act within such city or school district; and the town board of each town shall appoint one or more attendance officers, whose jurisdiction shall extend over all school districts in said town not by this section otherwise pro¬ vided for, and shall fix their compensation, which shall be a town charge; and such attendance officers appointed by said board shall be removable at the pleasure of the school commissioner in whose commissioner’s district such town is situated. Arrest of truants. — The attendance officer may arrest without warrant any child between eight and sixteen years of age found away from his home, and who then is a truant from instruction upon which he is lawfully required to attend within the city or district of such attendance officer. He shall forthwith deliver a child so arrested either to the custody of a person in parental relation to the child, or of a teacher from whom such child is then a truant, or in case of habitual and incorrigible truants, shall bring them before a police magistrate for commitment by him to a truant school, as provided for in the next section. The attendance officer shall promptly report such arrest and the disposition made by him of such child to the school authorities of said city, village, or district wrhere such child is lawfully required to attend upon instruction, or to such person as they may direct. Truant schools. — The school authorities of any city or school district may establish schools, or set apart separate rooms in public school buildings, for children between eight and sixteen years of age who are habitual truants from instruction upon which they are lawfully required to attend, or who are insubordinate or disorderly during their attendance upon such instruction or irregular in such attendance. Such school or room shall be known as a truant school; but no person convicted of crimes or misdemeanors, other than truancy, shall be committed thereto. Such authorities may provide for the confinement, maintenance, and instruction of such children in such schools; and they or the superintendent of schools in any city or school district may, after reasonable notice to such child and the persons in parental relation to such child, and an opportunity for them to be heard, and with the consent in writ- 206 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ing of tlie persons in parental relation to such child, order such child to attend such school or to be confined and maintained therein for such period and under such rules and regulations as such authorities may prescribe, not exceeding the remainder of the school year, or may order such child to be confined and maintained during such period in any private school, orphans’ home, or similar institution controlled by persons of the same religious faith as the persons in parental relation to such child, and which is willing and able to receive, confine, and maintain such child, upon such terms as to compensation as may be agreed upon between such authori¬ ties and such private school, orphans’ home, or similar institution. If the person in parental relation to such child shall not consent to either such order, such con¬ duct of the child shall be deemed disorderly conduct, and the child may be pro¬ ceeded against as a disorderly person, and upon conviction thereof, if the child was lawfully recpiired to attend a public school, the child shall be sentenced to be con¬ fined and maintained in such truant school for the remainder of the current school year; or if such child was lawfully required to attend upon instruction otherwise than at a public school, the child may be sentenced to be confined and maintained for the balance of such school year in such private school, orphans’ home, or other similar institution, if there be one, controlled by persons of the same religious faith as the person in parental relation to such child, which is willing and able to receive, confine, and maintain such child for a reasonable compensation. Such confinement shall be conducted with a view to the improvement, and to the restoration, as soon as practicable, of such child to the institution elsewhere, upon which he may be lawfully required to attend. The authorities committing any such child and in cities and villages the superintendent of schools therein shall have authority in their dis¬ cretion to parole at any time any truant so committed by them. Every child sus¬ pended from attendance upon instruction by the authorities in charge of furnishing such instruction, for more than one week, shall be required to attend such truant school during the period of such suspension. The school authorities of any city or school district not having a truant school may contract with any other city or dis¬ trict having a truant school, for the confinement, maintenance, and instruction therein of children whom such school authorities might require to attend a truant school if there were one in their own city or district. Industrial training shall be furnished in every such truant school. The expense attending the commitment and cost of maintenance of any truant residing in any city or village employing a super¬ intendent of schools shall be a charge against such city or village, and in all other cases shall be a county charge. Ohio. [From Ohio School Laws, 1898, pp. 104 et seq.] Sec. 4. Every child between the ages of eight and fourteen years, and every child between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years unable to read and write the English language or not engaged in some regular employment, who is an habitual truant from school, or who absents itself habitually from school, or who, while in attend¬ ance at any public, private, or parochial school, is incorrigible, vicious, or immoral in conduct, or who habitually wanders about the streets and public places during school hours, having no business or lawful occupation, shall be deemed a juvenile disorderly person, and be subject to the provisions of this act. Sec. 5. To aid in the enforcement of this act, truant officers shall be appointed and employed as follows: In city districts the board of education shall appoint and employ one or more truant officers; in special, village, and township districts the board of education shall appoint a constable or other person as truant officer. The compensation of the truant officer shall be fixed by the board appointing him. The truant officer shall be vested with police powers, and shall have authority to enter workshops, factories, stores, and all other places where children may be employed, and do whatever may be necessary, in the way of investigation *or other¬ wise, to enforce this act. The truant officer shall institute proceedings against any officer, parent, guardian, person, or corporation violating any provisions of this act, and shall otherwise discharge the duties prescribed in this act, and perform such other services as the superintendent of schools or the board of education may deem necessary to preserve the morals and secure the good conduct of school children and to enforce this act. The truant officer shall keep a record of his transactions for the inspection and information of the superintendent of the schools and the board of education; and he shall make daily reports to the superintendent of schools during the school term in cities, and to the clerk of the board of education, as often as required by him, in special, village, and township districts. Suitable blanks for the use of the truant officer shall be provided by the clerk of the board of education. Sec. 6. * * * It shall be the further duty of such principals and teachers to TRUANT SCHOOLS. 207 report to the truant officer, the superintendent of public schools, or the clerk of the board of education all cases of truancy or incorrigibility in their respective schools as soon after these offenses have been committed as practicable. Sec. 7. On the request of the superintendent of schools or the board of education, or when it otherwise comes to his notice, the truant officer shall examine into any case of truancy within his district, and warn the truant and its parents, guardian, or other person in charge, in writing, of the final consequences of truancy if persisted in. When any child between the ages of eight and fourteen years, or any child between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years who can not read and write the English language or is not engaged in some regular employment, or any child between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years who has been discharged from employment, to obtain instruction or schooling, is not attending school without lawful excuse and in violation of the provisions of this act, the truant officer shall notify that parent, guardian, or other person in charge of such child of the fact, and require such parent, guardian, or other person in charge to cause the child to attend some recognized school within five days from the date of the notice; and it shall be the duty of the parent, guardian, or other person in charge of the child so to cause its attendance at some recognized school. * * * Sec. 8'. If the parent, guardian, or other person in charge of any child shall, upon the complaint under the last section for a failure to cause the child to attend a recog¬ nized school, prove inability to do so, then he or she shall be discharged, and there¬ upon the truant officer shall make complaint that the child is a juvenile disorderly person within the meaning of section 4 of this act. If such complaint be made before any mayor or justice of the peace, it shall be certified by such magistrate to the pro¬ bate judge. The probate judge shall hear such complaint, and if he determine that the child is a juvenile disorderly person within the meaning of section 4 hereof, he shall commit the child, if under ten years of age, and eligible for admission thereto, to a children’s home, or if not eligible, then to a house of refuge if there be one in the county, or to the boys’ industrial school or the girls’ industrial home, or to some other j uvenile reformatory. No child of over ten years of age shall be com¬ mitted to a county children’s home, and any child committed to a children’s home may, on request of the trustees of such home, and it being shown that it is vicious and incorrigible, be transferred by the probate judge to the boys’ industrial school or the girls’ industrial home. A child committed to any juvenile reformatory under this section shall not be detained there beyond the age of sixteen years and may be discharged sooner byhhe trustees under the restrictions applicable to other inmates. Any order of commitment to a juvenile reformatory may be suspended, in the discre¬ tion of the probate judge, for such time as the child may regularly attend school and properly conduct itself. The expense incurred in the transportation of a child to a juvenile reformatory and the costs in the case in which the order of commitment is made shall be paid by the county from which the child is committed: Provided further , That if for any cause the parent, guardian or other person in charge of any juvenile disorderly person as defined in section 4 hereof, shall fail to cause such juvenile disorderly person to attend school, then complaint against such juvenile dis¬ orderly person shall be made, heard, and determined in like manner, as provided in case the parent proves inability to cause such juvenile disorderly person to attend school. Sec. 9. When any truant officer is satisfied that any child, compelled to attend school by the provisions of this act, is unable to attend school because absolutely required to work, at home or elsewhere, in order to support itself or help support or care for others legally entitled to its services, who are unable to support or care for themselves, the truant officer shall report the case to the authorities charged with the relief of the poor, who shall thereupon, if the case be a meritorious one, afford such relief as will enable the child to attend school the time each year required under this act. Such child shall not be considered or declared a pauper by reason of the acceptance of the relief herein provided for. In case the child or its parents or guardian refuse or neglect to take advantage of provisions thus made for its instruc¬ tion, such child may be committed to a children’s home or a juvenile reformatory, as provided in section 8 hereof. Boards of education, in urgent and deserving cases where no other relief is available, and where neither parents nor child are at fault, may make suitable temporary arrangements for the instruction of the child, described in this section, either at home or at school, and for such purpose may incur neces¬ sary expense to be paid out of the school funds of the district. 208 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Pennsylvania. [From act approved July 12, 1897, in Pennsylvania School Laws and Decisions, 1897, pp. 440 et seq.] Sec. 3. Boards of school directors or school controllers shall in cities, and may in boroughs and townships, employ one or more persons to be known as attendance officers, who shall have full power and whose duty it shall be to look after, arrest, apprehend, and place in such schools as the person in parental relation or the board of directors or controllers may designate, truants and others who fail to attend school in accordance with the provisions of this act. The persons appointed such attend¬ ance officers shall be entitled to such compensation, not exceeding two dollars a day, as shall be fixed by the boardsappointing them, and such compensation may be paid out of the school fund; boards of directors or controllers of any school district, or of two or more districts jointly, may establish special schools for children who are habitual truants, or who are insubordinate or disorderly during their attendance upon instruction in the public schools, and may provide for the proper care, main¬ tenance, and instruction of such children in such schools. Before such penalty shall be incurred by such child, the parent, guardian, or other person in parental rela¬ tion to the child shall be notified in writing by the secretary of the school board, or by the attendance officer if there be one, and shall have an opportunity to be heard; such person in parental relation may elect to have such child cared for and main¬ tained at his own expense in a private school, orphans’ home, or similar institution where the common English branches are taught. If such person in parental rela¬ tion to such child shall not elect to care for and maintain such child in such private school, nor consent to his care, maintenance, and instruction in the public special school, then such conduct of the child shall be deemed disorderly conduct, and the child may be proceeded against as a disorderly person, and upon conviction thereof shall be sentenced to such special school for a term not exceeding the remainder of the school term in his district, subject to parole for good conduct by the authorities of such special school after four weeks’ attendance. Such special schools shall be conducted with a view to the improvement and to the restoration, as soon as prac¬ ticable, of such child to the school or institution elsewhere which he may be law¬ fully required to attend. The board of directors or controllers of any city or school district not having such special school may contract with any other city or district having snch school for the care, maintenance, and instruction therein of children whom such boards of directors or controllers might require to attend such school if there were one in their own city or district. Rhode Island. [From Laws of the State of Rhode Island pertaining to Education, 1896, pp. 66-70.] Sec. 3. The town council of each town, and the board of aldermen of each city, shall annually appoint one or more special constables, and fix their compensation, who shall be truant officers and who shall, under the direction of the school com¬ mittee, inquire into all cases arising under the provisions of this chapter, or under any ordinances made in pursuance thereof by the town or city by which such officers were appointed, and shall alone be authorized, in case of violation of any of the pro¬ visions of this chapter or of any such ordinances, to make complaint therefor; they, shall also serve all legal processes issued in pursuance of this chapter or of any such ordinances, but shall not be entitled to receive any fees for such service: Provided , however , that in case of the commitment of any person under the provisions of any section of this chapter, or of any ordinance made in pursuance thereof, or for default of payment of any fine and costs imposed thereunder, such officer shall be entitled to the regular fees allowed by law for similar service. Sec. 4. The truant officers and the school committees of the several towns and cities shall inquire into all cases of neglect of the duty prescribed in section one of this chapter within their respective towns and cities, and ascertain the reasons, if any, therefor; and such truant officers, or any of them shall, when so directed by the school committee, prosecute any person liable to the penalty provided for in said section one. Sec. 11. The town council of each town, and the city council of each city, shall make all needful provisions and arrangements concerning habitual truants and chil- ren who may be found wandering about in the streets or public places therein, hav¬ ing no lawful occupation or business^ not attending school and growing up in ignorance, and shall make such ordinances as will be most conducive to the welfare of such children and to the good order of such town or city; and shall designate or provide suitable places for the confinement, discipline, and instruction of such children. Sec. 12. Every minor convicted, under an ordinance made under the provisions of TRUANT SCHOOLS. 209 section eleven of this chapter, of being an habitual truant, or of wandering about in the streets and public places of a town or city, or of having no lawful employment or business, or of not attending school and of growing up in ignorance shall be com¬ mitted to any institution of instruction or suitable place designated or provided for the purpose under the authority of said section eleven, for a period not exceeding two years. Sec. 13. Children so committed may, on satisfactory proof of amendment or for other sufficient cause, be discharged from such institution or place by the court which committed them. Sec. 16. The district courts of the State shall have jurisdiction in their respective districts of all cases arising under this chapter and all ordinances passed in conform¬ ity with this chapter. Sec. 17. No officer complaining under any of the provisions of this chapter, or under the provisions of any ordinance that may be passed in pursuance hereof, shall be required to give surety for costs; and such officer shall not in any wise become liable for any costs that may accrue on such complaint. Utah. [From act of March 11, 1897, in School Law of the State of Utah, 1897, pp. 53 and 56.] PARENTAL SCHOOLS. Section 1. The board of education of any city of the first or of the second class, or the boards of education of any two or more such cities, under a contract to be approved by each of such boards, may provide for the establishment and maintenance of “pa¬ rental schools” and for the support and education of the inmates thereof, conform¬ ably with the provisions of this chapter. Sec. 2. Any child between the ages of eight and fourteen years residing within the city or cities maintaining such a school, adjudged guilty of being a habitual truant, or of wandering about in the streets and public places of said city or cities without lawful employment or business, shall be committed to the parental school provided for the purpose for a term not extending beyond the age of fourteen years. Sec. 3. Any child committed as provided in the next preceding section may be released from confinement at such school either conditionally or absolutely, before the expiration of the term of commitment, in accordance with the by-laws established by the board or boards of education maintaining the same. Sec. 4. Children under sixteen years of age who, by reason of neglect, crime, drunkenness, or other vices of parents, or by reason of orphanage, are suffered to grow up without salutary parental control and education, or in circumstances encouraging them to lead idle and dissolute lives, may be committed to the proper “parental school ” for a term not extending beyond the age of sixteen years. Sec. 5. When the parents of a child committed under the next preceding section have reformed and are leading orderly and industrious lives, and are in a condition to exercise salutary control over such child, and to provide him with proper educa¬ tion and employment; or when, said parents being dead, any person offers to make such suitable provision for the care, nurture, and education of such child as will con¬ duce to the public welfare, the board of education may discharge him to the parents or other such person. Sec. 6. The district courts of the several counties shall have jurisdiction within their respective counties to enforce the provisions of this chapter, upon such notice to the parents or guardians of the children whom it is proposed to commit to parental schools as the court may deem just and proper. Sec. 7. Any board or boards of education maintaining a parental school in accord¬ ance with section 1 of this act shall estimate and determine as near as may be the average actual expense per month of keeping and taking care of the boys and girls who may be committed to the parental school, and the average cost of keeping such boys and girls shall be wholly paid by the parent or guardian of each boy or girl committed to the school unless for good cause said board or boards of education shall otherwise order and direct. The board of education of the city in which the parent or guardian of any such committed boy or girl resides may bring suit to enforce this provision. Sec. 8. On the tender of a payment which will meet all costs of support at the parental school, the board or boards of education maintaining such school may receive into it on equal terms boys or girls whose residence is in the State outside of the city or cities to which the school belongs. Sec. 9. The board of education of each such city may appoint and fix the compen¬ sation of a truant officer, whose duty it shall be to make complaints and arrests in ED 1900 - 11 210 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900. cases contemplated by this chapter, and to serve legal process issued by courts in pur¬ suance hereof. The police authorities of the city shall make such truant officer a special policeman. [Chapter 14.] Sec. 4. All children in the district between the ages of eight and sixteen years, who, in defiance of earnest and persistent efforts on the part of their parents or teachers, are habitual truants from school, or while in attendance at school are vicious, immoral, or ungovernable in conduct, shall be deemed incorrigible, and it is the duty of the president of the board of education or the chairman of the board of trus¬ tees of each school district to inquire into all such cases within his district and report them to the county attorney acting for such district, whose duty it shall be to prose¬ cute such cases as incorrigible and fit candidates for the State reform school. Vermont. [From general laws of the State of Vermont relating to public instruction, 1895, pp. 192-194.] Sec. 710. Selectmen of a town and the mayor of a city shall annually appoint two truant officers therefor. On failure to appoint such truant officers, constables, sheriffs, deputy sheriffs, and policemen shall act as truant officers. ****** * Sec. 716. A teacher shall promptly give notice to a truant officer of violations of this chapter by any pupil enrolled in his school, and said truant officer shall forth¬ with inquire into the cause of the pupil’s nonattendance; and if he has reason to believe that such pupil’s parent, guardian, or master has violated the provisions of this chapter, he shall forthwith enter complaint to a town grand juror of the town in which such person having control of the child resides, or the State’s attorney of the county in which such town is situated, who shall prosecute such person. Any person violating the provisions of this chapter (section) shall be fined not more than twenty dollars and not less than five dollars, which shall be paid into the treasury of the town. A justice of the peace or judge of a municipal court shall have con¬ current jurisdiction with the county court for offences under this section. The truant officer may stop any truant under the age of fifteen years, wherever found, and take him to school in the town where he resides. Sec. 717. If it appears on trial that the child is not properly clothed for attending school, and that his parent is unable to so clothe him, the overseer of the poor shall furnish suitable clothes for the child; and such inability of a parent shall be a defence to a prosecution under this chapter. If it appears that the parent or guardian is unable to control the child and keep him in school, the justice or court, with the consent of a majority of the selectmen, may sentence such child to the Vermont industrial school. Sec. 718. A truant officer, school director, or any officer authorized to make arrests in the town may, and upon the written application of three voters in the town shall, arrest a child who, under the provisions of this chapter, is required to attend school, and during the term of the public school in the town in which he resides is habitu¬ ally found in the streets, or other public places, having no lawful occupation, or is an habitual truant, and shall take him to the school in said town and place him in charge of the teacher thereof, and give notice in writing to the parent, guardian, or master, requiring him to cause such child to attend school regularly. But a boy between eight and fifteen years of age who is an habitual truant, or who is guilty of wilful and continued disobedience to school rules and regulations or laws, or whose conduct is pernicious and injurious to a school, may be sentenced to the Vermont industrial school for a period of not less than twenty-six weeks. Justices of the peace and judges of municipal courts shall have concurrent jurisdiction with the county court of offences under this section. ****** * Sec. 721. A truant or other officer authorized to make arrests in the town, who refuses or neglects to carry out the provisions of this chapter, shall be fined not more than one hundred dollars. A justice or municipal court shall have concurrent juris¬ diction with the county court in such prosecutions. Sec. 722. All persons acting as truant officers shall receive compensation from the district for which the service is rendered at the rate of two dollars per day for time actually spent, unless otherwise provided. TRUANT SCHOOLS. 211 Wisconsin. [From school laws of Wisconsin, 1898, p. 35.] The board of education or the district board may appoint one or more truant offi¬ cers, whose duty it shall be, acting discreetly, to apprehend upon view all children between seven and thirteen years of age who habitually frequent or loiter about pub¬ lic places and have no lawful occupation, and place such children, when so appre¬ hended, in such schools as the parent or other person having the control of such children may designate; and such officers shall report all cases of truancy to their respective boards within a reasonable time. Such truant officers shall be entitled to such compensation, to be paid out of the school fund, as shall be fixed by the boards appointing them. V. — RSFOSMATORY AND ALLIED INSTITUTIONS IN GREAT BUlTAXN . In continental Europe there are no institutions exactly parallel in purpose to our truant schools. Absence of children from school is accounted a transgression of par¬ ents, and penalties of fines and imprisonment are inflicted upon them. Children may be forcibly brought to school by police or truant officers, but judicial commitment of pupils to penal or semipenal institutions for purely school offenses is not the rule.1 In Great Britain, on the contrary, there are two classes of institutions which are specially designed for school offenders, namely, truant schools and day industrial schools. The Britons have serious troubles with their truant schools just as we have, and like us are constantly striving for improvement. Three important commissions have investigated and reported on the condition of reformatory and industrial institutions generally. First, a royal commission, under the chairmanship of the Duke of Newcas¬ tle, was appointed in 1858 “to inquire into the state of popular education in England.” Their report was made in 1861, and one of the “parts ” related to the “Education of vagrants and criminals.” Then, the “ Reformatories and industrial schools commis¬ sion,” under Lord Aberdare, appointed in 1882, made an exhaustive report in 1884. Finally, a departmental committee, of which Sir Godfrey Lushington was the head, was named in 1895 to inquire into the state of reformatory and industrial schools. Their report, made the following year, is the most elaborate and searching of the series. With its appendices and voluminous “ evidence,” it is by far the most com¬ plete and valuable document on the subject in the English language — probably in any language. That part of the Lushington report proper which relates to truant schools and day industrial schools is reprinted on the following pages. The description of English reformatories and industrial schools is from Mr. Graham Balfour’s “Educational systems of Great Britain and Ireland. ” From these accounts an excellent idea of the British system and methods may be obtained: Truant Schools.2 Origin of the schools. — These schools in the eye of the law are ordinary industrial schools, but actually are different. The elementary education act of 1876, by the first subsection of section 11, authorized an attendance order requiring a child to attend a public elementary school, to be made by the court at the instance of the school authority, against the parent who failed to provide such child with elementary education. The second subsection authorized a similar order in the case of a child 1 Ik this connection, see “ Compulsory education in Central Europe,” Vol. 1 of this Report, page 147 ; also ‘‘Reform schools in Baden,” in Education Report for 1895-96, Vol. 1, page 158, and “Special schools for children of limited mental capacity in Prussia,” in Education Report for 1896-97, Vol. 1, page 141. 2 Report of the departmental committee on reformatory and industrial schools (“Lushington’ s report”), 1896, pages 121-124. 212 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. habitually wandering, or without proper guardianship, or frequenting the company of rogues, etc. In the event of breach of the attendance order, the court had power to commit the child to a certified day industrial school, or if it appeared to the court that there was no such school suitable for the child, then to a certified industrial school; and by the fourteenth section, in contemplation of the detention being brief,, managers were enabled to grant a license after a detention of one month (instead of eighteen months, which is the rule in ordinary cases under the industrial schools act) , such license to be conditional upon the child attending as a day scholar at some certified efficient school. When the act passed there was no day industrial school, and now there are only 23 in England and Scotland, so that the remedy of a day industrial school has never been available except in a limited number of districts. On the other hand, objections were entertained by managers to the use of ordinary industrial schools for the brief detention of truants; they thought it would be upsetting to the other children who were under detention for longer periods. Accordingly, it was suggested that the powers of the industrial schools act should be employed to estab¬ lish schools which, though called industrial schools, should be set apart exclusively for truants, the period of detention to be brief, but the discipline punitive. The secretary of state, after consulting the education department, sanctioned the experi¬ ment, and altogether 15 truant schools have been set up by 12 school boards, and these schools are to a certain extent used by other school boards. No application for permission to establish a truant school has been received from any private person or association of voluntary managers. All the existing schools are for boys. In two instances application has been made to the home office for the establishment of truant schools for girls, but in both it has been refused. There is no truant school in Scotland. With regard to the mode in which the expense of these schools is defrayed, we have already referred to what appears to us the improper practice pur¬ sued by some school boards of having their truants committed under the second sub¬ section of section 11 of the elementary education act, 1876, in order to obtain the higher grant of 3s. 6d. per head per week which is allowed for cases under that sub¬ section. For cases under the first subsection the Government grant for each child is limited to 2s. per week, leaving a sum of 5s. or more to be made up by the school board. For this reason, and because the school is constantly being depleted while the full staff has to be maintained, the detention is expensive to the school authority while it lasts; but then the detention does not last very long. The nominal deten¬ tion may be (as in ordinary industrial-school cases) until 16 — usually it is only until 14— and the practice, varying according to the rules of the different schools, is for the managers to grant a license after a detention of two months or so on the first admission, and after a detention for a greater number of months in the case of a child admitted for a second or third time. Discipline. — The object of all truant schools is the same — to set up a punitive sys¬ tem which shall be deterrent from truancy. The following, which is a description of Plymouth Truant School, given in 1893 at a conference of school managers, may perhaps serve as a fair representation of all the schools: “Anything like harshness or unkindness is carefully avoided; but the distinct object of the managers is to make residence in the school irksome and distasteful, so that rather than stay, and still less to return to it, the truant boy will give up truant- ing and steadily attend school. The boys are well fed under a dietary approved by the Home secretary. They are well cared for as to health, cleanliness, and dress. In most cases they gain weight during their stay, but the discipline is strict, con¬ tinuous, and inexorable. They are there because they love play better than work, and therefore they are kept at work almost all the day long, from 6 in the morning until 8 at night (see time-table). Household work, school drill, industrial train¬ ing, with very brief intervals of rest, occupy the whole day. There is little oppor¬ tunity for the mischief which idle hands so readily find to do.” In some districts, as in Liverpool, there are day industrial schools as well as truant schools; in others, as in London (until quite recently), truant schools only. And it is, perhaps, in consequence of this that very divergent theories have been enter¬ tained on the cardinal point whether truant schools are intended and appropriate for incipent truants, or for hardened truants, or for truants in general. Nor hitherto has there been any uniform system for the general conduct of truant schools. Thus, although the magistrate has no power to order the truant to be flogged, in some schools the custom is, or was, for every boy on readmission to be flogged; in others an inquiry is made, and the boy is not flogged unless it appears that the truancy is due to his own fault and not that of his parents. In others, again, there is no flog¬ ging on readmission. For general purposes, it may be convenient to take as exam¬ ples the Liverpool schools and the London schools. At Liverpool the detention is divided into two stages, the disciplinary stage and the TRUANT SCHOOLS. 213 probationary stage. The disciplinary stage occupies 4 days on the first admission, 14 on the second or any subsequent occasion, or 1 month in the case of a child over 12 admitted for the third time. The superintendent, however, has power to reduce reduce 4 days to 2, and the 14 to 7; also to increase the 4 days to 6, and the 14 to 21. During this stage the boy is in separate confinement at night, and also during the day when at industrial work; he joins the other boys at prayers, lessons, and work, but during those times no talking is allowed. He has no play. A child is not sub¬ jected to the disciplinary stage if he is under 9 years of age, and before he is sub¬ jected to it he is examined by a medical officer and certified to be able to bear the separation, and during the disciplinary stage he is visited three days in a week by the medical officer. The disciplinary stage is followed by the probationary stage, the two constituting the total period of detention, the average length of which is, on the first admission, 1QJ weeks; on the second, 12J; on the third, 134 weeks. Dur¬ ing the probationary stage the children are, according to the rules, to be treated as in an ordinary industrial school, and to be “subjected as much as possible to soften¬ ing and humanizing influences.” We find it difficult to describe what meaning is attached to these terms. Mr. Hance, the secretary to the school board, informed us that his board had never been in favor of anything like the silent system. But what is certain is that the discipline enforced is of a rigorous character, as shown by the punishments. In the Roman Catholic school at Higlitown, comprising about 60 inmates, the number of corporal punishments in the year 1895 amounted to 200. The preliminary confinement in cells during the disciplinary stage was condemned by the royal commissioners of 1883, and has been repeatedly protested against by the inspector, but with some slight modification it still continues. The two truant schools belonging to the London school board, at Highbury and Upton House, which resemble each other very closely, but not in all details, were represented to us by Mr. Rogers as exhibiting the truant-school system in its more modern and milder form. No cells are used, nor is there any initial seclusion or disciplinary stage, and on readmission it is not, and never has been, the practice to flog the boy unless, after inquiry, it is clear that the boy has been personally much to blame. The school is presided over by an officer called a governor, not superin¬ tendent. The average length of the period of detention, is on the first admission, 8 weeks, on the second 15, and on the third, or any subsequent admission, 20 weeks; and on each repeated admission the detention is not only longer, but also, as will appear, of a more severe character. The following is the time-table for Upton House for boys on their first admission: 6, boys rise, fold bedding, and wash . 7, clean house and school . . 8, boys’ breakfast . 8:40, prayers. 9, distribution for school and work; one division in school, remainder industrial work . 12, drill . 12:50, prepare for dinner . . . 1, boys’ dinner . . . 1:30, recreation. 2, distribution for school and work . . . 5, drill. 5:30, prepare for supper. . . 6, boys’ supper . 6:30, industrial work (singing lesson Tuesday and Friday ) . . . 7:30, prayers. 8, boys to bed . . . Talking not allowed. Quiet conversation allowed. Talking not allowed. Necessary conversation. Talking not allowed. Quiet conversation allowed. Talking not allowed. Necessary conversation. Quiet conversation allowed. Talking not allowed. Necessary conversation. Talking not allowed. It will be seen from this that the boys have 1 hour and 20 minutes’ drill daily, and that for the whole period of 8 weeks there is only half an hour each day when they are allowed either to play or to talk freely. To this, for sometime past, has been added a half holiday on Saturday. When talking is not allowed silence is enforced, not as a matter of orderliness, but strictly as part of the punitive system; so, too, is the restriction of conversation to what is necessary; and the difference between quiet conversation and necessary conversation is so slight that the gov¬ ernor of Highbury would not object to its being abolished (as, indeed, it has been in Lichfield truant school). Then, on the first readmission, the half hour for play and talking is taken away for a fortnight, during which period, therefore, the boy has no play and no freedom to talk at any hour of the day. On the second readmission the complete deprivation of play and free talking lasts for a month, and the Saturday 214 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. half holiday is taken away as well; and on the third, or any subsequent readmission, the complete deprivation of play or free talking is enforced throughout the whole of the weeks. Results in truant schools. — Truant schools have had a certain degree of success, but no more. The percentage of attendances made at the public elementary school by children on license from the truant school, and who do not return to it, is as a rule very good, but there is a large proportion who come back to the truant school. Up to December 31, 1894, out of a total of 19,767 children licensed from these schools, over 40 per cent were readmitted, viz, 25 per cent readmitted once, 10 per cent twice, 4 per cent thrice, and 2 per cent four times and upward. One consequence of these numerous readmissions is that the truant school as a remedy for truancy is made much more expensive. Another consequence is that almost at all times in these schools boys who have been there before are in a majority over those who have not. For instance, at Highbury, on the day that the governor gave evidence before us, of the 193 boys in the school 111 were there not for the first time. It is admitted that this predominance of recidivists is injurious to the tone of the school, but it remains to be explained how it is that boys who have once experienced this severe treatment come to incur it again. The explanation is that in most cases they can not help themselves. They are children completely neglected by their parents, and children of their age, so neglected, so abandoned to a life in the streets, and with such sur¬ roundings, simply can not go to school unless they are helped. It is vain to expect them to do so. This is thoroughly understood by those who carry on day industrial 'schools for children of the same class. It is admitted by Mr. Fiance, the clerk to the Liverpool school board, with respect to such children as find their way repeatedly to the truant schools. It is also admitted by the London school board, to judge, at least, from the statement reported to have been made by Mr. Sharp (the chairman of the Highbury subcommittee of the industrial schools committee of the board) at a recent conference of managers: “In the Highbury school, where we have 200 truants con¬ stantly within our walls, in the majority of cases it is not the fault of the children, but of their surroundings;” and the same gentleman at the same conference is reported to have used these words in reply to those who advocated the institution of a truant school for girls: “I do not think one-half per cent of the girls are truants of their own free will. My point was that you are punishing the child for the mother’s fault.” To such children severity is as useless as it is undeserved. Instances are not wanting of children on whom the severities of the truant school, repeated in succes¬ sive detentions, have produced no impression, but who become regular attendants at the day industrial school when treated with kindness and helped to go to school. This is a consideration which has to be put into the balance against such success as has been obtained in truant schools. Truant schools, it may be said, have never received the sanction of Parliament. Though called industrial schools, and though founded under the industrial-schools act, they rest on a principle the opposite of that which, it is assumed, is recognized by Parliament for ordinary industrial schools, viz, on punishment, not on kindness. In our opinion it is contrary to right principles of education that a governor or teacher should have it imposed upon him as a duty to cause his scholars to be uncom¬ fortable every day from the first to the last that they are with him, or that little children of this age should be kept, as it were, in disgrace for a continuous period of months. The late inspector, Colonel Inglis, regarded these schools with little favor. In his last report (for 1894) he observes: “ Since truant schools came into existence I have never ceased to protest against the strict treatment, the excess of corporal punishment, and the absence of recrea¬ tion, or anything like reward for good conduct. Useful schools they are, but though I could name two or three that have always been conducted on moderate or sensible lines, there have been others with which X have never entered without feeling more sympathy for the inmates than for the truant system.” Recommendations. — The present inspector, we understand, does not desire truant schools to be retained. In his opinion they are ineffectual. Sir G. Kekewich’s view of the system appears to be that as a mode of treating children it is objectionable, and as a means of enabling school boards to compel attendance at public elementary schools it is unnecessary. It would be sufficient for that purpose if truants were for a brief period of two or three months sent to an industrial school reserved exclu¬ sively for truants, but conducted on the ordinary nonpunitive system. To this we see no objection. Such a school would not, indeed, meet the case of the very neglected children we have described; but for those who are truants from their own willfulness, and not by reason of their surroundings, it would probably suffice by interrupting for a while their mode of life, and separating them from their compan¬ ions. We recommend therefore that truant schools, as at present established, TRUANT SCHOOLS. 215 should be discontinued.1 Further, we consider that no child should be transferred from one of such schools as we have suggested to an ordinary industrial school for a long period of detention, on the ground that brief detention had proved ineffectual to make him attend school. Detention for years is, in our opinion, not justifiable, unless a child is in danger of becoming a criminal, and as such has been formally proved to fall within one of the clauses of the industrial-schools act. There may be truth in the observation that truancy is often the beginning of a criminal career. But mere truancy, even of a child under license from a truant school, is not enough to establish a criminal tendency. Considering that the inmates of truant schools will be exclusively truants from the public elementary schools, sent at the instance of the school boards, and that the schools will be administered by the school boards with a sole view of education, we are of the opinion that the responsibility for these schools should be transferred from the secretary of state to the education department as the central authority, and any legal power of detention should be included in the elementary education act. Before leaving this subject we take the opportunity of pointing out what has been suggested by the London school board, that the education act should be amended so as to provide for the parent being compelled to produce his infant child in the event either of a breach of attendance order or of a breach of the license from an industrial school conditional upon attendance at a public elementary school or day industrial school ; also that the order of payment made against the parent on the commitment of his truant child to an industrial school shall continue if the child is licensed from an industrial school on condition of attending a day industrial school. Day Industrial Schools.2 Regime of the schools . — These schools were first authorized in England by the edu¬ cation act of 1876, which enabled school authorities to procure children — chiefly truants — on the breach of an attendance order to be committed to a day industrial school for a term of three years, but not beyond 14 years of age. With one excep¬ tion, ail these schools have been established and are managed by school authorities; but they are only 23 in number, viz, in England 20 and. in Glasgow 3, established under the Glasgow delinquency act, 1878; and they provide altogether for between 3,000 and 4,000 children. It was only in 1893 that power was given to establish such schools in the rest of Scotland. The Edinburgh school board, we understand, has taken steps with a view to make use of this power. The schools are in all cases mixed schools for boys and girls, and, wflth the exception of the London school board school, recently opened in Drury Lane, are all under the charge of women. The children attending them are from the very poorest class. The school is open for reception from a very early hour in the morning, so as to enable parents going out to their work to leave their children, if convenient to do so. A later hour is fixed by which the children are bound to have come; if they fail, they are sent for. On arrival, at whatever time, the child is washed and cleaned. The day is spent in school work and the simpler kinds of industrial employment, manual drill, and play. The system is nonpunitive, and the object is to make the children as happy as pos¬ sible. The child receives three meals in the course of the day, and at 6 o’clock is set free to go home. With regard to expense, the Government grant is 6d. per head per wreek for maintenance, and another 6d. dependent upon the results of the exam¬ ination. The parent is put under contribution to the managers usually in the nominal amount of 2s. ; in case of his default he has to apply to the guardians, and they are under an obligation to pay on his behalf so much as they consider he is unable to pay. Whatever expense is not covered by the Government grants and parents’ payments has to be made up by the managers; usually it amounts to a considerable sum. We have nothing but praise to give these institutions. We concur with the obser¬ vations of Colonel Xnglis in his last report: “Day industrial schools are, without exception, going on well and doing good 1 The later documents at hand are not sufficient to show the full effect of these recommendations. There seems to he, however, no disposition to discontinue any of the schools concerning which this office has information, but rather to establish new ones. It is probable that in changes in internal administration the principal influence of the report will be shown. The rules of the London truant schools were undergoing revision with reference to the recommendations of the committee of inquiry at the date of the last report of the London industrial schools committee (Lady Day, 1898). The matter was still under consideration at that time, and the extent of the proposed changes was not stated. There is nothing to indicate, however, that marked or radical changes of general policy are contemplated.— [Ed. 2 Report qi the departmental committee on reformatory and industrial schools (” Lushington’s Report”), 1896, pages 124-126. 216 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. work. It is always a pleasure to go into these schools and see the order apparent everywhere and the children almost invariably look bright and cheerful. In some more attention might well be paid to industrial training, while in others I have no reason to find fault on this score. These schools are doing well wherever they have been established. * * * They are most interesting schools to an inspector; he can feel that there is no mistake about the quality of the work done in them; the order and attention are always excellent, and one can not but hope that some of the orderly and cleanly habits learned in them may he reflected in some degree on the miserable homes from which they generally come.” The attendance at these schools is very good; and so also is the attendance at pub¬ lic elementary schools of those licensed from day industrial schools. Almost the only offense at the school is truancy, chiefly during the summer months, when the children are apt to sleep out at night and not to go home in the morning, and so are not sent to school. Those who have experience of the system do not find it pauper¬ izing to the parents. As a rule the parents object to their child being sent to the day- industrial schools; besides being laid under contribution, they lose the service of the child out of school hours and have the trouble of sending him to school an hour earlier in the morning. The homes are wretchedly poor and in many instances bad; to say that no injurious effects follow from the children returning home at night would be going too far, but, on the wrhole, the children from returning home receive considerably more good than harm ; the work of the school is not thrown away in consequence. Some of the wTorst cases are doubtless more fitted for a boarding industrial school, but these by natural process will sooner or later find themselves there. In our opinion these schools are founded on right principles; parental responsi¬ bility is enforced; the home tie is maintained; the child, while subjected to so much discipline as is necessary, is not deprived of its liberty, and is treated on a system of kindness; and the school authorities recognize that in dealing with such a neglected class it is requisite to have better teachers and better appointments than those which suffice for an ordinary school. The work of dressing and attending to these children is often of a most disagreeable character; but it is encouraging to know that the fact of the teacher doing so much for the children personally attaches not only the chil¬ dren to the teacher but also the teacher to the children, and that as a rule a teacher having once taken to the work would not exchange it for employment in a public elementary school. In one respect these schools have disappointed the intention of the legislature. It was contemplated that it would not be necessary to keep the children in these schools for more than a brief period, and accordingly there was inserted in the act of 1876 a provision enabling, but not compelling, the school authority, after the detention of one month, to release the child on license conditional on his attending a public ele¬ mentary school. Practically nothing like this has been found possible with the bulk of the children who are sent to these schools. They come from homes where they are completely neglected, and this being the case, it is unreasonable to expect that children of their age will attend the public elementary school; probably they will not try to go, and if they do they will, from their dirty and neglected condition, be an offence to the other children. In consequence the children are kept longer at the day industrial school — the average duration is now nearly two years — and thus the school becomes to a certain extent a substitute for the public elementary school instead of a feeder to it. We believe this to be necessary; but at the same time the matter requires to be carefully watched, and, to prevent encouragement of parental neglect, the school authority should strictly compel parents to pay what they can. In this respect Manchester shows an admirable example. Recommendations. — Day industrial schools, as at present constituted, are only pos¬ sible in populous towns, "where within a narrow circle there is a number of neglected children large enough to fill them, and they are also expensive to the school author¬ ity. It is for these reasons that there are so few. We venture, however, to express a hope that there will be a considerable increase in the number of these schools, and that when established they will be placed under the charge of women, as more suit¬ able than men to have the care of young children, especially young children of this neglected class. The extra day’s schooling, the provision of meals and of industrial (in contrast with technical) training, seems to make it impossible to use the ordinary elementary school as a day industrial school. If, however, these difficulties could be removed in the case of towns, by making one school in each town a day industrial school, the plan would, in our opinion, be worth trying. In the country districts, where such a plan can not be tried, there might, perhaps, be grafted on the public elemen¬ tary schools so much of the day industrial school system as provides for the appoint- TRUANT SCHOOLS. 217 ment of an attendance officer, who should be sent out to bring in the children who did not come of themselves — a fine, if necessary, being levied on the parents of such children to defray the necessary expenses. These matters will, no doubt, receive the attention of the education department. For the same reasons as those already stated with regard to truant schools, we are of the opinion that the education department should be constituted the central authority for day industrial schools, and any legal power of detention should be included in the education act. Reformatory and Industrial Schools.1 These schools, so far as they are recognized by Government, are under the control of the home secretary. “Reformatories are schools to which are sent juveniles up to the age of 16 convicted of an offense punishable with penal servitude and imprison¬ ment. Industrial schools are for children up to the age of 14 who may not have committed an offense, but whose circumstances are such that if left in their surround¬ ings they are likely to join the delinquent population. Thus reformatories are for actual, industrial schools for potential delinquents, and the former contain children some three years older or more than the latter. Both are voluntarily maintained by private associations or local authorities, aided by a Government contribution toward their expenses, and are subject to Government inspection.” 2 REFORMATORY SCHOOLS. Schools which subsequently became reformatories were founded in the last century, and received recognition from Government prior to 1838, when the Crown exercised its prerogative through the home secretary by granting pardons to boys sentenced to transportation on condition that they would submit to the training of some specified school of this class.3 The treasury contributed to their support a sum that was intended to cover the expenses o£ these offenders. In 1846 the committee of council on education offered grants for industrial train¬ ing, and schools of the reformatory class availed themselves of these privileges until the end of 1857, when those institutions which had begun to receive aid and inspec¬ tion from the home office were handed over altogether to its consideration. In 1846 the committee also recommended that £5,000, out of the £20,000 voted by Parliament, should be expended on a model penal school, but this was never done. In 1854 the first statute dealing directly with reformatories was passed — the youthful offenders’ act. By it the home secretary was empowered to certify reformatory schools, if on the report of an inspector of prisons they appeared useful and efficient for their purpose. Any person under 16 convicted of any offense pun¬ ishable by law on an indictment or a summary conviction before a magistrate or two or more justices of the peace might on the direction of the court be sent at the expi¬ ration of his sentence to a reformatory school for an additional period of not less than two or more than five years. The treasury might defray the cost out of funds to be provided by Parliament for the purpose and parents or stepparents might be compelled to support such offender while in the school. An inspector of prisons visited the institutions and made an annual report. The reformatory and industrial schools act passed in 1856 provided that young- persons should not be sent to a school to which the parents objected, if they named another school duly certified. In 1857 the quarter sessions or council of any quarter sessions borough were allowed to grant money in aid of a reformatory school.4 In the same year the Rev. Sydney Turner was appointed as a prison inspector by the home secretary, especially to inspect and report on reformatory and industrial schools. During the four years, 1854-1857, 44 of these schools were certified in England. By the reformatory schools act, 1866, the previous acts were repealed, consolidated, and amended. Offenses for which persons could be sent to reformatories must be such as were punishable with penal servitude or imprisonment. 1From The Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland, by Graham Balfour, Oxford, 1898, pp. 51-57. 2 Inspector’s report for 1895, p. 8, slightly abridged. 3 This is a recital in an act by which, in the first year of the Queen’s reign, a prison was established for young offenders only at Parkhurst, in the Isle of Wight. It was a step in reform, but even at Parkhurst the prisoners at first all wore irons, and in the fields were superintended by sentries with loaded weapons. 4 Now transferred to county councils and councils of larger municipal boroughs. 218 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. No child under 10 might he sent to a reformatory unless sentenced by a judge of assize or court of general or quarter sessions or previously charged with an offense punishable with penal servitude or imprisonment. The parents might apply within thirty days to have an offender removed to a reformatory conducted in accordance with the religious persuasion of the offender. The prison authorities were given power to defray the cost as current expenditure, while the treasury might contribute out of moneys provided by a parliament for the purpose a sum recommended by the home secretary. A special inspector was appointed for the reformatories and industrial schools of Great Britain. The prison authority was given power to contract with a reformatory to receive and maintain offenders, or to contribute to the establishment of such a school, or subsequently (in 1872) to build and maintain such a school themselves. By Lord Leigh’s act, passed in 1893, new provisions were substituted for those of 1866 for sending offenders to reformatories. The age was raised from 10 to 12, unless the child had been previously convicted, the minimum term raised from two to three years, and the imprisonment previous to being sent to the school might be dispensed with. In no case were offenders to be kept at the school after attaining the age of 19. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. The early history of industrial schools is the outcome of two different purposes. On the one hand there was the anxiety to prevent boys from falling into bad com¬ pany, which has latterly been the controlling influence in these schools; and on the other there was that desire to give an industrial training which has recently found its expression rather in technical and manual instruction. In the early days ragged schools were frequently mentioned in the same connection with industrial schools. They were provided by charity free of charge, and made no requirements as to the dress of pupils. Consequently they were used chiefly by the children of outdoor paupers, of the dissolute, and of those unwilling to pay "fees. The secular part of their educational work has naturally been absorbed by the board schools. The education department in 1846 offered grants to day schools of industry for rent of field gardens and help to hire or build workshops, washhouses, or kitchens, and to provide tools. It specially' referred to schools situated in the denser parts of great cities, intended to attract from the streets vagrant youths who are there trained in criminal pursuits or accustomed to beggary and vagrancy. By minutes in 1856 and 1857 the committee of council considerably extended their industrial grants to schools, confining them, however, to schools which were indus¬ trial in character and educated scholars taken exclusively from the criminal and abandoned classes, but by 23 and 24 Viet., c. 108, industrial schools were transferred to the charge of the home secretary in 1860, and all connection with the education department ceased. Meanwhile the first industrial schools act for England and Wales had been passed, in 1857. Children above 7 and under 14 convicted of vagrancy might be committed to a school certified by the committee of council on education and examined by their inspector (after 1860 by the inspector of the home department), but only if the parents would not give an assurance in writing for the child’s good behavior to find a security for the same. The parents might be made liable for the support of the child up to 3s. a week. The child could not be detained beyond the age of 15 against her or his will. In 1861, 24 and 25 Viet., c. 113, consolidated the previous acts and enlarged their csope. A distinction was introduced between children under 12 and those under 14. The latter, if destitute, vagrant, mendicant, or frequenting the company of reputed thieves, might be committed to an industrial school; under 12, they could also be sent if they had committed an offense punishable by imprisonment or some less punishment. Children need no longer be convicted in order to be sent to an industrial school, but if convicted previously of felony they are not admissible. Parents might present their children under 14 before the justices as unmanageable and obtain an order com¬ mitting them to school, but in this case the parents had to defray the whole expense. For the maintenance of the others the treasury was empowered to contribute any sum that the home secretary might recommend, and the extent of their parents’ pos¬ sible contribution was raised to 5s. a week. Children convicted on a previous charge of felony were not admitted to these schools. This act was only temporary, but in 1866 29 and 30 Viet. , c. 118, was passed, which embodied most of its provisions and remains the controlling act till the present time. Under the new regulations a child under 14, being a destitute orphan or with a sur- TRUANT SCHOOLS. 219 viving parent undergoing penal servitude or imprisonment, was added to the list of those liable to be sent to these schools, and the limit of detention without consent was raised from 15 to 16. The inspector of industrial schools and the inspector of reformatories must be necessarily one and the same person appointed by the home secretary. Refractory children might be sent from workhouses and pauper schools, and the guardians had power to contribute. The same school might not be certified both as a reformatory and an industrial school. The prison authority might contract for the reception of children at these schools, and contribute to the capital or current expenditure; and in 1872 these bodies received power to establish and maintain schools themselves, if necessary. Children under 14 of a woman twice convicted of crime, or children living with prostitutes, may be sent to these schools. In 1870, by the elementary education act, school boards received powers of con¬ tributing to the establishment and maintenance of industrial schools, and, with consent of the education department,1 of establishing such schools themselves.2 They also received power to enforce the industrial schools act if they thought fit. By the 1876 act, school boards and school attendance committees were compelled to enforce the act unless they thought it inexpedient. In the case of offenses against the act, if no day industrial school was available, a child might be committed to any certified industrial school. Children so sent might be released on license at the end of one month, instead of eighteen months as in 1866. Industrial schools established after March, 1872, receive only 3s. 6d. for each child from the Government, instead of 5s. 1 Since 1876, of the home secretary. 2 There were nine industrial schools under school boards in 1896. CHAPTER IV. EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. By Hon. John Eaton, formerly U. S. Commissioner of Education. In the first days of January, 1899, in accordance with the recommendation of Hon. W. T. Harris, LL. D., United States Commissioner of Education, I accepted the invitation of the insular cabinet of Porto Pico and went to San Juan to cooperate in making the needful changes in the organization and administration of education on the island. On October 18, 1898, General Brooke had raised the American flag on the island. When I arrived Gen. Guy V. Henry was in command of the department, having received it from General Brooke a few weeks before. The changes as the result of the war were most manifest and followed each other in rapid succession in spite of the fact that the four secretaries constituting the insular cabinet, viz, the sec¬ retaries of state, of fomento, or of the interior, of justice, and of finance, who were in power under Spanish control, had been continued in their respective offices by Gen¬ eral Brooke. Affairs went on under ‘them much the same, save that the Spanish spirit had given way to the American in the authority exercised by the commander of the department. The old methods on the part of the alcaldes and the members of the cabinet struggled with the new as represented by the General. The fact that the old continued under American direction, even for a short time, disappointed the expectation of immediate improvements, which many of the citi¬ zens entertained, and so far gave a quasi approval to the bad methods of the past and rendered more difficult their removal or improvement. General Henry, in assuming command, had made comprehensive announcements touching various features of the government. He said in regard to education: “The system of school education should be looked into, and it is my desire to ascertain how many teachers can be paid who can teach the English language, commencing with the younger children. It is believed that the people who can speak English only can accomplish the purpose by object lessons. It is thought that American women for teaching can be obtained at $50 a month in gold, and they are well worth it. The young children are anxious to learn, and now is the time for them to do so. If the alcaldes will report to me how many teachers they can employ, they will be brought from the States and sent to those towns. ’ ’ The General had the great advantage of having been a close observer of affairs on the island from the first landing of American troops under General Miles. For a por- tion of the time he had been in command of the district of Bonce. In the city of Ponce he and Mrs. Henry had aroused among the people a spirit of self-help and organized an American aid society, out of which had come the establishment of a school on the American plan, taught by American teachers. Without a building erected for school purposes, and without school furniture, but in a private house, with such furniture as could be obtained, the school was commenced, and was so attractive to the children that the numbers coming could not be accommodated; and not unfre- quently those who were disappointed in seeking admission Avent away in tears. The General’s interest in education was cordially seconded by officers in all grades of the service, and by his orders all possible aid from the Army was rendered the adminis¬ tration of the school Avork. 221 222 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. He at once assigned me to the care of education, and I found it was one of the sub¬ jects for the responsibility of which the department of the interior was charged. Hr. S. Carbonell was the secretary of that department, and formally appointed me inspector. His office was being removed to new quarters and all was in confusion. After a little, a desk was assigned me, and a little later, a part of the time, a clerk. I began to study the situation. The first request was that I should inspect the orphan school conducted by the insular government. The orphans were gathered from all parts of the island. I found them and the insane of the island accommo¬ dated in different parts of the same large building, intermingling with each other to a considerable extent. On Saturday, the day after my arrival, the secretary called the San Juan teachers together to meet me. Their minds were alert, and they inter¬ ested me greatly. Calls from all directions became numerous. Statesmen and scholars came to ask my plans; parents and children, for aid in securing instruction. Every opportunity for information was afforded me. Alcaldes, or mayors, and other officers and prominent citizens visited me from different parts of the island.. There was at once manifested a partisan cleavage running through official information and conditions. It was difficult to know exactly how affairs were; they were not always what they seemed to be. Evidently my hands were to be more than full. General Henry saw that I must have assistance, and I selected Victor S. Clark, Ph. H., of Minneapolis, Minn. I had known him from his childhood and was sure of his qualities. He had been educated in public schools in Minnesota and in its State university; had taught a high school; studied and traveled in Europe two years, and, on his return, had superintended, a city system of schools and published a book in English and one in Latin. He had been given a fellowship and a year’s study at Columbia University, where he had received the doctorate of philosophy. He had been elected a teacher in Brooklyn and resigned. His arrival was delayed, but he became my other and younger self, sharing in all my plans and labors and succeed¬ ing to my responsibilities when I resigned, and has discharged them with great credit to himself and American methods and with untold advantage to the people of the island. The course of events moved rapidly. General Henry found many of the embar¬ rassments arose from within the so-called cabinet. Secretary Carbonell resigned in February and was succeeded by Mr. Hegeteau. The cabinet was dissolved, all of its old members retiring save its secretary of finance. In March Mr. Hegeteau’ s health failed, and he was succeeded by Hr. Hel Valle. The methods of administra¬ tion coming down from other years were most cumbersome and un-American, and had the policy adopted by our Government permitted, the work could have been greatly reduced in amount and greatly increased in efficiency. But having our object clearly before us, by degrees an efficient office was organized with great capacity for work and ready to be reduced as soon as the methods adopted would permit. Up to this time no women had been employed in the public service. The first so employed was Miss Margaret Bodd, of Ponce, who was given a place in the educa¬ tional work in our office. She was a native of the island, of Scotch descent, educated partly in the island and partly abroad; was for a time a resident of the States, and was a good Spanish and English scholar, stenographer, and typewriter. Her success will open a new door for worthy women on the island. COMMUNICATION WITH TEACHERS. Everything pointed to the importance of the freest communication with the teach¬ ers. On looking over the records of the office, I observed that many changes had occurred just before my arrival. There were many signs of unrest among teachers, especially a disposition to claim each other’s places. Not a few held their positions, as it was alleged, by illegal tenure. It was said that here and there they had been appointed as political partisans. Soon I had to restrain the active partisanship of EDUCATION IN PORTO EICO. 223 some; indeed, one had to be called before the commanding general. Much money was overdue teachers. It was a common remark that the teachers were among the last paid in the employ of the municipalities. The General issued an order requiring their payment and requested special attention to the subject on the part of the office. Current demands confined me most closely to the office and rendered my visiting other parts of the island for the time impossible, and I sent a printed note directly to each teacher, inclosing a card with specific inquiries ready for return to me by mail, and calling for specially needed items of information. The responses were most interesting and helpful. They revealed much of the situation, told something of the spirit and qualifications of the teachers, and gave most abundant evidence of the need of improvement and of the desire for it on the part of the great number of teachers. On a good-sized map sent from Washington, Dr. Clark began to indicate the location of every school. Visits from representative teachers from various municipalities afforded the office valuable data. A glance at the map gave informa¬ tion which it would take a long time to find in the records. As soon as the work would permit I sent Dr. Clark on a tour of inspection and received from him the following very valuable report: San Juan, P. R., March U, 1899 . Gen. John Eaton, Director of Public Instruction. Honorable Sir : In accordance with your directions I left San Juan on the morn¬ ing of March 6 with maps, flags, and books for distribution to the schools of the eastern part of the island. I first visited Carolina and left maps and flags and. 52 books for use in the schools there. None of the teachers are reported as speaking English. An American or English lady whose name I did not learn gives private lessons in English in the munici¬ pality. After making two unsuccessful attempts by different routes, I found that it was impossible to reach Loiza without danger of injuring the supplies in the ambu¬ lance. At Rio Grande I distributed books to the school, and sold 64 books to the alcalde, receiving the money for the same. Mr. Emile Just, a Norwegian by birth, speaks excellent English, and gives private lessons in English in the town and in the vicinity. Ilis method is somewhat antiquated, and I was informed privately that there were considerations unfavorable to his appointment as an English teacher. I think, however, that he should be considered carefully as possibly an available candidate, if an English teacher is to be appointed at this place. I spent the night with Rafael Rexach, teacher at Mameyes, who is learning English at Rio Grande. Salaries are paid to date, but a system of store orders is complained of and is said to work injustice to the teachers. People of intelligence asserted that not over 20 per cent of the population of the municipality could read or write. The next day I left maps and flags at Luquilio, and left books, as well as maps, at Fajardo. Mrs. Jenny M. Hill, a graduate of the State University of Illinois, and a teacher of several years’ experience, residing at Fajardo, might be secured to teach English ad this place. There are four schools in the town. There was much com¬ plaint that educational reforms were not being more vigorously furthered by the central government. The local authorities think that money is misspent in the payment of incompetent teachers. There was a very urgent demand for an English teacher here, but no appropriation to pay one could be made before July 1. The municipality has a population of approximately 16,000, and spends 8,000 pesos annually for its schools. Part of the country district is practically without school accommodations, some pupils being 9 miles from a school house. I spent the night at Naguabo. There is no American or English teacher here. The postmaster speaks English, and many of the prominent men are learning that language. Complaint was made that the Catechism and kindred subjects took up the time of the teachers. The authorities urged immediate and radical changes in the school system. This municipality pays about 3,000 pesos per annum for educa¬ tional purposes. The next day I visited Kumacao, Piedras, and Juncos. In one of the Humacao schools English is being taught. The books that we sell for 25 centavos were sold by a Ponce firm for 60 centavos. I found some of the schools here the best supplied with school furniture of any that I had seen in the island. The alcalde was very severe in his strictures upon the present scIiqoI system, stating that he had visited 224 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. schools in several European countries and that those of Porto Pico were the poorest that had ever come under his observation. Books, flags, and maps were left at Piedras. One of the school buildings here is owned by the municipality, but the building was not specially erected for educational purposes. This municipality pays about 3,000 pesos per annum for school purposes, and has a population of about 8,000. Much complaint was made about the commercial condition of the country, due, it is said, to the difficulty of getting their products to a market on account of the poor roads. Several times the statement was made to me that more and better roads and more and better schools were the twTo crying needs of the country, to which all others should be made subordinate. At Guarabo, with a population of 8,000, 2,500 pesos are spent for educational purposes. I stopped here merely long enough to leave books, maps, and flags. The roads between Guarabo and Caguas are very poor. Our ambulance was overturned once, and we had to unload and carry our supplies a portion of the way. At Caguas I was unable to see the authorities and distribute supplies. Salaries are not paid to date, but it is said that an attempt is being made by the present alcalde to secure their settlement. I was not favorably impressed with the schools I visited here. On account of the error in shipping supplies to Coaino instead of Caguas, I was unable to visit Guyama and the neighboring towns, but continued down the military road. At Cayey I learned that months ago an appropriation was made for an American kindergarten, and this office was notified of that fact, but with no acknowledgment of such notification having been received. This municipality, with a population of 15,000, spends about 9,000 pesos annually for school purposes. I visited a private college here, which receives an appropri¬ ation from the municipality. Mrs. E. W. Van Metre, wrife of the postmaster, grad¬ uate of the Maryland Normal School at Baltimore, and with two years’ experience as teacher, will teach English here, if desired. She is now in the States. At Aibonito, on account of the low prices of coffee, there is considerable business depression, and this has influenced the schools. Two thousand four hundred pesos are paid annually for their support. The population given is 5,000. At Coamo, with a population of 13,181, 4,700 pesos are paid annually for school pur¬ poses. This town authorized an English teacher several months ago, and notified this office of the fact, but had received no acknowledgment of the notification. The authori¬ ties seemed to be irritated with what they considered neglect on the part of this office. In general, there seems to be a sfrong desire that English be taught by American teachers in the different towns. The people desire to learn English for political and commercial reasons. For the latter reason they desire that arithmetic be taught in English in the advanced classes. There was strong opposition in many places to the appointment of any but native American teachers, as the municipalities feel that they are to pay a high price for this instruction, and that they should have teachers with perfect pronunciation and command of the language in return for the money they spend. Some people were very radical. Occasionally a man of prominence could be found who desired all the teaching to be done in English. Teachers complained that there are too many subjects taught, and that it is impossible for them, with the large number of pupils under them, to instruct properly the large number of classes now required. Private persons complained that children not paying tuition are neglected. This was mentioned to me frequently as a very great evil. It was generally agreed that the present method of instruction tends to cultivate the memory at the expense of observation, reasoning, and expression. Teachers justified themselves by the statement that their classes were so large and the number of subjects taught so many that it was impossible for them to develop individuality and those faculties which require that the attention of the teacher be devoted to individual pupils, in the children under their charge. There seems to be a strong latent hostility to religious teaching in the schools. It was very hard to secure an open expression on this subject. I have come back with the impression that the people desire a change very much, but that they desire to throw the responsibility for it entirely upon the central govern¬ ment. I found in some cases a tendency to blame the capital and the government here for slowness and lack of decision in educational reforms. Authorities were accused of being in sympathy with the Spanish system and hostile to the education of the masses. A strong class feeling may develop in some of the towns of the island, and a large majority, representing the illiterate classes, may look upon the introduction of English, unless it be accompanied by increased educational facilities for all the children, and especially instruction in that language for all the children, as an attempt to establish class rule. It wTas pointed out to me that there might be a tendency upon the part of the wealthy people to monopolize English in their own ranks, and to use it to keep political and commercial control, and as an additional instrument for the oppression of the lowrer classes. I think that in some places the common people have a vague idea that English is in some way associated with liberty EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 225 and political rights, and that there is an earnest effort being made to prevent the people from securing it. I suggest that great care he taken to prevent anything like partiality in the introduction of English; that teachers be forbidden to give private lessons in that subject for money in schoolhouses; that the fee system in the schools be immediately abolished. It excludes from the schools children of that very impor¬ tant class who, though they can not afford to pay for the education of their children,, are too proud to make a declaratio paupertatis. I recommend, however, that teach¬ ing in the public schools be confined to the Spanish language and literature, English language and literature, including American and Porto Rican history and civics, arithmetic in English and geography in Spanish, and that these changes be intro¬ duced as rapidly as possible; that a special effort be made to reach the rural schools,, which are often neglected; finally, that the payment of fees by pupils be abolished, and that no municipality be authorized to pay teachers who violate this regulation.. Yours, most respectfully, Victor S. Clark, Subdirector of Public Instruction. THE BENEFICENCIA.1 This was large and well built, but without modern improvements. The building and its management embodied the beneficent manifestations of the ideas and customs' of the people in their public affairs. It was duly supplied with officers and regula¬ tions. My early inspection impressed me with its needs. At that time it was under the secretary of state, but was later transferred to the secretary of the interior and at once placed under the bureau of public instruction. One part of the building was occupied by several hundred orphans and another part by the insane of the island. The sexes were carefully separated, but some of the insane were employed in the- care of the orphans, and, vice versa, some of the older children in the care of the insane. This shocking condition was not permitted because there were not capable- people engaged in its management. There were those, according to their ideas, who were skillful, self sacrificing, and devoted to those under their care, but the system,, the arrangement of the building, conditions which no one in particular was able to change, came out of prevalent ideas, and embodied the evils fixed in the public mind, and thus they furnished an illustration of the progress of society. As in former days in the States, so here the places for punishment of crime, the- jails and prisons, furnished the receptacles for all who required care separate from the family, whether insane, criminal, or feeble-minded. The jails were reported extremely filthy and much neglected. This condition of the jails had received from General Henry special attention. It manifested the need of education in a most distressing manner. Immediately when charged with this special responsibility I recommended the separation of the insane from the orphans and their assignment to buildings in different localities. Now, under the order of General Davis, the care- of the insane has been removed from the office of public instruction and placed under the proper board. During the time of my responsibility an insane woman was reported violent in a distant part of the island and sent by an officer to San Juan for confinement in the beneficencia; legal steps had been duly taken, when after dark one evening, amid considerable confusion on the street, the man in charge of her appeared with her at my door. He had wrapped her in a sort of gunny sheet or blanket, and bringing the opposite edges of the wrap or cover together in the form of a sack ran a pole through the wrap or sack, so as to suspend it, each end of the pole resting on the shoulder of a stalwart man while the woman rested on her back within the sack; thus suspended in the wrap or sack she was brought to my door and taken thence to the asylum. There was no lack of indications of personal kind¬ ness in the intention, but there was deficiency of knowledge of important methods; of caring for the insane. 1 Asylum at San Juan for orphans and insane persons. ed 1900 - 15 226 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. THE SPANISH SCHOOL LAWS. The legal conditions which prevailed in the island went back to the Spanish school law of 1857, and were to be found in modifications added later by royal de¬ crees and changes made under the so-called autonomy. The situation was very much mixed, and, as it is passing away, it is necessary to recall it only so far as it may help in the development of educational work in the future. There wras much of excellence in the law of 1857, especially as compared with laws in the States of that date. In the making of Spanish laws there is indication that the best minds were consulted, whatever may be said of the defects of admin¬ istration. These defects, whether charged to laws or administration, are suffi¬ ciently seen in the results — no houses built for school purposes and owned by the public, with poor text-books, memoriter methods, conditions which render classification and discipline impossible, teachers poorly paid, a system which pro¬ vided for less than a fifth of the school population, almost all of whose provisions Avere of the most elementary character; with no instruction in the island in its advanced grades or qualities sufficient to prepare students for admission to a good college in the States; and leaving at least 80 per cent of the population unable to read and write; and, as found in some of the communities by the manager of elections, as elsewhere stated, often only 5 per cent, and in some cases only 2 per cent, able to read and Avrite. In the laAATs and administration as already seen the insular gOATernment and mu¬ nicipalities shared both in the exercise of authority and in the meeting of expenses. With the central authority AA’as associated a council. This, however, rarely met. The island Avas divided into two inspection districts, and an inspector for each Avas under the direction of the insular government. With each alcalde were associated a group of citizens constituting a municipal board of education, whose members before exercising their functions must be approved by insular authority. There was great complaint of the neglect of duty by these boards, and especially of their partisan action. School attendance was obligatory for the ages from 6 to 9 years, but this provision Avas not enforced. Schools in the country Avere divided into auxiliary and rural. In the toAvns they AA'ere designated as elementary and superior; but the instruction in all cases Avas most elementary and for the most part of the same grade. The chief real difference Avas in the pay of the teachers. A teacher of the superior school, first class, had 1,200 pesos a year; of the second class, 1,000 pesos a year; the teacher of an elementary school, first class, had 600 pesos a year; but in San Juan, Ponce, and Mayaguez the salary of the first class Avas 720 pesos, and of the second class 480 pesos. The second grade, howeATer, in San Juan, Ponce, and Mayaguez was to receive 540 pesos. The salary for an auxiliary school Avas 360 pesos, a rural school 300 pesos. A somewhat similar condition appeared in the rent for houses. The rent for supe¬ rior schools, first class, Avas 500 pesos a year; for superior schools, second class, it AA'as 204 pesos; elementary school, first class, 144 pesos; auxiliary, 36 pesos; rural, 24 pesos. When ATicancies occurred, publication Avas made, and any teacher could apply. If all applicants held a similar grade of certificate, the one of longest service could claim the appointment; or if they had different grades of diplomas, the one of superior grade could claim the appointment. Theoretically, the provisions for obtaining places Avere rigid and exact, but practically A7ery much mixed. There Avas a board of examiners for the entire island, and tAVO dates — January and July — fixed for exam¬ ination which by insular authority might be permitted at any time. A special fee for examination Avas fixed, which Avas so large in some cases as to embarrass the EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 227 poor candidate. A school obtained in accordance with the exact provisions and to suit the teacher was his for life. He could only be removed for malfeasance after trial, as legally provided. A school thus held was, in a way, looked upon as owned by the teacher and not the public. Separate schools were provided for boys and girls. The feeling against bringing the sexes together, however young the pupils, was very strong. A system of pensions was established in 1895, derived from 3 per cent of the salaries of teachers in the normal school and of the inspectors and teachers of both sexes in the auxiliary elementary schools, and the product of salaries of schools that were vacant, and a discount of 10 per cent on the school budget. The money due to this fund was taken away by the Spanish authorities, amounting to some 35,000 pesos. Effort has been made for its recovery. Its administration is no longer intrusted to the school authorities, hut has passed into the voluntary control of an organization effected among the teachers who participate, and the money is deposited with the insular treasurer. EDUCATIONAL SENTIMENT. The indications of educational sentiment were extremely interesting. I had rarely been situated in a way to hear education more universally commended. It was good for everybody, and everybody wanted it. All classes talked about it. The need of improvement was admitted on all hands. Americans and Porto Ricans were prolific with plans. The General promised to give free passage on Government transports to both teachers and pupils who should go to the States for educational purposes. This order brought to my attention a great number of typical facts. The number who sought its benefits was very large, especially among the orphaned and most depend¬ ent. Widows came with their children, sometimes long distances; often it was difficult to discover how they obtained the means for making the journey. The number who were in extreme poverty and sought the benefit of education for their children was especially touching. The pallid and anaemic condition of not a few left no doubt of their lack of food, as they would reluctantly confess themselves well nigh to starvation. One saw many manifestations of the mother’s affection, stronger and more active than those of the father’s affection for the child. Often the families of these destitute children had been in better circumstances, and there was manifest the great lack of means or instrumentalities for giving them aid either official or voluntary. It was pitiable to see the number of waifs adrift. Save the limited number in the orphan asylum, there had been neither schools nor provision for the support of the dependent, the blind, or the deaf and dumb, or the feeble-minded. In spite of the fact that the number of beggars was so large that one day in the week they were allowed special privileges in begging, there were many whose pride would not allow them to confess their poverty. The so-called submerged class was large. The great amount of talk about education was indefinite and crude. Those who had been educated abroad had some idea of the systems and methods which prevailed in the instruction which they had received. Few could be found able to give an adequate idea of satisfactory principles or methods or of a working system. A portion of the Spanish press was quite as likely to hinder as help any wise move¬ ment. Americans on the island, whether in the Army or out of it, favored schools, but were so conflicting in their notions as to be of little aid in improving the situation. One would abolish all that was old; another dismiss all teachers; another employ only men as teachers; one would teach little but industry; another would teach all letters; one claimed that the law in his State permitted the schoolhouses to be only two stories high. Perhaps the question asking for a modern system toward which to work would be answered by pointing to a State in which education went forward by a law that gave no coherent relation of part to part. Indeed that was 223 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. not a system in any proper use of the term. Generally the teaching of subjects was urged without any proper regard to their comparative pedagogical value, and methods were put forward as the best which had long been discarded by the best judges. INTELLIGENCE OF THE PEOPLE. There was no sure measure of the intelligence of the people; the usual measure of ability to read or write, or both, was only an estimate. Many said that not more than fourteen in a hundred could read and write; the highest estimate was twenty in a hundred. Several municipalities have held elections. Suffrage has been limited to those who could read and write. Some instances have been reported where not more than 5 per cent could give good evidences of this qualification. Below that line one could go down to a most submerged condition, the number, poverty, and degree of ignorance increasing as one descended. As in the States, there were those who had prospered or obtained a measure of success with little knowledge of letters. Near the line of demarcation there was a large number who could barely read and write. As one ascended, applying higher tests, the number grew increasingly smaller until one approached the summit of the cone, where were found the truly educated. They had enjoyed the best privileges in Europe or America, and were cultivated men and women. Their language was correct; often they could speak in several tongues. There was less knowledge of Latin and Greek than one would expect. Attention to the sciences, which kept up with their progress, was generally lacking. Indeed, there were on the island neither the opportunities nor the motives to the highest scientific research. The cultivated people, men and women, could not be excelled in good manners. Libraries of decided merit were owned here and there by private individuals, and there were some of considerable value furnished by municipalities. One in San Juan reported 5,000 volumes; the one connected with the institute was about the same size; another, at Mavaguez, had 7,000 volumes and was well housed. Little was known of improved library administration, but the library at Mayaguez was installed substantially on the stack system. The atheneum in San Juan had valuable collections in foreign journals and scientific works. Some European journals of character were taken by private individuals. The desire for American prints began to manifest itself. Accurate knowledge of American life, institutions, and principles of liberty was possessed by few natives. The government had manifestly neither been shaped nor administered to inspire to the highest attain¬ ments. In spite of this, there were men of eminence among engineers, teachers, clergy, lawyers, and doctors, deserving of the greatest respect, and whose views of education I found helpful. There was no lack of natural ability; opportunity and use were wanting; the practical application of attainments to the conditions of life was the great need in all directions. Skill did little to improve the natural condi¬ tions or resources of the beautiful island. The rich fruits grew abundantly as when first used by man, but of no better quality. Thirteen hundred mountain streams turned no wheels for man’s benefit. The plow might be a part of a tree; a flail a straight stick. Grain would be winnowed in the wind and ground with a pestle in a mortar. One was reminded of the conditions of industry in Palestine two thousand years ago. Nature is so profuse in productions useful to man that they require little change for his existence, and motives and conditions are wanting to assure his progress in intelligence. Education must meet this question or man’s efforts for improvement will be feeble. In the relation of the educated to the ignorant there needs to be kept in mind the temptation presented to the selfish, unprincipled, or viciously educated in the pres¬ ence of large numbers of the ignorant whom they can control by their intelligence and skill. EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 229 MODIFICATION OF EDUCATION. Every source of information disclosed the inadequacy of the instruction that had been given. Clearly, education must be revolutionized. What authority will direct it? What will be acceptable to the people? Hereafter the source of supreme authority is to be the United States, instead of Spain. The island separated by the broad ocean is nearer to the American continent. The people native to the Spanish tongue are to be nearer to and more closely affiliated with Americans. The cur¬ rents of history, like the tides of ocean, bring them nearer to American civilization, and by every consideration increase their interest in English. The direct work is to be among the young, while their minds are plastic and in a formative condition, before their habits are fixed or crystallized; but the adults must not be overlooked. Their views will affect the attitude of the young and render them favorable or unfa¬ vorable to the changes. Education must be thought of in its broader sense. Both the authority must be kept in view and the people to be educated. In this adjust¬ ment to the requirements of the authority of the United States and to the conditions of the people, young and old, is our supreme educational problem. Authority may decree, but minds must be willing to learn. There must be nice adjustment to pro¬ duce the desired results. How shall wre know the authority? The United States has no secretary or minister of public instruction in the Cabinet of the President to execute his directions under the laws of Congress. Education is among the interests whose regulation is left by the Constitution and by custom to the States. States make their school laws and administer them. This has been held and should for¬ ever be held a sacred duty. Congress has supreme power over all details of govern¬ ment in the Territories and the District of Columbia. This includes the authority over education, but this authority Congress has not exercised, save over the District of Columbia and Alaska and for Indians. It has otherwise left education to local action in the Territories as well as in the States. The Territories have, therefore, kept up or fallen behind the general sentiment of education of the country accord¬ ing to the local desires of the people. The condition of schools in Arizona and New Mexico, once under Spanish rule, contrasts unfavorably with school conditions in the Dakotas. Science, invention, and authorship have had national provisions from the first. In recognition of the supreme importance of education, under the author¬ ity to provide for the “general welfare,” and having absolute control of the domain in the Territories, Congress has patronized education by giving lands for common- school and university purposes and for colleges of agriculture and appropriated money for experiment stations. It has incorporated and conducted the Smithson¬ ian and the National College for Deaf Mutes, and finally, after finding the collection and dissemination of information so beneficial to education, has created and admin¬ istered a Bureau of Education as an office of information, to focus and disseminate the lessons of experience in this department of the public welfare. This office has carefully regarded its limitations and become a favorite with the educators of the country. Its reports gather information from the educational experience the world over as no other report does; it is careful to assume no authority, but comes the nearest to furnishing an official form of expression of the national idea of education. Personally I felt conscious that sympathy and cooperation in all well-advised efforts wTere extended to me by the Commissioner of Education and other officers of the Administration, as well as by the President; but no one in Washington spoke to me legally with an authoritative voice. While around me the officers in the several subdivisions of the Army — commissary, quartermaster, medical — and in the several bureaus of the Treasury, Post-Office, weather service, and other civil forms of administration, were in direct communication with a chief in Washington, from whom they received their instructions in regard to all internal regulations of their 230 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. service, the supreme authority is vested in the commander in chief on the island as long as the island is in the military grasp and under what may be termed a Presi¬ dential government, under the war power of the Constitution and the acts of Con¬ gress. It is a matter of unspeakable good fortune for education that the General on the island, exercising the supreme authority vested in him by the President, was so thoroughly an American, of such unselfish and single purpose, so patriotic and quick and broad in his apprehension of what improved instruction may do for the people of the island. His orders were law, and clearly whatever was attempted must accord with his judgment; but not only was it my duty to consult and obey author¬ ity, but the people who were to be educated must be studied and consulted. The old maxim is still true, “ You may lead a horse to the water, but you can not make him drink.” Clearly, no preconceived scheme or iron-bedstead plan of education should be imposed. Theories will be vain if not fitted to the situation. The origin and race peculiarities of the people must be taken into account, as well as present customs, ideas, and aspirations. The local authority and sentiment were officially represented by the minister of the interior. From the first, therefore, I attempted no plan which had not the approval of the general commanding, the supreme authority on the island, and the Secretary of the Interior, as the local official. Great as were the perplexities, it is a pleasure to say my plans received their cordial approval. It was of primary importance that I should have some ready means, first, of knowing the views of the people, and, second, of conveying to them the plans approved for execution. As I have indicated, aid could not be expected with assurance from the press, and from the clergy only in exceptional cases. Only one priest called to promote education in his municipality. The religious sentiment in all peoples, so powerful when aroused for their uplift in any community or state, was in the main untaught or perverted. The family as a social force was in an abnormal condition; many were beautiful in their exemplification of domestic vir- tues; many parents, though perhaps, as claimed, more than one-half were not bound by any legal marital ties, were faithful to each other as man and wife. There were not wanting striking illustrations of their love for their children and their desire for their education. In this confusion of social, civil, and ecclesiastical conditions, how should I be able to know and measure the pulse of life on the island? There was no representative body to be consulted. I therefore decided to try to organize a voluntary “society for the benefit of children,” taking one suggestion from England, another from the State of Maine, another from New Orleans in giving it shape. The cooperation of every Porto Rican was invited, without regard to par¬ tisan differences. General Henry became the honorary president, and the members of the previous and the present cabinet, the several consuls on the island, and Gen¬ eral Grant and Colonel Hood became honorary vice-presidents. Eminent men of the best character from the different political parties were selected for active officers. The operations of the society were under the direction of an executive committee, with which a subordinate executive committee was to cooperate in each munici¬ pality. The executive committee were charged with the general management of the society; they were to arrange all meetings, name subjects and speakers, designate the committees charged with special duties, and do whatever else, in their judgment, would promote the objects of the society, which were to be, to promote the attendance of all children upon school, to aid those who do not attend on account of destitution, to give attention to the supply of teachers, the advancement of their qualifications, the supply of school houses and furniture, the learning of English, the supply of reading for the home, the acquisition of knowledge of the history of the United States, the cultivation of patriotism and ail good sentiments, and otherwise to promote intelli¬ gence and virtue. I uniformly attended the meetings of the executive committee. The members were not only representative men, but men of the highest order of intelligence on the island. There was little in the condition of the people and situa- EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 231 tion of the island which they did not know; and they had a great variety of ways and acquaintances by which they could make known the plans upon which they agreed. They had a deep interest in education and the welfare of their people, and were alert for every means of improving the condition of the schools. It was a delight and an encouragement to meet with them. There were no public amuse¬ ments for children or parks for their entertainment about San Juan, and their supply was taken up for consideration. The occasion of the ratification by the Senate of the treaty with, Spain was seized as an opportunity for cultivating a spirit of patriotism, as was the anniversary of Washington’s birthday, by the gathering of the schools, with their flags, with music and speeches. On the 22d of February there was a popular assembly, with attractive exercises, which filled the theater, the largest audience room in the city of San Juan, and in the evening the hall of the Athenaeum was filled, by card invitation, with an audience of the elite. The music was patriotic and the speaking of a high order and filled with the most patriotic sentiment. The purposes and possibilities of the association were so commendable that the gift of $1,500 was made to the society for its expenses. Important questions touching the improvement of education in various ways wTere discussed by the executive committee. The establishment of evening schools and other means of instructing adults, such as the introduction of lectures with stereopticon illustrations, especially on subjects relating to American customs and conditions, were discussed. A mem¬ ber gave the money necessary to buy the required stereopticon outfit, but after a limited period the partisan spirit began to show itself, and those on one side of the line manifested less interest and began to withdraw, leaving what the society undertook to do to those on the other side of the political line, which soon would represent the action of the society to the public as partisan. Strangely enough, in one of the efforts of the society to give the schools an opportunity to express and cultivate patriotic sentiments, as mentioned above, the Aguinaldo spirit — the spirit to rule or ruin — began to show itself. There was a band of boys in the orphan school which played with considerable acceptance to the public. This school at the time was under the control of the secretary of the state, and the attendance of the band was solicited of him, when he declared “no band should participate in the occasion while under his control.” But the people, on the other hand, were very responsive to the efforts to cultivate the American spirit — loyalty to the American flag and what it symbolizes. The society considered the subject of night schools for adults, and for a time I gave the subject special attention. The number of Americans coming into the cities was con¬ stantly increasing, and there was a growing demand for the use of English terms in the retail trade. There had been one night school, so called, sustained at the expense of the city of San Juan. The teacher was a man of superior character, but the means at his control for meeting the public demand were utterly inadequate. Every volun¬ tary effort was encouraged. The so-called Economic Society, which for over eighty years had sought to promote the advancement of the people in various directions, furnished rooms free for instruction. Mr. Swenssen, a student from Illinois, occu¬ pied his entire time in teaching pupils for pay. Professor Myers, formerly connected with the Institute of Technology in Boston, did efficient service and reported that there were over 600 applications for night instruction. I sought to bring all efforts into harmony. Volunteer teachers were invited. A considerable number of soldiers offered their services. The dictionary and grammar, to which many thought to turn to learn the use of language, were in a measure discarded; the word method of instruction was advised, and instead of urging the study of the science of language and the translation and definition of tens of thousands of English words, the attempt was made to select a definite vocabulary of a few hundred words most used in each of the several trades, such as drygoods, groceries, etc., and to drill in their pro¬ nunciation, meaning, and use in the forms of speech used by merchants. The 232 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. members of the society and many others heartily approved the plan. Considerable work was done, but there was a lack of iiublic funds and the difficulty of raising suffi¬ cient money from private sources was too great, and so the systematic organization to meet the situation was given up. THE AMERICAN LIBRARY. Many called attention to the absence of sources of information in regard to United States history, persons, and events. The society considered the importance of the collection of American books, in which there could be found the record of the settle¬ ment and development of the Republic; where could be studied the character of American people, their sentiments and activity, their progress and legislation, the administration of laws, judgments of courts, the development of industry and com¬ merce, the advancement of science, the triumphs of literature and art and patriot¬ ism, and the unfolding of American life — national and personal — in its manifold manifestations. The general commanding and Secretary Carbonell united in approv¬ ing the plan of founding an American library, where should be collected all books, pamphlets, and pictures concerning the States, which should be made available for the people of the island. The library should be located in San Juan, but branches established in each of the several municipalities and a system of exchange arranged between each branch and the center, so that these sources of information could be brought within the reach of the most distant localities on the island. Familiar with the publication of reports at Washington, I was sure that a considerable supply could be secured at once. Accordingly, I addressed L. C. Ferrell, escp, superintendent of the distribution of documents, and others connected with the several departments, and in a short time several thousand public documents arrived free in the due course of mail. The following printed circular was also sent: War Department, Department of Porto Rico, San Juan , January 19, 1S99. My Dear Sir: With the approval and desire of the authorities an American library is to be established in San Juan, administered under the department of public instruc¬ tion, on the plan of New York State Library, for the entire island. The books will be loaned to the different cities for a definite number of weeks, according to their population. The documentary history of the United States will be furnished by the National Government at Washington. All departments and bureaus are invited to forward their current publications, and all publishers are invited to furnish one copy of each publication, including magazines. There will be a reading room for the daily use of citizens and soldiers. All books and periodicals addressed to Gen. Guy Y. Henry, care A. S. Kimball, quartermaster, New York City, will be forwarded free on Government transports. I am sure you will wish to contribute to this important agency to aid the million of Porto Ricans in their effort to come into a knowledge and love of the institutions of the United States, and I address you with the hope that you will send us a copy of each of your publications at present on the market. Very respectfully, John Eaton, Director of Public Instruction. There were many gratifying responses, but publishers did not seize the opportunity with special avidity. The organization and growth of the library would naturally have fallen into various departments under the head of law, sanitation, education, etc. The pedagogical development was the most satisfactory. Very soon this department of the collection equaled that to be found in the control of State super¬ intendents of instruction in a considerable number of the States. An illustration of the difficulty experienced in giving effect to entirely new ideas occurred in connection with the furnishing of cases for the library. The custom had prevailed of installing books on shelves which could be reached in part only by a ladder so as to fill the higher space assigned to the library. No one knew anything of the stack system. EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 233 In ordering the eases, however, I explained that system and showed that no shelf for books should be above easy and natural reach. The architect of public works, who had charge of public buildings, was accomplished in all departments of con¬ struction with which he was familiar. He gave the directions for shelving to a subordinate, and when the book cases appeared they were of the old type, tall and massive, requiring a ladder for the use of books on the upper shelves. When Secre¬ tary Degeteau was installed he desired that his exalted idea of the possibilities of a pedagogical museum should be realized if possible. The objects of the museum, as stated by him, are (1) the exposition of projects and plans for educational buildings, of samples of school furniture and school sup¬ plies, of scientific apparatus, material to be used for object lessons, gifts of Froebel, pictures, photographs, drawings, and paintings, and all other aids that are used at present to develop physical, moral, and artistic education in modern centers; (2) the organization of lectures about all questions relating to pedagogical questions and work; (3) the organization of a circulating library specially devoted to pedagogical matters, although it would also contain the works regarding general culture in order to facilitate the progress of education, lending books with the necessary trusts to the teachers, municipalities, and every one interested in its development; (4) the collection of all the material of education which not being of daily use in every school and too costly to be possessed by every teacher, can be lent by the museum to the different schools; (5) the publication of bulletins regarding the progress of education^ and explanatory catalogues of books and pedagogical materials; (6) the organization of scholar excursions during vacations from the country to the sea towns and vice versa, and from the island to the States and vice versa; (7) the organization by cor¬ respondence of interstate fraternities to facilitate the study of languages, especially among those in Porto Rico who are engaged in the study of English and those in the States who study Spanish; (8) to furnish the authorities all information required about pedagogical matters. Thus the museum would aim at accomplishing much provided for in part officially and in part by voluntary effort. The largeness of the scheme was equal to the demands of a great nation. When charged with the execution of the plan, I naturally associated it with the American library. INSTRUCTION IN ART. In connection with the effort for night schools and instruction of adults, Mr. Oiler, an artist of considerable repute, began to instruct in one of the public halls young ladies of standing who sought to improve themselves in drawing and painting. He had painted the portrait of the King of Spain and other pictures of considerable merit. There were belonging to the government a number of pictures, some of them of large size and impressive in character, which had been installed in halls and other out of the way places in part. These he was encouraged to bring together and install appropriately in a hall of considerable size, where they could be seen by visitors. Pie added some of his own pictures. He instructed his classes in the same room, which adjoined the rooms of the library and museum, and thus, naturally, the art school and collection supplied appropriately an additional means of public enter¬ tainment and instruction. Distinguished strangers inspected the school and collec¬ tion with pleasure; among them may be named Secretary Alger and the insular com¬ mission. When General Henry resigned, and the citizens wished to testify their respect and sense of loss, they raised the required funds and ordered his portrait painted by Mr. Oiler for the art gallery. A copy was also presented to Mrs. Henry. This school and its collection furnish an interesting suggestion of the appreciation of art possibilities among these people. Embroidery and lace-making are common. Even the prisoners are adepts in making artificial flowers. A teacher writing of her 234 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. early experiences in preparing to teach sloyd, says: “I teach drawing only just now. Some of my pupils are real little geniuses in art.” Good home-made lace will be found adorning chambers where cleanliness is neglected. EDUCATIONAL POLICY ADOPTED. Naturally while keeping in view American principles and methods of education in its broadest sense, we sought their adoption by the hearty choice of the people. It would be difficult, in a fewr words, to describe how deeply the changes entered into the general and personal life of the people on the island. There w'ere before us numerous lessons from ancient and modern history; the rise and fall of every nation told its story in the change of peoples from the use of certain customs and languages to others. In more modern times the dismemberment of Poland, the transfer of Canada from France to England, of parts of Mexico to the United States, of a portion of France to Germany. Then, too, the colonial experiences of Holland and England were full of instruction. Any reasonable view of the past enforced the conviction that the method adopted should be dictated by common sense on the alert to appreciate and meet every condition as it unfolded itself; facts should not be forced into any preconceived theories, but they should be studied and theories fitted to them. A great ruler reveals his greatness by his cultivation of the aspirations of his people. The rule of this people by Spain was one both of suppression and oppression. Whatever aspirations were permitted were tow'ard Spain. A narrow/ way up to a few' honors doled out by Spain was offered to the teacher, the lawyer, the doctor, the engineer. All occupations and profits, how'ever small, were made to bear in the same direction. The changes in school policy must recognize ail other modifications taking place in the body politic. The attendance upon schools would be affected by the condition of roads. Expenditures must be regulated by income. Nothing must be overlooked. Inadequacy of means, unfitness of methods, the untold perversions of the past met one in every direction. We must go neither too slow nor too fast. The future must Ire better than the past. The steady pressure in all directions of our American methods tow'ard American ends, gaining in a degree the confidence and cooperation of the great majority of all concerned, was constantly uppermost, meantime using all sources of information to aid in revising the entire scheme of education. HOLIDAYS AND VACATIONS. Few' w'ould be prepared to appreciate the difficulties connected with the question of holidays and vacations. Shall the school year correspond to the calendar or financial year? The financial year began the 1st of July, the school year was often spoken of as continuous. Teachers were supposed to be paid monthly tw'elve months in the year, and to teach uninterruptedly six days in a week every week in the year, excepting holidays. These wrere mostly saints’ days. The question, therefore, of vacations was seen to have its relation to religious belief. Holidays w'ere numerous, but no one w'as prepared to give the number. The minister of justice, by the command of General Henry, named as holidays Newr Year’s, the 22d of February, Good Friday, Christmas day, and the day named by the President for national thanksgiving, and the 4th of July. School holidays and vacation wrere brought in a measure into accord with this order. Some teachers had had a vacation of a month for July or August. Others had taught only a half a day, six days in the W'eek, during those months. It was at first decided that school should be taught five and a half clays during the week, attendance not being required on Saturday afternoon, and later five days each wreek; that the school year close with the financial year and begin w'ith the 1st of October, or the twelfth Monday before Christmas W'eek, and the winter term the twelfth Monday before Holy Week, and the spring term Monday after Holy Week. The question of summer vacation proved much more serious. Not a few EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 235 parents in the cities looked upon the schools as nurseries where the teachers kept the children from the street and saw that no harm came to them; but this could hardly he regarded as a sufficient pedagogical reason to warrant the regulation of vacation. Physicians and sanitarians were asked if there were any conditions relating to health furnishing reasons why the children of Porto Rico should not have a longer vacation in the summer, and the universal answer was that there were none. Some pointed out that there were considerations of health why schools should not be taught in the rainy season. Recalling the fact that the larger proportion of children reside in the country districts where roads, if there are any, are poor, and where children often have to cross swollen streams dangerous to life, it was considered bet¬ ter that there should be no attempt at school during those months in those regions, and that the quality of those schools should be improved during the time taught. The purpose to retain the native teachers as far as possible, together with the importance that these teachers should have an opportunity to devote themselves to improving their knowledge of modern pedagogical principles and methods, rendered a vacation desirable for them. After taking into view these and other considerations it was decided that the year time of service required of teachers paid from the general or insular treasury should be nine months, and that they should be paid at the end of each month. There was no prohibition against teaching school the other months — July, August, and Sep¬ tember. Municipalities, if they chose, could continue the schools as formerly dur¬ ing the summer vacation, and teachers could teach for tuition also so far as not incompatible with the efforts that might be required by the bureau of education for their self-improvement. This was the most trying to the teachers of all the new provisions. Few teachers had been able to lay up money. Those who had no accumulated savings did not see how they could pay their expenses for the three months of summer vacation. In order to relieve them as far as possible it was authorized that $15 per month should be advanced each of the three months’ vaca¬ tion from the annual salaries to those teachers needing it. SCHOOLS TO BE FREE. Teachers from time immemorial have been allowed to supplement the salaries paid by the public with a collection of fees from those pupils whose parents were able to pay. This drew a line between the rich and the poor, likely to be most injurious in its consequences. Pupils recognized it. One class was in danger of asserting its superiority and the other of cultivating the resentments and jealousies natural under such circumstances; thus there was danger of cultivating in childhood a class feel¬ ing which might be fraught with dangerous consequences to society and the state in the future. There was no purpose to deprive the teacher of the privilege of giving lessons for pay out of the school hours, or to hinder the people who had means in employing private instruction, but it was recognized that the principle was fundamental, that the time paid for by the jiublic money should be devoted by the teacher unreservedly and equally in the hours required to all -pupils under his instruction. A few teachers whose popularity had added greatly to the number of their pupils saw in the aboli¬ tion of fees no small reduction of their income, but most of them acknowledged the rightness of the principle and gave hearty support to its application. SEPARATION OF SCHOOL LIFE FROM FAMILY LIFE. The custom of the teacher having his residence in the same building with his school, and. sometimes using the same rooms, had a strong hold on the minds of teachers and some communities. It was difficult for them to see the harm of this mingling of the family life with that of the school. Great pressure was brought upon 230 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. General Davis to get him to revoke this provision, until with Dr. Clark he visited in person one of the schools in San Juan and saw for himself the harm of uniting school life and family life, and gave the provision his emphatic indorsement. In many cases the teacher subordinated his school entirely to his other or domestic demands. A trustworthy visitor states that he visited school during hours and found the teacher in bed taking a siesta; other teachers were away attending store; in another case we found a teacher who was running a rum shop. Teachers went about the schoolroom in untidy and insufficient attire, and the demands of neighborhood callers upon the time of the teacher left her les3 than the required amount of time for instructing pupils. Through the English supervisors each building is now inspected, and rural schools are housed entirely apart from the residences. In towns and villages, so far as possible, the schools are grouped into one building and a very simple system of gradation is attempted. In many instances a town does not contain a building large enough to afford two or three schoolrooms under the same roof, and in these cases the schools have to remain separate. TEACHING ENGLISH IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. The absence of the English language furnished the greatest difficulty in the way of those who wished to become American in thought, belief, and loyalty. How should English be introduced with the least friction? The imagination is likely to magnify greatly the difficulty of a child’s learning any other than its native tongue. The way children learn their own language may be called the natural method. A simple text-book with appropriate lessons, pictures, words, and sentences is selected, and the child goes forward from lesson to lesson by easy stages. In Porto Rico it was important that the learning of English should as far as possible be divested of imaginary objections in the minds of the teachers of the public schools. The 10,000 copies of Appleton’s First Reader ordered were considerably delayed in coming. Every Saturday I had been meeting the teachers in San Juan an hour, enforcing a few7 important simple methods in regulating the schools. The Saturday after the arrival of the First Readers I took with me a sufficient number to supply a copy to each teacher. And beginning with the first lesson, which is wholly in English — a picture of a cat and a few simple words — I began to drill them as beginners. They at once mas¬ tered the lesson, and we went on from lesson to lesson through the hour, when they found they had begun to learn English, and no bugbear had turned up as expected. From that time they went forward giving the lessons to their respective schools. In some cases the pupils learned faster than their teachers. Some teachers employed private instructors and specially prepared themselves in each lesson before giving it to their schools. The people of wealth could employ instructors in English at will. The question of its introduction into the public schools was mainly of importance to those who had not the means of doing as they chose in providing for the instruction of their own families, or, in other words, those who were entirely dependent on the public schools for education. It was clearly their right to demand that these schools should furnish them the privilege of learning English, upon which so much of their future depended. It was remembered that German had been extensively introduced into the city schools in the States by putting a German text-book in the hands of the pupils who should give it the prescribed attention under the direction of the regular teacher, who spoke only English, and an expert in German should visit the schools once or twice a week, as prescribed, and see that the German was correctly pro¬ nounced and written. The instructive expedient of Jacotot was recalled. Native teachers and pupils used Spanish. They all, teachers and pupils, were together beginners in English. What could be better than the natural method of acquiring the new language? Objections to a new language were expected. One might say: “I heard the first words from my mother’s lips in Spanish. I breathed the first EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 237 words of tenderness to my love in Spanish. Would you have me forget my mother tongue?” The answer was: “By no means. The American plan would teach a better Castilian than you were taught, but it would also teach English as opening the greatest door of opportunity to the rising generation.” SUPERVISORS OF ENGLISH. When the commanding general, therefore, had so far advanced in the knowledge and control of affairs as to find the general or insular treasury receiving 'sufficient money to warrant expenditure, the island was divided into sixteen parts, and a supervisor of English, native to the language, was employed at $50 a month for twelve months of the year to visit each school as frequently as the number would permit and to see that English was correctly pronounced and written. This was an aid both to the pupils and the regular teachers. No native teachers were removed; their fear of loss of place disappeared; they foresaw that in the nature of things they would be expected to teach English themselves some time in the future and many of them specially appreciated this opportunity to gain a knowledge of it themselves. UNITED STATES FLAGS AND PATRIOTIC SONGS. Col. A. C. Blakewell, of the Lafayette Post of the Grand Army of the Republic of New York, had visited the island and had commenced to supply the United States flags to every school, together with directions in English for saluting the flag. The exercise interested both teachers and scholars. Later a flag for every school was supplied. No singing wTas found in the schools, but patriotic songs in English were introduced as far as possible, the teachers in many instances copying the words and the music for their schools, as no appropriate text-books were to be had. The interest was so great that shortly a visitor from the States calling at a school would be surprised by a reasonably good recitation in English reading and the salutation of the flag in English, together with the singing of “America.” Meantime Spanish was taught as efficiently as in the past, and teachers, pupils, and the public saw how the attention to the two languages would harmonize, and it wras apparent that the fear of losing the Spanish was groundless and more and more the advantage of knowing English became manifest. Moreover the regular teachers saw that its introduction, instead of displacing them or in any way operating against their interest, was altogether to their advantage. And thus the question was settled in a wTay to win popular approval instead of disapproval and resistance. UNITED STATES MAPS. Another step added interest to the language. Many of the schools had on their walls fair collections of maps, especially maps of Spain and of Porto Rico; but as a rule no separate map of the United States. I therefore addressed a request to Hon. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, for a gift from the Land Office through the Interior Department of a supply of maps made by that Bureau of the United States. Fortunately 250 maps were spared at once and distributed as rapidly as possible to the schools, and later a supply came sufficient for every school. This map impressed both teachers and pupils with new ideas of the United States. Many considerations united to quicken an interest in its study; naturally they used English terms, names, etc. Teachers began to talk about American events; some teachers took pains to carefully study and write out an outline history of the United States and to include it in oral instruction to their schools. Pictures of distinguished Americans — Washington, Grant, McKinley — and of American scenes and events were recommended for installation on the walls of the schools. Into all of these plans the supervisors of English were expected to enter with the utmost tact and enthusiasm. 238 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The following letter was addressed to the supervisors: San Juan, May 13, 1899. My Dear Sir: Supervising the teaching of English in Porto Rico, which you now undertake, is one of the most important duties of the hour. Porto Ricans manifest a great interest in the subject, and the eye of the United States is upon it. You start with a small book in your hand, but in it are the greatest possibilities, warrant¬ ing the concentration of all your powers and the utmost singleness of purpose. You should spare no thought, you should omit no preparation, in order to do it well. You are not to remove or disparage Spanish, for four hundred years the language of this people, in the use of which their ancestors lived and died and recorded their history. But you are to teach the reading and writing of English, and you are selected because it is believed you can do it correctly. You do not displace other teachers. They are paid from the municipal treasuries, and you are paid from the State treasury. You do not come to disparage or antagonize their work; but you go to them as their special friend, to aid them in making the changes which the new conditions require. In the ocean currents which swell around Porto Rico the island has always been continually nearer America than Europe. Now the currents of history have swept around the people and separated them from Europe and united them to the United States, the most powerful nation on the American continent, to a people enjoying the largest liberty of any in the world — not license to do evil, to harm others, but liberty regulated by law, in which there is found the largest good for the greatest number. Porto Ricans are Americans. The rich can buy what they desire, but those without money or wealth are dependent upon the opportunities which the law assures them. Their possibilities, not assured by their possessions, are to be found in their natural endowments and in their knowledge and power to use them for their own advantage and the benefit of the public. The school system, common and equal for all, is their only hope for gaining the training by which they can fully enter into the enjoyment of their new privileges. To them, the gaining of the knowledge of English is the medium through which they will become acquainted with the principles of American liberty, with American affairs, American commerce and trade, and thereby share in their benefits. All that they expect from their new relations must come to them through the English language, in which are to be found American history, literature, art, science, statesmanship, and in the use of which they are to enter into industrial and commercial relations with the business of the States and take a share in their civil administration. This great boon you carry to them in the little reader in your hands. Your duties should be discharged with the utmost devotion to principle and with the most winning tact; not only be in truth the friend of teachers, pupils, parents, and pgople, but show them by your acts and manners that you are such. Help them to see that you come to serve and benefit them all. Familiarize yourself with the principles of the American Consti¬ tution, and be sure that your official conduct is guided by them. Do not indulge in fault-finding. Remember that “the joys of victory are the joys of man,” and so try to assure the success of teachers and pupils that they may share in these joys. Be sure that your example is worthy to be followed in all things. “Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war.” May you add a conspicuous illustration to the truth of this saying by fidelity and success in the discharge of your important duties. Sincerely yours, John Eaton, Director , etc. This letter indicates the view taken of their appointment. The supervision thus introduced was full of possibilities which have since been disclosing themselves with the approval of all who are interested in the progress of education. As their duties were increased, increased qualifications were required and larger pay was provided. The information gained through the supervisors was specially helpful in the revision of school provisions. Their present duties may be stated as follows: 1. To visit each school of their district at least once a month, rendering a report upon Government blanks under the following heads: (a) Enrollment. ( b ) Teachers. (c) Books and supplies. (cl) School buildings and grounds. (e) School programme. (/) Progress in studies. And a special examination and report wherever a school is supposed to have fallen below grade. EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 239 2. To distribute the salary checks to public-school teachers, cashing them, when necessary, at the nearest bank in town. This is rendered necessary on account of the jx)or exchange facilities of the island. 3. To act as advisory members of the local school boards. 4. To secure proper buildings for public-school purposes. 5. To distribute and keep account of text-books and school supplies owned by the insular government. 6. To hold teachers’ meetings and to give instruction in English in rural schools. 7. To preside at the quarterly written examinations for teachers, held at the heads of their respective districts. All of the supervisors are of American or English parentage, and are familiar with the American school system. Of the 16 supervisors, 10 are college graduates, 2 are normal-school graduates, and the others are graduates of public schools and high schools of standing. SCHOOL FINANCES. The difficulties in finding out about school revenues and expenditures multiplied to the point of amusement. It was apparent that education, its administration, and its attempt to supply higher instruction had been sustained from the insular treas¬ ury and that instruction in the municipalities had been compensated from municipal revenues, but I could find no principle of equity regulating the assessment or the expenditure of revenues for educational purposes either on the part of the insular treasury or that of the municipalities. I shall never forget the din of the cry of poverty that came up from all quarters at first. There was no money for supervisors, no money for night schools, no money for text-books. Every improvement required money, and the universal cry was “There is none.” The general commanding, in studying the general question of taxation, had found many opportunities to relieve the burdens of the citizens. Spain, apparently had placed the burdens heavily upon individuals and their enterprises, and lightly upon accumulated wealth. The American method had sought to equalize the burden and give enterprise a chance. Great complaints were still made against the tariff, and yet on many articles it had been greatly reduced, in many cases one-half. The power of taxation in municipal¬ ities had been so abused as in cases to come near confiscation. The enforcement of honesty and economy was followed by salutary results. By degrees funds in the insular treasury increased beyond expenditure, and the limitation on local tax- ation had reduced the income of municipalities; indeed, the extreme poverty in out- of-the-way barrios or districts can hardly be believed. Some are reported not to have a single house — only palm-leaf huts, where there are not a dozen people whose average income is 60 cents a day; w'here the large majority have an income of less than 20 cents a day. The children live largely in nakedness. The cry of pov¬ erty from such a condition has significance. Partisan alertness never sleeps. The increase of insular funds afforded the opportunity to suggest that from the 1st of July next the expenditures for schools by the municipalities should hereafter be borne by the treasury of the island. Immediately various municipalities began to join in this demand. The significance of the change thus suggested will be seen from the following statement: The municipal boards of education, according to the last statement, expended — First. For the salaries of teachers of elementary, auxiliary, rural, and superior schools . $224, 507. 00 Second. For materials for embroidery . 3, 482. 00 Third. Text-books for the poor . 11, 010. 00 Fourth. Writing materials and gifts to meritorious teachers . 11, 726. 00 Fifth. Rewards to pupils . 3, 512. 75 Sixth. Rent of buildings . 55, 678. 00 All in Porto Rican money. 240 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The danger lying in this suggestion is apparent. The assumption of the entire school expense by the insular government involves a violation of the principle fun¬ damental to the improvement of the schools in any community. Any locality to have a proper interest in its own affairs, its own schools, must have some direct responsibility for them. The best results the world over, it may be said, are secured by the wisest adjustment of general to local action. Here the best results will be secured by the wisest cooperation of municipal and insular efforts. The more the cities do for their own schools the more interest they will have in their improve¬ ment. Carefully considering the facts, weighing the above suggestion and my pro¬ test, calling to mind the fundamental principle imperiled, the commanding general ordered that the municipalities should continue to bear the expenses of supplying quarters, 'first for the schools and second for the teachers, and on this basis the adjustment of the schools for the following year was made. As the new year advanced, General Davis issued an order levying a male poll tax of $1 for school purposes. This will give everyone who pays a dollar a sense of sharing in the education of the children, and it is hoped that this tax is here, as it is to be elsewhere, one of the most acceptable burdens of the Government. SCHOOL STATISTICS. There will be special interest in preserving the last official statements of the munic¬ ipal schools as I found them under Spanish direction, and they are herewith added: Superior schools: Boys . Girls . First elementary schools: Boys . Girls . Second elementary schools: Boys . Girls . . . . Auxiliary schools: Boys . Girls . Rural auxiliary schools: Boys . „ Girls . SUMMARY. 7 4 48 38 55 59 52 34 223 5 Total schools 525 Rent for all school buildings . $55, 678. 00 Expenses: For embroidery materials . 3, 482. 00 For books . 11, 010. 00 For writing utensils and gifts to teachers . „ . 11, 726. 00 For rewards for pupils . . . 3, 512. 75 For teachers’ salaries . 224, 507. 00 Total expenses . 309, -915. 75 REGISTERED SCHOLARS. Boys. . . . 16,821 Girls . 8, 794 Total . 25, 615 Average attendance: Boys . 11,406 Girls . 6, 600 Total . 18, 006 EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 241: PRIVATE INSTRUCTION. First elementary schools: For boys . *. . . 1 For girls . 3 Second elementary schools: For boys . 13 For girls . . . 6 Auxiliary schools: For boys . . 3 For girls . Total . 26 Official appropriation: For personnel . . . . . . . $1,620 For material . . . . . . 168 Total . . . . . . 1, 788 Average attendance : Boys . . . . . . . . . . 700" Girls . . . . . . . 273 ed 1900 - 16 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900, 242 rO co q P o o bx) p PH o bn .2 *4-> d ’p ft O ft e+H o 53 o o ‘3 r-l Co'S W 4—* Ph 'HgO 0 OOOiOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOL^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OlOOOOOlOOOiOOOiOOlOOOOlOOOOiOiOOiOOOiOOCOOOOOOOiCO LO(MO'^(MOiO»OClCCCO(MOC10^(NCl'^NiC!N(NiCCvJt^OCUOHH»0'^^OCi9C^i-0 OA • CM t— I t— ( rH rH rH O O 00 o o o o lO Ol ’ll C CO CO CO CM i — I ft ^ CO rH rH o o o o GO *-H CO CM rH CM O rH 00 O ^ O CO d ° *3 m d rj O oooooooooooooooooooouoooooooooooooooooo CX O O OCHOO CM O O O O 'O O CO (N CM O OOO^OMOOO CO CO Cl CO O 00 Cl CO CO CO rH CM ^CMCMiOa500rH£>OOiOTr'rHOOrHOCCO^OOOOi>Tfrr'OOT-H^T— ILO OMuOHtNCJHWCOHHtN^H^HHCOi rH 'rHCOCMCOCOrHrH^rHrHCMrHCMiOCMLCClCMCO b£) o 'p P CD ft X H o r-0'P<>-OiOLC>T-HOt^OiOOOiOiOCOHtHiOrt<OOfe\H>-r^©OC>iO-HtMHHtiOSNHtuOiOOCOI>'^(N(»H50THl>(NO rH rH lO rH r-H rH rt m rH i — I O ft 0 o ft ft o o ft COHuOOiOOOUOOU^COOOCOCO 1^ lC W X r- CO O LO W CO H O H o 1^ rH Cl i — i rH H n n ri r-i rH lO rH '"H CM O CO CO O lC CO CO O O O O CO CM iO CM rH CO CO O lO CO X O r- -f r-1 OJ O ^ O) Oi r- O CO CO O OJ X lC CO H i — I rH rH CM i — l CM CO CM Cl i — It — l H piCMt— ICMrHHCO X^OiOCMO’^'^COOHOH^CiCOCMXO^tN^COCCDCDClCOHOOOOHH^COiC O OIN ^ O lO X Cl O X CO O H LO lO O ^ O CO X O C O lO O O CO O ^ O lC O C-J lO Cl rH r-i rH rH rH i> phihH rHrH rH ri ri rH HUrft^HOLOOOLOHHHXOOC'lCMNOOOlHOCON'H>CiiOHOH*X^OiCHH n O X O O O H1 O iO ’H iO "H O id CO Ol lO U C O X *H X O O O O ■H CO iO O CO CO O ri rH (X) lO CM CO H H CJ ri ri CM H t-h rHi-nrHl^rH CM CM i — I CO rH CM CO CO CM rH rH rH rH CO Cl CO CM CM CO O O CO 0-0 >> w2o O O OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOlOOOlOOOOOOOOOOOO OuOlOOlOOOOiOlOiOCOOODXCIMOiOiOiOHOOCO^LO Cl rH — ‘ — * rvi — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 ^ 1 '■vi ,/~v _ h — * - 1 ' - ' —T1 - ' > ■ - ' OCOiOlOiOCO rHCln rH CM CM iO ' o o o o o O iO -00 LO o CM CM CMOCM-rHCOCMOOOCMrflOTHCOCOOOOOOGOrtiCMCOOTHrHOCMOiCrHOiOCICl HLQHCMOrHHCOHCMCOCM^,^^CO(M'H'HCMH1QON(MCMCMHCO^COC5THrU'' rH rH rH Cl d Sh ft 0 OOOOCOOrHrHOOOOOSCMCMOCM^HOCMCMOOCOOClcOOCMOOOOOCOO-rHCMrH^oCM O X H X O Ol O O O O H 9 M 'O O W o X CO M Ol U CO rH CO CM IH- CM CO (M h NOOO CO.' Cn C H1 N CO O PO O Cl ^ CO Cl ^ CM *H Tji 'H X lO O O X O O LO LO O CM O H1 ^ CO CU^ O pq ©CNlOtPhKCOCOPHCNCOCN X 0 < u 3 o pq p p O Ph 2 P ui o o pq a o pq p Ph rH ■ • rH o-^rp r2 P'S OO® Ofl P _ PH pH fee PH pq * p p P 5 fefj'rH hh o 8 30 e ° P £r P -r-i ?»> (_i fee'P 03 o3 HHpqpq m a) >-< P r a o. pqo ■P cfe.p ODO ai G c3 QO 0 >■ N P O 0 O c5 00 d rj »**< SoS ci p OQ >, p o fef) S 8 Ph 3 ° S ^ Q 8 8 . H P P C f— ’ -r— r- p— r* P O P P P 2 p -r( hH hH M -MpH (-H RH M t-5 K; 209 I 37 | 114 I 20 I 3,000 EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO 243 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo OOOOOOiOOOOOOO^OOOOOOOOiOOOOtfDOOOO iC Cl LO 'O lO UD (M ^ H LO iQ H CJ H 00 O O to CKO ^ H lO CO CO rF O 00 o o o o ^ O ^ O M Gl GO CO O l H CO CO CO rf CO L o o o o oo co o ^o-tooco^ CO CD CO rH rH CO O CO O CO -f hH CO 05 ^ CO GO rH CO CO CO rH OOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOCO OOOOOOOOOOOO'O CO O hH CO CO Cl ‘J C5 O rO H H 00 OCT'* X C H 1^ Cl i — i CO i-O H r l i— I Q r 1 i — I rH rH CO CO rH i — (rH th t-Hi — I H Xf1 CO I' - HOCJC>TlI>^OiO 0^iOOuO^^O(NHCOiO^L^COOO(NCOOOQ OCOiOCCiOOiOd H O rH rH CO H CO rH H HrHHCO iO O O lO O H 00 O X rl CO CC iC: CO Cl D U H (M O H H CO 00 CO CM lO P- OI P- ^ O N H 00 Cl O O (O H GO 00 O H O 07 05 C- OO C5 D.rH H H O N O H Cl H CsKOcCHiHHrHrHi-irHCOrH rH rH CO CO CO i — I CO i — IrHrHrHCOrH CO t — I CO lO lOiOOOOOOOOOOOiOOOCOLOOCOOOOO^ii^iOOOOOOO MNOOOOOOCOiCiOOCJiOOOTl'OiCHOOOOiODHO^iOOOO t— 1 0-1 O H H H CO i — I O rH rH rH ^-H rH rH tH CO rH CO Hf' H o O H O O Cl H CO O O O O O O M H X' O H O CC C) H H C C CO O I.C O C) iO iO iC (O w*0 r- Cl n Cl O O O CO 1^ H C! -H O Cl CO ir D CO iC CO H H 'T ^uC H rH rH CO rH OOOOOHHHOClMOClHOOOOOdHCOOCOCOOCOOCONClOH CO O M O 05 H H iO iO H lO O H H H CO X D O X (M Cl H O M 00 i> I> ’CO Cl OCOI^COCOC>OCOLOCOiOlCCOCOCOCOCOHfr>!;>HH a 8 jg o 244 EDUCATION REPORT Tj H g r^o m £ ’cJ hH 4-> O • W in c<> E-t s <1 c- > s rO PH o o pH O o pq o o co o r-H CD o o -t' o Cl CO iCCODCOrfi OGChiO W _i 1 — r-1 • (D (S £? ^ P rjl d >s P O < be >> C5 c3 OQ Ofl 17—*. S ce be, o3 C3 •!-: O o3 _ a; ^ Cm? ZjW ci oj 21 G d £ ^HrthHCClP o H 1899*1900. EDUCATION IN POETO EICO. 245 A report for the following year, 1898-99, made for the English supervisors gives the following resume: RESUME. Total population . . . Number of town schools . Number of barrios with schools . Number of barrios without schools . Number of boys from 4 to 16 years of age Number of girls from 4 to 16 years of age. Number of boys registered . . . Number of girls registered . Number of boys attending . Number of girls attending . Salaries of teachers (in gold) . House rent (in gold) . School supplies (in gold) . Total children of school age . Total accommodated in present school. . . Total without school accommodations _ Total expenditure (not including fees) _ Total expenditure per pupil enrolled _ Total expenditure per pupil attending . . . 889, 768 212 294 426 161, 246 144, 166 19, 804 9, 388 15, 084 7,411 $149, 971. 40 $33, 323. 00 $23, 716. 60 305, 412 29, 192 276, 220 $207, 011. 00 $7. 09 $8.05 By this resume it appears that less than one child in ten of school age was enrolled in school. HIGHER EDUCATION. As already indicated, this came directly under the insular administration and was paid from the insular treasury. For some time there had been in operation an indus¬ trial school and a normal school for boys and girls and a collegiate institute. The industrial school was not in operation during the year, on account of the lack of funds, and the valuable plant has since been destroyed by fire, with all of its equip¬ ment. When I arrived, the collegiate institute was in the process of removal from the building it had occupied for a considerable time in the city of San Juan, to the building which the Fathers had occupied with a school of higher instruction in Santurce. The normal school for boys had been abolished, and joined with the institute. The institute had hardly been established in its new quarters when it was discovered that the lease granting occupation of the building in Santurce to the Fathers for their use had not terminated. With the usual regard under the United States Constitution for the fulfillment of legitimate contracts, or, as termed in this case, chartered rights, an order was issued for the restoration to the Fathers of their former quarters for use until the termination of their right. This continued the dis¬ turbed conditions, and cost me special effort. No appropriate building could be secured for the institute immediately, but quarters for the various classes were obtained. The director took little pains to aid in minimizing the inconveniences. I had found in connection with the elementary schools of the island more than it is possible for me to accomplish. Various parties boasted greatly of the institute. I found that several of the learned and best men of the island were connected with it and hoped that, they would aid in bringing about the needful changes; but, on the other hand, there were from a variety of sources repeated reports unfavorable to the work of the institute. On my invitation, eminent Americans familiar with educa¬ tion visited the institute, observed its work, and gathered facts about it and reported them to me. All of them were very unfavorable. This was specially true while the institute was in its ample quarters at Santurce. When I could no longer omit 246 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. attention to it I recommended to the commanding general that a commission of four gentlemen — two eminent Americans and two eminent Porto Ricans, ail having con¬ siderable knowledge of education — be appointed to consider and report upon the industrial school, the normal school for girls, and the institute. Ther© were about 60 students reported in attendance upon the institute. The course embraced five years. The first year included Latin, Castilian, and geography; the second year, United States history, Latin, and Castilian; third year, arithmetic, algebra, universal history, and rhetoric; fourth year, geometry, psychology, logic, and ethics; fifth year, physics, chemistry, natural history, and agriculture. French and German were optional. English had been introduced. Those who passed a successful examina¬ tion were entitled to the degree of bachelor. The institute opened October 1, and closed May 31. Ample provision was made for fees in different directions. The law provided that private institutions could enter into definite relations with the insti¬ tute. Students who didn’t wish to attend classes daily could matriculate and study at home and pass examination as required. In addition to all fees it was found the institute cost the island treasury annually 26,780 pesos. As I have said, some of the most learned men on the island were employed as instructors, and some were well qualified for the work they were performing, and fully in accord with the American spirit which had taken possession of the island; but on the whole the institute was pronounced an unwarranted expense. Its theory required no use of text-books. Much was said about the use of the seminary method. Nothing in particular was known about the students by the director personally. The go-as-you-please spirit prevailed, excepting as to the compliance with forms. Neither the method of instruc¬ tion nor discipline was adapted to the age of the students, many of whom entered before they were in their teens. It was not only costly but it was a bad example so far as its influence extended over the island. In spite of some of its worthy teachers, the Aguinaldo spirit had the control of its direction. The commission appointed went fully into the facts and recommended the abolition of the institute and the normal school for girls, and both were ordered suspended from June, 1899, by General Henry, commanding. The director of the institute, foreseeing the result, resigned, and occupied him&elf in issuing a pamphlet of some 28 pages, filled with an attempted exhibition of pedagogical learning, containing misstatements and con¬ tradictions; the whole aimed against the incoming of American changes. The school under the care of the Fathers had not only the benefit of the building, but a considerable subsidy. The Fathers whom I met were able men and endeav¬ ored to take the whole situation philosophically, but found little response to great learning and advanced scholarship. The valuable apparatus which at different times had been purchased for the insti¬ tute indicated a lack of skill in its selection. It was not adapted to the laboratory work for which the pupils were prepared. There was connected with the institute a library of considerable value. When it was closed, every effort was made to pre¬ serve the books and apparatus for further use, whenever the progress of scholarship among the youth of the island may make their intelligent use possible. The normal school for girls was presided over by a lady of excellence, with whom was associated a corps of worthy assistants, and there was claimed to Ire associated a model school; but the practicing methods were wanting and the general plans of opera¬ tions were not in accord with the principles required by the times, and the attend¬ ance from the entire island was only about 50. NEW SCHOOL PROVISIONS. Experience in the office, facts from every quarter of the island, and the urgency of the commanding general united in demanding a general revision of the provisions for schools. Fortunately, if mistakes were made in adopting new provisions, the entire situation was under military authority and any mistake could be promptly EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 247 remedied by a military order. Old. as the local civilization was, as far back as many forms of action might date, changes came rapidly and often unanticipated. The con¬ siderations brought into view must be most comprehensive, but with a right aim pervading all the plans formed, it was hoped that even mistakes might make gain for the public good. Necessarily, one of the first inquiries was for the means — the money with which to meet expenses. The withdrawal of municipalities from the payment of teachers and their payment from the insular treasury completely changed the financial situation. The safest figures obtainable from the past, as already seen, indicated that no attempt had been made to provide education for more than one in five of the school population of the island. All considerations united to emphasize a conclusion that a less adequate provision was not permissible under United States authority. The general decision was reached that the municipality must continue to meet the expense of furnishing, first, quarters for the schools; second, residences for the teachers, and that the insular treasury would pay the salaries of teachers and the expense incurred in furnishing text-books. So much in general decided, the revision commenced. It was painful to provide a plan for the schools which should leave out of consid¬ eration four-fifths of the children due to school. Every feature of the public welfare looked to public instruction for aid in a solution of its difficulties. As has already been made apparent, there was no equitable valuation of property and no definite assurance of income; indeed the financial possibilities could only be a matter of esti¬ mate. The money anticipated could only come into the treasury as time proceeded, and yet the contracts for teachers must be definitely made at the start. An increas¬ ing number of teachers must be drawn from the States, and they could not think of undertaking the work with a contract for less than a school year. Beset with these embarrassments, the preparation of provisions went forward. These new provisions were to go into effect the 1st of July. All schools supported by public taxation, either local or insular, were styled public schools, and admission to them was to be free and without charge to all children between the ages of 6 and 18. Teachers were forbidden to accept fees for instruction in these schools during school hours. Pupils might be excluded from the public schools for bad moral character, insubordination, or exposure to infectious diseases. It was provided (1) that a legal school day shall consist of two sessions of three hours each, (2) a school week of five days, (3) a school month of four school weeks, (4) a school term of three school months, (5) a school year of three terms, the winter term beginning the twelfth Monday before Holy Week, the spring term beginning the Monday after Ploly Week, and the fall term beginning the twelfth Monday before Christmas week. Schools Avere classified as rural and graded. Rural schools had been attended chiefly by boys, and it was provided that children of both sexes could attend, thus supplying instruction to girls where the local sentiment of parents permitted. There was great sensitiveness on the subject of coeducation of the sexes e\Ten in the earliest years of attendance, and it was thought this provision, under careful administration, would produce the best results. The average number fixed for the teacher Avas to be 50. Schools at first could only be of the most elementary character, but Avere to be care¬ fully graded where the conditions warranted, and where there Avere four or more grades the principal teacher A\Tas to exercise supervising functions OArer all the grades of the school, and Avas to be knoAvn as principal of the graded school and paid accordingly. Careful classification, it was believed, Avould greatly add to efficiency. The inad¬ equate supply of schools rendered it important that every seat should be occupied, and it Avas provided that the seat of any pupil absent more than tAvo Aveeks except for sickness should be given to another applicant. The total lack of buildings erected on pedagogical principles and adapted to the purpose rendered the provision of rooms by rental impossible, and as the only alternative it Avas provided, in order to assure suffi- 248 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1800. cient space, that school rooms furnished by municipalities should contain as a mini¬ mum 1J square meters of floor area for every pupil seated in the room. This was especially necessary, because often pupils were crowded together in the most incon¬ venient manner, with no space for seats or in which to move about in any orderly manner. Of course, in the construction of the building rented no proper regard had been had to the requirement of a school for the incoming of fresh air or light. Under old provisions school attendance was termed compulsory for the ages from 6 to 9, but the instruction furnished left four-fifths of the children of these ages out of considera¬ tion. It was deemed wise, therefore, in view of the great demand for schools, that the legal school age should be 6 to 18, so that between these ages there might be a chance for as many as possible to enjoy a period of attendance, even though limited. The improved school provisions required so many and so great changes that many details were specified which otherwise could have been left to the discretion of teachers. In all of these changes it was felt to be important to keep constantly in mind the expectations of the prevailing educational sentiment in the States, as well as the aspirations of the people of the island. Everything good was to be retained and improved, and only changes were to be made where there was a reasonable ground for something better. All requirements must commend themselves to the approval of orders from Washington, while their success must depend upon their fitness to the conditions and sentiments of the people to enjoy their benefit. Theories must be kept sufficiently in mind, not to disappoint, but to encourage aspirations. One of these aspirations, much talked about in the island, was the possibility of a university; while it was well known that in the States the greatest value would be placed upon the introduction of those pedagogical features which would yield the greatest results to the largest number, especially give thorough training in the ele¬ ments of industry and in the elements of learning, language, English and Spanish, arithmetic, geography. In the States it would be expected that promotion, step by step, would be by attainment, careful preparation in each grade for advancement to the next, and although the instruction in the island is of the most elementary char¬ acter and there is no adequate preparation, and will not be for some time, to use to advantage university opportunities, it was deemed important that the gradation pro¬ vided should make known to the people the several steps up to university work, but specify and include the possibility of that work. In the place of the institute which, as hereinbefore stated, had been found unworthy and abolished it was considered important that instead of a single institution in the capital, maintained at the expense of the entire island, whose benefits were enjoyed by a limited number from the dis¬ tant parts of the island, a way should be specified by which the advantages of the several grades up could be secured to a large number of municipalities if the local sentiment required and money could be secured for the purpose. It was therefore ordered that wherever a municipality petitioned for a school of the high-school grade, and furnished a^ite and not less than $10,000 for the erection and furnishing of a building, a high school, with graded schools, shall be provided by the insular government, with courses preparing for an American college or university, with addi¬ tional courses in graded manual training and for the special preparation of teachers. Pi ’ovision for the qualification of teachers in these schools was carefully specified. Special subjects were to be taught, such as sloyd and mechanical drawing, as in the States. Whenever Porto Ricans possessed qualifications equal to those of other can¬ didates they were to be preferred in appointment. Every well-informed person felt especially the need of providing training for teachers. It was therefore ordered that beginning with the fall term of 1899, or as soon thereafter as possible, a normal school should be opened. Towns were permitted to bid for the school, and it was to be located where the offer made was satisfactory. The insular government is to provide the building, and there is to be a practice school connected with it. This school is to be EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 249 regulated, its courses of study provided, and its entire administration to be under the direction of the chief educational authority of the island. Tuition is free to the citizens of the island. Provisions were also made foreshadowing features of univer¬ sity work, with the hope that there might early be a school of commerce, a school of agriculture, a school of mechanics, a school of pharmacy, etc. COURSE OF STUDY. The course of study was carefully outlined in detail. It was intended to be specific and leave no room for doubt, but at the same time to allow ample opportunity for the exercise of judgment on the part of the well-qualified teacher. (a) Spanish. — During the first two years reading and writing only shall be taught. During the last four years two periods a week will be devoted to language work in Spanish and Spanish grammar. As soon as the pupil has mastered the first difficul¬ ties of reading, his work in this subject shall be so directed as to develop literary taste, and wherever possible complete or abridged literary masterpieces shall be read. ( b ) English reading shall begin in the second year, but in town schools chart work shall be begun in English in the first year whenever the teacher has less than three grades. During the last four years English language lessons shall be taught two periods a week, where exact training in composition and the use of correct gram¬ matical forms will be taught through practice. In the last three years two periods a week shall be devoted to United States history and civil government as major sub¬ jects. Class work in English must be entirely in that language after the second year. (c) Arithmetic. — Number work during the first two years will be in Spanish and English. For commercial reasons and because of the simple vocabulary required, the arithmetic of the last four years will be taught in English. The metric system- will be used, the English tables being placed in the appendix of the text-book for reference. The text-book must contain a Spanish and English vocabulary. (d) Geography. — Oral geography may be taught as a minor subject during the first two years in graded schools where the teacher has not more than three grades under her charge. The text-book will be used during the last four years. Geography shall be taught in Spanish. 5. The minor subjects taught in public schools shall be the following: ( e ) Music. — Pupils will be required to learn the national airs by ear. Kinder¬ garten motion songs will also be taught in lower grades. Where the teacher is competent to do so, or a supervisor of music is provided, note singing may be taught. (f) Drawing. — Where the teacher is competent to do so, or a supervisor of drawing is provided, drawing may be taught. Clay modeling and stick laying may be asso¬ ciated with drawing wherever practicable, to develop the pupil’s sense of form. ( g ) Manual training. — Where facilities are provided and the teacher’s time allows, plain needlework, sewing, and cutting may be taught girls, or sloyd work may be taught pupils of both sexes. Oral lessons in agriculture will be taught as heretofore. ( h ) Writing and spelling. — Ordinarily writing and spelling will be associated with the major subjects, reading and language work, in the two languages; but where the teacher has not more than three grades, or the time is not otherwise occupied by the major subjects, these subjects may be taught at separate periods. ( i ) Hygiene. — This subject is required, and must be taught orally in all schools or from charts. In graded schools, where teachers have not more than three grades, a text-book may be used. ( j ) Morals. — Morals as distinct from secular or religious teaching may be taught orally in schools, wuth the use of anecdotes. A course of study has been planned containing four or six years’ work, and intended to prepare students for admission to colleges and universities of standing in the United States. This course includes the four years’ course in Spanish, f EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 250 English, algebra, plane and solid geometry, plane trigonometry, chemistry, physics, botany, and physical geography, history, a four years’ course in Latin, and a two years’ course in Greek. TEXT-BOOKS. Closely allied to the course of study was the question of text-books. Pupils were gen¬ erally without text-books. Text-books had been prescribed by authority; those with sufficient means had been required to purchase them, and those without means were supposed to be supplied by the municipality. But it was rare to find a school fully sup¬ plied. A school of 70 scholars might not haye half a dozen scholars owning their own text-books. There were rarely either desks or copybooks for writing. Some teachers wrote out with great pains, texts, which the pupil was required to commit to mem¬ ory. The teacher would read aloud and the pupils be required to repeat after him in unison, and thus in a measure supply the lack of text-books. Anything like quiet study on the part of the pupils was most rare. The text-books so far used had been generally poor in quality of paper and printing and lacking in their conformity to pedagogical principles. It was found that in the trade, in spite of the poverty of the people, exorbitant prices were charged for books. It was decided, therefore, that the Government must not only prescribe the books, but, in order to make sure that the pupils should have the full advantage of the text-books, acquire the habit of using books, and study silently, that the Government would purchase and supply them free to the schools. All books and supplies owned by the municipalities were ordered collected, and provision was made for the purchase and distribution of the text-books required by law. Municipalities were to provide all supplies for schools except text-books, maps, and flags. As has been seen, flags had already been sup¬ plied by the Lafayette Post of New York, and a map of the United States by the Secretary of the Interior, through the Land Office and the Bureau of Education. In addition to the regular text-books, the insular office of education provided a con¬ siderable list of books of reference for teachers, to be furnished them at cost. All books handled by the insular office of education were to be supplied on contract by the lowest bidder, except where emergency might require purchase without bidding. LIST OF TEXT-BOOKS. The text-books ordered by the State for the public schools of the island are as follows: SPANISH. McGuffy’s Chart. The American Book Company, Washington square, New York. Libro Primero de Lectura. The American Book Company, Washington square, New York. Libro Segundo de Lectura. The American Book Company, Washington square, New York. Primeros Pasos en Literatura. Silver, Burdett & Co., New York. Primeras Nociones de Lenguage, por Bartlett. Silver, Burdett & Co., New York. ENGLISH. Canifix Beading Chart. B. F. Johnson Publishing Company, Richmond, Ya. Appleton’s First Reader. The American Book Company, Washington square, New York. Riverside Primer and Reader. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, Mass. Tarbell’s Lessons in Language. Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass. SPANISH AND ENGLISH. Lecciones en Lenguaje, Espanol Ingles. The American Book Company, New York. Geography . — Frye’s Geograffa Elemental. Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass. Arithmetic. — Wentworth’s Elementary Arithmetic. Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass. Music. — Song Book for Home and School. Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass. EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 251 POVERTY OF THE POOR. I have said the submerged population is large. It is due that more facts illustra¬ tive of what this signifies and of the result of the Spanish school laws in the island should be given. In preference to my own language, or to relying upon my own observations for the purpose, I take the following in substance from the description of another, which has already been widely accepted as in the main correct: 1 The life of the peasant, the peon, of Porto Rico, is not a dream of ease or luxury; neither has he ever passed through the nightmare of wretched hunger and biting cold, which adds so vitally to the hardships of the poverty stricken in northern climes. In squalor and filth, in crudity and ignorance, the larger number of the inhabitants go through their comparatively short lives, for one does not see many aged people among them. They die off from fevers, contagious diseases, and troubles handed down from sickened forefathers, at a comparatively early age. At no period of the .poor man’s existence can he suffer the tortures of starvation because his job of work has given out, for while during whole months of the year he may not earn a single centavo, he has still his little plot of vegetables on the hill; then if worst comes to worst, or the landowner turns him out, he may live on the profusion of fruits and roots of the forest, or, as is a common practice in the country, upon the fruits filched from his more opulent neighbor. In the dry season he complains of the cold, yet he needs but the merest rags to cover his nakedness, for on no day in the year is it colder than our mildest autumnal weather. Shoes are a useless burden to his bare and sole-leather-lined feet, which have traveled the rocky, briery trails in their nakedness from infancy; and a bat, if he must have it, he makes in his own house from the grass grown around the doorway. The house in which he is domiciled he builds in a few short days from poles and thatch and the bark of the royal palm; and a good house it is in spite of its primitive appearance, for it screens him from the colder winds of night and sheds the water of the driving rains like a duck’s back. The average wages of a laboring man is less than 50 cents, Spanish, a day, and the work for which he is paid does not cover a period of more than five months in the year. In idle times of the year he must support himself from his garden patch on the hillside. Children are an ever-present and abundant factor in the domestic economy of the peasant’s life. Domestic economy is the fitting term, since it costs nothing to supply the air of day to the lungs of these little waifs, and it costs nothing for their clothes, for they run about in the sunshine and rain just as God made them and sleep in odd corners without cover for the first half-dozen years of their baby lives, while when older a single discarded tattered garment adds to their natural grace the shield of decency. So they live, without expense and with little tenderness bestowed upon them in the shape of material comforts, though the mother’s kiss is often given and the father pats the little head. They soon toddle, at the command of the mother, to do small errands, to help weed the garden, to bring the handful of wood for the fire, to dig the tubers for a meager meal, and, lastly, to hold up their tiny hands and, with pleading eyes, gain a copper from the passer-by on the roadside. They are a good investment in the family; the majority of them die at an early age, and it costs but a few strained hours to the mother’s heart, a bit of cloth for a shroud, and the energy needed to carry the tiny form to the potter’s field. Offsetting this is the usefulness of those who, by the law of the survival of the fittest, pull through, with sturdy forms, to pick berries, work in the cane and tobacco fields, and add to the common fund, until, at a varying age, they rebel against the paternal banker and live for themselves in poverty and in bondage to the landed kings, just as the generations who came before them. Marriage is almost unknowm among the very poor classes, and the distinction of having the written word and the blessing of the priest carries with it no special meed of honor; it is a much easier matter for a man to select his companionable partner and set up housekeeping in a new wickiup under the banana trees without more ado. Wretchedness, poverty, and oppressive rulers beget, as an offspring, an abject humanity with no great sense of moral honor; but it is to be remarked that there is little quarreling among these people thus paired, and -their relations, while not the acme of conventional modesty and virtue, are, on the whole, constant. After a day’s toil the women plod home in the dying sunlight, with swaying hips and stiff necks, carrying, balanced on their heads, huge bundles of damp clothes, 1 In substance from “Porto P.ico; Its Conditions and Possibilities.” Harper & Brothers. 252 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. washed in the near-by river, which they throw in an empty corner of the hut for to-morrow’s ironing. They laboriously blow the fleeting spark of a carefully smol¬ dered fire into a bright glowing flame and prepare the frugal meal for the family. The tiny light sparkles on the hillside in the falling darkness and, with far more picturesque effect than does the ruddy glow of a conventional hearthstone within a luxurious home, welcomes the home-coming of a barefooted, ragged, cotton-appareled husband, who wearily climbs the narrow winding pathway. The little children are already creeping into the house, to lie down in odd corners for a night of dreamless slumber, clasping some morsel of food, to be eaten or not, depending on the speed of Morpheus’s descending arms. The writer adds: “The American nation has been to the Porto Rican, in the past, the synonym of all that is just and grand and righteous, and if we do not abuse our power Porto Rico may be made a twentieth century Garden of Eden, in which the native, trained in new methods of freedom, may for the first time in three centuries enjoy the sweets of liberty.” In connection with the above I quote the following recent statement from an authority whom I deem entirely trustworthy: The financial condition of some municipalities seems to be growing worse instead of better. There are towns where there literally has not been a cent in the treasury since the cyclone. The actual amount expended upon schools is nothing. Schools are being closed because municipalities can not pay the rent of buildings, and pro¬ prietors sometimes evict the teachers. Towns like - , for instance, find it almost impossible to get a building because their credit is so poor. The American teachers are in some cases teaching in barrooms, without so much as a table or chairs or benches, simply with a reading chart and books, with the little children seated on boxes or little chairs which they bring from home; yet in towns and barrios where the average income of a family is not §100 a year, where 95 per cent of the families have an income of 25 cents a day, American currency, and where perhaps none of the other 5 per cent have an income exceeding §5,000 a year, the education of the children by the taxes raised in a community is simply impossible. Some boards of trustees have not money to carry on their official correspondence or to purchase books to keep a record of their proceedings. These conditions, of course, are not universal. Progress is made in the more prosperous parts of the islands. PUBLIC SENTIMENT APPRECIATES PUBLIC WELFARE. It is a question of significance in regard to any people how far will the general sentiment rise above personalities in appreciation of the public or general welfare. The resignation of General Henry afforded an opportunity for a test of the capacity of the Porto Ricans to illustrate their appreciation of the public welfare. The General, in guarding that welfare, had many occasions to correct evils and to disappoint personal wishes. The times and conditions so soon after the war were fraught with many changes and trials. In all this the General had shown great singleness of purpose, purity of motive, and the greatest devotion to the public interest. He had punished crime, enforced honesty, rewarded virtue, quickened justice and stayed injustice, pro¬ tected health, cleaned the prisons and set prisoners free from unjust confinement, fed the poor, given work to the idle, created a new era of road building, and made provision for reorganizing the schools, and thus answered the cry for roads and schools. His vigorous enforcement of the law had been united with great personal kindness, but there had been many personal disappointments. The officers of the Society for the Benefit of Children conferred with the teachers. The use of the occasion furnished evidence that the public spirit in Porto Rico can forget personal disappointments and appreciate regard for the public welfare. The new commanding general, George II. Davis, had arrived, and both generals were invited to meet the teachers and pupils and public in the theater, the largest place of assembly in San Juan. What occurred is here taken from the San Juan News, the only paper published in English in the island: Promptly at 2 o’clock yesterday afternoon the school teachers, in honor of Generals Henry and Davis, assembled at the theater on the Colon Plaza. Two thousand chil- EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 253 dren were present from the schools of San Juan and Santurce, and twenty-four schools were represented. The exercises were under the control of the English supervisor of San Juan. The time for preparation was short, but the exercises were nevertheless wonderfully successful. The following was the programme rendered: Salute. Star-Spangled Banner, band of Beneficencia. Farewell address in English to General Henry. Same in Spanish. Response of General Henry. Song, Columbia, by the girls of the Normal College. Address of welcome to General Davis, in English. Same in Spanish. Response. National anthem, by all, with band. The singing of Columbia by the young ladies of the Normal College was nicely rendered, the words being very clearly pronounced. The band of the Beneficencia assisted by playing the “Star-Spangled Banner” and “America.” The speeches in English were by two pupils of Mr. Timothee, 22 Sol, and the same in Spanish by two pupils of Mr. Saavedra, of Santurce. The singing of the national anthem was accomplished with precision and enthu¬ siasm. Address to the retiring governor-general: “ General Henry: We, who are about to live, salute you. When we heard the thunder of American ships bombarding our homes our hearts were filled with fear, and when we saw the proud flag go down which had floated so long over our lancl we were told that the end of things was near; but the stars did not fall. We soon saw that the Yankees who walked our streets were not pigs. Slowly we forgot our fears. The Lafayette Post brought to each school a Star Spangled Banner, hereafter to be the flag of our island. Now, every morning wrn salute it, and pledge ourselves to defend it. Since you have been our commander we have learned many things. By your order our schools are becoming better. A map of your great country, and a little book in your language has been put in our hands, to teach us to speak and write it and read its stories. It opens to us a new door of opportunity. When our teachers tell us of the boyhood of Washington, Lincoln, and Grant, and how they became great and good men under the Star Spangled Banner, and now that we have the same liberty which they had to learn and to do, our childish fears are changed to hopes. “We rejoice that ours has become the land of the free and the brave, and that we can be what we make ourselves. You have removed the burden of tax from the daily pursuits by which our fathers supported our homes, and from the bread which we eat. You have been thoughtful of our child life, and ordered the clothing of the naked and promised us a park for sports. You have abolished the payment of the school fee, which drew the line between the rich and the poor, led teachers to be partial, and caused us to spend our school days with a growing sense of class dif¬ ferences, cultivating on the one hand offensive pride and on the other disturbing jealousies. We expect that no more this dislike for each other will grow with our growth. We shall receive equal attention from our teachers, sit side bv side on the same bench, and learn to think that our merits and our honors depend on the good things we do. We hear of your interest in our having a house specially fitted for a school, apart from all bad conditions, as have the children in the States, and we thank you. We part from you with regret, and trust that we shall, by becoming worthy American citizens, show our appreciation of what you have done for the many children of Porto Rico. Young as we are, we are not without some thought of the cares which have burdened you and injured your health. We trust that rest Avill make you well again. We shall remember your labors — that you had an ear for the story and a heart of sympathy for the suffering for the humblest of our people, and that you enforced justice with mercy; that you gave work to those in need, and that you guarded our homes against disease; nor shall we forget the efforts of Mrs. Henry for the poor. “In your departure you have our best wishes for your welfare, long life, and happiness.” General Henry’s response was as follows: “This is a very beautiful sight before me. These children are the seeds of the earth, and their proper culture depends upon us. You people have to change and adopt the American customs. 254 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. “I do not think there are any brighter children in the world than the Porto Rican. In Ponce the children were asked what they wanted for Christmas presents. You can not say what they asked for? They did not ask for presents; they asked for teachers. The little minds are thirsting for knowledge. “The representative here, General Eaton, is devoted to his work. He would rather die than give up his work. I am the coward, and am going home. He will assist you in every way. Ail that is required of you is to obey your teachers and be respectful to your parents. “I thank you for your kindness and also for the kindness I have received in this island. God have you in his care. I am very sure my successor, General Davis, can well take my place. He will do better than I have done by you. I have tried to do my best, however I may have failed in it. Good-by, and may God keep you.” Address to the new governor-general: “General Davis, speaking for the school children of Porto Rico, we give you hearty welcome. Your coming relieves our sorrow over the loss of General Henry. You and he grew up under the same skies, in the same land of liberty. You were trained in the same school. You represent the same great nation and the same noble liberty and justice-loving President, Mr. McKinley, all of which assures us that you have come to carry forward the plans for our welfare now progressing so successfully, and when the day of your departure arrives we trust that our separation may be relieved by the multitude of good things which your administration will have accomplished. “We know you come to bear many burdens for us, but as school children we hope to be obedient and to learn the wise lessons taught us, and that those who love us will help to lighten your labors. We are not young Washingtons, but we are happy that you come to bring us the privileges for which he fought, and that we may, in the enjoyment of them, grow up to be patriotic citizens, prepared to make our island a happy, worthy part of his great country. “In these anticipations we bid you thrice welcome — welcome to our beautiful island and to our homes and our hearts.” General Davis’s response: “Children of Porto Rico, I salute you. What a gratifying situation is this to a stranger who has just come upon this beautiful island. My future as representative of the United States is before me. I anticipate that my residence will be gratifying from every point of view. * “The thought that came to me as I came down from New York on the steamer was, What will be my reception in Porto Rico? If I could have made a programme for myself, nothing would have been more gratifying than to be received in the way I have by the children of Porto Rico. “The thought that presented itself to my mind as I came along the street to the theater to-day was that many of the little boys of the island would Ire holding seats in the Congress of the United States. This should_ Ire the endeavor of the people of this island; it is the hope of the President of the U nited States. “W1 len my time comes to depart, if I can be saluted in the manner of my prede¬ cessor it will be more than gratifying, but I can only promise effort on my behalf. “I salute you again.” When General Henry embarked further manifestations of regret were made by the multitudes who gathered on the wharf for the last sight and word of parting. As his vessel touched at Ponce the time was tilled with similar manifestations by all classes of citizens, but especially by those who had cooperated in plans for the improvement of the place and in efforts for the promotion of the American school. But the most touching indications of interest and gratitude occurred when the neAVS of his death reached Porto Rico. His illness was brief, and lie died in New York City Friday, October 27, 1899. Telegrams and letters of sympathy were received by Mrs. Henry by the hundreds from all parts and classes on the island, and by many Porto Ricans who were in the States. Friends, citizens, teachers, and pupils in Ponce united, Mine. Antosante leading, she having prepared with her own hands a beautiful burial wreath of artificial flowers and sent it to Mrs. Henry with touching expressions of sorrow. Mwbm« EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO* 255 LOCAL SCHOOL BOARDS. These boards, as is manifest, occupied a position of vital importance to the improve¬ ment of the schools. Under the old regime there was more or less patronage at their control. They could be very useful to the schools, or they could take advan¬ tage of their positions to gratify their personal and partisan ends. As the application of the new provisions began to enforce honesty and a care for the interest of the public instead of themselves, there was increasing report of their neglect of duties here and there. In the municipalities in which elections' have been held by the order of General Davis the election of new boards was ordered. Some of these new boards do their work faithfully, others decline to serve, and others neglect it. The lack of money for expenses in some municipalities rendered their task difficult and is an excuse for inaction. One simple duty with which this board is charged is handing over to the teachers the monthly payments from the treasurer of the insular board of education. This simple duty carries with it no fees, and is here and there declined, and the duty has to be added to the service of the English supervisors. SCHOOL BOARDS ARE WITHOUT DEBTS. Indeed, municipalities owe few debts and own considerable property, usually a jail and a building for city administration at least. Under proper regulations and assurance the boards of education would be able to effect loans for money to be expended in erecting school buildings to be paid in time, bonds to run for ten, fifteen, or twenty years, careful provisions being made for the payment of interest and principal by a proper system of taxation. QUALIFICATION OF TEACHERS. The greatest care was taken to do justice to teachers already doing good work in the schools, but there was great difficulty in being sure of reaching the merits of every individual case. There were teachers of the most self-sacrificing record amply qualified for the work expected of them, and doing it efficiently with satisfaction to the parents of their pupils and to the public. The hope wras to retain all worthy teachers; and yet the new order of things could not permit the teacher to be a pro¬ prietor of a public school as against the public. He must be selected, his qualifications duly attested, and his contract made with the public authorities, which must be faithfully discharged by both contracting parties. In all cases, the qualifications being the same, the native Porto Rican wras to be preferred. The requirements aimed at a general elevation of the profession. More emphasis was placed upon pedagogical training. Less value was placed upon a Span¬ ish diploma and more upon qualifications required in the States. Certificates vcere to be granted by the Bureau of Education, good for five years. New teachers were expected to have sufficient knovdedge of both Spanish and English to be able to teach in either of those languages. It vras made illegal for any public official to pay money from public funds for services as a teacher to any person not holding the cer¬ tificate required by law. The Bureau of Education wTas required to publish a plan for granting diplomas, in conformity with the gradation established, to teachers now employed in the public schools and to English supervisors. Provision ivas made for supplying substitutes and for annulling of contracts between school boards and teachers when circumstances might require. Municipal boards wrere granted much liberty in selecting and employing teachers from those certificated by the Bureau of Education. EXAMINATION OF TEACHERS. On one hand the friends of the schools called almost universally for the examina¬ tion of teachers. On the other hand there were many teachers fearful of the results, and they and their friends saw great dangers in the examination as required in the 256 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. foregoing provisions. Rules and regulations were prepared in due time by Dr. Victor S. Clark and furnished to each of the supervisors in the island. To prevent mis¬ understanding as far as possible, the directions were carefully specified, including the place and time of each examination. 1. The questions and blanks were sent in sealed packages in each case. (A) Envelopes containing questions for each examination separately. (B) Copies of the rules for examination. (C) Copies of the programme and supervisors’ certificate. (D) Class list. Each supervisor, by personal examination, was to make sure that nothing was lacking. 2. The material was not to be exposed until the class was seated. 3. The supervisor must conduct the examination in person at the hour named. 4. Questions, pen, ink, and paper were to be supplied by the supervisor. 5. Not more than two hours wmre to be occupied by one subject. 6. The examinations must not be divided. All of one subject must be taken at a sitting. There was to be no communication between those to be examined. 7. No explanations were to be allowed. 8. Answers were to be written in order of the questions, and carefully. 9. In arithmetic, entire operations were required. No lexicons or other aids were to be used. 10. Reports must be made, accompanied by the certificates and schedules required carefully signed. On this carefully prepared plan several examinations have been held. On August 21 the insular school board passed the following resolutions unanimously: Resolved , That, in admitting new candidates to the profession of teaching, certifi¬ cates shall be granted only upon examination or upon diplomas from reputable normal schools, colleges, or universities, and that the standard of examination shall be maintained equal to that observed in New York, Ohio, Minnesota, California, and other States of the Union. (2) That all teachers of Porto Rico holding superior titles under the former law shall receive principals’ certificates. (3) That all teachers possessing elementary titles under the former law shall receive graded-school certificates. (4) That teachers holding rural or auxiliary titles under the former school law shall receive rural certificates. The Spanish system was deadening to a professional spirit. The idea of the teacher as a member of a professional rather than of a social or bureaucratic class seems not to have been awakened. The whole body of teachers became a sort of bureaucracy —a teacher was first of all a politician and an officeholder. A school was acquired in propriety through competitive examinations, appointment being governed some¬ what by the term of service of the teacher. If the school ceased to exist for any reason the teacher continued to receive one-half his salary from the municipality, and had a right to the first vacancy occurring in the school system for which his title qualified him. Schools not held in propriety were said to be held temporarily, i. e., until they could be provided for in “ propriety,” as designated through suitable examina¬ tions. At the close of the last school year about two-thirds of the schools of the island were held in “propriety,” the remainder having been filled temporarily. This large number of temporary appointments was due in part to the effects of the war and the vacancies occasioned by the return of the Spanish teachers to the penin¬ sula. The various grades of certificates were secured through written and oral examinations. It was also claimed that many were secured through political influ¬ ence. As it was charged that there were many illegal certificates in the island and many that were granted to unqualified persons, for the purpose of securing a thorough examination of the documents held by each teacher, new certificates, graded as rural, graded-school, and principals’ certificates, were granted by the insular educational authorities. Teachers holding superior titles under the old law were given princi- EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 25 r pals’ certificates valid for five years; teachers holding elementary titles were granted graded-school certificates, qualifying them to teach in graded schools for the same- length of time; teachers holding rural or auxiliary titles were in the same manner- granted rural certificates. Up to date 757 teachers have received new certificates-' under this ruling. That many of these teachers would not be qualified to teach in American schools can hardly be doubted, but it has been thought best that where incompetent teachers possess titles they should be allowed to demonstrate this fact in the schoolroom itself, their removal being a matter entirely at the discretion of the- insular board of education, and easily accomplished in case of unfavorable reports from the supervisors. ,k To show how far below the standard to which Americans are accustomed they fall in many subjects, it may be stated that in the July examinations there were- teachers holding superior titles who received less than 25 per cent in the examination upon universal geography, given to seventh grade pupils of the States, the questions being translated into Spanish, and all questions pertaining strictly to local geography of the United States being omitted and questions relating to Porto Rico substituted for them. In the examination in United States history 50 per cent out of the 65 required for passing could be gained upon two questions, relating to the voyages of Columbus and to the Spanish-American war and the recent political changes in this island, and yet out of 41 examinees but 30 secured the required 65 per cent. Im arithmetic the lack of practical knowledge of the subject was still more apparent. There were 139 examinees, of whom but 4 secured the 65 per cent; in geography, out - of 137 examinees 48 secured the required per cent. The questions were taken ver¬ batim from a set of questions given to candidates for admission to the high schools of the State of Minnesota. One or two intricate problems in the examination in arith¬ metic were modified and metric measurements substituted for English measurements. The applicants were to repeat rules in Spanish grammar, and to show their ability im analysis and parsing of the principal words of a continuous extract of prose of about ten lines. These teachers are qualified, however, to teach all that they will be required to teach in the schools of Porto Rico for two or three years to come, and1 during that time, with modern text-books and other school facilities, it is expected that the majority of the younger ones will be able to continue the work in higher grades. A large per cent of the teachers are very old — in fact, superannuated. When, a man becomes useless for anything else, it has been frequently customary to assign him a position as a school-teacher. Applications have been received for appoint¬ ments where the chief qualification cited was the fact that the teacher was physically incapacitated for doing anything else. The school board of the city of Guayamaa- appointed a man 72 years of age, with defective sight and hearing, and who received but 25 per cent in the examination in geography, principal of their schools. This is- one of the largest and most important towns of the island, and this fact shows how different a position toward public schools is taken by local school authorities here- compared with similar officers in the States. For explicitness, I may in part restate' here that the provision for the professional training of teachers in Porto Rico, under Spanish rule, consisted of a boys’ normal school which was later united to the sec¬ ondary institute at San Juan, and a girls’ normal school in the same city. There were about 50 pupils in attendance at the girls’ normal. Theoretically, there was practice teaching, and there were two so-called superior schools, one for boy? and' one for girls, in the city for this purpose. The instruction in the normal was chiefly in academic subjects, and the girls’ normal was probably the most efficient institu¬ tion of learning in the island, though it fell far below what we should expect of a graded school in the States both in the way of methods of instruction and of disci¬ pline. Graduates of this school received elementary school titles. As stated above^ the school was suspended. ed 1900 - IT 258 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. SUMMER TEACHERS’ INSTITUTE. A summer school and institute conducted by three ladies who were experienced public school-teachers in the States and who speak Spanish, was held in San Juan in vacation. There was practice teaching and instruction in American school branches. FUTURE PROVISIONS. Dr. Clark states expectations of future provisions for the training of teachers as follows: 1. In the industrial school, which it is expected will be located at Fajardo, there will be a normal department, with model school training. 2. The model training school at San Juan is created with three purposes in view: (а) To provide a school in which the children of American and Porto Rican parents can be educated, who would otherwise be sent to the States. It has been thought true economy that the money for the support of these children should be kept in the island if possible. (б) To provide a concrete illustration of what the American graded school is, model school furniture is purchased and model methods of teaching and of school organization and discipline, with the strict following of programme and the system¬ atic graduation of pupils, are introduced. It is also hoped through this school to set a standard for primary and secondary instruction similar to that in the States. If Porto Rico is part of the United States, her pupils will naturally look to the institu¬ tions of that country for their higher education, and unless the standard of higher instruction in this island is made equal to that in the States this is going to lead in the future to continual embarrassment and expense on the part of students and parents. (c) To provide training courses for teachers in a model school. It is hoped to place in this school only pupils recommended by the supervisors from the different parts of the island. Special courses will be given in Spanish and English; .the teach¬ ers will observe the work in the American school and will do practice teaching under the eyes of the supervisor in the public schools of San Juan and the orphan asylum. 3. The appropriations permit school officers to hold teachers’ institutes at other towns of the island, and this will be done at intervals during the school year. 4. The introduction of the 60 or 70 normal trained American teachers, teaching model grades in each community, will, it is hoped, assist in familiarizing the Porto Rican teachers with the methods of school organization and discipline and teaching followed in the States. 5. As the supply of teachers is sufficient for the immediate needs of the island under our present appropriation, the board of education feels justified in admitting other teachers to the profession only upon strict examination, showing the required scholastic qualifications as provided. TEACHERS FROM THE STATES. The correspondence from those in the States offering to teach was very large. Indeed, so large that the office force was not able to reply to every letter. The fol¬ lowing circular was therefore issued : San Juan, P. R., October 19, 1899. On account of the large number of applications received we send the following formal answer to teachers: There are several vacancies to be filled in Porto Rico, and we would request teachers desiring to come upon the conditions mentioned to send their names, credentials, and photographs immediately that we may request transportation for them from the Quartermaster-General at Washington, providing there are appointments to be made upon receipt of their applications. EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 259 1. Teachers must he normal graduates or high -school graduates, with one year’s experience as a teacher, and preference is given to those familiar with kindergarten methods and primary work. 2. The insular government pays the salary of $40 gold per month for nine months of the school year. Salary begins with service. The municipal authorities pay house rent or a commutation for house rent, amounting from $2 to $20 gold per month. In the larger towns the most desirable positions have been filled. 3. Teachers can add considerably to their incomes by giving private lessons in the evenings. In nearly every town of the island there are a number of well-to-do families the members of which are extremely anxious to learn the English language. 4. Living expenses vary. In the larger towns they are as high as in the larger cities of the East. In the smaller towns they vary from $10 to $20 gold per month. Each school is under inspection of an English supervisor, who has general super¬ vision of about 40 schools. This supervisor will arrange for accommodations for teachers, and will escort them from the nearest port to the town in which they are to teach. Frequently teachers are entertained, in the best families in the town. 5. There is but one teacher appointed for each town. In some towns there are no other American residents. There are no public school buildings, the schools being held in rented rooms, and there is very little school furniture. The work is in every respect pioneer work. The teacher is expected to teach a model grade for one three- hour session and to give instruction in English in the other grades- in the town school the remainder of the school hours, though this arrangement may be modified some¬ what where on account of a lack of school facilities pupils attend half sessions. 6. Transportation from New York to San Juan is furnished by the Government, but it does not include meals while on board vessel. This latter item amounts to five or six dollars for the trip. Transportation home at the end of the school year can not be promised, as the military government may cease and consequently military transportation be withdrawn before that time. 7. No teacher need hesitate to come from considerations based upon the climate of the island. There are very few uncomfortably warm days, and even during the rainy season there are few days without a fair share of sunshine. Fevers and epi¬ demic diseases are probably less common than in the States. The office force of this office is composed largely of Americans. The office hours are seven hours, and have been continued during the past summer, and for the last six months not a day has been lost on account of the illness of American employees. insular government. All the work of the schools is verv elementarv 8. Text-books are of good quality, published by American firms, and are fur¬ nished by the in its character, Educational conditions in Porto Eico are promising. School facilities must be rapidly widened and extended, as but one-seventh of the children of school age are accommodated at present. Consequently there is reasonable prospect for rapid advancement for teachers who secure a mastery of both languages. Very respectfully, Victor S. Clark, President Insular Board of Education. The interest in the employment of American teachers became very manifest. Out of the list of teachers who received certificates from the insular office, the munici¬ palities were authorized to make their own selection, the payment coming as provided from the insular treasury. As the opening of the schools early in October approached, it was evident that the municipalities in the exercise of their choice would call for sixty or more teachers from the States. The presence of so many American teachers illustrating in so many ways the excel¬ lence of American methods necessarily hastens the changes in progress so much talked about, and, in the case of many so earnestly desired, has in it the possibility of awaken¬ ing jealousy and creating conditions which may be used by the designing who are controlled by the Aguinaldo spirit to create disturbances, thereby retarding the good work. RESIGNATION. As the end of May approached, the condition of my health compelled me to address the honorable Secretary of the Interior as follows: Sir: Some months since, as you are aware, my health was suddenly and specially impaired, and it seemed that my resignation would be necessary to my recovery, but 260 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. we were in the midst of work that could not well be dropped. The new educational plans are now substantially completed. The effect of the increasing heat upon my health admonishes me that I must rest in order to save myself from another attack. I therefore tender to you, and through you to Gen. George W. Davis, my resigna¬ tion as director of public instruction. The purpose of my labors, the devising of the best educational methods for Porto Rico, has wholly absorbed my time and strength. It has brought me into contact* with many of the best people, whose association I have greatly enjoyed. As I became acquainted with the needs of education, I have been encouraged by the desire shown by many teachers and citizens for better schools, and by the readiness with which the children learned. The future of the island will be determined by what is done for the rising generation. The friends of Porto Rico need, above all things, to dismiss all differences, and concentrate their efforts upon the improvement of the young. The American flag offers full American privileges, which means the largest liberty, regulated by law, known in any land. If the young can be trained to improve and enjoy this freedom, this beautiful island will be crowned with an indus¬ trial, social, civil, and religious life not less an ornament and attraction among the peoples of the earth. In parting with my duties my anxieties for the future are relieved by the assurance that they will continue to receive the watchful attention of yourself and the general commanding, and that their immediate care will be in the hands of my very competent deputy, Dr. Victor S. Clark, who has so fully shared in my labors, aided by those who have so faithfully cooperated with us in the office. To all officers, teachers, and citizens, who have extended to me so many courtesies, I tender my hearty thanks. Very sincerely, yours, John Eaton, Director of Public Instruction. The kindness of Porto Ricans and their appreciation of efforts in their behalf was manifested by many good-bye calls and notes from citizens and officers expressing their regrets and wishing my restoration of health, a happy voyage, and many good things. The News said the following day: A great deal has been accomplished during the past few months, and the prospect for the future is very bright. Before leaving, General Eaton was given a call by the city teachers. After a short talk, in which he praised them for their good work and kind assistance — also giving them a few words of encouragement and advice — he shook hands with each, bidding all farewell, making it a touching scene long to be remembered by those present. The following letter, signed personally by a body of teachers, was handed him at the same time: “General Eaton, San Juan. “Sir: We, the teachers of the capital, desire to express our regret at your depar¬ ture from our island, and sincerely hope that the climate of your native country will restore you to health. We appreciate the good work in education that you have commenced since you have been here, and it will be remembered by our children when you are gone. May your voyage and change restore you to health and strength, is the earnest desire of “Yours, respectfully,” (Signed individually. ) To the teachers of Porto Rico: My health is so far impaired that I have resigned for rest and recuperation. My labors have been overtaxing, but full of interest. Although the difficulties have been great, the possibilities of the future are encouraging. War, change of sover¬ eignty, and short crops have brought great disturbances and exposed many to suffer¬ ing. How many teachers had received no pay! This we have tried to remedy. Great changes were expected. We have sought to make them as limited as possible with the improvement of the schools. To have good schools we must have good teachers. When I came, I everywhere heard “there is no money.” The cry began to come up that the municipalities can not pay the salaries of the teachers next year. Soon relief came in the assurance that the insular treasury could pay $325,000 for education next year. It was decided that this should be divided equally for the benefit of the whole island and used mainly in the payment of teachers’ salaries. This would so far support the teachers and keep the schools open for the benefit of the children; at the same time it was expected the municipalities would do the rest, and they are therefore required to furnish homes for the teachers and buildings for the schools, and meet any further expenses necessary. Indeed, wherever munici- EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 261 palities have money for the purpose, they should open schools for the instruction of children who can not be provided for in the schools whose teachers are to be paid from the insular treasury. Public schools, it should be remembered, must be conducted in the interest of the public and not in the interest specially of any class. In America these principles are fundamental — rich and poor must be served alike — therefore the payment of fees by the rich has been abolished. This does not interfere with the rich providing out of their own means for the instruction of their children, nor does it interfere with teachers who choose to establish other than public schools for pay scholars; nor does it forbid the teachers of public schools teaching for pay in hours not occupied in the public school; but it does proceed upon the broad principle that in the public service there must be no distinction between the rich and the poor and that during the hours for which the teacher is paid by the public he must devote himself faithfully to the instruction of all the children under his care. In dividing the money from the insular treasury for the benefit of teachers, it was decided to make the payment in nine parts, or for each of nine months. In survey¬ ing the whole island it was found that this would accomplish more for the whole people than to attempt to divide it into twelve parts and thus require service during all the months of the year, including the rainy season. A very large proportion of the population resides in the country districts, and during the rainy season, when roads are poor and streams are swollen, which children have to cross oftentimes in peril of their lives, it was seen that schools could amount to but little. It was there¬ fore decided, in conformity with the practice in the United States and other countries where education accomplishes most, to provide for a longer vacation. As it was reported that many teachers had been unable to save money, the treasury, for a general rule, would be authorized to advance $15 per month on the annual pay of each teacher, which, in addition to the house to be furnished by the municipality, would, especially in the country, make sure their relief from suffering. In municipalities it was expected that they would know the situation of the teachers and make any additional provision for their comfort which might seem expedient — might continue the schools a part of the time. This has already been done, I am informed, by several municipalities. In several instances teachers are exercised with fear upon this point and appeal for relief to the insular treasury, but they will see that the insular treasury already proposes the greatest relief for the year, and if they need additional relief they should appeal to the municipalities. If they are good teachers they can teach pay schools, as above suggested, a part or all of the time; but since the municipalities have so large a share of the teachers’ salaries met by the insular treasury, is it unreasonable to expect of them that they will supply any further want of the teachers of their children who have so long rendered them faithful service? As to text-books, it is already manifest that they will be furnished of better quality and at less expense than ever before. The instruction in English, from which so many feared great evils, is going on with much satisfaction to the children and the public generally, opening a new door of opportunity to rich and poor alike. A way has been found not to displace native teachers, as so many prophesied would be done, but to introduce supervisors of English instruction who should train both native teachers and pupils in the correct pronunciation of English. The island, therefore, is divided between 16 supervisors whose native language is English. Before the year closes it is hoped 10,000 pupils will have made a beginning in this important acquisition. It should be remembered that this expense has not been met by the municipalities, and the small text-books in English introduced have not been a charge upon them but have been paid for out of the insular treasury, the like of which has never been done before. I have marveled as I have visited schools that teachers have been able to accom¬ plish so much without proper equipment, without classification, and without houses erected for school purposes. We have therefore provided for the grading of the schools, from the kindergarten, class by class, according to qualification, and from the high school to the State normal and academic school, and for the possibility of a university when the youth are prepared for that grade of instruction. In this grada¬ tion regard has been had both to instruction in letters and in the industrial arts, in the latter beginning with the kitchen garden and sloid. Instead of a single institution of a higher grade conducted mainly for the benefit of the capital at the expense of the entire island, it has been provided that each of the municipalities may have a high school, whose teacher will be paid from the insular treasury, where pupils will receive instruction of a higher grade than it has been possible to obtain on the island before, thus benefiting three or four times as many young people as at present, and giving a large number of aspiring teachers an opportunity for training in pedagogy. 262 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. In this manner the new laws appeal to the wisdom of teachers and of citizens. The extent to which they are approved by the best teachers and citizens is very gratifying. It is not pleasant to know that some teachers have allowed themselves to say things and to propose to do things contrary to the spirit of these new school laws. Let every teacher, instead of grumbling, try cheerfully to improve the situa¬ tion — let him, as far as possible, use his vacation to improve himself. For this pur¬ pose some will go to the States; some will attend institutes. Here and there a teacher is reported as spending the time for which the public pays engaging in other business or in political scheming. Word has come to me that teachers have been threatened that if they do not do this or that for some partisan they will be made to suffer. It has been intimated that the new commander, Gen. George W. Davis, is expected to favor some of these schemes. Let it be known to every teacher, and I have it from his own lips, that he does not come here with any such purpose. He expects every teacher to attend directly and especially to his duties and to take no part in any political or partisan agitation. He expects teachers to be a worthy example for their pupils in all things. Remem¬ ber, “the better the teacher, the better the school — the better the school, the better the. people.” The eyes of the people of the States are upon you. By your excellent conduct you will create a favorable impression of the fitness of your island for self- government. Do not make the mistake which will mar your own welfare and delay the fulfillment of promises of good for your native land. Committing my efforts for your welfare to your most serious attention, the judg¬ ment of mankind, and the favor of Almighty God, I am, sincerely, your friend, John Eaton. THE AGUINALDO SPIRIT. The Aguinaldo spirit is not limited to the Philippine insurgent. It is altogether too common an element in human nature. It is not altogether wanting among Porto Ricans, and was known to possess active partisans among the teachers. This element bestirred itself, called a convention to oppose the operation of the new school provi¬ sions, and sought in every way to secure a large attendance of the teachers of the .island. Teachers were besought, cajoled, and threatened with the loss of place if they did not attend. A small fraction only could be induced to participate in the movement, which was inspired and managed by a small coterie, who passed resolutions and appointed a committee to make a formal protest. This protest, on examination, proves to be against those features of the new provisions for the schools most in accordance with American plans and methods, or against features subordinate to the main purpose of the school orders. General Henry, who had issued the new school provisions, having left the island, and Gen. George W. Davis, the new commander, having just assumed the responsi¬ bilities of governor-general, it was thought the occasion was opportune to get him to reverse the orders of his predecessor. It was sought to play upon his motives or deceive him. One of the disaffected leaders had written a letter to President McKinley, the receipt of which had been acknowledged by the President’s private secretary, and this was shown as evidence that the President approved the disaffection. After a careful consideration of all that was said and written by the malcontents, General Davis wrote the following letter: Dr. A. Rosell, Chairman Teachers’ Committee. Dear Sir: I have read the papers handed to me, specially the report of the board of teachers and schools, of which board you are a member. You ask specially that the new school laws be suspended, alleging that in their application and execution they are detrimental to the best interest of Porto Rico; but other teachers and experienced educators are of opinions exactly to the contrary of those which your board presents. There is no more certain manner of developing the defects of any human law or ordinance than by enforcing the defective statute. If and when it is made apparent and clear that any features of the new school law ought to be changed, I shall not hesitate, on clear proof, to take the necessary steps to insure their modification, but as at present informed, and after very attentive consideration of the papers submitted, I can not abrogate or suspend the new rules relating to schools. EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 268 The administration of the schools will he watched with the keenest interest, for I fully realize that there is no branch of the public service more important to the people of Porto Rico than that of the education of their children. While colleges, universities, and institutions of higher education are, no doubt, greatly needed, and will in time be provided, it seems to me of vastly greater impor¬ tance that the Porto Rican children be supplied with facilities for gaining the rudi¬ ments of an education than that a few of the youth of more advanced age be taught the higher branches. I have learned from statistics that are vouched for as and appear to be reliable that the number of children in Porto Rico of suitable age to attend school considerably exceeds 100,000 — but of this number only about one-third have had any instruction save in reading and writing. Were the means of the island adequate to meet the expenditures, 1 would gladly take steps to institute all requisite schools— high and normal schools, and colleges also — but this would involve expenditure of quite .$1,000,000 per annum for Porto Rico, a sum that at present is not available. It becomes necessary, therefore, to concentrate efforts and expenditures upon a less ambitious project. The number of children who have been receiving instruction, it is said, does not exceed some 35,000. This shows how much remains to be done to bring school advantages to the doors of all, specially the poor. The former institute, I learn, was discontinued by my predecessor. As to this act, I am advised by three experienced teachers who looked into the matter that the institute, as then carried on, was scarcely more than a farce. With my present knowledge, I can not find any justification for revoking General Henry’s order and reestablishing this institution. I hope, before long, that it may be found to be possible to provide facilities for the teaching of those who seek to secure a higher education, but I am satisfied that the former institute did not efficiently and economically do this. I thank you and your colleagues for the interest you have taken in this matter. I am sure that suitable employment can be offered to all teachers who are willing to lend their best efforts to the public good. I regret that means are not available to give to all teachers salaries that they regard as deserved, but it will be my earnest endeavor to see that all deserving teachers and professors are properly compensated. I shall also endeavor to see that wages allowed are fully earned. Respectfully, Geo. W. Davis, B r i ga drier- General , Comma n d i i ig. This Dr. Rosell was the director of the institute which had been abolished. He was a man of ability and had studied some in France. Had he devoted himself as assiduously to the helping as to the hindering the- new order of things, he might have aided the forward movement to his own advantage, instead of throwing himself across its path to his own great injury. This gentleman has become better acquainted with American aims and methods and is now their efficient advocate. INSULAR BOARD OF EDUCATION. General Orders, No. 116, dated San Juan, Porto Rico, August 12, 1899, Gen. George W. Da vis, commanding department, Paragraph VI, provided that the bureau of education with its then existing organization should be continued under the board of education, the president of the board reporting direct to the military governor. Such of the records of the Department of the Interior as pertained to schools and education were to be turned over to the board of education. At the time of the American occupation, the officials of the bureau of education were receiving 25,165 pesos per annum. At different times considerable reductions were made in the expenses of adminis¬ tration. Under the reorganized bureau the salary list wall be $7,220 per annum, and this includes the salary of an English bookkeeper and cashier, under bond, not previously employed, as under the new system of financial administration the educa¬ tional budget is expended and accounted for to the auditor sent from the States directly by the educational authorities, a duty formerly falling upon the department of finance. A feature illustrative of the Spanish method of handling funds mav be mentioned. 264 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. In the payment of clerks in a bureau or division the accounts were carefully made out monthly, and one of the regular clerks would be designated to go to the treasury and get the cash required for the payment of the several persons designated. For the performance of this duty each clerk paid him a per cent of his salary, which, where the number of the clerks was large, amounted to a considerable sum. The members of the board designated under the order referred to above were Victor S. Clark, president; George G. Groff, Jose Saldana, Henry Huyke, and It. H. Todd. In the organization of the board Victor S. Clark, the president, was the insular superintendent; II. B. Wiborg, cashier and United States disbursing officer; and Enrique Hernandez, secretary. The accounts and records of the board are kept in English. Its methods of pro¬ cedure are thoroughly American. The insular board of education issues a monthly or occasional bulletin to teachers, containing a programme of the course of study and outlines for general lessons, nature study, and kindred subjects. It controls or authorizes the purchase of text-books and school supplies for the whole island; it issues and authorizes the course of study for primary and secondary schools; it recommends school legislation, and, when necessary, interferes to secure the discharge of incompetent teachers and impartial elections by local school boards. Hitherto the local boards of education have been appointed by an administrative officer of the central government or by the board of education. By a general order just issued five school trustees will be elected in each municipality at the regular municipal election, who will supersede the present local school boards. ITS MANUALS OR BULLETINS. These are issued monthly or occasionally, as circumstances may require. These publications are exceedingly helpful to the supervisors of English and the teachers. They are exceedingly helpful to citizens and parents who take an interest in the schools. Bulletin No. 1 contains the outline of study and programme for primary schools. It gives in detail the outline of the course of study for each term for live years in accordance with the provisions elsewhere described. Among the directions are the following: 1. No teacher is permitted to leave the schoolroom during regular school hours upon any legal school day for the purpose of attending to busi¬ ness not connected with the school work. In other words, the teacher is expected to be at his post of duty during the full time required by law. 2. Employment of substitutes not authorized by the insular board of education is positively forbidden. 3. Religious instruction in schools during school hours is not permitted, the full time being devoted to the regular course of study. 4. Teachers are held personally responsible for the condition of text-books and for their proper return at the close of the school year. Teachers are permitted to dismiss the youngest pupils an hour before the close of the session in the afternoon. The bulletin also contains a model programme as an aid to each teacher in making the programme which he is to post in his school. It also contains a list of text-books authorized by law. Bulletin No. 2 is still more extended. Supervisors are expected to aid in grading pupils, usually the first-year pupils being in charge of an American teacher. Pupils should be classified at first on the basis of reading. While pupils of one class or grade are reciting the others should be studying. Pupils must always be studying or reciting. No studying aloud is permitted. How to teach each subject is carefully specified and illustrated. Touching the physical side of education, this manual says the poverty and destitu¬ tion at present prevailing in many parts of the island make the prospect for improv- ment in food and clothing very discouraging. It will be necessary to teach parents and pupils the necessity of industry and thrift, if possible, to make constant labor and constant saving a habit with them, before radical reforms in home surroundings,, EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 265 clothing, and in food can be accomplished. But if we teach parents and children the advantages of better food and better clothing, we may, on the other hand, make the demand for these things an incentive to industry, thrift, and saving. W e should advise that all instruction in hygiene and calisthenics should be centered in teaching these live things, upon which health depends: (a) Sufficient nutrition. ( b ) Sufficient clothing. (c) Cleanliness, which includes personal cleanliness, pure water and pure air. ( d ) Physical exercise. (e) Moderation. A child should not be sent to school without his breaxiast. The blood, which feeds all of those organs upon which the physical and mental activities directly or indirectly depend, is depleted of its nutriment in the morning and a further drain upon it, unless it is replenished with food, leads to the permanent weakening of the child. Dwell upon this fact — preach the gospel of enough to eat; take a personal interest in your children and see that this want is supplied; appeal to authorities if necessary. The teacher of intelligence and appreciation of the needs of the com¬ munity should place himself “ in loco parentis,” or in the place of the parent, to all the children of his vicinity. These manuals, prepared by Dr. Clark, are full of wise suggestions. They will be a revelation to those not familiar with modern methods of teaching. Schools conducted in accordance with the principles laid down and the methods specified, can not otherwise than give a great uplift to the entire instruction of the island. AMERICAN SCHOOL AT PONCE. The American school at Ponce deserves special mention. This school deservedly attracted much attention. Its establishment and progress are specially due to the personal efforts of General and Mrs. Henry. When General Henry was in command of that division, headquarters at Ponce, he and Mrs. Henry aided in organizing a society to promote the general welfare of the people, including education. Teachers were secured from the States, and prosecuted their work with great skill and success. The mayor and other leading citizens cooperated efficiently. Among the most effective promoters of the school were Mrs. Antosanti and her friends. Ponce, P. R. , April 30, 1899. Gen. John Eaton, San Juan , P. A. My Dear Sir: I thought, perhaps, a letter giving you a description of our school, stating our progress, and giving you an account of the methods we employ in teach¬ ing 300 Spanish children our English language might interest you. I know that Chaplain Sutherland keeps you fully informed regarding our vTork here, but per¬ haps we, as teachers, can give you a better idea of the progress we make than any¬ one else. As before stated, wre have 300 pupils, ranging in age from 4 years to 16, and perhaps older. We have 5 teachers, one of whom teaches only the Spanish, and she does not speak one word of English. We found it very difficult to grade them to any very satisfactory degree, as one seemed to know about as much English as the other. Finally we concluded to grade them according to their standing in their Spanish studies, and we found this a very good way to do. Even yet we keep passing them up and down, as we learn their standing, trying to get them in those where they can learn to the best advantage. As a rule they are inclined to be very disorderly, and one of the first things we did was to insist upon their marching into and out of class rooms orderly and quietly. They are none too quiet as yet, but they are a vast improvement over what they were at lirst. They have no idea of studying, and sit with their books closed, and never think of opening them until called upon to recite. We had considerable trouble teaching them to study, and the first few weeks we took a half hour each morning and afternoon, when we would go from one to the other, requiring them to open their books and showing them how to study. We have them pretty well trained in this one respect now. The moment they are seated in the class room they oiien their books and begin to study, but they have to be spoken to 266 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. quite frequently, as they are very apt to forget to look at their books, but* just stare around through the room. Of course we can not accomplish it all at once, and we are encouraged when we notice a small improvement. We started them all in Appleton’s First Reader, requiring them to spell and pronounce correctly, teaching them the different sounds of the letters and the diacritical marks. We didn’t require them to do all this at once, of course, but I am now outlining our plan of work. We teach them the use of the diacritical marks, the sounds of the letters, and we teach them to spell by sound as well as by letter. The larger pupils are required to give us the Spanish word for every English word in their lesson, also to tell us the meaning of the word in English and be able to use it in an English sentence. Their reading lesson they must translate into Spanish, and tell us in English all about the lesson they have just read, while we correct their sentences, their pronunciation, etc. Some¬ times we are three or four days on one lesson, as we never leave it until we know it thoroughly and can talk about it in English. Of course I am describing my own classes, as I do not know enough about the others. In the afternoon we have Simmone’s Method for Learning English; from this we learn the verbs, English names for different objects, and have exercises to trans¬ late. In connection with this we hold conversations in English, in which everyone is obliged to take part, and it is really remarkable how much of their lessons they are able to use in conversation. At first I couldn’t get one of them to say one word to me in English, and I was discouraged. Finally I said to them: “The pupil who refuses to talk to me to-day some in English, no matter how little, I shall send home, and it is doubtful whether I’ll admit them to this class again this term.” This had a miraculous effect, and every child had something to say to me. Since that time I have had no further trouble. I talk in English entirely, employing the Spanish only to translate what they do not quite understand. I speak very slowly, and there are but very few who do not understand all I say to them. I am surprised at the prog¬ ress, as I had no idea they could get along so fast. I am really only experimenting with methods, as experience alone will teach us what is best to be used, and no two teachers can employ the same methods and be successful. Every day we are obliged to turn pupils away simply because we have no room for them, and it almost breaks our hearts to see them turn away crying, often both parents and children crying and begging for the children to be admitted. They are all so anxious to learn, and they can not be kind enough to us. Some of our classes are about ready for a Second Reader, and if you have any I would be glad if you will send perhaps 100 here. We can probably collect for most of them. I would also like an arithmetic, a United States history, a geography, and a grammar — Read & Kellogg, if you have it. These I will see are paid for. They are for our mayor’s little girl, who recites to me every day for an hour, and who speaks English very well, considering the advantages she has had for learning it. The people all seem to take such a kindly interest in this their first “American public school.” We enjoy the work very much. Our school hours are from 9 to 11 and from 1 to 3, which we find plenty long enough for the children to sit on straight chairs with no desks and low benches with no backs. Even in two hours they get very tired and restless these warm afternoons. I would greatly appreciate if you could send me the books at once. Will I give Mr. Brown the money for them or remit to you? Anything further you may wish to know about the school, or any information either myself or Miss Mendel can give you, we would be most happy to have you write us. Yours, very respectfully, Edith Y. Hollobaugh. A record has been found in which it appears’ that in the year 1842 the municipal¬ ity of Ponce, before the Spanish school law of 1857, made a grant of 300 pesos a year for the education of 10 girls annually. A few years later a much larger number of girls were educated, and in 1861 public schools were opened for girls on the same plan as those for boys. In 1895, it appears from a public school address, there were 1,400 children enrolled in the schools. In 1898 the municipalities set apart 36,509 pesos for school purposes. There are enterprising citizens of Ponce who have sought that their municipality should lead in the work of education and who are ready to cooperate with the plan for the American school to the utmost of their ability. It is now hoped that the movement among the citizens here will result in their raising $20,000, to be supplemented by a like amount for the erection of a normal and industrial school on the plan of one at Fajardo. EDUCATION IN PORTO EICO. 267 A MODEL TRAINING SCHOOL IN SAN JUAN. On the recommendation of Dr. V. S. Clark, president of the insular board of edu¬ cation, Gen. George W. Davis, commanding the department, ordered the money necessary for the purpose set apart and the 'erection, on the economical plans pro¬ vided, of a model training school in San Juan, which, in addition to the schools of the municipality, should afford the children of American officers, civil and military, and such other children as might be found capable of attending, an English school. It was expected the school would have special effect in quickening the people of the different municipalities to make an effort to erect for themselves buildings similar in plan and arrangement. In everything about the school the strictest economy was consulted consistent with American system and methods. The school was opened early in the school year in an old building. The new building was ready for occu¬ pancy by the 16th of January. The number in attendance had increased to 350. The San Juan News, in describing the occasion, says: The teachers and scholars assembled in front of the building, which was located near Plaza Colon. Two students stood on the platform of the double stairway lead¬ ing into the building, one holding a large American flag and the other the halyards. As Old Glory reached the top of the pole and fluttered to the breeze the boys and girls alike shouted and cheered, caps were thrown into the air, all saluting with wild hurrahs the flag of the country. After silence was obtained the children recited in unison the pledge to the flag. The Star-Spangled Banner and Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean, were sung by all, and three cheers given as only boys and girls can for the red, white and blue. After this ceremony the children were marched, class by class, to the platform and photographed before they entered the building. This is the first building erected in Porto Pico by Americans in which to teach the children of the island by American methods. It is admirably adapted for the purpose. There are twelve rooms in all, two of which were reserved for the board of education, which will occupy them as soon as furnished. Every modern scientific idea in regard to light, ventilation, and sanitation has been applied for" the comfort and health of the pupils. Each class room is furnished with adjustable desks, each individual pupil having one. Around the walls are slate blackboards, at a conven¬ ient height to be reached by the scholar. The school is divided into nine departments, viz: Kindergarten, primary, inter¬ mediate, grammar, high school in English and Spanish, scientific, training, andsloyd. The corps of teachers under Professor Benedict, the principal, are as follows: Miss Gould, Miss Howe, Miss McDavid, Miss Beckwith, Miss Ericson, Dr. Posell, Dr. Berkeley, and Mr. Piddle. They are experienced educators, and the work which they have done and are doing is worthy of the highest commendation. The school had a regular session in the afternoon. In connection with this model training school, a teachers’ course for lady primary teachers and for kindergartners has been opened. Each clas^ will be limited to 1 2 young ladies of good family and education, between the ages of 17 and 27 years. Applicants for admission to the class for primary teachers need not know English. As it has been impossible to secure a trained kindergarten teacher who knew Spanish, it is required that applicants for admission to the kindergarten training class shall know English. The courses are for two years and will entitle students to the highest certificates granted by the board of education in these courses and preference to all positions under the influence of the insular board. The course in primary methods is as follows: COURSE IN PRIMARY METHODS. First year. — School methods and administration, three hours per week. Primary methods, two hours per week. Sloid, three hours per week. Clay modeling and table work and primary drawing, two hours per week. Spanish literary selections, one hour per week. 268 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Botany, laboratory work, and nature study, three hours per week. Physical experiments, three hours per week. Half hour observation work, and after first semester one hour per week practice under a critic teacher. Second year. — The course for the second year will be a continuation of the work of the first year so far as subjects are concerned, except that psychology and child study will be substituted for school administration, and zoology and chemistry for botany and physics. The two years’ course in kindergarten methods is pointed out in detail like the above. FAJARDO NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. According to the school provisions, several municipalities bid for this school. Fajardo, in the eastern part of the island, made the best offer, and secured the school. One hundred acres of land beautifully located near the town have been obtained. The buildings will be erected upon an elevation with the view of the sea on two sides. The municipality placed $20,000 in gold at the control of the insular board for the school. The other expenses will be paid from the insular treasury. The school is to be under the direction of the insular board of education. The plans for building, course of study, employment of teachers, and the entire management of the school is under its direction. It is expected that the school will be a model in its several departments, and of incalculable benefit to the island. Instruction will begin as soon as the buildings are completed. OTHER EFFORTS. Carolina has appropriated $1,200 for a three-room house. Ponce is preparing to establish a normal and industrial school at the cost of $40,000. SPECIAL AID. Early in the year Hon. Charles J. Skinner visited the island with a party of excur¬ sionists and saw something of its educational needs. On his return to New York he tendered free tuition to Porto Rican teachers who wished to attend the normal schools of his State. Later, Hon. Mason S. Stone, superintendent of the Vermont schools, made a similar offer. Prof. W. F. Phelps, of Minnesota, was of the same mind* The school board of St. Louis voted to aid the schools of Ponce with desks. Recently the receipt of over a thousand desks from the Commissioners of the Dis¬ trict of Columbia has been acknowledged. Miss Sarah W. Dagget, State regent, Daughters American Revolution, State of Massachusetts, for the establishment of a school as a memorial to her father, Henry L. Dagget, late of Boston, at her own expense, sent the literature and equipment, including a piano, for a kitchen garden or elementary industrial school. Maj. R. H. Pratt, superintendent of the Indian school, Carlisle, Pa., sent a set of sloid models. Dr. Irwin Shepard, secretary of the National Educational Association, on behalf of the trustees of the association, furnished a set of valuable reports of the association. Hon. W. T. Harris, LL. D., United States Commissioner of Education, was watch¬ ful to furnish every aid in the power of his office. He contributed specially to the collection of pedagogical literature. A gift from him of special importance was a large collection of pictures of school conditions in the States, including views of buildings, school appliances, arrangements, classes, etc., which were examined with great interest and advantage by the native teachers. The United States maps from the United States Land Office, and United States flags from the Lafayette Post, have already been mentioned. Transportation on army vessels from New York for teachers, text-books and other supplies has been EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 269 ordered by the Secretary of War at the expense of the Department and to the great advantage of the island. For a time free transportation was given by order of General Henry to teachers and pupils wishing to study in the States. This was an important aid in the transformation of opinions in the island. Colonel Pullman and Major Clem and their assistants specially aided the work of education by furnishing trans¬ portation of supervisors, teachers, and supplies on and about the island. Words like the following are especially helpful to those bearing the responsibilities of education in distant fields. At a meeting of the American Institute of Instruction, held at Bar Harbor, Me., July, 1899, the following resolution was passed: Resolved , That the educational policy of our new possessions should be shaped and their educational affairs be administered by recognized educators; That the schools be kept free from all sectarian interference and control ; That the principles of a free and democratic education be observed; That the English language be introduced and become the common language of the schools in the most expeditious but frictionless manner possible, and that all funds appropriated and distributed by Government for school instruction shall be given only to those schools which are free and public, in which the English language is taught and used, and which are absolutely under the control of the Government; That appropriations for education be in proportion to the importance and value of the subject as compared with all other interests. Extract from the declaration of principles by the National Educational Association at its meeting in Los Angeles, Cal., July 14, 1899. The past year has brought new and grave responsibilities to our common country and has opened before it new and difficult opportunities. With a courage born of high hope and of confidence in democracy, the nation’s schools and schoolmasters will assume theirjull share of the burden so suddenly imposed upon our citizenship, and will contribute by every means in their power to the wise, patriotic and demo¬ cratic solution of the problems which confront us as a people. * * * Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, Chairman , Newton C. Dougherty, of Illinois , Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi , Joseph Swain, of Indiana , John S. Locke, of Maine, William E. Wilson, of Washington, W. H. Bartholomew, of Kentucky, Committee on Resolutions. rural schools. Opportunities for instruction in country sections were admitted on all hands to be most deplorable. There was no elasticity in the Spanish system of laws by which schools could be established at a distance from the centers of population. In some cases homes were far apart, scattered among the mountains. There were no roads, and only bridle paths at best. Schools were reported where pupils went over 7 miles to school. Not infrequently they had to pass mountain streams several times On their way, and, when these streams were swollen, at the peril of their lives. Schools when taught were of short continuance, attendance irregular, and in the main limited to boys. A large per cent of the girls in rural regions received no instruction. Even among the people there was no inclination to improve the condition, but where there was a desire for improvement there was no legal method provided by which any action could be taken by neighborhoods or districts. A carefully elaborated plan was therefore provided to meet this emergency. A small number of citizens could conceit action, and, by securing the permission of the commanding general, obtain from the Bureau of Education instructions, agree upon geographical limits, elect officers, for whom a method of procedure was designated by which a school could be established and built, private teachers employed, taxes levied, collected, and expenses paid, thus putting it in the power of the most remote locality, after the method in the States, to act for itself in providing instruction for its children. The 270 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. scheme of education in the island can never be completed until this is aecom lished. Without country schools, the island can never enter upon the full fruition of its possibilities. How a well established school and qualified teacher would speedily change the whole aspect of society in these benighted localities! Every interest appeals for an effort to accomplish this result. How it would transform the rudeness of labor, increase the skill of the hand, improve the quality of instruments of labor, and multiply the products of the farm and the shop! It has been found that the ability to read and write on the part of the rudest laborer who works with the spade and the hoe indicates an increased productiveness of 25 per cent. Suppose this skill is added to 500,000 of these ignorant laborers, what a daily increase of productiveness! How it would add to the comfort and wealth of the island and furnish means for increasing the comforts of living, save sickness, prolong life, and add to the possi¬ bilities of intellectual and moral uplift! The unfolding of the American flag furnishes ♦ the opportunity to begin this beneficent work. It should mean to these people a new era of hope and aspiration. VOLUNTARY SCHOOLS. A considerable number of voluntary schools, or schools other than those under government direction, have been opened on the island by teachers from the States. Some of the teachers undertake the task at their own risk, but most of them are sent to the island by large and responsible societies in the States. These societies have aimed specially at religious training. Their teachers are of superior character. They have high qualifications and generally speak Spanish and English. They use improved appliances and teach according to the most improved methods. Their instruction in the common branches of learning, in addition to their religious pur¬ poses, is substantially the same as that in similar branches under public direction. They offer a measure of opportunity to the large number of school children for whose instruction there is no public provision. Some of these schools have been reported to have attracted a larger attendance than they can accommodate. They are located at such points as San Juan, Ponce, Mayaguez, Lares, Santurces, Bayamon, etc. Every Porto Rican educated in the States and every American teacher becomes the center of American influence. In the former case the benefits are so apparent that no ill feeling is likely to follow, but in the case of a teacher obstructive jealousies may arise. CONCLUSIONS. In the preparation of this statement or report, it has been felt that two special reasons emphasize the importance that it should be assured that the conclusions from it would be substantially correct; first, that it should be in no way misleading, because of the prevalence of misinformation on the subjects treated, and, second, because of the advantage in the effect upon legislation and administration of correct knowledge of the conditions herein described. If the future fails to understand the past, it loses the benefit of its lessons. This statement is not therefore made up of opinions and theories, but of documents and description of facts as they have occurred. Personally my relation with everybody in the island was pleasant. In general, offi¬ cers and soldiers of the army manifested a sense of the importance of education to the island, and- the people themselves looked toward changes in education to the American flag as a source of all the personal benefits which they anticipated. Natu¬ rally quick of thought, ready to catch ideas and to act, the people in their manners are courteous and in their hearts kindly. One becomes deeply interested in them. All facts about them must be seen as they are and given due weight. They can not be expected to be all alike, all either of a superior or an inferior type. They have the usual differences. Their race descent, climate, and occupations must be taken carefully into account. The original Indian has long since disappeared, save as his EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 271 characteristics are disclosed in the mixture with other races. As in the States, the recent arrivals from any country are to be distinguished from those whose ancestors made the island their home one, two, or three centuries ago. The people by descent are, first, mostly Spaniards; secondly, African; third, Corsican French; and fourth, a great variety of other sources. The French Consul claimed that in his study of property conditions he found that nearly half of the real estate was owned by per¬ sons of French descent. Africans and their descendants had been slaves until about 1873, when they were purchased by the Spanish Government and set free, The African mixture was of all grades. Race peculiarities and feelings were to be dis¬ covered, but color prejudice did not show itself with any force in the schools or in business. Social separation was fixed. It is generally useless to give figures until the census is- complete. The people, as I have indicated, are the few who are possessed of intelligence and of large or con¬ siderable wealth, or the many who are very ignorant and poor. We are accustomed to say that, a great and powerful people has a large, intelligent, strong, and vigorous middle class. On the island this element of strength, the middle class, is wanting. This want affects all its possibilities, especially where the principle of government by majority is applied. Everybody asks, “Can the people of the island govern them¬ selves?” Their aspirations for self-government are profound and universal; yet it is evident they have not reached the knowledge of what constitutes that unit self to which the principle of self-government is to apply; shall it be San Juan, or Ponce,' or the whole island, or its whole population joined with the whole population of the States; what is the majority rule to include? All classes have lived under Spanish rule in a condition both of suppression and oppression, measured by our standards. They have not had the sunlight and warmth of liberty. . They are necessarily like plants which have grown in the darkness, the needed light and warmth have reached them only in part; that something is wanting which the sunlight of free institutions enjoyed for centuries imparts. This want must not be attributed to race. These people along race lines look back to those among their ancestors of the noblest aspirations and of the most distinguished careers. What may be now wanting, free institutions will give them. Can they govern themselves? Yes; some can and some cannot. Can those who are capable of self-government govern the whole bod)', or themselves and those who are not capable of self-government? This question can only be answered by experi¬ ment. As they become a part of the body politic of the United States they must enter into the great, average. Out of this: great average of condition and sentiment comes funda¬ mental law, calculated in any unit to secure the greatest good to the largest, number. In the application of this theory of self-government there must be along with privi¬ leges provision for duties and adjustments, not allowing overtaxing trials or experi¬ ments to become self-destructive. This application must be looked at not as a theory, but as intensely practical. How far shall guides or preventatives be applied? When evils arise or disease in the body politic appears, how shall they be cured? What shall be the remedy? Who shall apply it? We believe certain great laws of human development are universal. Each race may illustrate in its history modifications, but no race is an exception. Each individual is subject to those laws, whether he is of Spanish, African, French, or Anglo-Saxon descent. Trusting to the operation of those fundamental laws, what of suffrage, the primary source of power in majority rule under free institutions? I would sav divide it. Limit it as near as may be to manhood suffrage in all questions but those touching education. On questions of education make it universal. They appeal less to pecuniary gain and more to the kindly sympathies and involve less the immediate danger both to property and life. Mistakes have better chance for correction, motives appeal less to violence, and have less opportunity for the destruction of property or confiscation by taxation. All 272 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. political action should proceed upon the idea that it is educative and on the antici¬ pation of indefinite improvement. Laws of Congress should be adjusted to all inter¬ ests and fix all necessary fundamental rights and principles. The better all interests are balanced the less disturbance and conflict may be expected. Administration should be permissive of great freedom, but assure safety from destructive peril by providing for proper checks on the island, and, when required, from the President as the embodiment of the will of the United States. He should be provided with the same means of knowing of interests on the island as he has of knowing like interests in the States, by each and all his secretaries, and thus, through each and all, able to exercise the national authority when required, as authorized by the laws of Congress under the Constitution. For two great interests now becoming prominent, as I see them, in our new con¬ ditions the cabinet of secretaries is unprepared. First, the friends are already awake to the fact that a secretary of trade, including manufactures and commerce, is needed. Second, I believe a secretary of education is imperatively required. Edu¬ cation is the one word which more than any other signifies the transformation to be effected in Porto Rico. All admit the same is true with reference to the recent acquisitions by the nation. It should not, therefore, be treated as inferior to any other interest. It should have equal opportunity at least both in reaching the President and receiving his action. Its far-reaching and complicated questions are enough to occupy the mind and absorb the devotion of a secretary of public instruc¬ tion as a member of the President’s Cabinet, Under him the present Bureau of Education, so much a favorite within its limitations as an office of information, thus fulfilling the constitutional relation of the nation to the States, would then naturally, retaining its functions, pass into the new department, while otherwise that depart¬ ment would be provided by Congress with methods of activity toward the new popu¬ lations, whatever their relation or however large or small; and in these matters there would be no question of the right of Congressional legislation. Thus equipped, our national authority would “get a good ready” for its new duties — would be adapted to them. As I see it, the fundamental law should provide (1) that public instruction should be universal and obligatory between the ages of 6 and 14, inclusive, and permissive, at present, until 18. The requirements of this law should be mandatory, so that no locality could nullify it, English and Spanish should be required. (2) Action by the island and by the locality should be properly combined. (3) Methods of temporary financial relief should be provided either by direct aid or by a duly authorized loan. (4) The moneys accruing from all sales of public lands should be set apart sacredly for education and deposited in the United States Treasury and their interest devoted to public instruction. (5) The tariff, as in the States, should be adjusted to the promotion of art, science, literature, and education. (6) The chief officer of education on the island should be nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate, and be compensated as each of the other chiefs in charge of a great interest, and communicate, as others do, directly to the Cabinet officer, as already suggested. The transformation expected of Porto Ricans is great. The present trying condi¬ tions have been intensified by the August hurricane of 1899. They must be rid of the ideas and practice wrought in them by Spanish rule and rise into that higher life compatible with self-government, with the full fruition of free institutions, liberty regulated by law. We need not wait for the historic delays which occurred under the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, or the mistakes of later times. With honest and skillful application of the principles and methods of education as now understood, the transformation is easy. The processes in the past were limited in the main to adults, when the character was fixed and customs crystallized and could only be changed by breaking; now education, in its large sense, not only includes all agencies EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO. 273 which are likely to modify adults, their ideas, institutions, laws and customs, public and private, but concentrates itself upon youth, beginning in the earliest years with the kindergarten, the kitchen garden, and the school of sloid, and exerting itself especially through the period of youth, when all the powers are impressible and formative. The whole man is trained; the head, the heart, and the hand, as we are accustomed to say. The will, the directing faculty, is trained to obey the right, to follow the most exalted precepts for the good of the individual and society; the intel¬ lect or head is trained along the line of letters and science, and the hand along the line of industry, each from the first elementary and rude action, step by step, up the heights of learning on the one hand, and on the other to the application of science to handiwork up to the most masterly attainments of skill as guided through life by that old precept, “practice makes perfect.” This more complete and masterful education of our day not only makes the trans¬ formation of a people from the use of one language to another, and from one system of civil laws and social customs more easy, but more sure and speedy. Our Ameri¬ can people from the first have cherished an aspiration that the blessings of free institu¬ tions which they enjoy might be extended to others. Without our foreseeing it, the opportunity is now in our hands to extend these blessings to millions scattered over the islands of the sea. We are not permitted to go back; we must go forward. With the proper adaptation of ourselves, the task is easy and the future safe. It would be an impossible task for me to attempt to enumerate the numerous officers, civil and military, and citizens to whose kindness and aid I have been indebted in undertaking the duties above described, but to each and all I tender my hearty thanks. ED 1900 18 CHAPTER V. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. By Herbert B. Adams. I. Origins of Educational Democracy in England. POLITICAL ORIGIN OF POPULAR EDUCATION. T'o understand the beginnings of the nineteenth-century movement toward educa¬ tional democracy we must recognize the pioneer influence of English leaders. They are closely connected with the reform movement in politics and with the extension of the suffrage. The material which exists for a study of these relations is illustrated by the recently published Life of Francis Place, by Graham Wallas, a prominent leader in the present cause of university extension and municipal reform in London. He showTs very clearly the democratic influence of old Major Cartwright and of William Cobbett, both of whom had lived for many years in America; also the liberalizing spirit of Jeremy Bentham, Lord Brougham, James Mill, and other Eng¬ lish philosophers and statesmen. Francis Place, William Lovell, Dr. Anderson, Dr. Thomas Arnold, and a considerable number of popular teachers and writers represented in England that same movement toward the education of the common people as did American lyceum leaders, who are specially considered in the present- monograph. The writer has discussed this subject in a chapter on “English pioneers of university extension ” in a monograph on ‘ ‘University extension in Great Britain, ’ ’ published by the United States Bureau of Education.1 The following additional observations will perhaps aid in discovering other historic origins of educational democracy in our mother country, which certainly received its first impulse in this direction from the American and French -revolutions. The downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte was the beginning of the liberation of Europe, and especially of the English people. For over twenty years (1793-1815) England had waged relentless war against France, first against a revolutionary republic and then against a military despot who had throttled the revolution and threatened the conquest of England. Although representative government had been granted to Canada in 1791, all thought of popular government in England was suppressed until after the overthrow of the archenemy of Great Britain. Inter arma silent leges. In war time the voice of reformers is stilled and the noise of party conflict, is hushed. 1. Maj. John Cartwright, 1740-1824. In the winter of 1814-15 (while Napoleon was still in the Island of Elba) Maj. J ohn Cartwright organized the famous Hampden Club for restoring the political lib- 1 Rep. Com. Ed., 1898-99, Yol. 1, pp. 957-1055. 275 276 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ertie.s of England. Soon after, he sent printed petitions all over the country in order to secure signatures in favor of his favorite political doctrines, which afterwards in 1838 became the six points of Chartism: (1) Annual parliaments. (2) Equal electoral districts. (3) Suffrage for all taxpayers. (4) The ballot instead of viva voce voting. (5) Payment of members. (6) Abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament. Some of these popular ideas of constitutional reform were first suggested by Major Cartwright as far back as 1776 in a pamphlet entitled “Take your choice,” revised and republished in 1777 under the title “The legislative rights of the commonalty vindicated.” The influence of English history and American politics on Cartwright was profound. ITe was one of the English defenders of local legislatures for the American colonies. He became famous as the “Father of Reform.” Major Cartwright was, when he organized the Hampden Club, an old man. In fact, he was known as the “Old Gentleman.” Possessing some wealth and good social position, he was regarded with general respect; but he was not the man for the times. Francis Place, who aided him in his patriotic work of political agitation, says of him: When he was in town he used frequently to sup with me. * * * He was, in political matters, exceedingly troublesome, and sometimes as exceedingly absurd. He had read but little or to little purpose, and knew nothing of general principles. He entertained a vague and absurd notion of the political arrangements of the Anglo- Saxons, and sincerely believed that these semibarbarians were not only polished people, but that their “twofold polity,” arms-bearing and representation, were uni¬ versal and perfect. Major Cartwright’s opinions and political agitations bore no immediate fruit, for Napoleon broke loose from Elba March 1, 1815, and scared all Europe for one hundred days; but old Major Cartwright’s ideas1 were never forgotten by Francis Place (1771-1854), or by the English people; in fact, Place himself gave them fresh vitality and historic currency in the People’s Charter,, drafted by him in 1838. 2. William Cobbett (17G2-1S35). If Major Cartwright gave historical impulses to the democratic movement in Eng¬ land in this nineteenth century, William Cobbett, by his journalistic and editorial work, did much toward the development of public opinion in the national agitation from 1816 to 1830. William Cobbett, born in a thatched cottage near Aldershot on the borders of Berkshire and Hampshire, was the grandson of a day laborer, and the son of a tavern keeper who was intelligent enough to teach his boys to read, write, and cipher. “I do not remember the time,” wrote Cobbett, “when I did not earn my own living. My first employment was scaring birds, my next was weeding [beds of flowers in the garden of the Bishop of Winchester at the Castle of Farnham, Cobbett’ s native town], and tending a single horse at harrowing barley. Hoeing pease followed; and then I arrived at the honor of joining the reapers in harvest, driving the team, and holding the plough.” Such was the thrifty, rural, agricultural curriculum of that son of the soil, that 111 The life and correspondence of Maj . John Cartwright,” edited by his niece,. F. D. Cartwright, was published in 1826, and reviewed by Francis Place in the Westminster Review, October, 1827, under the absurd title “History of parliaments,” Article I. The second article, although promised by Place, never appeared. Graham Wallas says the first gets no further than 1688, and consists of “a pointless series of facts from original sources, put together in a style compared with which that of Stubbs’ Constitutional History is airy and journalistic.” A list of Cartwright’s writings, some eighty tracts and books, is given by his biographer. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 277 English populist, journalist, and demagogue, William Cobbett. He had the pride of a so-called “ self-made man,” as appears from the following boasting account of himself: Thus was I receiving my education, and this was the sort of education; and I am perfectly satisfied that if I had not received such an education, or something like it, that if I had been brought up a milksop with a nursery maid everlastingly at my heels, I slrnuld have been at this day as great a fool, as insufficient a mortal, as any of those frivolous idiots that are turned out of Winchester or Westminster school, or any of those dens of dunces called colleges or universities. It is impossible to admire arrogance or conceit, boastfulness or social scorn, either in demagogues, pedants, or college graduates. No one should ever plume himself upon being “ self-made” in mind or body. William Cobbett ascribed his “birth of intellect” to reading Dean Swift’s Tale of a Tub, but he owed more to his sensible father, who taught him to read and to work. The son was a hard reader and worked to the end of his days, but he was first really educated by outdoor life, farming and gardening, in rural England. Agriculture is still a sufficient school for many a ‘ ‘ village Hampden ’ ’ in England and America. Cobbett then took a graduate course in military training in the English army, where he found abundant leisure for reading and became a good disciplinarian and sergeant-major, consequently a literary mar¬ tinet and political fighter for the rest of his life. Cobbett came out to Nova Scotia with his regiment, found there a good wife who saved his money. He retired from the army and settled in Philadelphia, where, true to his early love for books, he opened a bookstore. Soon after he launched out as an editor of The Porcupine Gazette, in which he showed his aggressive English qualities by assailing anything French or republican. Fined heavily for libel in Philadelphia, he returned to Eng¬ land and became for a time a Tory pamphleteer in the interest of Mr. Pitt. But his experience in America made itself felt in England, and he went over to the Liberal Party. In the year 1802 William Cobbett founded the Political Register, which became the organ of the revolutionary and reform movement in England. This movement had been repressed by coercive laws in 1795 and 1800 and by the necessary war with Napoleon. We have seen how the democratic spirit was revived by old Major Cart¬ wright and the Hampden Club in 1815. In this same year, Cobbett put the price of his Political Register from a shilling and a half-penny down to twopence. This inaugurated democracy in journalism. “The “Twopenny Trash,’ as it came to be called,” says Graham Wallas, “ at once acquired an enormous influence, and through it Cobbett with his friend ‘Orator Hunt’ began to crystallise the widespread discon¬ tent into a definite demand for parliamentary reform.” Cobbett and Orator Hunt addressed their efforts chiefly to the working classes and the disaffected elements in English politics. The Political Register became, like some of our modern newspapers, a great power with the people. Cobbett was always looking for political and social abuses. He struck out savagely against every griev¬ ance. He has been called “an Ishmaelite of the political world; the Thersites of journalism.” He attacked every ministry in succession and never pretended to be loyal to anybody except to his wife and family. He was consistent only in striving for democratic progress in England. “For all the abuses he attacked from 1801 to 1832,” saj^s Mrs. Latimer in her England in the Nineteenth Century, p. 121, “his panacea was parliamentary reform. He formed associations for reform, he lectured for reform, he pressed reform on all his readers (and they amounted weekly to some hundred thousand). Over the top of his proper was always set a woodcut of a gridiron, because he had said he would rather be roasted to death than give up the cause of reform.” Cobbett became a kind of political extension lecturer. He traveled on horseback through English towns and villages, everywhere attacking the existing evils in tax- 278 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ation and representation, especially the rotten borough system. One should read Cobbett’s Rural Ride through England fora picture of the man and his times. Cob¬ bett Avas an excellent writer and speaker. Hazlitt says of him: ZNIr. Cobbett speaks almost as Avell as he writes. The only time I eA*er saw him he seemed to be a very pleasant man, easy of access, affable, clear-headed, simple and mild in his manners, deliberate and unruffled in his speech, though some of his expressions were not very qualified. He had a good sensible face, rather full, with little gray eyes, a hard, square forehead, a ruddy complexion, with haft- gray and poAvdered, and had on a scarlet broadcloth waistcoat, Avith the flaps of the pockets hanging down, as Avas the custom for gentlemen farmers in the last century, or as we see it in pictures of members of Parliament in the reign of George I. I certainly did not think less Livorably of him for seeing him. Cobbett used to amuse himself by criticising the bad style of the state papers of the English Government and by illustrating bad grammar from the Avritings of prime ministers. He carried politics into his published tractate, called Cobbett’s Grammar, which is to be strongly commended for a careful and entertaining study of the subject of political style. Cobbett is one of the very feAY writers who have succeeded in making mere grammar interesting. I shall neATer cease to be grateful to an old Baltimore lawyer and kwer of Greek, the late Mr. Alexander Rogers, Avho, in the library of the Maryland Historical Society, first called my attention to 'William Cobbett’s little book exposing the bad style of English statesmen. Cobbett lost his fortune and Avas driven out of Philadelphia for libeling Hr. Rush. Ten years later he was fined £1,000 in 'Westminster Hall and sentenced to tAVO years’ imprisonment in NeAVgate for another offense of this character. He Avas always getting into trouble on account of his political writings in the Register. No AAU’iter excelled 'William Cobbett in the Augorous use of the King’s English. He could pour out a perfect torrent of invective and Autuperation. His controwrsial writings deserve to be compared with the Letters of Junius. It was considered the proper thing to hate and revile him in his lifetime. Francis Place called him an ^impu¬ dent mountebank” and “an unprincipled, cowardly bully.” Certainly William Cobbett had no fear of man before his eyes. He spoke out boldly for the common rights of Englishmen when most of his contemporaries Avere too selfish or too timid to be champions of the popular cause. Cobbett’s Avork Avas essentially that of a pamphleteer. He was an English Tom Paine, a forerunner of Horace Greeley and Charles A. Hana. Pie was an educational editor in politics. He became a member of the first Parliament after the passage of the reform bill and championed the agricultural interests of England, with which he had been more or less identified from his youth up. He opposed the manufac¬ turing classes and stood for the honest farmer. Cobbett introduced Indian corn into England from America, and the English still speak of it as “ Cobbett’s corn.” Plis monument is, however, the Political Register. His career was that of an agitator and a fearless journalist. He Avas one of the pioneers of modern English democracy; but, like old Major Cartwright, he learned his democratic lessons from America. He abused and praised this country by turns. 3. Francis Place (1771-1S54).1 This English pioneer of the reform bill of 1S32 and of Chartism, 1833, deserves to be better known. Graham Wallas, of the London School of Economics, has made an admirable contribution to English constitutional and social history in reviving in historical and literary form the life of this forgotten radical and utilitarian philos¬ opher, this friend of Cartwright, Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, and J. B. Say. A man of the people, a journeyman tailor at one time, Place early became a 1 The Life of Francis Place, by Graham W alias. London, 1S98. Reviewed in The Citizen, May, 1898, and in the American Historical RevieAV, July, 1898, pp. 723-25. Article. on “ Place,” by Blanqui, in the Dictionnaire de T Economic Politique (Coquelin & Guillaumin, Paris, 1S53), vol. ii, 3C9. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 279 scholar, a master and organizer of labor, a man of property and leisure, a writer and successful agitator, and withal a trainer of politicians and members of Parliament. Richard Carlile said of him in an article in the Monthly Magazine, for May, 1S35, on “ The real nobility of human character: ” “ Francis Place, by his assistant labors and advice given to members of the House of Commons, has produced more effect in that House than any man who was ever a member.” Graham Wallas says that Joseph Hume was Place’s greatest and most permanent success as parliamentary schoolmaster, but many members and men of different parties owed to Place their higher political education. Wallas tells us: There is an old gentleman still alive and active who can remember being taken as a boy, about the year 1820, up into a big room lined with books at the back of Place’s shop, and being told in a reverential voice that this was the headquarters of English radicalism. Place had been a collector of books ever since his school days, and continued to collect nearly to the end of his life. From the first the library was especially rich in parliamentary papers, catalogued by subjects, and in pam¬ phlets and newspaper cuttings, bound and lettered with his own hand. Everything was arranged with that scrupulous “method and tidiness and comfort” to which Place’s correspondents often refer. This was the “Civic Palace, Charing Cross,” where the “Arch Radical” sat all day long on a high stool at his desk, as before his retirement from business he had sat all day long in the adjoining shop. Every member of Parliament who lived, as most members then did, in Bloomsbury or the city, would pass Charing Cross twice a day. In any case, the House of Commons and Downing street were both within a few minutes’ walk. “My library,” says Place, “was a sort of gossiping shop for such persons as were in any way engaged in public matters having the benefit of the people for their object. * * * No one who knew me would hesitate to consult with, me on any subject on which I could either give or procure information.” And again, “ When I lived at Charing Cross my library was frequented very much in the manner of a common coffee-house room. It was open to a considerable number of persons, many of them members of Parliament. ’ ’ In times of excitement the room became crowded. A very good description of Place and his daily life about this time was given in the Northern Liberator, “Francis Place * * * is about 5 feet 7 inches high, with a head which would delight the phrenological taste of our worthy friend Alderman Fife, and is of a stout, stalwart frame. A walk of 20 or 30 miles a day is one of his favorite amusements; but his time, from 6 in the morning to 11 at night, is generally spent in his library, where he is surrounded with books, pamphlets, journals, and memoranda of every kind — political, philological, physiological, and every other ‘cal’ which can be imagined, all arranged in such perfect order that he can put his hand on any book or paper he may want in a moment. The bump of order is in him very prominent indeed.” 1 It is impossible, in this connection, to do more than briefly summarize some of the most valuable contributions made by Francis Place to the history and forward move¬ ments of his time: (1) He was a leading spirit in the London Corresponding Society, founded in 1791 by Thomas Hardy, its first secretary. Entrance fee, I shilling; dues, 1 penny a week. The object of this society was correspondence with individuals and other societies for the promotion of democratic ideas among the working classes. Edmund Burke, who hated anything which proceeded from the French Revolution, pro¬ nounced the London Corresponding Society “the mother of all mischief.” After the arrest and imprisonment of Hardy, Francis Place became the dominating influence among the workingmen of London. He organized trades unions and drafted their laws and constitutions. (2) Francis Place devised a plan of radical reform, promoted by correspondence. He revived the ideas of Major Cartwright: (1) Manhood suffrage, (2) annual Parlia¬ ments, (3) payment of members, etc. (3) Place advocated the education of workingmen. He had enjoyed ten years of schooling in his youth, and had been passionately devoted to good reading. When 1 Graham Wallas: Life of Francis Place, pp. 176-178. 280 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. out of work, instead of moping and despairing, he engaged in the hardest kind of study. “My desire for information,” he says, “was, however, too strong to be turned aside, and often have I been sent away from a bookstall when the owner became offended at my standing reading, which I used to do until I was turned away. * * * I used to borrow books from a man who kept a small shop in Maiden Lane, Covent Garden, leaving a small sum as a deposit, and paying a trifle for reading them, having one only at a time.” During the first year of his married life he had lodged with an old woman who took charge of chambers in the Temple, and lent him books borrowed from the rooms which she cleaned. At that time he said he had already worked through “the histories of Greece and Rome, and some translated works of Greek and Roman writers; Hume, Smollett, Fielding’s novels, and Robertson’s works; some of Hume’s essays, some translations from French writers, and much on geography; some books on anatomy and surgery; and some relating to science and the arts, and many magazines. I had worked all the problems in the introduction to Guthrie’s Geography, and had made some small progress in geometry.” His landlady enabled him to read “ Blackstone, Hale’s Common Law, several other lawbooks, and much biography.” When out of work he read “many vol¬ umes in history, voyages and travels, politics, law and philosophy, Adam Smith and Locke, and especially Hume’s Essays and Treatises. These latter I read two or three times over. * * * Reading of Hume put me on improving myself in other ways. ” (Graham Wallas: Life of Francis Place, pp. 17-18.) This love of reading and this desire for self-improvement Place endeavored to introduce in the Breeches-Makers’ Union, which he organized in 1794, and into the London Corresponding Society. Both of these organizations had a system of book subscriptions whereby each man in the union subscribed for a particular but gener¬ ally useful and readable book. Before claiming it as private property he allowed his associates to read it. This literary communism is an excellent feature of modern book clubs. The effect of good reading upon Place and his companions on the gen¬ eral committee of the London Corresponding Society was most helpful. He himself said: “ We had Sunday evening parties at the residences of those who could accom¬ modate a number of persons. At these meetings we had readings, communications, and discussions.” Again: “This course of discipline compelled them to think more correctly than they had been accustomed to do; it induced them to become readers of books, and the consequence, the very remarkable consequence, was that every one of them became a master, and permanently bettered his condition in life.” (4) Francis Place was one of the most ardent supporters of “schools for all,” that form of popular education first revived in England by Andrew Bell and Joseph Lan¬ caster, but borrowed from India, where the elder children still teach the younger in open air under the shade of forest trees. The so-called Lancastrian or monitorial system of school training was inaugurated in London in 1798 in a shed on Borough road by a Quaker named Joseph Lancaster, who got his idea from Andrew Bell’s pamphlet published the year before and entitled “An experiment in education, made at the male asylum of Madras.” The original experiment of teaching boys in squads and utilizing the elder to drill the younger had been tried by Dr. Bell in an institution for the education of English boys, sons of officers, and English residents at Madras. Lancaster repeated it for the benefit of poor children in London, and claimed that his system could be extended over all England and that 1,000 pupils could be taught at once by 100 monitors. The estimated annual cost was less than 5 shillings per pupil. Lancaster’s projects proved, however, more costly than he had imagined. He became involved in debt and had to appeal to the public in 1804. Francis Place examined the Lancastrian system, avowed his belief in it, and subscribed money. Benevolent Quakers subscribed funds, paid off Lancaster’s debts, and formed, in 1810, the Royal Lancastrian Association, which, under Place’s influence, became, in 1813, the British and Foreign School Society, which exists to this day, and which laid the historic foundations for the Forster education act of 1870. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 281 Place differed 'with Lancaster and the Quakers in his ideas. They were still attached to the inherited English idea of charity schools, or education for the poor. Place wanted to break away absolutely from all class distinctions and have schools for the people — schools for all. In the by-laws which he drafted for the British and Foreign Society, he omitted all reference to the “poor” and the “laboring poor.” He insisted that the children of the middle classes as well as the working classes should be given educational advantages; and he believed that all parents who could afford to do so should be required to pay a penny a week for the teaching of each child. He thus early represented the Prussian economic idea in popular education. Place differed with Lancaster and the Quakers and the established views of his time on the subject-matter of popular education. The orthodox party desired to restrict all school reading to the Bible and to make church attendance, in some form, compulsory upon all Lancastrian pupils. This, again, like charity schools, was an idea inherited from Borne and the Church of England, and is still held by extreme churchmen of all sorts. Place and his friends, Brougham, James Mill, and Jeremy Bentham, opposed religious and sectarian ideas in popular education, and were both pioneers of the modern thought of intellectual freedom in school training. Brougham said he would “blow up the whole Lancastrian concern” if he should find a tendency for converting it into an instrument of bigotry and superstition. James Mill touched the keynote of Place’s educational philosophy in a famous essay entitled “ Schools for all, not schools for churchmen only.” The Church of England had early scented danger in the Lancastrian Association, which was popular with Quakers, Non-Conformists, and utilitarian philosophers. In 1811 was organized the “National Society for the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church.” This organization has been the historic rival of the British and Foreign School Society, founded by Francis Place, Both still survive in the party conflicts of English educationists, but Place was the pioneer cf these modern ideas: (1) Education is not for the poor, but for the people. (2) Education is no charity, but a right. (3) Education is not for the benefit of any church or sect, but for all. In the time of the Chartist agitation in 1840, when William Lovett was advocating the idea of Chartist schools, Place strongly opposed him, and said: “I hope to see the time when £20,000,000 will be voted to pay for the building of schools — schools for all, and not schools for churchmen or Chartists only — and when a compulsory rate will be levied on all, in each school district, by a committee of the district, to pay the expenses of carrying on the schools, in which the teaching shall be really good and apart from all religion, and especially apart from all sectarianism, whether reli¬ gious or political.” This sound public doctrine from a professed Chartist clearly anticipates the most advanced American as well as progressive English thought upon the subject of public schools. They ought not to be specifically Protestant or Catho¬ lic in religion nor specifically partisan in politics or medicine. Francis Place also anticipated some of the best modern ideas in public school work. Up to his time the English notion of a liberal education was a smattering of classical culture, with some mathematics. Place wanted to introduce modern languages, poli¬ tics, economics, and morals — in short, a really useful education for the children of the middle classes. Place did not favor the prevailing English custom of sending boys away to great boarding schools, which, by the way, are the so-called “public schools,” like Eton and Bugby. He favored higher day schools, town schools, such as Bugby originally was, schools wdiere lads could enjoy, as Place said, “the advantages which are to be derived from the learning of a master, and the emulation which results from the society of other boys, together with the affectionate vigilance experienced in the house of their parents.” 232 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Place understood the educational value of games. “It is as necessary,” he wrote, “for boys to play together as it is that they should be taught together. It is there¬ fore intended ( in the scheme for higher Lancastrian schools), if possible, to provide a space large enough for this purpose, in which their games may be made more attract- j ive and more useful than they have hitherto been, where new ones may be intro¬ duced, and thus their very amusements out of school may be made to conduce to their improvement, and their morals made much more conducive to their happiness, by teaching them, as it were, in a little world of their own, patience, forbearance, and kindness to one another.” Place had also the idea of employing the higher Lancastrian schools as normal schools for the training of pupil teachers and as evening schools for adults and appren¬ tices. He thus anticipated two of the best modern methods of promoting popular education . But he did not succeed in carrying his project for so-called ‘ ‘ chrestomathic schools,” or schools of useful knowledge, based on Jeremy Bentham’s treatise, “ Chrestomathia ” (from chresios and mathein, signifying select or useful knowledge). Bentham’s utilitarian idea in education took historic shape in the so-called Library of Useful Knowledge, a series of publications still in progress and still one of the most helpful adjuncts of higher popular education. Place’s enthusiasm for this kind of popular education finally found an outlet in the Birkbeck Institute, first known as the London Mechanics’ Institute, originally pro¬ posed by his friend Thomas Hodgskin. Place was present at the first course of lec¬ tures on chemistry, in March, 1824, and describes his joy at the sight of “from 800 to 900 clean, respectable-looking mechanics paying most marked attention.” Ms one of the founders of the above institution he took the deepest interest in its welfare. It flourishes to this day under the name of the Birkbeck Institute, the his¬ toric pioneer of all the mechanics’ and polytechnic institutes in England and America.1 REPEAL OF THE COMBINATION LAWS. “The repeal of the combination laws in 1824-25 was,” says Graham Wallas, “the most striking piece of work that Place ever carried through single handed. During the eighteenth century there had been passed a series of statutes directed against combinations of journeymen in particular trades, ” or what we should now call trades unions or labor unions. The first of these repressive laws was an act passed in 1721 for “regulating the journeymen tailors.” The last was the comprehensive act of 1799, “to prevent unlawful combinations of workmen.” The effect of these combination laws was to make labor absolutely subject to cap¬ ital. Workingmen were compelled to work on the employer’s own terms. Any refusal of offered work meant possible imprisonment or impressment into military or naval service. The masters of trade could arbitrarily lower wages and treat journeymen with the most cruel tyranny. Place himself had been blacklisted as a journeyman breeches maker and had been driven to the very borders of starvation. He had been an employer of labor since 1799, but left business in 1818 and devoted himself through education and legislation to the improvement of the condition of the working classes, whom he so thoroughly understood. Place’s objections to the oppressive combination laws of England are briefly summed up in the following extract from his pamphlet entitled “ Observations on Huskisson’s speech,” London, 1825: If keeping down wages was a national good; if the degradation of the whole body of the working people by law was desirable; if perpetuating discord, between masters and men was useful; if litigation was a benefit; if living in perpetual violation of law was a proper state for workmen and their employers to be placed in, then the laws against combinations of workmen were good laws, for to all these did they tend. Place had begun agitation for the repeal of these combination laws as early as 1814. His principal means at first were, (1) correspondence with trades unions, from which 1For further discussion of this subject see University Extension in England, by H. B. Adams. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 283 he gathered useful information on strikes and concrete cases of the oppression of labor; (2) the press, through which he created editorial and public opinion adverse to the enforcement of the combination laws. He succeeded in enlisting the support of the London Times, the Chronicle, the Star, and the Scotsman in his chosen cause. He even advanced money for the support of a weekly trade paper, the Gordon, for the sake of influencing the press at large as well as representatives of labor and capital. On this use of newspapers Place once said: ‘ ‘ It has always appeared to me to be good policy to work with the press in any way it may at any time be willing to work for the public good.” A third method in Place’s propaganda was the public use of the authority of expert economists, e. g\, McCulloch, editor of the Scotsman, a paper which he supplied with full information on the evil working of the combination laws. McCulloch gave scientific expression to the facts and opinions of Place in an article on the repeal of the combination laws, published in the Edinburgh Review, No. 78. This economic article had great weight with some members of Parliament, and “one of them said he was prepared to speak the substance of the essay in the House.” A fourth and most efficient method of carrying the repeal of the combination laws through Parliament was the thorough and systematic “coaching” which Place gave to Joseph Hume, an influential member of the House of Commons, whom he con¬ stantly supplied with evidence, classified information, digests, and briefs. Graham Wallas says, “Place’s greatest and most permanent success as a parliamentary school¬ master wTas with Joseph Hume. ’ ’ And Hume said that Place was ‘ ‘ the most disinter¬ ested reformer he ever saw, valuable in council, fertile in resource, performing great labors; but he never thought of himself. Honors and advantages he might often have commanded, but he preferred assiduous and private services, which he ren¬ dered of his own zeal, and defrayed out of his own wealth.” Place’s campaign for the repeal of the combination laws in 1824- and the defense of this repeal in 1825 cost him more than $1,000, but he won his cause both in the House of Commons and in the House of Lords largely by liis own personal efforts and by the methods above described. Whenever Hume slackened in his support, Place reinvigorated Mm and once more set his champion upon his legs. He virtu¬ ally drafted the repeal and pushed it through by the most energetic but tactful can¬ vass. There were really three distinct measures thus carried through Parliament: (1) An act to repeal the laws relating to the combination of workmen, and for other purposes therein mentioned (5 George IV, c. 95). (2) An act to consolidate and amend the laws relative to the arbitration of disputes between masters and workmen (5 George IV, c. 96). (3) An act to repeal the laws relative to artisans going abroad (5 George IV, c. 97). Place thought that this body of good legislation would put an end to trades unions, strikes, and all further difficulties between capital and labor, but the war had only just begun. The late Mr. Gladstone, in an article on “The English laborer,” said in 1892, “The labor question may be said to have come into public view simultane¬ ously with the repeal, between sixty and seventy years ago, of the combination laws which had made it an offense for laboring men to unite for the purpose of procuring by joint action, through peaceful means, an augmentation of their wages. From this point progress began.” This repeal was the first great emancipation of English labor. From this time on trades unions grew and flourished more than ever. Indus¬ trial democracy began to be organized and Parliament endeavored to undo its own work; but Place rallied in 1825 such imposing cohorts of opposition against Peel and Huskisson and a reactionary committee on Mr. Hume’s act of 1824 that the repeal was practically reaffirmed.1 The connection of mechanics’ institutes and labor leaders with English university 1 For detailed accounts of this important work of emancipating English labor, see Graham Wallas’s chapter on “The combination laws ” in his Life of Francis Place, and The History of Trade Unionism by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, London, 1892. 284 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. extension has been already traced in a previous contribution to the Report of the Commissioner of Education,1 and we now pass to certain American aspects of educa¬ tional democracy. II. American Lyceums and Popular Education — 1826-1900. The American Lyceum was a popular society, at once local and national, for the diffusion of useful knowledge. The institution was one of the numerous educational agencies which attempted to realize the spirit of George Washington’s patriotic injunction in his Farewell Address, wherein he said: “ Increase the institutions for the diffusion of knowledge among men.” The American Lyceum should be associ¬ ated with that historic group of institutions which sprang from the democratic influence of the American and the French revolutions. It belongs to a goodly com¬ pany of institutes, libraries, museums, and other schools for the people. The American or national museum was the federation of State and local types and was styled the American Lyceum. It was supposed to comprehend all the rest and was founded in New York City in 1831. The journal of the first convention, held in the district court room of the city hall, is printed and gives the names of delegates from the State lyceums of Maine, Massa¬ chusetts, and New York. Professor Olmsted and Mr. Barnard represented Yale College. Henry Huffieid represented Dickinson College and the citizens of Carlisle, Pa. There were five delegates from “the village of Brooklyn” and three from "Washington County, N. Y. The chosen president of the convention was Alex¬ ander Proudfit, D. D., of Salem, Washington County, N. Y. Thus all types of local lyceums were represented in the formation of the National or American Lyceum, the constitution of which is printed in full, together with specimen constitutions of town, county, and State lyceums. The objects of the American or National Lyceum were declared by the constitution (article 2) to be “the advancement of education, especially in common schools, and the general diffusion of knowledge.” Annual May meetings in New York City were provided for. There were corresponding secretaries apjrointed for various cities and sections. Important educational subjects of national interest were discussed by the National Museum, and some of the contributed papers were published, e. g., one by Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen, entitled “Study of our political institutions,” an essay on the propriety of introducing the Constitution and political institutions of the United States as subjects of instruction in common schools. Among the measures approved and recommended by the executive committee at various times were the following: 1. The plan of employing agents. 2. Formation of a central cabinet or museum of natural history by means of local contributions. 3. A system of exchanges for the benefit of local museums. 4. Promotion of cooperation between schools. 5. General introduction of apparatus for illustrating lectures. 6. Addition of vocal music to common school education. 7. Study of American history and constitutional law. 8. Study of natural history and environment. 9. Town maps and local museums. 10. Preservation of materials for local history. 11. Uniform plan for keeping meteorological tables. 12. People’s colleges with various departments of mechanical and fine arts. 13. Beautifying of village scenery [village improvement]. 14. Text-books for schools and tracts for the people. 1 University Extension in Great Britain, referred to above. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 285 Many of these features will be recognized as practically identical with those of certain modern projects for educational and social betterment. Most of these objects were earnestly promoted and are worthy of historic record as characteristic features of the first great movement for popular educational extension in these United States. Essays and school text-books were published under the auspices of the American Lyceum and the American Annals of Education. Vigorous efforts were made to introduce history, the study of political institutions, and natural science into the public schools. The lyceum movement was closely connected with that general advance in public education which is represented by the extension of the common school system, the normal education of teachers, and the extension of libraries, first in school districts and then in towns and cities. Lyceum extension was far more general and popular than the later “university extension,” because, like mechanics’ institutes, it was a more democratic and spontaneous movement. Both lyceums and institutes are American extensions of popular English movements for the diffusion of useful knowledge. Correspondence was early opened and long maintained with friends and ministers of education in Mexico, Cuba, Venezuela, and New Granada. Sketches of education in Spain and the new republics in South America were published or reported by the American Lyceum, which represented an international as well as a national spirit. Origin in New England. — The lyceum system was first proposed to the public in the American Journal of Education, No. 10, 1826. About this time a society of thirty or forty farmers and mechanics was organized at Milbury, Mass., and became known as the Milbury Branch of the American Lyceum. Twelve or fifteen neighboring towns followed this local example, and subsequently united by delegates in forming the Worcester County Lyceum. A similar group of local societies was organized in Windham County, Conn. Extension westward and southvjard. — The system quickly spread throughout New England and extended westward to New York, Newark, N. J., Ohio (Cincinnati and Marietta), Michigan (Detroit), Indiana (Franklin Lyceum tit Jacksonville), and Illinois. Lyceums are early reported in East Baltimore and Washington. There were corresponding secretaries in Lexington, Ivy. (Rev. B. O. Peers), Richmond, Va. (Oliver A. Shaw), and in Alabama (Alva Woods, D. D.) . The writer has before him an octavo volume of 100 pages belonging to the State library at Albany, and entitled the “American Lyceum, with the proceedings of the convention held in New York, May 4, 1831, to organize the national department of the institution.” It includes the proceedings for 1832 and 1833 (Boston: Hiram Tapper, printer). It is stated that there were in 1831 “not less than eight or ten hundred town lyceums, fifty or sixty county societies, several State lyceums, and a general and national union of the whole.” General characteristics. — The American Lyceum is characterized as (1) a voluntary institution. It invited the cooperation of citizens in every town, village, and neigh¬ borhood throughout the Republic for the double purpose of local and national improvement. Branch lyceums were suggested for every town in the Union. All the friends of common schools were invited to cooperate in “the great and dignified cause of universal education.” (2) The lyceum is described as a social institution. Public instruction was advo¬ cated upon a social basis. The subjects of instruction were to be treated in a familiar, conversational way. Natural science was to be made practical. “The principles illustrated in lyceum hall are exemplified and amplified in the shop of the mechanic, the farm of the husbandman, and the kitchen of the housekeeper. Those who asso¬ ciate upon this principle are a town lyceum when together, and several family lyceums when separated.” (3) The lyceum is further characterized as a self-adapting institution. It may be conformed to the needs of any class or community. Farmers, mechanics, merchants, teachers, women — each group may have its own lyceum or may become departments 286 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. of one general society. Women’s clubs, teachers’ associations, and farmers’ insti¬ tutes were clearly anticipated by these town and village lyceums. (4) The lyceum is a republican or patriotic institution, holding itself above party politics, teaching the privileges of citizens and the rights of free men. “It lias for its object the universal diffusion of knowledge, which has ever been considered the strongest and surest, if not the only, foundation of republican government. It aims at universal education, by inducing and enabling all whom it embraces to educate themselves.” This idea was undoubtedly the most radical and popular feature of the American lyceum. It was the idea of self-help in education in connection with self-government. It was the idea of educational democracy, and had a powerful influence historically in promoting popular and adult education in America, as well as strengthening the foundations of common schools and local libraries. (5) The lyceum was a benevolent and Christian institution. It was based upon neighborly good will, disinterested and universal benevolence, self-help, and mutual aid. Teachers were bound not only to instruct their pupils, but to do good to each other and the world. Their improvements in the science and art of teaching were made known in town and comity lyceums and became public property. Men and women felt bound to add to the common stock of human happiness by contributing all that their talents and opportunities permitted ; in short, to do all the good they could. This spirit still survives in the teachers’ institute or association. Main types of lyceums. — Among the historic and generic types of lyceums in the country were those associated with (1) a town, district, or village; (2) a county; (3) a State; (4) the nation. Town or local lyceum. — The constitutional objects of the town lyceum were mutual improvement and the general diffusion of knowledge. The means for effecting these objects were meetings for reading, conversation, discussions, dissertations, illustrat¬ ing the sciences, or other exercises which should be thought expedient; a. cabinet consisting of books; apparatus for illustrating the sciences; plants, minerals, and other natural or artificial productions. Annual membership was rated at $2; life membership at $20. Persons under 18 years of age could enjoy for $1 per annum all the privileges of the society except voting. Lyceum proceedings. — These varied somewhat in different localities, but it was a very general custom to have weekly meetings, with alternate lectures and debates. Popular science was a favorite subject of public instruction, and no lyceum was properly equipped unless it possessed a so-called “philosophical apparatus” for experiments in physics or natural philosophy. The favorite subjects of public dis¬ cussion were practical and economic; for example, the utility of railroads, which came into vogue at the very time that lyceums and education were rising in popular favor. Lectures and discussions were often extempore, but sometimes elaborated by local appointees and read from manuscript, with copious citations from good authorities. Home talent and self-help were the life principles of a village or town lyceum. A community which could not produce its own lecturers and debaters could not support a good lyceum. It was a training school for adults, and many Americans here received a decisive impulse toward public life. That gift for public speaking for which Americans have long been famous was locally fostered by debating societies and in other ways. Junior members. — “It is becoming common in country towns for the first class, or the oldest pupils in each of their schools, to become members of lyceums, not merely to witness the illustrations or other exercises performed by adults, but to take part in them, to which they have found themselves equal, greatly to the satisfaction and sometimes to the astonishment of their parents and other friends.” 1 A good illus- 1 American Lyceum, 1331, p. 7. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 287 tration of this phenomenon is recorded in the early life of Gen. N. P. Banks, of Massachusetts. Influence on the community. — The village or town lyceum was a helpful and uplifting power for various classes in local society. “Teachers are accommodated with the room, apparatus, specimens, books, etc., of lyceums for their mutual improvement in relation to their schools. Farmers and mechanics also have their special lyceums under the patronage of a general society. In the summer season ladies’ lyceums are conducted, one afternoon in a week, under the same arrangement.” Here are clearly foreshadowed the teachers’ associations, farmers’ institutes, and women’s clubs of more recent times. Influence on libraries. — Local libraries were early founded and privately incorporated in this country, but the organization of town lyceums and young men’s societies first gave life and circulation to local collections of books. The desire for useful knowl¬ edge and the preparation of subjects for debate influenced the foundation of lyceum libraries in many places. The American Lyceum said, in 1831: “A deep and gen¬ eral regret has been expressed that town and village libraries are but little read, or that they are entirely neglected and scattered. The cause for this regret is removed by the meetings of lyceums. The moment that young people come together for mutual instruction in subjects of useful knowledge they call for books. The old library is looked up or a new one formed, and when the members are not conversing with each other, they are perhaps conversing with their books.” Idea of traveling libraries. — Among the measures proposed in 1831 by the American Lyceum for promoting its educational objects was that “a, portion of the money" col¬ lected from memberships may be ‘put under the direction of the county and State lyceums, to be appropriated to itinerating county libraries.” 1 * * This is a remarkable and early anticipation of one of the best ideas in the American library movement of our time. Traveling libraries, under public, corporate, or private control, are now everywhere growing in popular favor, in the Northern, Southern, and Western States of the Union. The old lyceums never advanced beyond local library collections, but American railroads, the Boston and Albany, the Baltimore and Ohio, and the New York Central, early set their books “itinerating.” Local examples of lyceums. — From scattered notices and authoritative reports by delegates it is possible to gather some definite information regarding town or local types of lyceum institutions which early flourished from Maine to Marietta, Ohio, and even as far west as the Illinois country. They were doubtless much alike in their essential features. We may say, from one learn all (ex uno disce omnes ). His¬ toric tyrpes of local lyceums deserve investigation, for they represent the first great w7ave of educational democracy or adult popular education. Free public libraries followed lyceums. Worcester ( Massachusetts ) Lyceum. — This was described in 1832 by the Rev. Jona¬ than Going, as in a flourishing condition. The lyceum was divided into classes or sections, representing different subjects. Each section had its own president and often held separate meetings. Great benefits are said to have resulted from this plan, which has been perpetuated by the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the National Educational Association. The original lyceum especially emphasized popular science and education. The Worcester section devoted to schools is described as “particularly efficient.” Indeed, that entire educational movement which permanently transformed the schools of New England and the West proceeded in no small degree from the influence of such local lyceums as those of Worcester, Flartford, Newr Haven, and New York. “The influence of the lyceum,” 1 ‘‘in the year 1817 a system of what was called, “itinerating libraries” was begun in East Lothian, Scotland, the object being to furnish the towns and villages of the county with libraries of useful books. Each library was to consist of 50 books.” — (Library Journal, May, 1899, 206-207.) 288 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. said the Worcester clergyman, “has been very favorable on morals, the use of time, and the promotion of intelligence; the saving of money, too, by the neglect of expensive amusements, has been very great.” The cost of membership in the Worcester Lyceum was from $1 to $2 per annum. Ladies and strangers were invited as guests. Lectures by members and others were the principal attraction. There was a lyceum library of 400 volumes, also a miner- alogical cabinet and a philosophical apparatus. It was a period of institutional beginnings in 1831, but by her fruits men now know the city of Worcester. She stands for libraries and schools in close alliance. New Bedford Lyceum. — This was mentioned in 1832 as owning a handsome build¬ ing, a library, and a philosophical apparatus. It is described in greater detail in reports of the Massachusetts Lyceum of earlier date. Hartford , Conn. — Goodrich Association. — Hon. Thomas Day said in 1832 that this society had been recently formed, and that its general object was strictly coincident with that of the American Lyceum, viz, moral and intellectual improvement. The means to this end were a series of lectures delivered weekly by members on subjects selected by themselves. “These lectures have been popular, and attended by the most respectable ladies and gentlemen of the place, and have had a tendency to excite a desire for improvement and an interest in the diffusion of useful knowledge.” New Haven.— Franklin Institute. — At the New York convention of the American Lyceum in May, 1832, the curator of this well-known institute, Charles Upham Shepherd, afterwards professor of mineralogy in Amherst College, presented a brief digest of the experience of the New Haven institution in the matter of public instruc¬ tion b}T lectures. He gave a synopsis of several courses and recommended the estab¬ lishment of a school for training college graduates and other advanced students “for lecturers before lyceums.” Thus early was anticipated the most essential factor for all academic success in popular education, viz, proper preparation. New York. — Young Men’ s Society. — This forerunner of the Young Men’s Christian Association was organized in 1831. The city was divided into 40 districts, for each of which a distinct association was at first proposed, but experience finally led to consolidation into 10 union associations, in which the average number was about 52. Each association was governed by its own rules. The exercises were various, but in some associations practical discussions were held every other meeting. The intermediate meetings were devoted to the reading of original essays and to lectures and illustrations in natural history and philosophy, the applications of science to art, geology, chemistry, mineralogy, and botany. In some associations, courses of lec¬ tures were given on history and painting. Attendance was voluntary, and the vari¬ ous associations were supported by the contributions of members. The constitutional objects of the New York Young Men’s Society were declared to be “the moral and intellectual improvement of young men in the city of New York.” The avowed objects of the American Lyceum were “the advancement of education, especially in common schools, and the general diffusion of knowledge.” The two organizations in various towns and cities had much in common, and both helped to prepare the way for the more efficient Young Men’s Christian Associations, which now extend throughout our larger towns and cities. It is worth noting that the New York Young Men’s Society held out “religion and morality first, intellectual improvement next.” Newark, N. J. — There was a mechanics’ institute and lyceum here in 1829. It had about 120 members, a library of 700 volumes (principally standard works), and “a philosophical apparatus,” or instruments for illustrating physics, once called naturai philosophy. S. H. Pennington, M. D., of Newark, reported May 4, 1832, on this lyceum at the first annual meeting of the American Lyceum held in the city hall, New York. He said the subjects of the lectures had become more practical than at EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 289? first. Minors were permitted to use the library for $1.50 per annum. Clearly the-' Newark Lyceum was for adult education. Utica Lyceum , reported at the New York meeting of American Lyceum in 1832, with following delegates: Rev. Dr. Weeks, Mr. Prentice, Dr. Coventry, Rev. Mr. Bethune, Mr. Floyd, and Mr. Seymour. Rochester Lyceum. — This was founded in 1S26, on the plan of the Andersoniair Institution, Glasgow, Scotland, for the scientific education of mechanics. The Buffalo Lyceum, reported at New York in May, 1832, by Mr. R. W. Haskins,- was established two years before by the aid of Mr. King, a student from the Rensse¬ laer1 Institute at Troy. The Buffalo Lyceum had a library, a mineralogical cabinet of 600 specimens, and a philosophical apparatus. Admission was free, and the usual- attendance was from 200 to 300. “Its aim has been, not to form scientific men, but to excite a desire for knowledge and a taste for reading, which the library gratifies. Handbills have been issued to advertise the meetings.” Cincinnati Lyceum was established in 1831, probably through the influence of Josiah Holbrook, who was the Boston corresponding secretary of the American Lyceum and who represented the department of “Books, apparatus, and branches of study.” He said at the New York meeting, May 4, 1832, that hopes were enter¬ tained of establishing lyceums in all the counties of Ohio. Several local courses of lectures had been well attended. In places where schools could not yet be estab¬ lished, it was thought that the children might be reached by the lyceum system. “Schools might be attended weekly, and from three to six of them might be taught, in rotation by one teacher.” Marietta Lyceum. — At the New York convention of the American Lyceum, May 4r 1832, Rev. G. Bingham reported that the Marietta Lyceum then numbered about 100- members. It had been formed about eighteen months, and now had a good library.- Lectures and debates constituted the exercises. Scientific lectures were popular. The Marietta Lyceum had a “news reporter,” whose duty it was from time to timer to give a comprehensive account of important intelligence. This was doubtless an Ohio forerunner of modern club summaries of current events. Mr. Bingham said- that a great deal of interest had been taken in Ohio in the diffusion of useful knowl¬ edge. Illinois Lyceum. — The first branch, the Franklin Lyceum, was founded March 24, 1831, at Jacksonville, Switzerland County , Ind., by Mr. Josiah Holbrook, a Boston-- man and one of the leading promoters of the lyceum movement in the west. Rev. Theron Baldwin, in 1831, reported lyceum progress in the Illinois country as limited to the Jacksonville Lyceum: Its influence thus far has been very happy; it has created a very strong interest on the subject of education in that village. Lectures are given in natural philosophy, chemistry, botany, history, etc. Western antiquities form a distinct subject of inves¬ tigation, with the origin of the mounds, whether natural or artificial, and of the prairies. This lyceum is the first experiment on the system in the State, and is a, peculiarly successful one. The exercises are conducted with spirit, and the audi¬ ences are usually very large, and apparently delighted. This institution is peculiarly calculated to bring upon common ground the individuals who make up the mixed population of the West and who could scarcely be brought in any other way to har¬ monize in any one well-directed effort on the subject of general education. County lyceums. — Their objects were to promote the interests of lyceums and schools throughout the county, and to cooperate in measures recommended by the State and national lyceums for the advancement of popular education and the general diffusion of knowledge. County lyceum members were delegates sent from the several town lyceums, each being limited to three* delegates. Semiannual meetings were held to- 1 Rensselaer Institute at Troy was considered a good training school for lyceum lecturers. In 1831- seven young men educated there were reported as successful public teachers. ED 1900 - 19 290 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1000. hear reports from town lveeums and schools, and for discussions upon the science or art of teaching. Something of the spirit of these county lyceums passed over to teachers’ institutes and conventions. Stale lyceums. — These were for the advancement of education throughout the State, especially through the medium of schools and lyceums, also to cooperate with other State lyceums in the general purposes of the national or American lyceum. Annual meetings were held to hear reports from the county lyceums concerning the state of education and to hear discussions, lectures, or addresses. • Massachusetts State Lyceum. — A report on the progress and influence of local lyce¬ ums in the old Bay State was made at the New York convention of the American or National Lyceum in May, 1832. The substance of that report may be found in the previous proceedings of the Massachusetts Lyceum, printed in the Annals of Educa¬ tion for April, 1832, by William C. Woodbridge. Massachusetts delegates at the first annual meeting of the American Lyceum in New York, May, 1832: Hon. Stephen C. Phillips, Salem; Lion. Thomas A. Greene, New Bedford; Prof. Chester Dewey, Pittsfield; Rev. Jonathan Going, Worcester; Rev. Jacob Abbott, Boston; 'William C. Woodbridge, Boston. Pennsylvania Lyceum. — An account of this, from the pen of Mr. Josiah Llolbrook, was published in the American Annals of Education for 1836, volume 6, page 475. Provision was made for two classes of members — delegates and corresponding. The first were appointed from local lyceums. The corresponding members paid §1 per annum and held passports to all the lyceums in the State. In Philadelphia there were several hundred corresponding members of the State Lyceum and they were so organized as to act together under the title of the Philadelphia Lyceum, which held monthly and semimonthly meetings. v“ At these meetings lectures are given, reports made, specimens exhibited and exchanged, and plans of cooperation adopted, both for the individual benefit of the members and for the success of the general cause of education in this and other States.” Corresponding members also formed local and social circles embracing from six to a dozen persons under the name of social and family lyceums. German lyceums. — These once flourished to a considerable extent in the State of Pennsylvania. Many were reported at a convention held in New York in 1836. The counties of Lancaster, Cumberland, Berks, Montgomery, and Bucks were espe¬ cially well represented by German delegates. The National Gazette is quoted regarding these German lyceums and their decided preference for a practical and rational system of instruction, capable of being universally adopted and universally applied, especially in the education of farmers, mechanics, and other laboring classes. Statistics of lyceums. — At an educational convention held in Westchester, Pa., August 18, 1835, Mr. Josiah Holbrook, the Boston promoter of this institution, said there were, in addition to the National Lyceum, 15 or 16 state lyceums, over 100 county lyceums, and about 3,000 village lyceums, besides a great number connected with academies and schools. Many of the lyceums, especially those connected with academies and colleges, had libraries, whose volumes were eagerly read. He said ly ceums had been found to give the schools greater efficiency and to make the pupils more diligent. The day after the above-named convention the State Lyceum of Pennsylvania was formed, and its first annual meeting was appointed at York for August, 1836 (American Annals of Education, vol. 5, p. 470). On the next two pages are printed nine resolutions showing the ideas then current in Pennsylvania regard¬ ing the usefulness of lyceums and their intimate connection with “cabinets,” or museums, for encouraging the elementary study of natural history (minerals, plants, and animals) by children, and the school exchange of specimens. Scientific cabinets. — There is a revived interest nowadays in the use of specimens for the illustration of natural science in our public schools. It is, therefore, historicallv EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 291 interesting to find that the American Lyceum early favored not only the introduction of science into schools, but also the provision of selected and labeled specimens “to illustrate the elements of rocks and useful minerals.” A small set containing about 20 specimens, illustrating the common rock, was furnished for $3. A larger set of 50 specimens, embracing some of the most useful minerals, was supplied for $5. These simple collections, American forerunners of the French musee scolaire, introduced by the Brooklyn Institute into this country in 1899, was said in 1831, to “provide the necessary means for introducing this interesting and practical science (geology) into every school and lyceum in the Union, and thus qualifying agents in great numbers in every part of the country, who will render their gratuitous but efficient services in exploring our productions in the mineral kingdom, and in laying open new sources of industry and wealth to individuals and the nation.” Many Americans, like the present writer, whose youthful passion was for mineral- ogical specimens and external nature, from which the unwilling mind was finally dragged away by more exacting scholastic studies, will perhaps welcome the return to the more natural and more humane methods symbolized by the French musee scolaire and its possible introduction into our American public schools. There are stj.ll to be found in many American schools and colleges melancholy survivals of the early scientific cabinets which once delighted the souls of early American collectors of natural-history specimens. These old cabinets remind the beholder of neglected New England graveyards which need the rehabilitating hand of the landscape gardener and the village improvement society to make them worthy of the pioneers and of their descendants. The resurrection is surely coming for the museum idea in local New England. ‘ We shall soon see it, as already in the Spring- field and Brattleboro museums of natural science, applied to all the flora and fauna and the immediate environment of old historic towns. Museums of local art and local history are already in process of evolution. Pictures of historic characters and local celebrities, old houses, old trees, and familiar places will soon become as natural and scientific as the drawing of a crayfish or the photographing of any good specimen of bird or beast. Rensselaer Institute , in Troy, N. Y.., was first established in 1824, and was incor¬ porated by act of the legislature in March, 1826. Its founder, lion. Stephen Van Rensselaer, of Albany, early proposed a plan “for extending to every class of citizens the benefits of those departments of scientific knowledge which are most intimately connected with the common concerns of life.” Young men were trained at Troy for the special purpose of becoming popular instructors. They were to give evening lectures on experimental chemistry, physics, and other practical sciences. Experi¬ mental classes, composed of from four to ten of the most promising students, were to be selected from the popular evening class for special instruction in the local district where a Rensselaer lecturer was called for. It was expected that the local school¬ master should become one of the class, and that he should cooperate with the instructor in preparing experiments and in extending education more widely among the people. A committee of instructors at “Rensselaer School, Troy, N. Y.,” consisting of Samuel Blatchford, president; Amos Eaton and Lewis C. Peck, professors, said in a circular republished in the American Journal of Education in 1826, volume i, page 635: “ Though this undertaking is of vast importance in its tendencies, it is unquestionably practicable. Should it succeed, it must necessarily improve the state of society more than any other scheme hitherto proposed.” We hear in other connections of the success of students trained at Troy, on “the- Rensselaer plan,” to be public lecturers and instructors in natural science, and note this pioneer New York attempt to promote educational extension in a practicable way, viz, by training men for their responsible work. Southern lyceums. — Theodore Dwight, jr., corresponding secretary on “Lyceums,” 292 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. said in his report on the Transactions of the American or National Lyceum, May 8, 1835: “ The most general interest at present prevails in some of the Southern States. Lyceums have been taken up with spirit in Georgia and South Carolina, advocated in the latter State by the late lamented Thomas S. Grimke [1786-1834], one of the ablest contributors to our list of essays.” 1 The Baltimore Lyceum was reported in New York at the first annual meeting of the American Lyceum in May, 1832. Children, it was said, were admitted at half price. The usual lyceum rates were $2 per annum for an adult. Children in Baltimore had separate meetings, where they were instructed in the elements of science, and were thus prepared for the higher exercises of the lyceum. Baltimore parents were said to be interested in the new system. The seat of the experiment was in East Balti¬ more, or “Old Town.” A Southern champion of lyceums. — Thomas Smith Grimke, of Huguenot descent, was born in Charleston, S. C., in 1786, and was educated at Yale College under the friendly influence of President Dwight, who wrote of his travels in New England, and New York. At the age of 21 Grimke began the study of law, and soon became a member of the Charleston bar. Like Thomas Jefferson, he early became an advo¬ cate of popular education and of modern studies. John Locke was the educational forerunner of both of these Southern leaders. Thomas Smith Grimke was the foremost champion of lyceums for his section of country. It was doubtless due to his influence that the Literary and Philosophical Society of South Carolina passed resolutions in 1834 favoring the lyceum system as an important means of “promoting education and diffusing knowledge,” and cordi¬ ally approving of the national lyceum. The society appointed Mr. Grimke the chair¬ man of a committee to prepare an address to the people of South Carolina “ on the classification, character, and exercises, or the objects and advantages of the lyceum system, with a view to its general introduction into our towns, villages, and the country at large.” l' Extracts from Mr. Grimke’ s address are preserved in the American Annals of Education and Instruction, May, 1835, the year following Grimke’ s sudden death from cholera. Mr. W. C. Wood bridge, editor of the Annals, presented an elaborate review of this address to the American Lyceum. The two articles, printed together, are among the best sources of information on this half-forgotten American institution. T. S. Grimke on the lyceum. — The origin of the word is to be found in Grecian literature. The lyceum was a grove in the suburbs of Athens, originally devoted to military exercises, but in the time of Aristotle it was employed by him for the delivery of lectures. Here he taught in the morning a select number of disciples, and instructed them in that elevated philosophy which Alexander rebuked him for having published to the world. In the afternoon he taught in like manner, by lec¬ tures, the young men of Athens promiscuously. But we may remark of him, and of all the schools of ancient philosophy, that whatever may have been the genius and learning of the professors, and whatever the number of their disciples and the direc¬ tion of their schools, they produced no sensible effects on the great body of the people. They left behind them no vestiges of a salutary influence over manners and morals, over the cause of general education, or over civil and political institutions. The reason was that the schemes of the ancient philosophy did not comprehend the general instruction of the people, embracing both sexes and all ages and conditions. The same defect existed in the museum founded in France by Pilatre de Rozier, the cabinet and library of which were sold, as the patrons were unable to sustain the institution. To this succeeded the lyceum established by La Harpe, at Paris, in 1786, but whose object was limited to the improvement of a select company of the educated of both sexes meeting together at stated times. “Thus,” saith La Harpe, “the French nation will not boast in vain of having known better than all others the advantages of sociability and all the pleasures of virtuous souls and cultivated minds. ” Proposed classes of Southern lyceums. — Grimke then goes on to describe the classes of lyceums best suited to the needs of a scattered population like that in South Caro- 1 American Annals of Education, July, 1835, p. 297. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 293 lina. He discusses two classes, the elementary and the representative lyceums. Under the first class he enumerates and briefly characterizes: (1) Social and neigh¬ borhood lyceums (one adapted to city life, the other to the country); (2) village, parish, or beat company lyceums (corresponding to town lyceums in the Northern States); and (3) class lyceums (for special subjects in a more general organization). Under representative lyceums, Mr. Grimke mentions: (1) The district, (2) the State, and (3) the national lyceum. This classification was partly borrowed from institutions then actually existing at the North, where Grimke had lived and studied, and partly worked out by him to fit local conditions and terminology at the South. Proposed exercises. — Among the exercises proposed for Southern lyceums are things very familiar to both Northern and Southern people, viz, lectures, essays, debates, and conversation. The persons expected to take part in and profit by lyceums were the clergymen, the physician, the lawyer, the merchant, the farmer, the planter, the manufacturer, the mechanic, and “ last but not least — as among the most honorable professions — the teacher.” Grimke understood very well that he was applying an old name to things already familiar to Southern people. He said in his address to South Carolinians: Perhaps it may be asked, what are the literary and philosophical societies, lecture- ships in colleges and universities, debating clubs, mechanics’ institutes, and conver¬ sation parties, but lyceums? We reply, that they are. We have only given to an old name a more extensive application to old things, in order the more easily to embrace in one system all those various forms of improvement, and to give a more regular, extensive, and frequent application to known methods of improvement; while the additional advantages are secured by concerted action, and of the inter¬ communication of a large amount of experience. A pioneer of popular education. — The South Carolina lawyer, like Thomas Jefferson, was a pioneer of popular education and common schools. Grimke used some expres¬ sions that remind us of university extension. He said: “The lyceum system inter¬ feres with no other scheme of improvement and is, on the contrary, auxiliary to them all.” He added: “It is in harmony with the spirit of the age.” He quoted the constitutional object of the American lyceum as “the advancement of education, especially in common schools, and the general diffusion of knowledge.” In conclu¬ sion, he asked: “What objects can be more truly popular and republican, wise and benevolent? Common schools form the great majority of youth and prepare them to become the people of each succeeding generation.” Revived of the lyceum in the West and South. — In the Northern and Eastern States the lyceum system flourished before the civil war and accomplished its work in the higher education of the common people. Since the Avar the lyceum as an institution has been more conspicuous in the West and at the South. Mr. F. Hopkinson Smith, a well-known popular writer and lecturer in America, said in the Independent (NeAV York, May 18, 1899): To the Bedpath Lyceum Bureau, of Chicago, is due much of the success of the present lecturing movement in the West and South and in parts of the East. Oth¬ ers have gone into the field to help themselves. They have helped the people. They go into a town of fifteen to twenty thousand inhabitants, where there is an opera house or hall capable of accommodating 2,000 people, and arrange for a course of ten lectures. There will be two or three musical subjects, several on literature, and others on science or art. They do not charge an exorbitant price, but sell the entire course of ten lectures for §1.50 (7J francs), or 15 cents apiece, Forsingle tick¬ ets they charge 50 cents and for a reserved seat 75 cents. They give the best talent that the country can afford for these nominal prices. It is astonishing to see the popularity of the course and how eagerly the people look forward from one lecture to another. This is so different from Avhat has hitherto prevailed that the success of the movement is assured beforehand, and the lecturer has an audience in every town that is very gratifying to him. The lectures used to be so high only a few people could afford to purchase the tickets, and the managers could not make them pay. 294 EDUCATIONS' DEPORT, 1899-1900. The lectures cover many fields of popular interest and are of much educational value. Take literature. After the lecturer has discussed the particular subject before a large audience the interest in it does not die with his departure. The pub¬ lic libraries are besieged for books on the subject of the lecture, and for weeks after they read and discuss the questions at their homes. It stimulates the people to read and gives them new thoughts to occupy their 'minds until the next- lecturer of the series appears. If an author comes to the town and reads from his own books there is a great run on the bookstores and libraries for his works. It helps an author very much in this way and revives an interest in his books that nothing else I know of equals. The old method was to take famous men on lecturing tours and charge such high prices that the people could afford to attend only one or two lectures in the course of the season. Emerson, Phillips Brooks, and others of their character attracted crowds in their day; but the thing was overdone in time, and the lectures could not be made profitable to the managers. Then a group of readers appeared, and they would read from their works and charge high prices for the privilege of listening to them. Dick¬ ens and others made remarkable successes in this line. But that was overdone, too, in time, and there is no demand for such high-priced lectures in the towns and cities. A recent writer1 for the Atlantic Monthly, May, 1899, has attributed to oratory a powerful politico-educational influence upon the old South. Before the civil war there were no public libraries and no widely extended, well-organized system of public schools. Literature did not flourish and the lyceum or popular lecture system had not been introduced; but churches, camp meetings, barbecues, political con¬ ventions, and law courts abounded. These, in fact, were the true universities of the lower South, the law courts and the great religious and political gatherings, as truly as a grove was the university of Athens, or a church, with its sculpture and paintings, the Bible of a mediaeval town. The man who wished to lead or to teach must be able to speak. He could not touch the artistic sense of the people with pictures or statues or verses or plays; he must charm them with voice and gesture. William Lowndes Yancey, of Alabama, who more than any other one man, except John C. Calhoun, helped to build up the Southern Confederacy, was one of the greatest of Southern orators. His power lay in his marvelous voice and grim fixedness of purpose. He wrote no books and published no collection of his speeches; the fragments that remain bear the ’ marks of imperfect reporting; the most effective of his addresses were those delivered before popular audiences, usually in the open air, and they were not taken down. * * * But oratory, we know, is action, and the truer picture of the man is the image of tremendous articulate passion which abides in the minds of those who fell under his power nearly half a century ago. Oratory may be used in America as in the days of Demosthenes for a losing or for a winning cause; but in either case, it is still a great popular educational force in political and economic, as well as in religious and social questions. The country is more than ever under its magic power, whether for good or for ill. But oratory is not King. Education comes not alone from eloquence, but from the deeper, more irresistible currents of law and order, good government, inherited religion and morals; public opinion and the press; good literature and the library; the school, the church, the home, the family, and social institutions of many kinds. “Still waters run deep,” even in modern democracy. Historic forces will always triumph, though the waves of popular feeling run high in time of party elections and civil or foreign war. Education by discussion. — There has been a long process of public education in the United States in the presidential elections and in the political campaigns of every city and State. It should be remembered that the American people, like the ancient Greek, have always been fond of oratory and debate. The public assembly and the folkmote or mass meeting are still conspicuous institutions of the North, South, and West. Whenever there is a crisis in the affairs of the nation or of the community, vast concourses of people rally for open-air meetings or mass meetings in town halls. 1 William Garrett Brown, on “The orator of secession” (William Lowndes Yancey, 1814-1863). EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 295 There the public questions are discussed by the best available public speakers. There is not a topic of public policy, whether relating to finance or national economy, that is not thoroughly thrashed out in these popular assemblies. The press takes up the matter and carries the knowledge into every household. Popular debating societies. — An interesting modern development of the old-fashioned village lyceum of Neve England is the popular debating society, now fostered in con¬ nection with public schools, colleges, Young Men’s Christian Associations, churches, clubs, labor unions, etc. The so-called village lycemn was not a school or college, like the French Lycee, but was rather a popular organization for debates and lectures. In the early part of the present century almost every large New England town or village had its public lyceum, which sustained not only popular debates among young men and citizens, but also a regular winter course of lectures on historical, political, and social themes. Some of the greatest orators and public educators in New England, like Daniel Webster, Wendell Phillips, and Charles Sumner, used to address these little companies of people assembled in their village lyceum or literary folk mote. The training of the North for the great civil war and for the emancipa¬ tion of the negro was brought about in these early debating societies. Since the war between the States, northern lyceums have fallen into desuetude, but in the South and West there has been a remarkable extension of the old institution. In very many Southern and Western towns and cities there are now sustained courses of so-called lyceum lectures, which are organized and guided by some regular bureau or director. But even more remarkable is the revival of the old idea of popular debates in American schools, colleges, churches, and clubs of the present day. For a long time in many Northern colleges the so-called open or public societies have ceased to flourish, and the so-called “secret societies” or “college fraternities” have practi¬ cally monopolized the social, literary, and forensic spirit; but in the Middle, West¬ ern, and Southern States open societies have survived the civil war. Within the past few years the ant of public debating has been cultivated in a larger and more representative way than ever before. Students have studied and practiced public speaking on questions of current economic and political interest, for the sake not only of individual and class improvement, but also for the successful representation of their own college in intercollegiate prize debates. The spirit of intercollegiate rivalry has been extended from the domain of athletic games, ball playing,, boat racing, etc., to more intellectual fields of competition. In recent years there has been an annual contest in public debate between Harvard and Yale universities, which is attended with great eclat and which brings to the prize winners really academic distinction. Collegiate interest in forensics and oratory has always been conspicuous in the Western and Southern States, where the colleges are non? organized into State asso¬ ciations for the State championship in public debates and oratory. Sometimes the best speakers in an individual State are matched against the acknowledged leaders hi some neighboring State. This interstate competition interests college men and citizens throughout wide sections of country, and attracts great audiences of men and women who become ardent supporters of the colleges and universities which educate these representative sons of the common people. In some cases winning orations prepared for these intercollegiate contests in oratory have been published. Prof. Percy Gardner, in the Nineteenth Century, for January, 1899, giving his “Impressions of American Universities,” says that the custom of intercollegiate debate has no parallel in England: The art of debate, which has always been much encouraged and practiced in America, has been completely organized on a competitive basis. Teams are selected in each college for a debating tussle, just as for a rowing match or a football contest. The teams of rival colleges meet on the platform of some large hall. A political or 296 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-19C0. social subject which offers good scope for argument has already been selected; one side is assigned by lot to each of the contending parties. Each competitor in turn takes up his brief, and attacks or defends, as the case may be. Judges assigned for the purpose decide which team is victorious, having regard, not to the justice of the cause, but to the skill of the disputants. A victorious college is proud of its team and of the trophy which victory brings it. The churches, with their social missions and boys’ clubs, have also taken up this excellent device of training young citizens in the art of public speaking and to the intelligent appreciation of public questions. The writer of this report has served at contests for the award of prizes for the best debaters chosen from young people’s societies in Baltimore. The idea of debating societies has been caught up even by churches and colleges now devoted to the interests of colored people. The labor unions in their various halls of assembly have long been in the habit of encouraging public discussion of labor questions. It is very interesting to observe that in the Young Men’s Christian Associations, as well as in some American colleges, young men have been organized into an arti¬ ficial Congress, sometimes in two houses, called respectively the “senate” and “house of representatives.” This latter custom now prevails in the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., where the two upper collegiate classes {seniors and juniors) are trained apart in the house and the senate, and at the end of the year the best speakers from each body come together for a prize debate in the presence of their classmates and invited friends from the city, in the large university hall, where the two so-called “teams” struggle for intellectual and forensic mastery, as the athletic teams struggle upon other fields for physical victory. The participa¬ tion of American college athletes in the modern Olympic games at Athens has given increased impetus to the rivalry of colleges and classes in outdoor contests, but recent developments would indicate a healthful modern revival of the best features of those ancient Grecian festivals, which combined public exercises of the mind with those of the body. The Lyceum League of America was organized under the auspices of the Youth’s Companion, which established a lyceum department in its own columns. The league consisted of a system of local clubs organically connected through the lyceum department, which granted charters, gave free equipment, suggested topics for discussion, and furnished lists of good books. Among the books recommended to young Americans for the discussion of American subjects were Bryce’s Ameri¬ can Commonwealth; Our Country, by Josiah Strong; History of American Politics, by Alexander Johnston; Problems of To-day, by IL T. Ely; Civil Government in the United States, by John Fiske; The American Citizen, by Charles F. Dole; and The American Statesmen series. All of these books except the latter series were given, with a bookcase, to the first ten clubs organizing under this plan proposed by the Youth’s Companion. To every club of ten or more young men this enter¬ prising paper supplied, free of cost, a copy of Cushing’s Manual for guiding parliamentary proceedings, a secretary’s book, and a president’s gavel. The secre¬ tary’s book contained a model constitution, rules of order, subjects and rules for debate, and blank pages for the record of eighty meetings. It is difficult to conceive of a more popular plan for spreading and multiply¬ ing the idea of school lyceums. The enormous circulation of the Youth’s Com¬ panion gave wide information and definite ideas regarding the plan of organization, and it rapidly increased and multiplied throughout the country. As a matter of fact, many boys’ clubs, schools, churches, Young Men’s Christian Associations, social settlements, missions, have to this day profited by that idea proposed ten years ago of reviving the old-fashioned New England lyceum. When it is remembered that in 1888 the Youth’s Companion started the idea of an American flag for every public school house, an idea which has now passed into popular legislation and has become an established institution and a symbol of patriotism in almost every youthful sem- EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 297 inary of learning, we shall have some conception of the wide civic possibilities of the American extension of these popular debating societies or school lyceums. Authorities. — The American Annals of Education, published in Boston, and the Magazine of Useful Knowledge, published in New York, were adopted May 8, 1831, as the organs of publication for the proceedings of the American Lyceum, and they are among the best sources of information concerning this and other early popular educational movements in this country. The printed lectures given before the American Institute of Instruction and the published lyceum lectures of many dis¬ tinguished Americans — Edward Everett, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry Ward Beecher — will reveal the kind of superior instruction enjoyed by the common people fifty years ago. The Education Reporter, a weekly paper, published in Boston, was also contem¬ porary with the lyceum movement, and is said to have exerted a powerful and salutary influence. Lyceums and Societies for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Nehemiah Cleave- land. Lecture V. American Institute of Instruction, Boston, 1830. The American Lyceum. (American Bibliopolist, Voh III, pp. 376-378, from Sat¬ urday Review.) J. Sabin & Sons, 1871. Rise and Fall of the New England Lyceum. E. P. Powell. (New England Maga¬ zine, Feb., 1895, pp. 730-737.) Great Orators and the Lyceum. (The Cosmopolitan, 1896, pp. 247-256.) Usefulness of the Lyceums. S. C. Phillips. (American Institute of Instruction, Boston, Aug., 1831.) The American Lyceum. Herman D. Jenkins. (Presbyterian and Reformed Review, Jan., 1897.) Philadelphia, MeCalla & Co. Professor Silliman’s Journal of Science, published at New Haven for many years, should be regarded as the highest exponent of that semipopular scientific spirit, which found local expression in the lyceum lectures of Siliiman, Olmsted, Shep¬ herd, Hitchcock, Agassiz, and Young. The well-known and highly valuable German series of printed lectures on popular science ( Volks wissenschaftliche Vortriige) and our American Popular Science Monthly are among the current organs of this patriotic educational spirit. Science for the people — for adults, men and women — is quite as legitimate public instruction as elementary science for boys and girls, or outdoor scientific rambles with children and school-teachers. Printed lectures for lyceums. — As early as 1830 the publication of a series of “Scien¬ tific tracts” was begun in Boston on various subjects of useful knowledge. An annual series of 24 numbers, of 24 pages each, was sold at $1.50. It was designed to extend these educational tracts among the great mass of the community. “They are intended to answer as substitutes for lectures before lyceums, to be read and explained in schools, and to be pleasant fireside companions.” These tracts anticipated university extension and Chautauqua printed lectures and handbooks, but were obviously an American imitation of the cheap publications of the Library of Useful Knowledge, and the Penny Cyclopaedia, projected by the patriots of England (edited by George Long). These and other English forerunners of modern devices for popular education deserve remembrance. American lyceum leaders. — Among the names early conspicuous in the organizing work of the American Lyceum were John Neal, Portland, Me.; Edward Everett, Wil¬ liam C. Woodbridge, and Josiah Holbrook, of Boston; Prof. C. Dewey, Pittsfield, Mass.; President Day and Professor Olmsted, of Yale College; Dr. T. H. Gallaudet, Hartford; Nathan Sargent, Prof. John Griscom, LL.D., and William Forrest, New York; Theo¬ dore Dwight, jr. , of New York; Robert Yaux, Philadelphia; Samuel M. How, presi¬ dent of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa.; Oliver A. Shaw, Richmond; Thomas S. Grimke, Charleston, S. C. ; Rev. B. 0. Pears, Lexington, Ky. ; Philip Lindsley, Nash¬ ville, Tenn. ; Alva Woods, Alabama; Rev. Timothy Flint, Cincinnati, and Prof. J. M. 298 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Sturtevant, Illinois. The movement l>efore the year 1832, beginning in Massachu¬ setts, had extended from Maine on the east to the Gulf States on the south, and to the Mississippi Valley on the west. (For further inquiries on this subject, see the next section, on “Pioneers of popular education.”) Among other lyceum orators were John B. Gough, Henry Ward Beecher, Wendell Phillips, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Bayard Taylor, Dr. Bellows, Dr. Chapin, T. W. Higginson, J. G. Holland, Elihu Burritt, Horace Greeley, George William Curtis, and Fred. Douglass. Best and most famous of all was Abraham Lincoln. Education, like all knowledge and culture, is only a song of degrees. It is simply an ascending scale from arrested attention and passing observation to philosophic reflection and clear understanding; from the mere prattle and ABC knowledge of the child to the wisdom of the sage and the world’s common sense. • This the press of the Nineteenth century has done much to develop. Nations are destined to be governed by educated public opinion rather than by war and conquests. Some years ago an English popular lecturer on astronomy published an article in an English review on “ Capital and culture in America,” and took the ground that, on the whole, American national culture was degenerating because, forsooth, our people do not employ as many public lecturers as formerly. He said that of 500 American towns which used to support, season after season, lectures on literary and scientific subjects, scarcely 50 felt justified in continuing these regular courses because the public would not support them. There is perhaps a better explanation of the apparent decline of the old-fashioned lyceum system, at least in some parts of this country. The American public has had too many of those old-time lyceum lectures, especially those single lectures under personal “management,” exacting high prices. The simple truth is, there are sev¬ eral better things now circulating in America than even those star lecturers. Among better things are good books from our public libraries, and also our popular, beauti¬ fully illustrated, and very instructive monthly magazines. At less cost than a single hour’s pyrotechnic lecture by some wandering star from the old world these American magazines circulate from hand to hand throughout the year. In very attractive and satisfactory ways they carry literary, scientific, and historical culture into thou¬ sands of modest homes, where habits of good reading are constantly cultivated by the combined influences of the daily press, the public library, and the public school. It is manifestly absurd to attempt to measure American culture by the success or failure of a traveling lecturer or any lyceum manager. What excellent lectures are the readings, illustrated articles, editorial comments on current events the world over to be found in our best American monthly magazines; what fresh and original but readable contributions to knowledge are contained in them. The magazines are usurping the position once held by the popular lecturer, because they know better what the public wants, and they say it in better and more pleasing form, and for far less money. The illustrated magazines of America are generally recognized, even in foreign lands, as among the best in the world. Supported by large capital and wide patron¬ age, American editors are able to engage for their columns some of the best literary, scientific, and educational talent of the times. Compared with the very limited amount of positive instruction or inspiration formerly given by the traveling public lecturer in a somewhal turgid, rhetorical style, the manifest wealth of good literary and scientific materials afforded by the modern magazine is truly marvelous. Peri¬ odicals are the handbooks of the people; they represent philosophy, art, letters, criticism, history, politics, economics, social science, latest discoveries, inventions, popular sciences, and the freshest thought on many questions of vital interest to the living age. While the daily press photographs current events for what they are worth, quarterly and monthly magazines quietly review the progress of the world. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 299 Foote’s Index. — Many years ago a Yale College student began to index and classify magazine articles for ready reference. Continued through long years this resulted in Dr. W. F. Poole’s famous Index of Periodical Literature, Erst published in the years 1848-1853, revised and enlarged in 1882, through the influence of the American Library Association, and is carried on to this day, upon the cooperative plan, under the editorial direction of W. I. Fletcher, of Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. This superb index is the American clearing house of the best English and American magazines. It mediates between the student and the periodical, the public and the library, where bound volumes are preserved for consultation. III. American Pioneers op Popular Education. Ten years ago, 1889, the term “university extension” was a new thing in the United States, but the thing itself was old. As early as 1808 a course of popular lectures in chemistry was given by Prof. Benjamin Silliman (1779-1864), of Yale College, for the benefit of a class of ladies and gentlemen in New Haven. The class met in the college laboratory, and the lectures were accompanied by experiments. “This course,” said Professor Silliman, in his reminiscences, “was the opening of a series of labors performed many years afterwards, with popular audiences, often in large assemblies, and sometimes in distant cities. ’ ’ College and university lectures for New Haven people have been continued, in varying forms, down to the present day. The idea of instructive courses in natural science was extended by Professor Si lli- man from his coeducational class to the mechanics of New Haven in the years 1831- 1833. In a letter to the New York Times, March 22, 1891, a writer claims priority of university extension for old Yale. He says that about 1828 Mr. James Brewster, a leading citizen of New Haven, erected a large building called Franklin Hall, at the corner of Church and Crown streets, for the purpose of disseminating scientific knowledge among people not connected with the college. Mr. Brewster had pre¬ viously interested himself in the development of a mechanics’ institute, which, it is said, still exists under another name in New Haven. Prof. George P. Fisher, in his Life of Benjamin Silliman (Yol. II, pp. 326-327), quotes a letter from Mr. Brewster to Professor Dana, which establishes a strong case for Yale College extension, fifty years ago. Professor Silliman ever evinced a deep feeling of interest in the moral and intel¬ lectual improvement of the mass of the people. Prompted by his encouragement, I erected Franklin Hall for the purpose of providing instruction in the elements of mechanical science to those who could not attend lectures in the daytime. He assisted me in obtaining the means to illustrate the experiments to lie made, and introduced me to his assistant in Yale College, Mr. Charles U. Shepard (afterwards of Amherst College), who assumed the position of curator of Franklin Hall. Pro¬ fessor Silliman and Professor Olmsted gave courses of lectures to the people of this city. The beneficial effects were manifest by the erection of steam engines, and the perfecting of machinery, greatly aiding in the development of mechanical skill in its application to the useful arts. These benefits have long been manifest in all depart¬ ments of business. This was the first time, I believe, that college professors had gone out to lecture upon natural and mechanical science. A further extension of influence by Professor Silliman occurred in 1834, when he began to lecture outside of New Haven. His first course was given in Hartford in the lecture room of the Center Church, upon the subject of geology. The lectures were attended by three or four hundred of the most intelligent citizens of that town and were well illustrated by drawings and geological specimens. Every morning the professor devoted an extra hour in the lecture room to a conference with persons who wished to see his specimens and hear additional explanations. This was an antici¬ pation of the modem ‘ 4 class, ’ ’ or conference, in connection with university exten- 300 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. tion lectures. From New Haven and Hartford, Professor Silliman’s public-spirited work was extended, in 1834-35, to Lowell, Salem, and Boston. In the Athens of America, an introductory lecture, like that of Professor Stuart, of Cambridge, when he captivated the English workingmen at Crewe, was given upon the subject of meteors: “A large and brilliant audience was before me; much larger than any that I had ever addressed. I was awed,” adds the Yale professor, “ but not abashed.” Silliman’s first lecture to the Bostonians in 1835, like Stuart’s to the English workingmen in 1867, was a phenomenal success. Mr. William J. Loring immediately announced, on behalf of the Society for Promoting Useful Knowledge, a systematic course on geology. “ This course,” says Silliman, in his reminiscences, “ was my first great success, both as regards reputation and remuneration.” The subscriptions yielded $2,000. There was an afternoon and an evening course. Both were thronged. “ The audience is not surpassed in numbers and intelligence by the assemblies of the Royal Institution in London.” Mr. Abbott Lawrence told the lecturer that no man had ever drawn together in Boston such audiences, both for number and character. Returning home, Silliman naively rejoiced that he had been permitted to sustain the honor of his college. After “six anxious years” of public lecturing in Boston, he is still deeply impressed with his responsibility for the honor of Yale College, the faculty of which had urged him forward in this public work. He rejoices that he has been successful in making the subjects on which he had spoken .intelligible and attractive, without diminishing the dignity of science or neglecting Yale College. President Woolsey once said: “There were, I believe, in the universities of the Middle Ages, orators annually appointed who represented their communities on public occasions. lie (Silliman), in his prime, was our stand¬ ing orator, the principal medium between those who dwelt in the academic shade and the great public.” The Yale professor lectured in Nantucket in 1835. In 1836 he gave a geological course in New York to many of the first people of the city and to what he called “a solid mass of intelligence from the middle classes of society.” In 1838, after a second course in Boston, he was consulted by Mr. John A. Lowell regarding the best mode of organizing and equipping the Lowell Institute. He was engaged to give the opening course of lectures on geology in the People’s University of Boston. By special arrangement with Mr. Lowell, Professor Silliman gave four courses of scientific lectures upon geology and chemistry, extending through four winters. Public interest continued unabated. The Lowell Institute lectures, being gener¬ ously endowed, were made free to the public. There were as many as 10,000 appli¬ cations each season for tickets to hear Silliman. He regarded it as the most arduous scientific engagement, and at the same time as the greatest honor of his life, to give the introductory courses in such a splendid institute as that of John Lowell, wrho had completed his will on the ruins of Thebes. Edward Everett, governor of Massa¬ chusetts at the time the Lowell Institute was opened, said, “The few sentences, penned with a tired hand by our fellow-citizen on the top of a palace of the Pharaohs, will do more for human improvement than, for aught that appears, was done by all that gloomy dynasty that ever reigned.” The impulse to higher popular education, given first through the Franklin Institute of New Haven, and afterwards through the Lowell Institute in Boston, wTas extended by Professor Silliman to distant cities in the South and West, to Pittsburg, Baltimore, New Orleans, Mobile, Natchez, and St. Louis. Almost everywhere Yale men wrere the organizing influences that made these local academic lectures possible in days before university extension was heard of. Professor Silliman continued this public educational work for a quarter of a century, from 1834 to 1859, from his fifty-fifth to his eightieth year. At the close of this remarkable experience he said: “ I conceive that in no period of my life have my efforts been more useful, both to my country and my family; and as regards professional labors, there is no part of my career EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 301 which I reflect upon with more satisfaction.” Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, said that Silliman “ was the first to introduce in this coun¬ try public lectures illustrated by experiments on a scale of magnitude and of a char¬ acter to interest a popular audience; and his success in this enterprise was such as to give an impulse not yet exhausted to a means of adult instruction which, though it has been abused, is well calculated, under proper regulation, to effect much social and personal good.” The career of Professor Silliman as a public lecturer was nearly synchronous with the rise of American lyceums, through which the influence of college-educated men made itself widely and deeply felt upon the American people. Dr. William E. Channing (1780-1842), writing in 1836, said in praise of lyceums: I have long seen with much satisfaction the diffusion through our country of institutions for the intellectual culture of the people. I have rejoiced in the estab¬ lishment of lyceums and popular lectures, and I feel that everyone is bound to do what he can to forward these good works. By this I do not mean that I consider such institutions, in the present form, as fitted to meet all our wants. The lectures are too disconnected, and too generally intended for mere amusement, to stir up the minds of the hearers to any strong and enduring activity. But we must not despise the day of small things. A lyceum, or young men’s association, though liable to the charge of giving superficial knowledge, is still a promise, a harbinger, of something higher. It is a sign that the people are beginning to hunger for more refined pleasure and increasing knowledge. It shows that intellectual life is at work and spreading through the community. Such an omen I hail with joy.1 Two of the most highly developed types of city lyceums, the Lowell Institute in Boston and the Peabody Institute2 in Baltimore, both founded by Massachusetts men, still flourish with ever-increasing usefulness. While other means of higher popular education have now sprung into vigorous life in the Pratt Institute of Brook¬ lyn, the Armour Institute of Chicago, the Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, the Metropolitan Museum and the American Museum of Natural History in Central Park, New York, and in similar institutions elsewhere, it should never be forgotten that this country had already passed through a remarkable phase of higher popular education by means of lyceum lectures of no mean order. The old lyceum system was fostered by such men as Daniel Webster, Dr. IV. E. Channing,3 Edward Everett, Balph Waldo Emerson, Theodore Parker, E. H. Chapin, Horace Mann, Charles Sumner, Thomas Starr King, Wendell Phillips, John B. Gough, Henry Ward Beecher, and George William Curtis. It developed at least one gen¬ eration of noble orators and patriotic leaders. It has left to this day high standards of public speaking in America. It contributed in no small degree to the rise of the abolition and temperance parties in American politics. Its intellectual and moral influence is still moving on in the West1 * * and the New South, wThere old-fashioned oratory lingers, and w7here the Chautauqua summer assemblies are at once a curious survival and an edifying combination of the camp meeting, or religious folkmote, with the old lyceum idea of popular education by local lectures. College and uni¬ versity men are now everywhere at work in these summer assemblies. Indeed, 1 Memoir of Channing, Vol, III, 87. 2 The Peabody Institute of Baltimore for many years offered to the public thirty superior lectures upon literary, historical, and scientific subjects at the slight charge of SI. 50 for the entire course. During the winter of 1890-91 Mr. Richard G. Moulton, the English university extension lecturer, gave two courses before this Baltimore lyceum. schanning’s lectures on “Self culture” (Works, ii, 349-411) and on “The elevation of the laboring classes (v, 153-230) were given to the mechanics and apprentices of Boston in 1838 and 1840. 4Professor Jenks says: “The lecture system, Avhich was in its glory in New England thirty and forty years ago — and which doubtless exercised a wide-spread influence for good — is still very com¬ mon in Indiana. Many a graded school, in a village of not mgre than three or four hundred inhabi¬ tants, supports its lecture course of five or six lectures every winter, and the lectures given are usually of good quality, It ha3 been the policy of the State university for several years to meet requests of this kind in a favorable way, and to send a man to deliver an evening lecture whenever called upon.” 302 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. some of our American institutions of learning have long been encouraging summer schools upon their own academic premises. For example, Harvard,1 which first (1873) developed the American summer school of natural science, has now a great variety of summer courses; so have the universities of Virginia, Indiana, Wisconsin, and many other State institutions. It is no secret that the summer schools of Oxford and Cambridge were suggested by American experience. It is well known that the idea of English home reading circles, and of a National Home Healing Union, were “consciously borrowed” from Chautauqua. While Americans attempted to introduce from England her well- developed methods of university extension, it is not improper to point out the above facts and to observe that, for nearly a century, each of the two countries lias been working out, in its own way, the problems of elementary and higher education for the people. In our eagerness for public improvement, let us not ignore our own educational history, nor forget that we have long had in this country certain bless¬ ings of our own, some of which England is just acquiring, namely, free common schools, free libraries, and the true university spirit of teaching and research. In a letter written in 1835 by Dr. William E. Charming to Josiah Quincy, president of Harvard University, there is a remarkable anticipation of the essential idea of university extension: The education of the people seems to me more and more to be the object to which the college should be directed. This institution has always existed, and exists now, for the people. It trains young men, not so much for themselves, as that they may be qualified to render services to the community; and perhaps they render no higher service than by spreading their own intelligence and giving a higher tone to the public mind. Can not the college do more for this end? I hope it may. If it can furnish a course of philosophical instruction, which can be pursued by a greater number than now pass through college; if it can extend the demand for this higher education by supplying its means, and if it can give a rank to those who enjoy this advantage, it will render inestimable service to the community. Perhaps the most important inquiry for the friends of the college is, How can it become a popular institution, an object of public interest, without narrowing at all its present course of instruction? Its well being requires that the community should look to it as their friend and benefactor. I do not, however, think so much of the prosperity of the college, in the suggestions now made, as I do of the general improve¬ ment of the people. Popular education is a more important interest than any par¬ ticular institution, involving, as it does, the religious and political as well as intellec¬ tual good of men. The progress of society can hardly be aided more than by bringing greater and greater numbers under the influence of moral and philosophical instruc¬ tion. I wish that the college may take an active part in this great work. It has an extensive apparatus of means. Can it not render them more productive?2 If one should attempt to investigate the lines of university extension that have gone out from Harvard,3 since the days of Charming, in graduate or professional ways, for the higher education of the American people, he would enter a boundless field of inquiry. It would not be difficult to show that the popular influence of that insti¬ tution has widened with every decade. Harvard has played a noble part in the development of school and college education, of teachers’ institutes and summer schools, of lecture courses in Boston and the country at large. A system of outside lectureships was early inaugurated at Harvard for the benefit of the university and the people of Cambridge at the very beginning of President- Eliot’s administration in 1869. Distinguished specialists were invited to give public lectures under the auspice's of the university. Among these courses were Dr. Samuel Eliot’s upon “The history of the nineteenth century;” Ralph Aval do Emerson’s upon “The ’The Harvard faculty have recently voted that work done in their summer schools may, with the consent of the various departments, be counted as regular work toward the degree of A. B. s Memoir of Channing, Yol. Ill, pp. 84-85. 8 The lyceum lectures of Jared Sparks on American history at the Lowell Institute in Boston and at the Tabernacle in New York City are the subjects of a special chapter in the author’s Life and Writ¬ ings of Jared Sparks, Yol. II, Ch. XXVIII. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 303 natural history of the intellect;” W. D. Howells’ s on “New Italian literature;” Professor Hadley’s on “Roman law;” John Fiske’s on “ Positive philosophy,” and many others. The system was not altogether a success at Harvard. President Eliot, in a public address in Baltimore, February 22, 1878, said: “I have seen the results of this plan at Harvard, where they [short lecture courses] were kept up for some time, but I do not consider them very profitable. The result, as I observed it, was that they encouraged short, detached work, not that year by year.”1 This is undoubtedly the defect* of all such courses, unless duly coordinated with private reading or regular class instruction. TV. University Extension in America. This subject was first publicly presented in the United States at a meeting of the American Library Association in their session upon one of the Thousand Islands in September, 1887. The well-known English system, as adapted to American local needs, was promptly taken up by public-spirited American librarians in Buffalo, N. Y.,2 in Chicago, and in St. Louis. In ah three cities and in many others, west and south, the idea was gradually developed and extended by the co-operation of uni¬ versity graduates with libraries, churches, and other local institutions. The subject was first publicly presented in Philadelphia March 11, 1891, at the galleries of the Art Club, Ur. James MacAlister presiding. New York beginnings. — In January, 1888, Me'lvil Dewey, then chief librarian of Columbia University, laid the plan before the regents of the University of the State of New York, and at the university convocation in Albany, July, 1888, advocated university extension in connection with public libraries. A year later he again brought the matter before the convocation. In February, 1890, a committee of New York colleges and universities urged the regents to establish, under State supervision, a system of extension teaching. It was further urged that the State should work through existing colleges and institutions. First State appropriation. — In the spring of the following year, May 1, 1891, a bill was signed by the governor appropriating 810,000 for the state organization of uni¬ versity extension. This was on “ university day,.’ ’ the historic anniversary of the granting of the original charter of the University of the State of New York, May 1, 1784 — fit augury of a new era of public control of the higher education of the people. This grant of $10,000 is absolutely the first case on record of a State appro¬ priation for university extension. It was stipulated by the bill of 1891 that no part of the grant -should be used for the payment of lecturers, but only for purposes of organization, supervision, and printing. The expense of local lectures was very properly to be defrayed by the local constituency. From this auspicious beginning there rapidly developed in the state of New York the double system of public instruction: (1) University exten¬ sion from the Albany center or popular education by lecturers, accredited or con¬ trolled by university authority, and reporting results to the regents; (2) library extension from Albany or popular education by means of well-selected classified libraries, suiting definite local needs in connection with local lectures or home- study clubs. It is possible to follow out both of these lines of educational extension through the valuable and interesting extension and library bulletins issued by the University of the State of New York and exhibited by the same in illustration of this subject. The University of the State of New York at first, in 1891, made “extension” one 1 Baltimore Evening Bulletin, February 23, 1878. 2 “ An experiment in university extension,” by J. N. Lamed, Library Journal, Marcli-April, 1888. 304 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. of five great departments: (1) Regents’ office, executive, administrative, and supervisory, through which educational charters are granted; (2) extension for lec¬ ture courses, study clubs, reading circles, for extending educational opportunities outside regular teaching institutions; (3) examinations; (4) State library; (5) State museum. The extension department included all agencies for higher education out¬ side the regular teaching institutions. These agencies were at first distributed in four sections: (1) Public libraries and traveling libraries; (2) extension teaching, outside regular schools and colleges, or “ university extension; ” (3) study clubs, for asso¬ ciate study and discussion of a common series of topics; (4) summer schools. Experience showed the necessity of some modification of the above organization. The university has now (1899) six main departments: (1) Administrative; (2) college; (3) high school; (4) home education, in distinction from schools and col¬ leges; (5) State library; (6) State museum. These are all well illustrated in the bulletins and circulars of the University of the State of New York. “ Home education ” includes the following six divisions: (1) Extension teaching; (2) study clubs; (3) exchanges; (4) traveling libraries; (5) public libraries; (6) library school. The term “home education,” as employed in the State of New York, comprehends that entire group of agencies which promote the higher education of adults at home and through life, in distinction from the work done by the regular teaching institutions, such as the university, the college, and the school. Mr. Melvil Dewey, in his director’s report of the New York State library for 1897, page 61, practically identifies “ home education ” with what the present writer prefers to call simply popular education or “educational extension,” e. g., from an institutional center like a university, a college, a State board of public instruction, a church, a public library, or a people’s institute. The published bulletins of the regents of the University of the State of New York, by their long use of the phrase “extension,” have given sanction to the idea of established agencies proceeding from some central source, e. g., Albany, towards the town, the village, the home, and the individual. Mr. Dewey on home education says: Our extension or home education department has from the first been conducted in the rooms of the State librarian and under the supervision of its director. In the nature of the case this was necessary, and we should without hesitation have carried it on always under the library name had it not been thought desirable to use a dis¬ tinctive name because of the initial appropriation of $10,000 for a fuller organization of this new work.1 Both in print and in addresses I have from the first impressed extension societies and conferences and those interested in other phases of home education that it was in itself naturally so closely allied to the public library that it would be folly to dissociate them in administration. The library has won its place as an essential part of our educational system, and every community of 500 inhabi¬ tants is coming to feel that it is discredited unless it has a free library as well as pro¬ vision for instruction of its children in something more than the three R’s. In our own State we are quietly studying the distribution of institutions and looking forward to a not distant day when there shall be no village of 500 inhabitants in the State which does not have a regents’ school and a public library. The most enthusiastic believer in the work of the study clubs, summer schools, extension lectures, corre¬ spondence teaching, and other forms of home education will admit the folly of undertaking to organize a third educational center in the smaller communities. The work will be done best and cheapest by associating it either with the high school or the library, and there is no question that the library, as in itself the most important of the agencies for home education, is the proper center around which the others should be grouped. It has long been our habit to think and speak of the work of 111 University extension” act was passed May 1, 1891. Horae education as a descriptive term origi¬ nated in Albany, 1897, and it was first publicly emphasized by Mr. DeAvey at the Chautauqua meeting of the American Library Association in 1898. Among the best known type3 and agencies of “ home education ” of an earlier date were, (1) the “ home-culture clubs,” founded and promoted in North¬ ampton, Mass., by George W. Cable, and by him extended throughout the country; and (2) the still earlier “ Society for the encouragement of study at home,” founded by Miss Ticknor, of Boston, and long sustained by her circle of friends; (3) Catholic home reading circles; (4) the National Home Reading Union of England. One more recent is the Chicago Record’s 11 Home study circle.” EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 305 the State library and the extension department as being substantially one, and we couple it under the phrase of “State library and home education.” The reasons that led to giving this work an independent name in 1891 no longer hold good, and it would doubtless be better hereafter for us to make in form what we have in fact — a single department for the rapidly growing interests of home education. Other States are sure to follow New York’s leadership, and we shall set a more practical and con¬ venient example if the administration is understood to belong with that of the library. While we are'so much gratified with what has recently been accomplished in this great field, those who best understand its possibilities realize that this work is now only well begun. The public are demanding more and more because they are learn¬ ing that it is possible, through the State library and home education department, to secure more help educationally than has ever before been afforded by an equal expenditure of time and money. Popular education. — Undoubtedly a better name than “university extension” must be found to describe that class of extramural educational activities which Mr. Dewey includes under the domestic rooftree of “home education.” The objections ■ to this latter term are: (1) The home idea does not comprehend the larger social and institutional ideas conveyed by extension teaching, study clubs, public libraries, library schools, and educational extension in general; home education is only a part of a larger public education. (2) Attention should not be diverted from the varied and universal sources of educational powrer, activity, or supply, whether in. nature, society, university, college, public library, or peoples’ institutes, and monopolized by one of the local objects of popular education — the home. (3) Popular education, like • freedom, health, or salvation, is living water springing up from many fountains, which can not be grouped under two or three heads like “home,” “school,” “library,” or even “university,” although all of these terms and others are needed for purposes oL educational extension. (4) Home education is a term not easily translated into a cosmopolitan language. Imagine a Frenchman resolving his lucid “education popu¬ late,” or “education cles adultes” into “education ches mci!” (5) No descriptive term for the education of the people is worth considering if it requires debate and:; exposition; whatever term is finally chosen it must be perfectly clear, self-explanatory^, and go straight to the mark, as does the phrase “popular government.” If “educa¬ tional extension” is not sufficiently lucid, what is the objection to “popular educa¬ tion?” Dignify this familiar term by association and ennoble it as men are trying to ennoble democracy. Noblesse oblige. “’Tis in the advance of individual minds That the slow crowd should ground their expectation Eventually to follow; as the sea Waits ages in its bed till some one wave, Out of the multitudinous mass, extends The empire of the whole, some feet, perhaps, Over the strip of sand which could confine Its fellows so long time: thenceforth the rest, Even to the meanest, hurry in at once.” B p o w N ing ’ s “ Paracelsus . ’ 7 Results in the United States. — Limitations of time and space, in this connection, forbid more than a passing notice of the results of university extension in the United States. It has been tried and found wanting in many parts of this country and Canada. The State universities of the West and South, for public reasons, early entered their State' fields, and some still hold their own with varying degrees of honor and success; but as an educational movement, university extension in America can not be said to have accomplished all that its friends at first hoped. It will probably not die, but causes of its diminished zeal are not far to seek: (1) Lack of suitable extension lecturers; (2) lack of financial support; (3) the vast distances to be traversed by university men, already overworked; (4) the necessity and greater importance of academic- service on college and university premises; and (5) the recognition of better and less. expensive instrumentalities for popular education. ED 1900 - 20 306 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Among these better and cheaper agencies, which are to be elsewhere considered by the present writer, are (1) free illustrated lectures for the people in town and county at city or State expense; (2) education at institutes; (3) public libraries; (4) traveling libraries and traveling pictures; (5) educational clubs; (6) vacation schools. All of these popular educational movements are growing in America more rapidly than is university extension and have already surpassed it in practical efficiency. Remits in New York. — Leaving for a more special form of publication the history of the educational extension movement in America, let us notice its three best surviving phases, which may be associated with (1) the University of the State of New York; (2) the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching (Philadelphia); and (3) the University of Chicago. These three original head centers, Albany, Philadelphia, and Chicago, still remain the most active and influential points of departure for American university exten¬ sion. All three strategic centers have permanently advanced the cause in America and have given rise to other and better popular educational agencies. The Univer¬ sity of the State of New York has organized “home education” and “study clubs,” with the combined aid of traveling libraries, traveling pictures, extension lecturers, and State examiners. All work harmoniously and efficiently together under one central guidance at Albany. The latest report of the extension teaching division of the University of the State of New York, June, 1899, shows that this organization now includes under the head of “extension teaching” whatever is under the immediate supervision of a teacher; i. e. , extension lecture courses, free lectures to the people, institutes both social and general, correspondence instruction in its various forms, summer schools, vacation and evening schools. During the year 1898-99 there were maintained under Albany auspices 36 exten¬ sion lecture courses at 12 different centers, as compared with 21 courses at 13 centers the year before. Extension methods were adopted to some extent by Dr. H. M. Leipziger in certain of the free lecture courses of the people of New York State; they are growing elsewhere in public favor. These extension features are of great pedagogical value: (1) Continuity of course on one great theme; (2) a printed out¬ line of topics; (3) a class conference with the lecturer; (4) occasional written exercises; (5) final written examination; (6) certificate. The greatest practical difficulties in New York, as elsewhere, are (1) the local financial problem; (2) the discovery and engagement of satisfactory lecturers; (3) the absorption of university and college men in their own academic duties; (4) the extent of travel and extra work required from busy professors. Results in Philadelphia. — This city and the whole region round about have been quickened to new intellectual life and social activity by university extension since its organization in 1890. Noteworthy is the union of energy, enthusiasm, self-sacri¬ fice, and devotion to duty, quick insight and skillful direction on the part of the leaders of the American society for the extension of university teaching. Many experienced lecturers have been invited from England to lend expert service in the American popular educational cause. Progressive and public-spirited institutions have cooperated with well-trained, earnest lecturers and their classes of eager stu¬ dents. Generous and whole-souled citizens, men and women, have hitherto sus¬ tained the American society by voluntary subscriptions. Its various series of useful and readable publications, especially The Citizen and the University Extension Magazine, have united to promote the extension movement, which has accom¬ plished noble, patriotic, and helpful service in Philadelphia and throughout the Middle and Eastern States, where it will doubtless endure in many grateful and permanent ways. Representatives of the American society justly maintain that there is a decided advantage in the contact of the speaker with the people whom he is teaching. “The EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 307 living teacher is the center of inspiration. He gives them the best fruit of wide reading and systematic study; he not only can tell them what to read, but. he can rouse an interest by his personal conviction and enthusiasm, and he gives an oppor¬ tunity after each lecture for the discussion of any questions that arise; he examines the essays that are written, and guides the class study of those who do work between the lectures. Compared with fixed plants for doing the same sort of thing, univer¬ sity extension is more flexible, and has the advantage of mobility. It carries the teacher as well as the teaching to the people. The lecturer goes where he is needed, and uses any hall or room which will accommodate an audience.” According to the report published in the extension bulletin of the University of the State of New York, June, 1899, the American society last season gave lecture courses in 14 different places in Philadelphia, and in 29 different towns throughout Pennsylvania and adjoining States. The University of Chicago was opened in October, 1892, and early made the uni¬ versity-extension 1 division one of the main branches of educational effort. Like Philadelphia, Chicago enjoyed the hearty cooperation of all friends and promoters of the extension movement. The writer was present in Washington, D. C., when one of the most experienced English extension lecturers, Prof. R. G. Moulton, was engaged by President Harper for pioneer work in the West. In the personality of President Harper, Chicago has been singularly fortunate. He inherited the admin¬ istrative training of a professor, schooled at Yale University, Chautauqua and other summer schools, also in the American Institute of Sacred Literature. All of these institutions are democratic in their work and methods, national in their scope. Dr. William R. Harper, a man from out of the West, educated in the East, patriotic in sentiment, fervent in spirit, serving in his generation “the god of things as they are,” and expressing the higher criticism with prudent reservation and helpful suggestions, lias been the maker of the University of Chicago, which was founded and is upheld by the lavish gifts of John D. Rockefeller. The University of Chicago is liberal in spirit and municipal in name. Its founder and trustees were wise enough not to burden an institution of learning with one man’s name. Cities and States are now lending themselves anew to municipal and State universities for baptismal and other public purposes, as cities and States have done for the local and national identification of the church in all ages of the world. President Harper and his trustees early attracted to Chicago eminent professors from other institutions east and west, together with many home- wandering scholars from Europe. At least two experienced directors of university-extension work were called to Chicago from Philadelphia. The present head of the extension movement, which may be truthfully and tersely characterized as academic expansion, is the eminent economist, Prof. E. J. James, founder of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Results of Chicago extension. — In no small degree, by the aid of university extension, with its superior pedagogical methods and its marked adaptations to local needs, has Dr. Harper, of Chicago, built up his academic resources and a great federal university. Educational extension, lecture studies, correspondence courses, affilia¬ tion and coeducation, have made John D. Rockefeller’s institution well known to Chicago people, and also to the towns, schools, colleges, libraries, and churches round about. Under Dr. Harper’s extension policy the University of Chicago is now surely developing a vast academic and national alliance, which will perhaps yet reach Washington, D. C., and include the Columbian University. All nonresident work connected with the University of Chicago is conducted through the extension division, which provides for different methods: (1) Lecture 1 Dr. William F. Poole was one of the fathers of the original Chicago society for university exten¬ sion, and the Newberry Library was one of its first centers. (See article by Dr. Poole in The Dial, September 1, 1892.) 308 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. study courses; (2) correspondence courses; (3) study clubs, and (4) evening and Saturday classes for Chicago and vicinity. In the lecture study courses the univer¬ sity cooperates with existing literary organizations. During the year closing June 30, 1898, 141 such courses, each of 6 lecture studies, were given in 92 different centers, with an aggregate attendance of 30,315. To these different organizations or com¬ munities the university sent out small traveling libraries containing in all 3,562 books, which have been kept in constant local use. Local librarians recognize the beneficial influence of these traveling libraries in connection with lecture studies, and cooperate with the university in every possible way. Benefit to the city. — The University of Chicago also cooperates with the board of education, and has given in the city itself 17 courses of lectures in 13 different public school buildings. Of the total number, 10 were systematic university extension lec¬ ture studies, and the rest were arranged, as far as possible, in educational sections. Fifty-five lectures were illustrated by the stereopticon. The extension staff of the University of Chicago has been utilized b}7 Prof. E. J. James for the purpose of teaching public school teachers. Representative branches of knowledge, history, economics, political and matured science, have been taught as illustrating superior educational methods, and a teachers’ college, at last accounts, had begun to develop in connection with the university. Through university influences the board of education in Chicago lifted the famous Cook County Normal School, with the experienced Col. F. W. Parker at its head, into the still more honorable position of the Chicago Normal School. In order to raise the educational profession entirely above politics Mrs. Emmons Blaine endowed a school of pedagogy in Chicago and called to it from the Chicago Normal School Colonel Parker, who chose 17 well-trained teachers, who were given a year’s leave of absence for special study and preparation in Europe and elsewhere for their new and responsible work. The avowed purpose of the new school of pedagogy is by institutional means to develop teachers who shall bring the public schools of Chicago to such excellence that private schools shall no longer be necessary. Influence upon the country. — The influence of the University of Chicago upon the whole country, east and west, is beyond present estimate. We are living in the era of federations. Colleges and universities in this country as well as in Canada and England are coming into academic affiliation. In Chicago and New York great libraries are combining or associating together. Colleges and universities themselves in America must ultimately follow the federal trend of anglo- American institutional development. At the present time our American universities, particularly the State institutions and the church colleges, have their acknowledged spheres of influence. No one institution can swallow all its neighbors or establish a great academic trust. His¬ toric colleges and universities will doubtless continue to live and let live in some capacity; but Chicago University has extended its power far beyond State lines, and the end is not yet. Extension ivor J: at the Catholic University. — Courses of lectures open to the public have been given at the Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C., for a number of years, under the auspices of the University, in addition to the regular courses of instruction under each faculty. The Yearbooks of the University for the past two years give the programmes of lectures delivered in 1898-99 and 1899-1900, as follows: 189S-99. By the Rt. Rev. John L. Spalding, bishop of Peoria: “Life and Education.” By the Hon. Carroll D. Wright: “The Principles of Social Economics.” “ The Use and Abuse of Statistics.” “Statistics in the Study of Social Economics.” (Two lectures.) “The Elements of Industrial Society.” EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 309 By the Hon. Carroll I). Wright — Continued. “Systems of Labor.” “The Evolution of Manufactures.” “The Factory System.” “State Efforts to Regulate Industry.” “Efforts of Individuals and Organizations to Regulate Industry.” By Hon. George F. Hoar, United States Senator: “George Washington.” By Dr. James Field Spalding: 1 ‘ Nathaniel Hawthorne. ’ ’ “Oliver Wendell Holmes.” By John J. Delaney, esq.: “Constructive Force of European Civilization.” Besides the above lectures, there were given in Philadelphia, under the auspices of the University, two Father Mathew lectures on “Total Abstinence.” 1899-1900. Wednesday course. By the Hon. Carroll D. Wright : “ Communism the Forerunner of Socialism.” “Romantic Socialism. General Socialistic Platforms.” “Anarchism, Nihilism, etc., as Related to Socialism.” “Social Democracy; State Socialism.” “ Municipal Socialism.” “ Cooperation a Phase of Socialism.” “ Phases of Industrial Socialism.” “Socialism of Arbitration.” “Socialism of Capitalism.’’ “Socialism and Trade Unionism. True Socialism.” By Rev. Dr. William J. Kerby: “The Idea and Nature of Society.” “Social Traditions.” By Dr. Charles P. Neill: “The Economic Structure of Society.” “ Phases of Economic Evolution.” “ Development of Political Institutions.” Friday course. By Rev. Dr. Edward A. Pace: St. Thomas on Immortality. (Three lectures.) “The Concept of Immortality.” “The Argument for Immortality.” “ Consciousness in the Future Life.” By Dr. Maurice Francis Egan: “Literature and Life.” “Books and Their Pedigrees.” “Modern Literary Movements.” By Rev. Dr. John J. Griffin: “ The Liquefaction of Gases.” “Some Triumphs of Synthetic Chemistry.” By Rev. Dr. Richard Henebry: “Irish Literary Monuments and Their Contents.” “ Gaelic Melodic Schemes; (a) in Word; (b) in Sound.” By the Lion. Chauncey M. Depew: Washington Lecture. By Dr. Edward L. Greene: “The Plant World in Relation to Physical Man.” “ The Plant World in Relation to Spiritual Man.” By Dr. John J. Dunn: “ Origin of the Romance Languages.” “Troubadours and Trouveres.” By Dr. James Field Spalding: “ Emerson.” “ Newman as a Literary Man.” Besides the above lectures, there were given under the auspices of the university, two Father Mathew lectures on “Total Abstinence,” under the direction of the C. T. A. U. 310 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Educational extension has a great future in the United States in connection with live colleges and State universities, people’s institutes, public libraries, public schools, traveling libraries, traveling museums, and traveling pictures. Lately a specimen French musee scolaire was brought to Brooklyn, where it has attracted great public attention. Like the earlier Scotch and English traveling libraries, the school museum has also come to stay, and it will doubtless soon appear in our public schools and town museums. Already for years the National Museum in Washington, D. C., has been distributing to local institutions of science and learning its surplus geological and ethnological specimens. The various tendencies hi educational exten¬ sion, local, State, and federal, will undoubtedly merge in a broader current than any one university can possibly represent. Nothing will suffice short of a national uni¬ versity, coextensive with the nation, like the University of France or its historic prototype, the University of the State of New York. Smithsonian Institution. — Of all distributing centers of historical and scientific knowl¬ edge in America, there is nothing comparable to the Smithsonian Institution, that AVashington clearing house of the publications of the American Historical Associa¬ tion and of the literary and scientific work of all our productive colleges, universities, and learned academies. Nor is there any institution in the United States which can begin to accomplish so much for the educational and social betterment of the entire American people as do already the various national agencies in the Federal City at Washington, beginning with Congress and continuing through the Departments of Labor and Agriculture, and all the social and educational ramifications of the United States Government in its relations with the country at large. Authorities. — The best account published on “The extension of university teaching in England and America” is by James E. Bussell, Ph. D., published by the University of the State of New York in 1895. Dr. Bussell well says : “New York takes pride in the fact that the first five significant steps in extension history in America were all in the Empire State, viz: The library meeting at the Thousand Islands, the work at Buffalo, Chautauqua, Brooklyn, and at the capital in connection with the regents. New York also claims the distinction of being the first State in the world to make university extension an integral part of its educational system.” Consciously or unconsciously this policy is an historical expansion of that Hamiltonian idea of university control which the Empire State shares with the University of France. For a detailed study of university extension in America the following bibliograph¬ ical references have been supplied at the State library at Albany by Miss Avery. 1. University of the State of New York. — The extension bulletins devoted to that sub¬ ject and published from year to year since the beginning of the movement in America are the most comprehensive sources of information. The university early reprinted articles by Id. B. Adams on “University extension and its leaders,” Review of Beviews, July, 1891, and “ University extension in America,” the Forum, July, 1891. See also Miss Katharine L. Sharp’s regents’ prize essay on “Public libra¬ ries in relation to university extension,” published in 1892 as a regents’ bulletin, and republished by University Extension AVorld. 2. Philadelphia. — In Philadelphia a magazine called University Extension was started in 1891. For three years it was a news magazine, but in November, 1893, a second monthly, The University Extension Bulletin, was started, which gave the news side and left the other magazine free for discussion of problems connected with the work. In March, 1895, the publication of both was stopped and they were replaced by The Citizen, devoted to university extension in its widest sense. Prac¬ tically the magazine dealt with subjects of interest to the Civic League, and inci¬ dentally with extension subjects. The Citizen rendered very great service to the educational cause and to the promotion of good literature as well as of good govern¬ ment. The suspension of the journal in 1898 was widely regretted. 3. The Chicago University Extension Society , a city organization antedating the organized extension work of the university, published very early a periodical called EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 311 The University Extension Magazine, which changed its form and character four times within a year and a half, and suddenly vanished out of existence. The result was a small collection of numbers of various sizes, volumed four times, with usually two monthly numbers to a volume. When the University of Chicago organized its extension division the Chicago magazine was practically replaced by the University Extension World, which was first published as a quarto, and contained a good deal of local material. A change in the editorial staff resulted favorably for the reading matter and the size was reduced. Finally, in 1894, the issue was changed from a monthly to a quarterly and printed on heavy glazed paper with wide margins. Cuts were frequently inserted and the magazine was changed to a high-grade quarterly. Unfortunately with the issue for April, 1895, the magazine stopped, but the occasional publications of the university afford sufficient information regarding the continua¬ tion of extension work down to the present time. BIBLIOGRAPHY.1 Adams, Herbert B. Progress of university extension. (See N. Y. (state) — Home education department. Extension bulletin, no. 5, p. 179-84. ) Reprinted from Congregationalist, 25 Aug. 1892. Brief but adequate statement of results accomplished in the United States up to that date. - Seminary libraries and university extension. 33 p. 0. Balt. 1887. (Johns Hopkins university studies, Ar. 5, no. 11.) Early suggestions for popularizing seminary methods. - - University extension and its leaders. (See American monthly review of reviews, July 1891, 3: 593-609.) • - 28 p. 0. Alb. 1891. N. Y. state univ. (Extension circular no. 10). — - (See N. Y. (state) — Home education department. Extension bulletin no. 5, p. 199-224.) Excellent historical statement of the work in England and its earlier phases in America. Received the highest award in competition for prize offered by the University of the state of New York. Illustrated in the Review with portraits of seventeen leaders, chiefly American. - University extension in America. (See Forum, July 1891, 11: 510-23.) • - 16 p. O. Alb. 1891. N. Y. (state) — Home education department. (Extension circular no. 2. ) Clear account of the genesis and early development. American society for the extension of university teaching. Proceedings of the first annual meeting of the national conference on university extension, 1891; comp, by George Francis James. 292 p. O. Phil. 1892. Lippincott, Bardeen, C. W. University extension. (See School bulletin, July 1891, 17: 123-24.) ■ - 8 p. 0. Alb. 1891. N. Y. (state) — Home education department. (Extension circular no. 4.) - - (See N. Y. (state) — Home education department. Extension bulletin no. 1, p. 44-48. ) Brief review of history and methods. Boughton, Willis, and others. University extension, the new system in operation (See Book news, Sept, 1891, 10: 21-46.) Fifteen articles descriptive of methods of organization, teaching, and study. Dewey, Melvil. The extension of the University of the state of New York. (See N. Y. (state) — University. Proceedings of the 27th annual convocation. 1889, p. 73-115.) • - (See N. Y. (state) — University. Regents report 1889, p. 73-115.) Outlines and discusses plans for extending the functions of the university through libraries, publications, museums, and lectureships. Suggestive and valuable. Also printed separately. 1 The accompanying select bibliography was prepared at the New York State Library School by Mr. Ashley. 312 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Dewey, Melvil. Newr York’s part in university extension. (See Critic, Aug. 1891, 19:90-91.) - 8 p. 0. Alb. 1891. N. Y. (state) — Home education department. (Extension circular no. 7.) - (See N. Y. (state) — Home education department. Extension bulletin no. 2, p. 69-74.) Lucid statement of the nature and limits of the work undertaken by the state. Frost, William Goodell. University extension in Kentucky. (See Outlook, Sept. 1898,60:73-79.) Interesting sketch of work among the “mountain whites.” Illustrated. II arris, William T. The place of university extension in American education. (See American society for extension of university teaching. Proceedings, 1892, p. 18-31.) - 14 p. O. Phil. 1892. Lippincott. - (See U. S. — Education, Bureau of. Report for 1891-92, v. 2, p. 743-52. ) Able discussion of the significance and bearings of the movement. - Statistics of university extension in the United States. (See U. S. — Education, Bureau of. Report for 1889-90, p. 207, 247, 827-35, 1159-61; 1890-91, p. 843-52; 1891-92, p. 742, 751, 983, 1206-15; 1892-93, p. 1613-17; 1893-94, p. 951-71; 1895-96, p. 2008-20. ) Hart, Albert Bushnell. University participation, a substitute for university extension. (See Educational review, June 1893, 6: 42-57.) Fair criticism; urges superior advantages of university courses for teachers, in specific subjects; proposes methods. Henderson, C. Hanford. University extension. (See Popular science monthly, Nov. 1891,40: 1-15.) - 15 p. O. N. Y. 1891. Appleton. - Nationalization of university extension. (See Popular science monthly, Feb. 1892,40:500-6.) Favors government support and supervision. James, Edmund J. University extension in the United States. (See Our day, Feb. 1892, 9: 79-85.) The educational functions of the movement intelligently discussed. - New career for college men. (See American monthly review of reviews, June 1893,7: 578-80.) Presents the advantages, opportunities, and requirements of extension lecturing as a profession. James, George F., ed. Handbook of university extension no. 1; being v. 1 of Uni¬ versity extension, July 1891-June 1892. 3+400 p. O. Phil. 1892. American society for extension of university teaching. - . Ed. 2 enl. 19+425 p. O. Phil. 1893. American society for exten¬ sion of university teaching. Miscellaneous papers. - University extension in America. (See American monthly review of reviews, Jan. 1893, 6: 701-12.) Supplements Dr. H. B. Adams’s “ University extension” and its leaders, bringing results down to close of 1892. Fifteen portraits. Earned, J. N. . An experiment in university extension. (See Library journal, Mar.-Ap. 1888, 13: 75-76.) Interesting account of the first library course in the United States. Moore, Charlotte McIlvain. University extension. (See Catholic world, Ap. 1893, 57: 27-35.) Favorable Catholic view of the work. Illustrated. Moulton, Richard G. The university extension movement. 19 p. O. Phil. n. d. - (See N. Y. state) — Home education department. Extension bulletin no. 5, p. 185-98. ) Clear statement of methods, purposes, and spirit. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 313 Moulton, Richard G., and others. University extension, a series of articles on various phases of the movement. (See Book news, May 1891, 9: 339-80.) — - — - 44 p. Q. Phil. 1891. American society for extension of university teaching. Present value mainly historical. N. Y. (State) — Home Education Department. Development of university exten¬ sion. p. 179-234, 0. Alb. 1893. (Extension bulletin no. 5.) Contains Dr. H. B. Adams’s Progress of university extension, his “ University extension ” and its leaders, and P. G. Moulton’s University extension movement. - Report of extension teaching division, 1893-99. 0. Alb. 1894-99. (Exten¬ sion bulletin nos. 6, 12, 17, 22, 26, 28. ) Details and statistics of work in New York, with annual review of progress elsewhere in America and abroad. No. 6 o. p. Palmer, George Herbert. Doubts about university extension. (See Atlantic monthly, Mar. 1892, 69: 367-74.) Presents the difficulties in the way of finding suitable teachers. Problems of University Extension. (See Dial, Nov. 1892, 13: 297-98.) Forcible statement of present burdens of overworked professors. Russell, James E. Extension of university teaching in England and America, a study in practical pedagogics, p. 147-253, 0. Alb. 1895. N. Y. (state) — Home education department. (Extension bulletin no. 10.) • - Die volks-hochschulen in England & Amerika; deutscli mit anmerkgn. von Otto Wilhelm Beyer. 112 p. O. Lpz. 1895. R. Voigtlander. 2m. 80pf. Results of Dr. Russell’s observations as special commissioner of the University of the State of New York to visit Europe and report on whatever he might find of most importance to educational institutions in New York. Especially valuable for its statements of the results of twenty years of university extension, and its conclusions as to pedagogic value. Sharp, Katharine Lucinda. Local public libraries and their relation to university extension. (See N. Y. (state) — Home education department. Extension bulletin no 4, p. 147-71.) A study of plans of co-operation in use in typical libraries. Awarded $100 prize as the most practical essay on the subject. Contains list of authorities, 2 p. Zeublin, Charles. Results and prospects of university extension. (See Dial, Ap. 1897, 22: 207-9.) Later developments briefly and intelligently summed up. V. Chautauqua. The place. — In America the name “Chautauqua”' stands for a place, an institution, and an idea. The place is a summer town on Lake Chautauqua, in southwestern New York. It is a popular educational resort during the months of July and xlugust for several thousand people, who go there from all parts of the country to hear lec¬ tures and music, to attend class courses of instruction, to enjoy college life and open air. Chautauqua is a well-nigh deserted village during nine months in the year, but in the summer season it has a cottage and hotel population ranging from 3,000 to 10,000 people. It is a kind of educational Baireuth for the people; indeed it has become a center of musical and social-economic training of no mean order. It is a vast summer encampment or cantonnement, 165 acres in territorial extent, on the upland terraces of a beautiful lake 18 miles long and from 1 to 3 miles wide, the highest navigable water on the continent, 730. feet higher than Lake Erie and 1,400 feet above the sea level. Chautauqua was the Indian name for this lake, the shores of which are a natural “ divide” between waters which flow northeastward with the St. Lawrence from the Great Lakes district, and waters which flow south westward to the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. Chautauqua is one of the highlands of New York, although it lies in the lowly southwest corner of the State, 70 miles south of Buffalo, 200 miles north of Pittsburg, and 450 miles west from New York City. Chautauqua 314 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. is connected with the Lake Shore route to Chicago, and easily reached by railroads from the east. Von Holst on Chautauqua. — When von Holst, the German historian of the United States, was asked what are the most characteristic American sights, he replied: “Go to Niagara Falls and then around the corner [of New York State] to see Chautauqua.” It is certainly a better thing to see than the stock yards and pig-sticking of Chicago. Chautauqua is beautiful for education but not remarkable architecturally. The academic village has some useful school buildings; a few hundred decent cottages in the woods; a fair hotel called “The Athenaeum;” a few shops or “stores;” a plain college building on a hilltop, with a beautiful lake environment; a so-called “hall of philosophy,” which is a wooden temple with supporting pillars, open to the sum¬ mer breeze and seating three or four hundred people; and a vast amphitheater, like a Greek theater dug out of a hillside, but well roofed, well lighted by electricity, and capable of seating five or six thousand people. It is an inspiring sight to see a large Chautauqua audience in* the afternoon or evening. The Chautauqua salute. — When the presiding officer wishes to show special honor to some foreign visitor or distinguished lecturer, the audience is requested to give the so-called “Chautauqua salute.” Immediately thousands of white handkerchiefs are waved in the air, and suddenly the vast amphitheater seems full of life and motion. The effect is picturesque in the extreme. It appeals only to the eye, but it surpasses any noisy applause. The custom had a natural origin, which is thus explained by Chancellor Vincent: In the early days of the Chautauqua Lake Assem¬ bly, Professor Green, a deaf-mute from Canada, was giving a lecture in pantomime, illustrating certain incidents in the life of Christ. The performance was so good that the audience applauded vigorously by clapping their hands. Chancellor Vincent, realizing that the professor could not hear the applause, suggested that the people wave their handkerchiefs, which was done amid great enthusiasm. This “Chau¬ tauqua salute” is now given at many Chautauqua gatherings in various local assem¬ blies, but the honor is reserved at the central Chautauqua for very rare occasions. Governor Roosevelt at Chautauqua — At a recent visit (August 19, 1899) of the warrior, statesman, and historian, Governor Roosevelt, of New York, to Chautauqua, where he has long been known as a public historical lecturer, he was welcomed by the Chautauqua salute in the presence of 10,000 people assembled in the vast amphitheater. In response he said from the platform that he came to preach the gospel of intelli¬ gent work. It is good for everybody, for parent and child. He appealed to the pre¬ siding genius of Chautauqua: Bishop Vincent, nothing has interested me more in reading the history of the growth of the West than to read what Peter Cartwright and other Methodist clergy¬ men did to tame the shaggy wilderness and instill a love of the higher spiritual life into the minds and hearts of the tamers of that wilderness. They worked hard. They had no easy life. We should emulate them. Look back at your own career. Do you not take the greatest pride in that portion of your life when you manfully labored with all your might ? This Chautauqua did not come by chance. It is the result, obviously, of years of work. * * * You here have had to work long and hard, and now there is no institution more fraught with good to the nation than this one at Chautauqua. * * * I am going to speak soon at the Catholic Chautauqua [at Plattsburg] and hope next year to speak at the Jewish Chautauqua. Recognize the good qualities of any man, South or North, Jew or Gentile, provided he is a good American. — (New York Tribune, August 20, 1899). This is certainly the spirit of Chautauqua, which is something more than a New York local institution. It is national and even international in its influence. Gov¬ ernor Roosevelt emphasized at Chautauqua the gospel of work, which is as old as the motto of the Benedictine monk who said 11 ora el laboraV Andrew Carnegie once told the students of Union College “An honest day’s work well performed is not a bad sort of prayer. ’ ’ 1 The institution — Chautauqua should be viewed primarily as an unconscious educa¬ tional adaptation of the old Frankish idea of the folkmote or public open-air assembly. 1 Andrew Carnegie’s college lectures: “Wealth and its uses:” “Business;” “How I served my apprenticeship.” New York: F. Tennyson Neely, publisher, 114 Fifth avenue. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 815 The historic survival of this ancient institution is seen in the American mass meeting, popular convention, or New England town meeting. A religious outgrowth of the folkmote in the Southern States was the camp meeting. The Chautauqua Lake Assembly-, established in 1874 at Fairpoint, on the site of an earlier Methodist camp meeting, still retains many religious and some political characteristics of the older assemblies. Amid the multiform developments of modern Chautauqua, the observer should hold closely to the original and central idea of a summer meeting for popular educational and religious purposes. The institution is a camp meeting for culture and religion. Bible study and the biblical training of Sunday-school teachers were originally and still are dominant educational features. When General Grant visited Chautauqua the chancellor publicly presented him with a Bible. Grant took it, but characteristically said nothing. The control of the institution is in the hands of a legal corporation representing religious as well as secular interests. The work is not carried on for pecuniary profit to the stockholders, but primarily for philanthropic purposes and for Christian popular education. The highest exponent of the institution is its present chancellor, Dr. John H. Vincent, one of the two original founders. He best represents the broad religious, and patriotic spirit of Chautauqua. He infused into it the idea that all sound learn¬ ing is sacred, and that the secular life may be pervaded by a religious spirit. Accord¬ ingly he has added to biblical study and higher training for Sunday-school teachers the greatest variety of allied subjects; for example, history, literature, languages (ancient and modern), art, science, music, elocution, physical culture; in short, edu¬ cation in general. The following tabular view of the Chautauqua system of summer study and rational recreation at Chautauqua Lake and of home reading and study was published in Bul¬ letin No. 29 of the University of the State of New York: Tabular View. c n ID < P O’ p p p p I* ft A H m A £ < C5 £ P A O < P 5 O' o P a a po -< p 1. The Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle . A four years’ course of general reading. [Certificate granted. 'Does not count for degree.] 2. Specialized courses for continued reading and study. [Certificate does not count for degree.] History. Literature. Science. Art. Pedagogy. Teachers’ Reading Union, 3. School of Theology. Correspondence instruction. [Degree B. D.l Rigid examinations personall y supervised. [N o honorary degrees.] Hebrew and Old Testament. Greek and New Testament. Biblical and doctrinal theology. Ecclesiastical history. Homiletics and pastoral theology. Christian science, life, and literature. 4. College of Liberal Arts. Corre- spon d e n c e in¬ struction in pre¬ paratory and college studies. [Degrees of B. A., etc.] Latin, Greek, French, German, English, mathematics, psy¬ chology, political economy, history, physical science, geology, and biol¬ ogy. Sixteen courses and rigid personally su¬ pervised examina¬ tions are required to secure the de¬ grees of B. A., B. S., etc. Correspondence and residence combined complete; a system of academic "study looking toward the degrees of B. A. and B. S. 1. College of Liberal Arts. [No degrees except through cor¬ respondence department.] Personal instruction by well- known men in all departments mentioned under (4) above. 2. School of Methods in Teaching. Psychology. Pedagogic principles. Applications and methods. 3. Schools of Sacred Literature. Study of the Bible as a great classic and inspired book. « 4. Classes in art, music, physical culture, elocution, kindergarten, etc. 5. Lecture courses on the university- 1 Progressive courses by one lecturer. No extra fee is extension model. \ charged. The attendance is large. 6. Public lectures and addresses by men and women prominent in various departments of life. 7. Recreative and cesthetiq elements , concerts, dramatic recitals, stereoptlccn entertainments, etc. 316 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. The passing visitor will perhaps form his opinion of Chautauqua from the popu¬ lar and recreative sides, but he should know that, as in an American or English college, which sometimes seems to exist exclusively for athletics and student amuse¬ ment, there is a good deal of serious academic work. The bulletin above mentioned says: “For the many there are popular lectures, concerts, entertainments; for a somewhat less number there are philosophical, scientific, and literary lectures in progressive courses; for the comparatively few are provided means for careful study under able and well-known instructors. The Chautauqua Assembly should be judged, not by its recreative exercises, but by its educational classes. The former attract the crowds from which the latter are recruited, and the revenue from the many supports the higher departments. All these elements combine to form a community life which, as a whole, makes for intelligence and arouses interest in higher education.” The Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle (called for short, the “C. L. S. C.”) was founded in 1878, and represents the first great popular differentiation from the original Chautauqua, which was, and is still, a summer educational meeting on the Chautauqua Lake shore. The C. L. S. C. is a well-directed system of home reading in literature and science carried on in connection with local reading circles, and practically aided by many good suggestions in a monthly magazine called The Chau¬ tauquan. The course of reading occupies four years, which are called, respectively, the Greek year, the Roman, the English, and the American, from the relative prom¬ inence given to the history and literature of those four countries. An interesting feature of the course for 1899-1900 was a so-called “Reading journey through France,” published in The Chautauquan, and taking the reader on an imaginary journey through France, introducing him to the historical associations of the places visited, and thus forming an admirable preparation for a visit to the Paris Exposition in 1900, or for a more extended study of France which the C. L. S. C. will take up. The text-books on England and the United States, Greece, and Rome, and other subjects, social and economic, are prepared by good writers representing American colleges and universities. With all of the four regular courses in history are com¬ bined corresponding literary and cultural studies in art and religion. Natural science also forms a feature of every course. In the American year the special subjects are, besides religion, American history, literature, government, diplomacy, social institu¬ tions, and physiology. The entire expense for the required books and for the illustrated magazine is now about $5 per annum. In former years the text¬ books were purchased at reduced rates from regular publishers, but in recent years Chautauqua has maintained its own press and employed its own writers, who under¬ stand the special needs of a Chautauqua constituency. All readers are now registered at the central office of the C. L. S. C., in Cleveland. The course of reading is carried on in leisure hours by Chautauquans at home, but once a week they come together in local circles in neighborhoods and villages all over the country, and, under the best local guidance they can find devote an evening to the discussion of topics suggested by The Chautauquan and other private reading. The number of these local reading circles during the past twenty years has been about 10,000. The total enrollment of Chautauqua readers has been about a quarter of a million. Of course, by far the larger number fail to complete the four years’ course, but it is estimated that about one-half have done consecutive reading for two years. A saving remnant of perhaps 40,000 continue to the end, and win a simple certificate testifying to the fact that they have completed the four years’ course of Chautauqua reading. There is no degree awarded to the holders of these certificates, but the graduates of the C. L. S. C. are encouraged to form local educational clubs and to continue along lines of special historical and literary study. For example, this very year (1899) the writer, who is a member of the “educational council” of Chautauqua, was asked to recommend a course of reading in Russian history. There are literally scores of specialized courses for continued reading and study in history, literature, science, art, and education. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 317 Schools. — Next in importance to the C. L. S. C. are the summer classes or so-called “ schools,” wherein definite class instruction is carried on at Chautauqua by well- known college professors during the summer season. A great variety of regular and advanced work is offered. Work begun under competent direction at Chautauqua may be continued by correspondence with the professor or representative of the “ school” throughout the year. This combined work done in residence and by cor¬ respondence may, in a few rare cases, lead to the degree of bachelor of arts or bache¬ lor of science, conferred, however, only after searching tests. The degree-giving power is vested in the regents of the University of the State of New York, whose academic honors are better guarded by State examinations than by some academic corporations in America. l The various “ schools” at the central Chautauqua are the following: (1) School of English language and literature; (2) school of modern languages; (3) school of classical languages; (4) school of mathematics and science; (5) school of social sciences; (6) school of pedagogy; (7) school of religious teaching; (8) school of music; (9) school of fine arts; (10) school of expression; (11) school of physical education; (12) school of domestic science; (13) school of practical arts. ! The Chautauqua idea. — Much has been said and written concerning the “ Chautau¬ qua idea.” Bishop Vincent is the best exponent of the original conception of the institution, and he has attempted to define it in various publications. In a book entitled The Chautauqua Movement, and published by the Chautauqua press in 1886, Bishop Vincent said: The full-orbed “ Chautauqua idea” must awaken in all souls a fresh enthusiasm in true living, and bring rich and poor, learned and unlearned, in neighborship and comradeship, helpful and honorable to both. Education, once the peculiar privi¬ lege of the few, must in our best earthly estate become the valued possession of the many. * * * The theory of Chautauqua is that life is one and that religion belongs everywhere. Our people, young and old, should consider educational advantages as so many religious opportunities. Every day should be sacred. * * * Chautauqua pleads for universal education; for plans of reading and study; for all legitimate enticements and incitements to ambition; for all necessary adaptations as to time and topics; for ideal associations, which shall at once excite the imagination and set the heart aglow. * * * Show people no longer young that the mind reaches its maturity long after the high-school days end, and that some of the best intellectual and literary labor is performed in and beyond the middle life. College halls are not the only places for prosecuting courses of study. College facilities are not the only opportunities for securing an education. A college is possible in every¬ day life if one choose to use it; a college in house, shop, street, farm, market, for rich and poor, the curriculum of which runs through all of life, a college which trains men and women everywhere to read and think and talk and do; * * * this is the “Chautauqua idea.” Prof. Albert S. Cook, of Yale University, and a well-known Chautauqua lecturer, in an article on “Chautauqua: Its aims and influence,” published in The Forum, August, 1895, says of the “Chautauqua idea:” As nearly as I can formulate it, it is something like this: A fraternal, enthusiastic, methodical, and sustained attempt to elevate, enrich, and inspire the individual life in its entirety, by an appeal to the curiosity, hopefulness, and ambition of those who would otherwise be debarred from the greatest opportunities of culture and spiritual advancement. To this end, all uplifting and stimulating forces, whether secular or religious, are made to conspire in their impact upon the person whose weal is sought. * * * Can we wonder that Chautauqua is a sacred and blessed name to multitudes of Americans? Ur. Merrill E. Gates once said: The true significance of the Chautauqua movement seems to me not to lie chiefly in the great summer gatherings, in the crowded lectures, the enthusiastic conferences, and the inspiring commencement address at Chautauqua itself, nor in the diplomas awarded there. But the Chautauqua circles throughout the land mean useful, wisely-directed home reading and intelligent general conversation in the home circle Wherever their influence extends. Not only is it true that neighborhoods which 318 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. have been stagnant for the lack of any common themes for conversation higher than the local gossip have been stirred to new intellectual life when the circles met to con¬ sider the facts of science or history and the noble thoughts and perfect forms of the best literature of all time, but in the home circle as well, in the family life of thous¬ ands oi homes, children and parents have new themes brought into their horizon and talked about with a common interest at the table and in the evening. Principal A. M. Fairbairn, of Mansfield College, Oxford, England, says: The C. L. S. C. movement seems to me the most admirable and efficient organiza¬ tion for the direction of reading, and in the best sense for popular instruction. To direct the reading during a period of years for so many thousands is to effect not only their present culture, but to increase their intellectual activity for the period of their natural lives, and thus among other things, greatly to add to the range of their enjoy¬ ment. It appears to me that a system which can create such excellent results merits the most cordial praise from ail lovers of men. Sir Joshua G. Fitch, for a longtime Her Majesty’s chief inspector of the training colleges of England, said to an audience of 5,000 people at Chautauqua: It seems to me that you have hit upon one of the most admirable and fruitful devices ever yet adopted when, by means of reading circles and correspondence helps, the solitary student has opened to him what he shall read and what use he shall make of his reading when he has it. This is a great work on which you have often invoked the divine blessing. * * * I earnestly trust that it may continue to go on and prosper, that this great assembly may be one of the most notable agencies by which you may encourage the love of truth, the devotion to knowledge, and the help and guidance of the people of America. Religion realized. — It would be a fatal mistake for any observer to imagine that religon had been neglected amid the multiplication of departments, for in point of fact religion, in its spiritual ethical sense, is the very heart of Chautauqua. In these days of growing secularization and materialism Chautauqua is a good object lesson in what might be called a religious survival or revival in concrete, wholesome, visible ways. Chautauqua, like Judaism in its best estate, is an institution for the promo¬ tion of the higher life, social and intellectual. “Holiness to the Lord” is an historic synonym for righteousness in all human relations, peace on earth to men of good will. The Chautauqua idea, comprehensively stated, is religion realized in life and culture in practical, not merely in theoretical, ways or barren creeds. Chautauqua cultivates faith and works. The American Library Association held its annual conference at Lakewood on Chautauqua in July, 1898, where the president, Herbert Putnam, then librarian of the Boston Public, now of the Library of Congress, paid the following deserved trib¬ ute to Chautauqua: The Chautauqua system has a most intimate interest to us as a system of practical and economic education, inaugurated by a sincere humanitarianism sustained by an enthusiastic missionary spirit, successful in reaching a vast body of individuals not reached by more formal processes of education, and successful also in bringing these — at least for a time, and even if but superficially— into touch with the highest in litera¬ ture and achievement. Local Chautauquas. — There are now scattered throughout the United States and Canada more than 300 so-called ‘ ‘Chautauquas. ’ ’ They are federated with the parent “Chautauqua” only iii filial ways, like Greek colonies to their metropolis. The daughter educational societies follow the same methods and courses of reading as their alma mater, and gladly report to her their progress. Bishop Vincent every summer “swings around” at least part of the grand Chautauqua circle to encourage these local assemblies. EDUCATION EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 319 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1 Adams, Herbert B. Chautauqua, a social and educational study. (See U. S. — Education, Bureau of. Report for 1894-95, Vol. 1, pp. 977-1077.) A graphic account of what Chautauqua is and what it is doing; its outward features clearly pictured and its manifold activities comprehensively treated, from historical, social, and educational standpoints. Also printed separately. Bernheimer, Charles S. National Jewish educational work. (See American monthly review of reviews, Apr. 1897, 15: 442-45.) Includes a brief account of the Jewish Chautauqua societjn Portraits. Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth. The Chautauqua movement. (See Cosmopolitan, June 1895, 19: 147-58. Interesting judgment as to social and educational value. Illustrated. Chautauqua Assembly. Chautauqua year-book for 1895, an official publication of the Chautauqua system of education. 130 p. D. Chautauqua, 1895. No more published. Cook, Albert S. Chautauqua, its aims and influence. (See Forum, Aug. 1S95, 19: 689-706.) Extent and scope of the system fully outlined; objections considered. Faxon, Frederick Winthrop, comp. Chautauqua, a bibliography of the lake and assembly. (See Bulletin of bibliography, July 1898, 1: 86-87.) Fitch, 3.G. The Chautauqua reading circle. (See Nineteenth century, Oct. 1888, 24:487-500.) A competent English authority’s view of the work and its results. Foster, Solomon, ed. Second summer assembly of the Jewish Chautauqua society; official account, issued by resolution of the executive committee. 63 p. Q. Phil. 1898. Jewish Chautauqua soc. Includes brief review of the session, with abstracts of all addresses. Habberton, John. Chautauqua, the most American thing in America. (See Illus¬ trated American, 20:10-14.) Illustrated. Hale, Edward Everett. Chautauqua. (See Lend a hand, Oct. 1S91, 7: 223-30; Sept. 1895, 15: 163-67.) Discursive sketches of the work of the reading circles. - The Chautauqua literary and scientific circle. (See Century magazine, Nov., 1885, 31 : 147-50. ) Outlines the general plan. - Chautauqua reading circles. (See Unitarian review, Sep. 1887, 28: 233-48.) Good general view of plans and methods, including course of study for four years. H arper, William R. The founder of the Chautauqua movement. (See Outlook, Sep. 1896, 54: 546-50.) Appreciative judgment of Bishop Vincent’s educational work. Illustrated. Noble, Frederick Perry. Chautauqua as a new factor in American life. (See Nevr England magazine, Mar. 1890, 8: 90-101.) Good description of the several branches of the system with brief satisfactory consideration of the results accomplished. Illustrated. Post, D. H. Chautauqua. (See Harper’s magazine, Aug. 1879, 59: 350-60.) An interesting early account: well written; illustrated. Tarbell, Ida. Bishop Vincent and his work. (See McClure’s magazine, Aug. 1895, 5: 240-56.) Excellent sketch; well illustrated. 1 Prepared by Mr. Ashley, of the New York State Library School. 320 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Vincent, John H. bp. Chautauqua, a popular university. (See Contemporary review, May 1887, 51: 725-35.) Contains suggestions which led to the summer courses at Oxford and Cambridge in 1888. - The Chautauqua movement; with an introduction by President Lewis Miller. 9+308 p. D. Bost. 1886. Chautauqua press. The founder's story of Chautauqua’s origin, development, aims and methods, with a candid discussion of objections. Condensed programmes and brief accounts of other assemblies are included. Invaluable. w illoughby, Westel W. Chautauqua. (See Lb S. — Education, Bureau of. Report for 1891-92, vol. 2, pp. 921-45). Historical study, including short accounts of forty other Chautauquas. VI. Select Types of Summer Schools. Catholic Summer School of America . 1 — For nearly ten years the friends of higher education have maintained a Catholic Summer School for the benefit of teachers and students. After meeting in various places, the school finally settled down at Platts- burg, N. Y., on Lake Champlain. In 1893, the regents of the University of the State of New York granted a charter by which this school became a legal corporation, and was classified in the system of public instruction devoted to university extension. By this charter certain advantages are acquired by summer school students who wish to prepare for the regents’ or State’s examinations. The objects of the school, officially stated, are to increase the facilities for busy people as well as for those of leisure to pursue lines of study in various departments of knowledge. Opportunities for instruction are provided by lectures from eminent specialists. Courses are given in anthropology, history, literature, ethics, science, and religion. The school itself is beautiful for situation and not far from the principal summer hotel on Lake Champlain. The Catholic Chautauqua has, however, its own cottage accommodations, a club or casino for social reunions, its lecture halls and local book store. The place, like the central Chautauqua, is an ideal summer resort and attracts many friends of education, both Catholic and Protestant. It is pleasant to see even pictures of buildings on the lake shore and some of these summer gatherings of the clergy who are leading spirits in this popular movement. Dr. Conaty, who was long its faithful director, is now the eloquent aud progressive rector of the Catholic University of America. Catholic Winter School .2 — Three or four sessions of the Catholic Winter School of America have been held at New Orleans, one of the most catholic centers of American education — secondary, higher, and popular. With Tulane University, the Howard memorial library, and a fine system of public schools, New Orleans, for its educational background, has a noble record of French Catholic spiritual and intellectual activity extending through nearly two centuries, from the time of the grand monarch under whose sovereignty Louisiana was first colonized and named. The early Catholic movement in American education is well described by Professor Fay in his History of Education in Louisiana (contributions to American educational history, published by the U. S. Bureau of Education). 1 A special account of the origin of this new and remarkable movement may be found in the author’s paper on Chautauqua. See Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1894-95, pp. 1065-1077. 2Dr. Weeks says (Education Report, 1894-95, p. 1484): “As the summer was originally chosen because of its comparative freedom and the greater suitability of climate in the Middle and Northern States, so the idea has been reversed in the extreme South, and we have the Florida Chautauqua held in February and March, and the Catholic Winter School of America, which held its first session in New Orleans, February 16 to March 14, 1896, and was a financial success.” Winter schools for adults would be expedient in Baltimore and Washington or some other cities which are prevented by climatic reasons from attempting summer schools. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 321 At the Catholic Winter School of America popular education is naturally connected with religion. The school is opened with pontificial high mass in St. Louis Cathedral. A bishop from Mexico officiated at the formal opening in February, 1898. It is note¬ worthy that the rector of the Catholic University of America, Rev. Dr. Conaty, gave five lectures on the relations of the Church to the educational movement of to-day. This former and well-beloved director of the Catholic Summer School of America at Cliff Haven, Plattsburg on Lake Champlain, has thus served as an educational link between the North and the South, between the historic shores of Lake Champlain and of the Gulf of Mexico. Prof. Alcee Fortier, of Tulane University (one of the best romance scholars in America) , introduced the educational programme. The dis¬ tinguished novelist, F. Marion Crawford, also gave a course of literary lectures. In the public instruction given at summer schools by. these traveled men and cosmo¬ politan spirits there is and must be a peculiar extension of the best international and Catholic influences. What the Congres international de 1’enseignement des sciences sociales represented at Paris in July, 1900 (the idea, namely, of an interchange of personnel between the universities and schools of different countries), is already realized in some measure by various American institutions, Harvard, Johns Hop¬ kins, the Catholic University of America, and by well-knowui American summer- schools like Chautauqua and Philadelphia, some of which institutions every summer call over to this country celebrated European educationists and public lecturers — e. g., Brunetiere, Doumic, George Adam Smith, Principal Fairbairn, Professor Mahaffy,. Michael Sadler, Professor Moulton, F. Marion Crawford, and many others. Columbian Catholic Summer School. — At Madison, Wis., one of the best centers of academic and popular education in the great Northwest, there assembled in July,. 1898, the Columbian Catholic Summer School with lecturers from Washington, D. C.r and other seats of educational extension. Noteworthy among these public teachers were the Rt. Rev. Thomas Gorman; Bishop Spalding, the Catholic historian from Peoria; Plenry Austin Adams, from the Brooklyn Institute, who lectures now on Lake Champlain, now in New Orleans, and now in the lake district of Wisconsin. Jewish Chautauqua. — The third summer assembly of the Jewish Chautauqua at Atlantic City, from July 14 to July 30, offered the following general programme of work, which continues throughout the year: (1) Popular lectures; (2) Chautauqua, circles for Bible studies; (3) Chautauqua circles for post-biblical studies; (4) teach¬ ers’ institute; (5) general conferences; (6) religious services; (7) social entertain¬ ment; (8) preparatory work; (9) reunion of Chautauquans. The Jewish Chautauqua now enrolls over 2,000 members in its various local cir¬ cles in the United States and Canada. For summer assembly work it employs the most eminent American Hebrew scholars — e. g., Prof. Richard Gottheil, of Columbia University; Rev. Dr. Jastrow, of Philadelphia; Rev. Dr. Guttmacher, of Baltimore (a graduate student of the Johns Hopkins University); Rev. Dr. F. De Sola Mendes, of NewT York; Rev. Dr. Kohler, of New York; and D. W. Amram, of Philadelphia. The Jewish Chautauqua also employs various Christian scholars of eminence, for example, Rev. Dr. Charles Cuthbert Hall, president of the Union Theological Semi¬ nary, New York; Prof. Leon H. Vincent, the well-known Chautauqua lecturer on literary subjects, whose themes in 1899 were partially Jewish — “ Heine” and “Zang- will.” This combination of lecturers and subjects wrell illustrates the truly catholic influence of the Chautauqua idea. Much attention was paid to education, for exam¬ ple, Professor Bamberger, principal of the Jewish Training School in Chicago, lectured on “Religious education from the view point of pedagogy.” The chancellor of the Jewish Chautauqua is the Rev. Dr. Henry Berkowitz, whose wholesome and liberal¬ izing influence upon American education can not be too highly praised.1 aA more elaborate account of “National Jewish educational work,” by Charles S. Bernheimer, was published in the American Monthly Review of Reviews, New York, April, 1S97. ed 1900 - 21 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. €> 9 9 O L.L The original Chautauqua is undoubtedly the most popular and best-known type of American summer schools. Its example influenced the development of very many others, and, perhaps, suggested certain English summer meetings — e. g.., those of the National Home Reading Union, at Chester, London, and other well-known places. The summer meetings of university extension and their friend.3 at Oxford, Cam¬ bridge, and Edinburgh are truly international in spirit. They are the most delightful summer schools in the English-speaking world, but Chautauqua remains after more than twenty-five years’ experience the most democratic and largely-attended sum¬ mer school. It is the earliest continuous school of the kind in the world. Chau¬ tauqua was founded in 1874 as an educational assembly, with the primary idea of promoting higher and better Sunday-school work. While this idea is wisely retained, educational effort had been extended over many other fields. We may best characterize all Chautauquas as religious summer schools. Summer schools of science. — In July, 1S73, Louis Agassiz, the Swiss naturalist, pro¬ fessor in Harvard University, opened a scientific summer school on Penikese Island, about 25 miles from Newport. This experiment served to develop several young zoologists and gave rise to a succession of similar schools of natural science, for example, the Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory, the marine stations at Newport, Woods Holl, and others. The Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl, Mass., has completed its twelfth year, and is known as the clearing house of American sci¬ entists. Sooner or later the prominent workers appear at this interesting summer school and pay tribute by giving public lectures on the trend of their work. There are three main departments: '(1) Zoology, in charge of Professor VvTiitman, of the University of Chicago; (2) physiology, Dr. Loeb; and botany, Dr. Davis. (See let¬ ter from Woods Holl, dated August 12, 1899, in Sunday Tribune, following.) Types of summer schools. — Dr. Stephen B. Weeks, who prepared for the United States Bureau of Education (Report of Commissioner, 1894-95, pp. 1483-1503) a check list of American summer schools, says they may be roughly divided into the following classes, according to the phases of educa¬ tion, which they emphasize particularly : (1) Schools that teach special branches of knowledge, as ancient and modern languages, literature, psychology, natural sciences, law, medicine; (2) schools of the arts, as drawing, industrial art, music, oratory, etc.; (3) professional, normal, or schools of methods, where the training of teachers is the main idea— summer schools of pedagogy; (4) general, where all, or nearly all, the subjects in the general curriculum of education are treated; (5) Chautauqua, where the idea of study is united with that of rest and recreation, and where the Chautauqua course of reading (C. L. S. C. ) is made the basis of the educational work. Again, from the standpoint of control, they may be divided into several classes: (1) Private, which range in scope from a school devoting itself to preparing students for college or to making up the deficiencies of common-school teachers, to a private school of chemistry, law, or Bible study; (2) college or university, which are usually more general in character; (3) State, which are generally devoted to the training of teachers, are more or less local and even migratory in character. In the matter of fees, they range all the way from the private, with fees sufficient to support the school, to the public State schools, which are free. In the same report Dr. Weeks says: The length of term varies in different schools from a few days to three months. The tendency to increase the length of time and make as much use of the vacation as possible is increasing, and there has been a material change in the character of the courses offered. At first it was the custom to give many short courses or single lec¬ tures. It is now the custom to make the courses of lectures as continuous and connected as possible. University of Chicago. — The most remarkable and most recent development of the summer school idea in America is that of the fourth quarter or summer term at the University of Chicago, where academic work goes straight on throughout the year (forty-eight weeks) like any other business. President Harper, for many years principal of Chautauqua, was probably influenced by its example in devising his 323 EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. plan for a. summer university course. The result of his excellent policy is that while most American colleges and universities rest or go to sleep in summer time Chicago is drawing students and professors from nearly all of them. Many Chicago profes¬ sors arrange to take their long vacation in the winter or spring. Outside seekers after academic knowledge can, therefore, find good men at their Chicago post in the mid¬ summer term. Thus, the summer school idea has been fully incorporated by a vigorous and progressive American university. “ Continuous sessions for colleges and universities ” was a subject presented to the Southern Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools in November, 1898, by Jerome Id. Raymond, president of West Virginia University, where the Chicago system of the summer quarter was introduced that very year. President Raymond’s favorable account of his West Virginia experiment and of its educational advantages is printed in the School Review, University of Chicago press, February, 1899. Among the advantages enumerated are: (1) The new system of four continuous sessions (with a week’s recess between successive terms) enables a college or university to meet the needs of young men and women who are obliged to work their way by teaching during the winter months, and can recover lost academic ground by returning to college for the summer quarter. (2) Professional teachers and others can get some advantage by a summer sojourn at a university of the West Virginia or Chicago type. (3) Professors in such a university can take a vacation when other academic insti¬ tutions are in full session and can profit by these outside courses. (4) The Chicago system enables the student to complete his academic work more quickly. (5) What business man would equip an extensive plant and allow it to lie idle for three months out of every twelve? “ Shall we, then, be less zealous to make the greatest possible use of the great educational plants?” In answer to the argument in favor of summer courses and continuous sessions of all sorts, it may simply be said that the experience of many generations in the world of education, from mediaeval universities down to modern kindergartens, indicates that it is not well to force either pupils or teachers to continuous mental work or to overproduction. Whatever manufacturers may do or railroads require, Mother Nature imperatively demands that sometimes we allow productive acres to lie fallow and that overworked men, tired women, and growing children also have a chance for sufficient rest. If American teachers do not heed the lessons of human experi¬ ence and common sense, Mother Nature will probably give us a private course in neurology at expensive rates. Harvard Summer School. — By special request the following account of Harvard Sum¬ mer School in the duty season of 1899 was contributed by Miss Elizabeth T. King, president of the Arundell Club of Baltimore: Cambridge possesses nearly every qualification for a summer school. The class rooms, laboratories, and college library of 400,000 volumes are at hand. The zoolog¬ ical and mineralogical museums, the Fogg Art Museum, and the Peabody Museum, with its unrivaled Central American, Semitic, and other collections, are open to the student. The boarding houses and some halls are ready; the majestic and varied series of buildings in their beautiful setting of court and turf and trees; the historic and literary associations, not only of Cambridge, but of all the neighboring region, stimulate the imagination and arouse enthusiasm. The beginnings of the school were university lectures given on Saturdays to teachers as far back as 1863. Course after course has been added and developed, until now the university offers forty-seven different courses ranging from Greek through modern languages to history, psychology, and science. There are this year over 700 students, mostly college graduates, teachers, and special students. The work is arranged so that each student is expected to specialize in one, or at the most two courses, and much outside work is required in addition to daily recitations. The six weeks’ work is equivalent to a half year’s course of three lectures a week, and it so counts for Harvard students. A certificate is given at the close which is 324 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. useful to teachers in many States, especially in New York, where a summer school certificate is required. The fee for each course varies from 815 to $25 and does not admit the student to any other advantages beside those included in his own work. There is none of the pleasant interchange of thought common to most summer schools. Even in more elementary work, the university spirit and seminary methods of a great center of learning are evident. There are, however, admirable general lectures given in the evening upon educational and literary topics, such as German secondary education, the drama of to-day, Diirer, the abbey of Cluny, the evolution of the conscience, etc. At the close of the school an educational conference is held to which two students from each class are appointed and who prepare a programme of conference and discus¬ sion. The historic pilgrimages are by far the most interesting general feature. They are preceded by a lecture showing how the civic conscience can thus be cultivated, and encouraging students from distant States to go home and find their own May¬ flowers and Bunker Hills. The connection between the literature and history of this rich region is pointed out, and twice a week most interesting and significant pilgrimages are made to surrounding places where the local historical societies and the antiquarians welcome the students. This year a new feature has been added in a three weeks’ course in the divinity school. It is intended for the “intellectual quickening of the clergy;” and that this purpose was realizable was at once shown by the enrollment of more than 100 clergymen, although at first a very small attendance had been expected. Eight women have availed themselves of these advantages. Lectures are given on ethics and the ideal elements of religion; on Old Testament history including institutions, Babylonian parallels, and methods of historical investigation; on church history and its development from primitive to Catholic Christianity. The most distinguished scholars and theologians from Harvard and other divinity schools have in turn lec¬ tured to an enthusiastic body of workers and thinkers, and the course has been a conspicuous success. In general it is remarkable to see what an admirable body of special students have been assembled at the school, especially from the South and West, and to hear from their teachers how good the quality of their work is. The result of disseminating the methods and influences of Harvard throughout the States and institutions thus brought into contact with it can not fail to benefit both the university and the coun¬ try. Much praise is due the earnest and disinterested men who give their time to it. It is amusing to see how frankly coeducational Harvard becomes in summer, and the question naturally arises, if for six weeks in summer, why not for six months in winter? The men and women students board at the same houses, work in the same laboratories, study in the same library without the slightest supervision — but human nature is so inconsistent that it will doubtless be some time before this logic is con¬ vincing. Summer schools are, however, quickly and gradually solving many educa¬ tional problems, and their directness of methods, adaptation to practical needs of workers, absence of hampering conditions, and quickness of response to popular wants make them interesting laboratories for discovering solutions for the educa¬ tional problems of democracy. An equally significant feature is the eagerness for knowledge and desire for enlightened methods in education shown by representatives from every part of this great country which can not fail to affect the life of the nation. Melvil Dewey on summer schools. — “Thousands testify after trial that the change of surroundings and occupation, the stimulus of cheerful companions interested in the same subjects, and the many provisions of our best summer schools for healthful recreation, are better preparation for hard work the next year than a vacation spent in idleness. In brief; it is evident that the tendency is growing among teachers to congregate fora few weeks during the long vacation.” i EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 325 BIBLIOGRAPHY.1 Adams, Herbert B. The Catholic summer school of America. (SeeU. S. — Educa¬ tion, Bureau of. Report for 1894-95, Vol. 1, pp. 1065-77.) Clear, accurate, and sympathetic account from the inception to the end of the fourth year. Conventions and Summer Gatherings. American summer schools, 1892-99. (See American monthly review of reviews, May 1892, 5: 421-22; May 1893, 7: 539-42; May 1894, 9:539-43; May 1895, 11:530-34; May 1896, 13:553-55; May 1897, 15: 554-55; May 1898, 17: 540-41; May 1899, 19: 583-85. Brief announcements of the more important schools; the contemporary outlook excellently presented from year to year. The first number is by Albert Shaw, the editor. Title varies slightly from the above in 1893, 1896, and 1897. Innovations at the University of Chicago. (See Nation, Oct. 1892, 55: 255-56.) Doubts the wisdom of the summer term. Mosher, Warren F., and Conaty, Rev. T. J. Retrospective and prospective views of the Catholic summer school of America. (See Mosher’s magazine, July 1899, 14: 161-70.) Origin, development and purposes clearly stated, by the secretary and a former president. Mosher’s Magazine; monthly, official organ of the Catholic summer school of America and Reading circle union. Jan. 1891-date. Yol. I-date. O. Youngs¬ town, Ohio, 1891-date. The Aug. -Sept, double number each year gives a detailed report of the sessions at Plattsburg, including abstracts of all lectures; with briefer accounts of the Madison school. Vols. 1-12 bear title Catholic reading circle review. Mullaney, Rev. John F. Summer schools and their relation to higher education. (See N. Y. (state) — University. Proceedings of the 31st university convocation. 1893, p. 484-90. ) The Catholic attitude toward the movement. The new home of the Catholic Summer School at Plattsburg. (See Catholic world, Ap. 1893, 57: 67-84. Very readable illustrated description of the place and its surroundings. N. Y. (State) — Home Education Department. Summer schools, report of the summer schools division, 1894-99. O. Alb. 1894-99. (Plome education bulletin nos. 8, 9, 13, 19, 25, 30. ) Gives each year specific details of the more prominent schools, not only in New York but elsewhere in America and abroad; with announcements of educational conferences, and summer school statistics. An admirable yearly survey of the entire field. Raymond, Jerome H. Continuous sessions for colleges and universities. (See School review, Feb. 1899, 7: 117-24.) Enthusiastic sketch of the plan in operation at West Virginia University. The Summer School. (See Dial, June 1895, 18: 313-15.) Good brief historical statement. Thwing, Charles F. Summer schools. (See Harper’s magazine, Mar. 1878, 56: 501-10.) Interesting early sketch of the scientific schools, with brief view of the whole movement. Illustrated. Weeks, Stephen B. Check list of American summer schools. (See U. S.— Educa¬ tion, Bureau of. Report for 1894-95, vol. 2, pp. 1483-1503. ) Includes excellent historical review, list of 319 schools arranged by States; bibliography, 2 p. w illoughby, Westel W. History of summer schools in the United States. (See U. S. — Education, Bureau of. Report for 1891-92, vol. 2, pp. 893-959.) Comprehensive, scholarly monograph, specially valuable for earlier history. The schools are classified according to their fundamental character. bibliography prepared by Mr. Ashley, of the State Library School of New York at Albany. 326 EDUCATION REPORT. 1899-1900. ( VII. The City and Popular Education. The city an object lesson. — On the occasion of the opening of the Teachers’ College in New York City, President Gilman, of the Johns Hopkins University, spoke of the educational advantage of New York City as a colossal object lesson. He said: It is in itself a sort of teachers’ college where other cities may learn both what to do and what not to do. * * * Other cities may follow or neglect the lessons, but are sure to watch, weigh, and judge what happens on the island of Manhattan. The Central Park is opened — similar parks appear in Boston and San Francisco; museums devoted to the works of nature and art are established — Washington and Chicago begin the like; Columbia unites the institutions of higher education in a federative union — Baltimore longs to do the same. Here and now the unfolding of a new idea is celebrated; an idea not absolutely new, but new in its environment and possibili¬ ties. The leaders of education in other cities in surprise and delight will note, praise, and emulate the suggestions here embodied, the generosity with which they have been supported, the enthusiasm which has governed their development. Public schools. — Every American city takes especial pride in its public schools and these are deservedly praised in the Federal city, in Richmond, x4ilanta, and the new South; in Philadelphia, Brooklyn, Brookline, Boston, Providence, Worcester, Albany, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, Indianapolis, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and many other places that might be named. The Chicago Exposition in 1893 revealed the striking fact, that many cities in the Northwest are becoming models of educa¬ tion, in the higher branches, history, literature, art, and science. The examples of work actually done in the way of English composition and artistic illustration by the sons and daughters of the people were surprising to many observers. Public libraries. — Next to the support of public schools are the institution and maintenance of public libraries.1 Most of the larger and progressive towns and cities of America have already introduced the people’s university, in the form of a growing collection of readable books and periodicals. New England and western towns are especially liberal in this regard. Many States (New Yrork, New Jersey, Wisconsin) have themselves given an impetus to library extension. In the older, historic communities of New England, generous individuals have either given or founded libraries which the town has gladly accepted and continues to enlarge. A combination of public aid and private endowment seems to work very happily in the development of this highest of high schools. Very often the town library bears the name of the original donor or of his family. The institution is at once a memo¬ rial of the dead and a joy to the living. Public-spirited citizens, men and women, unite in its further improvement, by private philanthropy as well as by public appropriations. The most competent and discriminating judges of good literature are usually appointed on the library committee by town authority, and see to it that the right choice is made of new books, which are bought by public money or by private donations. Among the most remarkable public-library creations in recent years are those of Boston, New York, Baltimore, Pittsburg, Allegheny City, Chicago, Milwaukee, Atlanta, and other great industrial towns. Here in most striking ways private foundations of public libraries have been made by wealthy, far-sighted, and public- spirited individuals, for example, Enoch Pratt, of Baltimore; and Andrew Carnegie, of Pittsburg, who is said to have learned his municipal policy from Mr. Enoch Pratt, a lineal descendant from Phinehas Pratt, one of the Pilgrim Fathers. How to com¬ bine a privately endowed institution with the principle of municipal ownership, 1 A special monograph upon the subject of “Public libraries and popular education,” has been prepared for Regents’ Bulletin of the University of the State of New York and for the Paris Expo¬ sition, by the present writer. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 327 without the attendant dangers of political interference, that was the question* Enoch Pratt founded, built, and equipped a splendid public library with various local branches in Baltimore and then presented the whole system to the city with $1,000,000 endowment, which Baltimore agreed to accept as a public fund and to pay 5 per cent interest upon it for all time for the support of the Enoch Pratt Free Public Library, which should be forever managed by a private board of trustees, selected originally by Mr. Pratt and choosing their own successors. 1. Libraries and schools. — Free public libraries are now becoming well coordinated in America with free public schools. The movement began in New England, where great public libraries, like those of Boston, Providence, and Worcester early made their collections especially attractive and accessible to teachers and their classes. For many years Mr. William E. Foster, librarian of the Providence Free Library, has made the city newspapers and printed bibliographies practical means of media¬ tion between the actual needs of the public schools and the resources of the public library. If a distinguished lecturer were coming to Providence to give a public course, Mr. Foster prepared a list of good books upon his chosen themes and published it broadcast in the newspapers and posted it conspicuously upon the bulletin boards of his library. For years he has cooperated with the professors of Brown University and other teachers in the promotion of their public or private class work. His refer¬ ence lists of good books on a great variety of subjects interesting to students in school and college have been published far and wide. Mr. S. S. Green, in the Public Library of Worcester, Mass., has made that institution a favorite place for the congregation of classes or groups of school children, under the guidance of their teachers, for the examination of illustrated books, prints, portraits, and other valuable material for the illustration of history, art, and literature. Public librarians now generally fol¬ low his example in making known to students and the people through the agency of bulletins or the newspapers the most interesting accessions of new books to the public library. Branches. — City libraries now have their local branches in the various wards or districts. The public librarian of Jersey City, Mr. George Watson Cole, says: “Experience has shown that many people who will not go far out of the way to secure books for home reading will use a library if its books can be brought conven¬ iently near to them. The reader needs stimulating, and in order to reach him in towns covering large areas or having distinct centers of population several enterpris¬ ing libraries have established branches or delivery stations at points sufficiently accessible to overcome this natural inertia inherent in the general reader.” In Jersey City a dozen or more local-delivery stations have been established. Book col¬ lections are made in the morning and book deliveries in the afternoon by a hired delivery wagon. It costs the city about $2,000 a year for such transportation. The circulation of the city library has been doubled by this popular method. Mr. Frank P. Hill proposes to make each of the city schools in his city, Newark, N. J., a local library station, under the direction of the principal, and to furnish each school with a working library of 50 volumes. In short, the system of traveling libraries initiated by Mr. M. Dewey in connection with the New York State Library will be connected with the public school system. The schools of Brookline , Mass.- — In the Baltimore Sun of August 8, 1899, was pub¬ lished an interview with Miss Elizabeth T. King, president of the Arundell Club, regarding the relation of Brookline schools to the community, the library, and other institutions. This interview will serfe to illustrate the progressive educational spirit in New England, and reveals a system of public -schools so good that private schools can not be supported in competition with them. In regard to her visit to Brookline, Miss King said that the town still preserves its elementary conception of civil government — the collective assembly, the representa¬ tive body — and it declines to become a part of Greater Boston. Perhaps this is the reason why its citizens take such an interest in public affairs, especially in the public 328 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. schools, which are so good that, in spite of its wealthy inhabitants, Brookline does not support private schools, and nearly all its children, rich and poor, attend the public schools. These are famous for many reasons, chief among them their superin¬ tendent, Mr. Samuel T. Dutton, who has raised them to their present high standard by his wise coordination of all the interests which go to build up the character of the child in home, church, and school, and by his appreciation of the necessity of train¬ ing the pupil for life in its broadest sense. In his own words, his aim has been to take the public school out of the “ narrow aims and mechanical methods of the past and to develop it to realize life to-day in all its fullness, and to tit a child to be a true member of the social community.” “Second only to the influence of its superintendent,” Miss King continued, “is the influence of the Brookline Education Society,1 composed of public-spirited men and women who intelligently supplement the public school system by their active support and investigations. Its constitution announces that it is established Do promote a broader knowledge of the science of education, a better understanding of the methods employed, and a closer sympathy and cooperation between the home and the school.’ It realizes the principle, which Mr. Dutton warmly advocates, that volunteer and professional workers are a great help to each other, and only by their union can the best results be obtained. This society holds general meetings where educational topics of interest to parents and teachers are discussed. It has formed committees on child study, music, manual and physical training, lectures for the young, school libraries, etc., and its secretary and treasurer, Mrs. Alice N. George, is a leading spirit in building up and promoting these ideas in every direction. “ DECORATIONS IN SCHOOLS. “Brookline fully appreciates the educational value, both for artistic and historical reasons, of hanging on the walls of schools the best art reproductions. In view of the primary school No. 4 in Baltimore having been recently decorated by the Arun- dell Good Government Club at the request of a public-spirited and generous citizen, it will probably interest readers to know what is being done in Brookline. Mrs. Leslie Mead took us first to the Lawrence School, which owes its inspiring artistic interior to her intelligent supervision. The pictures are grouped in the rooms so as to present a homogeneous idea; for instance, the Italian room has large photographs of some of Raphael’s Madonnas, the ‘Castle of St. Angelo,’ the ‘Forum and Colos¬ seum,’ the ‘Dying Gladiator,’ Michael Angelo’s ‘Moses,’ and ‘The Hermes.’ There are also Norwegian, French, Scotch, English, and American rooms, containing the best examples of scenery, architecture, and pictures. ‘ ‘ The general geography room is specially interesting, giving the Parliament houses, Pyramids, Acropolis, Shakespeare’s home, Windsor Castle, etc. Over the blackboards a frieze of cabinet-sized photographs is arranged, so that the children are daily famil¬ iarized with scenes from all over the world. “ One room is devoted to a surprisingly good series of colored prints of striking scenery in the Rocky Mountains and Switzerland. Children like and understand color, and even at a loss of some values in tone the result of conveying an impres¬ sive effect is thus sometimes best gained. It is very much to be hoped that this work will be supported in Baltimore under the auspices of the Municipal Art Society, which has undertaken to promote it. “the pride of the town. “Our next visit was to the Devotion Primary School, which is appropriately filled with pictures, and is not, as seems at first sight, a Sunday school, but is named in honor of Edward Devotion, the first of a long line of public-spirited descendants who came from France in 1621, and did much to promote education and to build up the town. The old family home is preserved as a landmark, and the new primary school, built beside it, perpetuates the spirit of the family, and passes on to future generations their enlightened principles. “The High Schoool is the pride of the town. Its exterior is not beautiful, but within it seems to possess every advantage for the fortunate boys and girls who attend. The art department has an immense«collection of photographs illustrating various periods of art, and loaned, on occasions, to other schools. Friends of the school remember it on their visits abroad and bring home photographs; parents, when their children graduate, often give presents to the school; graduate students preserve their interest and there is evidently a strong local pride felt and general support given to it by the community. 1 For a more detailed account of the work of the Brookline Education Society see the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1898-99, vol. 1, pp. 538-546. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 329 “manual training. “Manual training and its relation to other branches of education is a very impor¬ tant part of the whole system. The grammar schools have a cooking-school kitchen, sewing room, and carpentering and metal workshops. These courses are very pop¬ ular, and boys and girls often remain at school for a much longer period than before and parents make many sacrifices to obtain these advantages. In the High School special attention is paid to them and they are extremely popular. A curious experi¬ ment has been tried of giving the boys half a year’s experience in the kitchen while the girls spend the same length of time working with tools. This has been found very successful, both on educational and practical grounds. “There is no doubt that the training of eye and hand, the correlation of brain and muscle, and the mastery of practical details are invaluable preparations for life, as well as excellent means for developing good mental qualities, and serving as a stimulus all along the line of a general and complete education. “the public library. “The cooperation of the public library enables the schools to shape the reading of the boys and girls and to illumine their studies by collateral literature. This was effected by the Educational Society. Its committee asked for an appropriation for the salary of a school librarian, for a room and for the purchase of books in order that school children should be taught systematically to use a library and to be brought into touch with books suited to their capacity. “They are regularly examined on their knowledge and facility, and the library becomes really an object lesson and a schoolroom. The librarian learns the needs of the schools, and reveals to the children the uses of the library; with the assistance of teachers she makes out lists of books to be added to it, and sends them, on request, to special classes. Thus the public library and the public school system supplement each other. “other noticeable features. “There are many other noticeable features connected with the schools. Coeduca¬ tion, from the kindergarten through the High School, is so much a matter of course that much surprise was expressed that it should be questioned. “On the common, in front of the High School, is a public playground, and a beau¬ tiful bath house and swimming pool close by are the delight of the youthful inhabitant. “A novel feature of the public schools is the training class for college graduates, which brings them into relation with all grades of work, and is significant of the growing feeling that colleges and universities are dependent on the public schools, and graduates feel that these are a fruitful field for training. “a practical question. “One of the most striking results of these excellent schools is the local pride and universal interest felt in them by the community; or, it may be, that one reason why they are so good is that the richest and most influential citizens interest themselves in them. We might profitably ask how many such in Baltimore trouble themselves to find out the conditions of our schools, and their needs and possibilities, or feel that in their development lies the promise of a high type of citizenship. To help our hard-worked officials and teachers, to give hearty support as well as intelligent criti¬ cism ought to be a distinct feature of every municipality. Certainly the town of Brookline shows the benefit of such a course. Visitors from a distance come to learn, and are freely welcomed to observe the good order, cheerful cooperation and ideal of social service which prevail. Emphasis is laid on the strengthening of mental pow¬ ers — the reason, observation, and perception, and less on the simple acquirement of information. The pupils may be slower in repeating the multiplication table and tables of measures, but they know what multiplication means, and how to measure a pint and a quart. The fact that history, geography, literature, spelling and reading may be included in one lesson, and that each subject illumines the others so that the child grasps the whole, instead of a part, of an idea is now so thoroughly understood that no lesson which is not conducted on that plan is considered satisfactory. “The school is regarded as a social institution, and the natural activities of a child and the various influences which surround it, are correlated to lay the foundations of a liberal education. This is all done in a conservative spirit, as Mr. Dutton 1 recog- 1 Cf. Samuel T. Dutton’s valuable and suggestive book on Social Phases of Education in the School and the Home. (New York, Macmillan Company, 1899.) 330 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. nizes that ‘ we can not go far beyond a point which public opinion is prepared to follow.’ ” Free lectures for the people. — Within recent years there has sprung up in some of the leading cities of America a remarkable system of free lectures for the people. One of the most conspicuous examples is that started in New York City about ten years ago (1889) in connection with the public school system. An appropriation of $15,000 was made by the city for the purpose of supporting a series of evening lectures given in six different schoolhouses. The total number of lectures in the first season was 186. The total attendance was 22,149. The attendants upon the lectures were very largely the family friends of school children who occupied the schoolhouses during the day. Announcements of lectures were made, among other ways, through the school children themselves, who carried into their own homes the circulars descrip¬ tive of coming popular courses. From year to year handbooks1 have been published giving the names of the lectur¬ ers, the subjects of lectures, and the exact time and place of each appointment. An examination of these handbooks shows a gradual development and a steady improve¬ ment both in the character and extent of these popular courses. During the past winter season, 1898-99, 1,800 lectures have been given to popular audiences in New York schoolhouses. Appropriations have been increased. There were 48 dif¬ ferent centers of public instruction and over 200 different lecturers. The total attendance was 519,411. This remarkable increase shows that the free lecture system has struck a popular chord and that it deserves to be considered as a valuable adjunct of the public school system. The evening lectures are designed more especially for adults, for in New York and all American cities adult education is a growing neces¬ sity. In a popular democracy, where, in the last instance, everything depends upon the intelligence of the voter, there can hardly be too much public education, pro¬ vided it is of the right sort. The managers of these popular evening courses have striven in every way to adapt the work to the actual needs and highest interests of the people. Dr. Leipziger. — The leader of this New York movement in higher popular educa¬ tion is Henry M. Leipziger, Ph. P., who for years has been in close relations with the New York school board and with the cause of popular education. At a recent banquet in New York City he gave the philosophy of the whole movement in the following words: “ To gratify the various yearnings of the less fortunate multitude, to acquaint the newcomers with the epirit of our institutions, to give the denizens of our city knowledge that will lead to a better physical life and thus to a higher moral life, to bring beauty and culture into the humblest homes, to give more men and women high aims, to teach the truth that life is a school, that all are learners, and that man is in the world not merely to ‘eat and drink and vote and get honors,’ but that ‘man needs knowledge, not only as a means of livelihood, but as a means of life’.”2 Dr. Leipziger has caught the spirit of university extension as well as the sentiment of Dr. G. J. Goschen, the early leader of the London Society for the Extension of University Teaching. For several years Dr. Leipziger was content with single and disconnected lectures, but more recently he has shown his appreciation of the principle of continuity in public instruction and has encouraged more connected courses of public instruction, designed to extend popular knowledge upon specific subjects. Brooklyn now grants $10,000 a year for free lectures for adults. Boston. — In 1898 in Boston, Mass., a system of free lectures for the people was arranged in six school halls provided by the city and conducted by the education 1 Report of the Free Lectures to the People, season 1898-99. See “ Free Lecture Movement,” Library Journal, August, 1898. 2 The Free Lecture Course in New York City. Addresses at the ninth annual reunion and dinner, May 4, 1899, pp. 8, 9. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 831 department of the Twentieth Century Club. The lectures were given by men and women well known in the vicinity of Boston. In the Girls’ High School, West Newton street, the following six subjects were presented in successive weeks: (1) Shakespeare as man and poet; (2) Electricity, Thales to Franklin (stereopticon experiments); (3) Electricity, Galvani to Edison (stereopticon experiments) ; (4) Boston anti-slavery days; (5) Electricity, Faraday to Tesla (stereopticon experiments) ; (6) Niagara Falls (illustrated by stereopticon). In this course electricity was the central theme. In another school special atten¬ tion was drawn to the public institutions and interesting places in and about Boston: (1) The public library; (2) half holidays in the Museum of Fine Arts; (3) historic buildings in Boston; (4) interesting places in Cambridge; (5) Boston in the Revolu¬ tion; (6) parks in and around Boston. Nearly all of these lectures were illustrated with stereopticon views. Similar courses of six lectures were in progress on the same dates and at the same evening hour (7.45) in six different school buildings. A great variety of popular subjects was presented. They w'ere, however, for the most part chosen from the local or American environment, or at least from the world of nature, which is always near and around us. Such themes as “Insect life,” “Flow plants scatter their seeds,” “ The photography of wild animals,” “The beauty of nature,” will always interest and instruct the people. Music is also a subject of intense interest to the masses. The art department of the Twentieth Century Club of Boston has endeavored to foster and develop a natural appreciation of good music by instituting free concerts and organ recitals in the churches of Boston and its suburbs. Tickets are issued on request and the number is limited, so as to prevent overcrowding. Printed circulars and programmes are distrib¬ uted, containing brief characterizations of the music rendered and short sketches of the original composers. The educational value of good music for the people is becom¬ ing more and more widely apx>reciated in American cities. Many American cities now supply free concerts to the assembled crowds in the city parks, which in them¬ selves are a source of great pleasure to all classes. Free lectures and free music are sometimes grouped with free school lunches, children’s playgrounds, open-air gymnastic recreation piers, and free municipal baths. These institutions are now becoming very popular in leading American cities. Philadelphia. — The free-lecture movement has extended to the Quaker City, which for years has been one of the foremost leaders in university extension, which there proceeded from the University of Pennsylvania. The movement for free lectures in public schools of Philadelphia was undertaken by the American Society for the Exten¬ sion of University Teaching, in cooperation with the board of public education, paid was further supported by the Public Education Association. The example of the Old South Church historical courses in Boston seems to have been before the minds of the Philadelphia managers. Free lectures for adults in well-known public-school buildings were instituted in 1898-99. Their purpose was to make knowm Philadel¬ phia’s contributions to history, science, art, literature, commerce, jurisprudence, and philanthropy. The lectures were designed especially for public-school teachers, but were open to all teachers and the public generally. Among these lectures was one by Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer, ex-president of Wellesley College, on the “Citizen’s relation to the public school.” Mr. J. W. Martin, an instructor in the People's Pal¬ ace, gave a suggestive lecture on “Educational work in London.” This lecture, reported in the Philadelphia papers, was soon after repeated in Baltimore as the introduction to the public-school teachers’ course at the Johns Hopkins University, in November, 1898. The faculty of the Northeast Manual Training School, in Philadelphia, in the sea¬ son of 1898-99, offered and gave a series of free illustrated lectures to the public and 332 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. patrons of the school on such subjects as “The London of Shakespeare,” “America before the flood,” “Where our lumber comes from,” and “How laws are made.” There is hardly any limit to which this popular and democratic development of the American public school is likely to be carried in the near future. Popular pro¬ fessors or lecturers are often available; the class rooms and schoolhouses are the city’s property; they can properly be used for evening classes of school graduates or adult citizens, and for the continuation of regular school work in more special or, if desir¬ able, more popular classes than those maintained in morning hours for younger pupils. Chicago. — The school board of the city of Chicago, in cooperation with the uni¬ versity and the trustees of the Ryder lecture fund, have encouraged free lectures in the public-school buildings. For the initial courses in 1897 tickets were distributed by teachers to those who applied for them. The courses Avere well attended, the average being about 700. Prof. E. J. James, director of the extension division of the UnWersity of Chicago, says that if extension lectures continue to be given free in public-school buildings the attendance will rise to undreamed-of proportions. “ There is here an opportunity for an ideal system of cooperation in educational work between the university, which can guarantee the character of the instruction; the school board, which can give the lecture rooms, and the public-spirited citizen, Avho may contribute to the support of the work.” The expense of the initial experi¬ ments was borne by the Ryder lecture fund, but the idea of supporting free lectures for the people either by private philanthropy or by appropriations from the city treasury will certainly expand in American cities, as it has already done in New York. Professor BicJcmore’s work. — In New York City and State a remarkable system of free illustrated lectures to teachers and citizens has been developed by Prof. Albert S. Bickmore under the auspices of the State department of public instruction. It is a system of visual instruction by means of well-arranged sets of slides accom¬ panying carefully prepared lectures on geography, botany, and zoology. The relation of these free lectures to the study of geography, natural history, and human history has proved educationally helpful and quickening. Teachers and citizens realize as never before man’s place in nature, the natural environment of historic countries — Mexico, Egypt, Palestine, Greece, Italy, and Switzerland. Americans learn to appre¬ ciate the beauty, resources, and historic institutions of their oavh country and of indi¬ vidual States or sections. Classes of teachers and citizens are taken on imaginary pilgrimages through the historic and scenic regions of Lake George, Lake Champlain, Canada, the St. Lawrence River, the Connecticut Valley, White Mountains, the coast of New England, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the District of Columbia, the Missis¬ sippi Valley, Southern States, the Rocky Mountains, the YelloAvstone National Park, California, and the Yosemite Valley. Pictures of wild flowers, beautifully colored and lifelike, the flora and fauna of the far West (which children and teachers in a city audience will perhaps never see) are shown to appreciative eyes in the Central Park Museum. A snap-shot picture of one of those ATast popular audiences reminds one of an even grander sight, the crowded amphitheater at Chautauqua, where frequently 10,000 people listen to a lecture or a concert. “ The order of subjects for our lectures,” says Professor Bickmore, “which has proved most profitable to the teachers avIio attend our instruction here at the museum is to de\rote one half of the year to the study of our own country and the other half to foreign lands.” This kind of popular education representing nature and man’s relation to it was begun in 1884, and was first de\Teloped for the special benefit of school-teachers in connection with the American Museum of Natural History in Central Park, New York City, but has since been extended through New York and into various other States or sections by normal schools, teachers’ institutes, farmers’ institutes, manu¬ facturing corporations, and other economic, social or educational agencies. Courses EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 333 have also been given under Dr. H. M. Leipziger’s management, by authority of the board of education, to evening audiences of adult citizens in many schoolhouses of New York City. They have been repeated at Albany, Poughkeepsie, and many other cities. The system has attracted wide attention on the part of State and city boards of education, e. g., Massachusetts, Connecticut, Ohio. A representative of the Boston school committee wrote in November, 1897: “This is a work which can be so much better done by the State that I think an attempt will be made to have a law passed which will enable us to work up the subject of illustration in connection with school studies in a thorough and systematic manner. Of course we shall have to meet the objection of the State doing what may be done by individuals, but the New York State lav/1 will be a decided help by way of example.” Professor Bickmore’s lectures are all carefully elaborated by research and travel, beautifully illustrated and typewritten, and, with suitable slides, are supplied on cer¬ tain conditions to responsible organizers of this visual system of public instruction in different States or sections. The subject-matter is so well arranged and the points capable of illustration by stereopticon are so clearly indicated that any good teacher, reader, or amateur local lecturer can repeat any one of Professor Bickmore’s numer¬ ous serial courses to a popular audience. Usually the State, city, or community pays the expense of the desired courses. At the American Museum of Natural History in Central Park, New York, “free illustrated lectures to the people” are advertised for alternate Saturdays and public holidays: “Doors open at 3 o’clock. Lectures begin at 3.30 p. m. All are welcome. No tickets are required.” At the Lowell Institute in Boston, where for many years free lecture courses have been given every winter to the people, it has been found expedient to require the public to apply for tickets some time in advance. But for the Saturday afternoon and other holiday crowds in Central Park, New York, abso¬ lute freedom of public instruction has been found the better policy. The theory is rapidly growing in America that, for the people at large, knowledge, music, and recreation in city parks should be as free as health (salvation) , air, or water. Natural history and art museums, public libraries, and public schools are now recognized as the free gifts of whole-souled men and women, of enlightened people to the public. In the forty-second annual report, pp. 371-393, of the State superintendent of pub¬ lic instruction there is a full list of all the lectures delivered by Professor Bickmore at the American Museum of Natural History to State and city teachers from 1884 to 1895. In the forty-fourth annual report, pp. 223-257, the series is continued to the end of the year 1897. Among the most recent and suggestive lectures are those on the VvT est Indies, the Lesser Antilles, the Colorado River and its Canyons, Southern California, Washington and Oregon, British Columbia, and the Rocky Mountain Park. Most of Professor Bickmore’s lectures are based upon actual tours of personal obser¬ vation through the scenes and countries which he .describes. In his recent journeys he has been accompanied by one of the most skillful American photographers, Dr. Dwight L. Elmendorf, who is also an accomplished and artistic lecturer, whom mem¬ bers of the University Club in Baltimore lately heard. We saw his marvelous and lifelike reproductions of events which he himself had witnessed on land and sea in the recent American war with Spain. Such lectures naturally interest all classes, the most cultivated and exclusive as well as the unlearned and democratic, for such scenes from nature and actual con¬ temporary life are real and intensely human. “One touch of nature makes the whole world kin.” “Nothing human is foreign to us” is a noble sentiment derived from Seneca. Why should not modern teachers, preachers, editors, social workers, and 1 This New York law regarding public visual instruction may be found in chapter 362, laws of 1895, and chapter 97, laws of 1897. 334 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. representatives of the people build upon the enduring moral and educational founda¬ tions of our common humanity and help civil society realize its essential unity and common interest, past, present, and future? Surely the United States and every other modern democracy need to recognize and strengthen every underlying basis and outstanding buttress of the social-economic order — the family, the church, school, city, and State. Of all the common interests that still constitute the Republic (res publica) or Commonwealth there is nothing more vital to the welfare of all than the public safety (salus publica), public health, sanitation, and education (moral, civic, historic, and humane). Any system of public instruction like that of Professor Bickmore or Dr. Leip- ziger’s, that tends to convert the people of New York City and State into better informed, more thoughtful citizens, deserves hearty commendation and wider exten¬ sion. It is good public policy. It is not mere theory; it is a visible fact. It is not the reproduction of bread and circuses (panem et circenses), according to the Roman imperial precedent, but rather an enlightened modern and democratic way of teach¬ ing the people to educate themselves and their children by using the free gifts of nature and society and to appreciate the blessings of Christian civilization. The president of the board of education in New York City, Hon. Charles B. Kub- bell, said to the assembled teachers of New York and vicinity, October 9, 1897: “The real object of education in its relation to the state is to extend rational happi¬ ness to the greatest number of persons who can possibly avail of it.” A report from one conductor of teachers’ institutes in New York State shows that in one year he gave illustrated lectures in connection with 18 different institutes to changing audiences of citizens and teachers, aggregating 9,000 people. He illus¬ trated Mexico in 26 different halls, with a total attendance of 20,000. Another institute conductor reports having given in one year 24 illustrated lectures to audi¬ ences aggregating 14,000 people. A lecture on “Egypt” was given in 11 institutes to a total attendance of 7,000. These facts and figures merely indicate that this system of visual instruction is becoming popular with the people. Hundreds of teachers and thousands of children will profit by the system of free illustrated lec¬ tures as it is extended from county to county and town to town. The extension is so organized that there can be only two centers of control in each State and no pos¬ sible profit to individual promoters. Simply the cost of the lantern views and lectures is required. The American Museum of Natural History in Central Park, New \rork City, Professor Bickmore, and the State department of public instruction at Albany are the head centers of the whole movement. Vacation schools in New York. — This popular educational movement was practi¬ cally started in Boston in 1885. The idea originated in Cambridge, Mass, as early as 1872. It was to give city children such instruction in manual training as would prove useful and interesting without being burdensome. Recreation was to be com¬ bined with education. School buildings hitherto standing idle during the summer months were now used for this excellent purpose. The idea proved so successful in Boston that it was taken up in New York City in 1894, and was financially supported by the Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, which guaranteed 85,000 the first year. The board of education placed three school buildings at the service of this association for six weeks in the summer of 1894. During that time 2,100 city children, with a daily average of 983, were agreeably instructed. The next season six schoolhouses were opened for vacation courses, and attendance was trebled. The average cost per pupil in 1895 was about 5 cents per day. In 1897 10 schoolhouses were opened, with a total attendance of 170,070 and a daily average of 5,703. In 1898 the board of education took control of the experiment and granted $10,000 for the support of 10 summer or vacation schools in city schoolhouses. Mr. Seth T. Stewart, long prominent as an advocate of university and school extension, was EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 335 appointed chairman of a committee on vacation schools and playgrounds. Under his efficient management the total attendance rose to 117,756, with a total registra¬ tion of 7,517, and an average attendance of 408 in each of the 10 schools. The term was of six weeks, from July 11 to August 19. The school hours were from 9 to 12 daily, except Saturday and Sunday. The chief features of these popular vacation schools were well-selected readings, discussions about authors and books, observational studies, drawing, modeling, coloring, sewing, and kindergarten exercises. The New York Circulating Library and the Cathedral Library lent books for use in these vacation schools, and the attendance is said to have been always highest on library days, a fact which points clearly to the line of least resistance in the conduct of educational classes in hot weather. The playground is a characteristic feature of the vacation school. “In New York schools these playgrounds are usually in the school basements, for ground is expensive. An effort to have roof playgrounds in the new schools in crowded dis¬ tricts was not successful on the ground of expense. Two or three schools have such a playground, which is a great boon to the neighborhood. * * * No attempt was made to enforce- the discipline of the ordinary school. The children were allowed more freedom, and only restrained where obviously necessary. This was possible because no compulsion forced the child to attend school; he or she went of his own free will, and no truant officer could ask an explanation of the absence.” (See Recreation plus Education: Vacation Schools in New York. Municipal Affairs, September, 1898.) Country outing.— Each of the 10 summer schools had, in the course of the six weeks’ season, at least one day’s outing in the country or by the seaside. Sometimes mothers were allowed to accompany their children on these excursions and thus to share their joy in nature. Among the beneficial results enumerated in the above article are: “ 'That contact with nature which is denied by the child’s circumstances is supplied at least partially by the vacation school. Every text-book is forbidden, and observation teaching is the rule. A manual-training school is merely devised to cultivate observation, and from observation the child is led to creation. The joy of creating is the joy that makes it worth while. * * * Negatively the vacation school prevents idleness and mischief. Positively it creates the deepest life for morality. ’ ’ Summer session of 1899. — At the beginning of the last session a report in the New York Times, July 18, 1899, for the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, showed an aggregate attendance the first day of 6,000 pupils. There were 10 schools, keep¬ ing from 9 a. m. to noon for five weeks. Associate Superintendent Seth T. Stewart said the registration was far beyond the capacity of the appropriation set aside for the work of vacation schools. There were 175 teachers for the 10 schools, and the number of pupils limited to each building was 600. There were four branches in the schools: (1) Kindergarten, taking children from 5 to 6 years old; (2) the primary, taking children from 6 to 10 years old; (3) gram¬ mar and art schools, with pupils from 10 to 12 years old; and (4) industrial schools, taking children between the ages of 12 and 15 years. The indoor gymnasiums used in 1898 were supplemented with five outdoor gymnasiums. Sketch classes for boys and girls over 12 were added. They met in morning hours in city schoolrooms and proceeded later, if the weather was fine, to Central Park or to some other outdoor school of nature. In case of rain the children remained inside the school buildings and worked from models. There were also free swimming classes. Fifteen pools were opened under the direction of the dock board. Teachers of swimming met boy classes every other day; on the alternate days girls’ classes had their swimming teachers. Dr. William IT. Tolman, secretary of the League for Social Service, published an 336 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. original and illustrated article on “Vacation schools,” in Harper’s Bazar, August 19, 1899, in which he reviews the educational experience of New York City with this new and popular institution. He gives the following statistics from 1894 to 1897: Year. Registra¬ tion. Total at¬ tendance. Cost per day for each child. Number of schools. 1894 . 2, 100 28, 000 98, 880 101,009 179, 070 Cents. 11 '/ 3 1895 . 5. 1 6 6 1896 . 5, 762 4. 9 1897 . 5, 669 6 10 In 1898 the city expended 813,201.83 for the educational benefit of 4,072 children, and in the summer of 1899 the experiment was continued under a special committee responsible to Hon. Miles M. O’Brien, chairman of the committee on special schools. “There are 10 schools, of which 4 are in buildings with roof playgrounds. The schools are at 8 Henry street, Rivington and Forsythe, Hester (between Orchard and Ludlow) , East Broadway and Gouverneur street, and Rivington and Suffolk streets, all of which are on the East Side. “An important educational feature of the system is the 21 playgrounds in connec¬ tion with the various schools, and in addition to these there are 5 outdoor gymnasia. During the session plans are made for 80 outings and 8 barge trips.” It is plain that New York is cooperating with its newspapers and the best efforts of individuals and of society itself to better the condition of city children in hot weather. Vacation schools in Chicago. — In a paper on “ Vacation schools,” by Richard Water¬ man, j r. , of Chicago, published by the National Educational Association, 1898, pages 404-410, the author says: In 1896 the Civic Federation of Chicago conducted a vacation school in one of the most crowded districts on the west side of that city. The board of education gave the use of a fine public-school building, in which there was a very complete equip¬ ment for teaching woodwork. The Chicago Record gave the entire school an excur¬ sion to the country once each week. The work of the school was grouped around this excursion as a center. The subjects taught were nature study, woodwork, sew¬ ing, music, gymnastics, drawing, and modeling. Only 300 children could be admit¬ ted to the school, and nearly 4,000 had to be turned away for lack of room. In 1897 a vacation school was conducted in the heart of the stock-yards district of Chicago, under the auspices of the University of Chicago Settlement. Here, again, the enrollment was limited to 300, but the number of applications was far in excess of the accommodations. The subjects taught were woodwork, sewing, housework, nature study, drawing, music, and physical exercises, and a very practical form of training for citizenship was given through the penny savings bank and the Clean City League. Frequent excursions to the country were made a prominent feature of the work. Th ese two schools in Chicago have aroused so much interest in the vacation school movement that a number of public-spirited women have agreed to provide the money needed for the support of several schools during the coming summer. The school authorities take a great interest in the work. At the end of the first summer the president of the board of education recommended in his annual report that vacation schools be made a part of the public-school system. In an article on “Vacation schools” in The Independent, June 1, 1899, it is stated that in 1898 “the women’s clubs of Chicago undertook to mother some thousand little ones during the summer,” and to provide a weekly excursion which should be the center around which swung a curriculum of manual training, woodwork, needle work, drawing, painting, nature study, music, and gymnastics. Five such summer schools were opened in Chicago, July 5, 1898, accommodating 2,000 children. Over 6,000 applied for entrance. Only visitors in Chicago who have seen the pressure of juvenile democracy upon those Chicago public schools and libraries can begin to realize their significance as civilizing agencies and their vast possibilities. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 337 Each week the whole school, in groups of varying sizes, was taken to some park or farm or suburb, and according to the nature of the place observations were made and material gathered as the basis for study during the week. Trees and flowers and birds, stones and soil were carefully observed, and many were the interesting discov¬ eries of the children. Butterflies and bees, aye, even snakes and frogs and fishes, were carried back alive for further study in boxes specially prepared for the purpose. Who shall say that city summer schools have not the freedom of the country in these days of parks, trolleys, and steamboats? Instead of costly experiments for amusing and reforming city boys, the utilization of existing institutions such as public schools and public libraries is now generally approved in America. The movement for vacation schools has spread from New York to Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Chicago. The city summer school, accompanied by fresh-air excursions to the seaside, the park, and the country, is a popular institution which like all democracy has come to stay and will doubtless improve from year to year. The American city is not all that could be desired in educational or political respects, but there is much to encourage a believer in democracy and the church, and in the power of society to improve itself by the aid of education, religion, and experience. The Old World visitor should inspect the public schools and libraries of Boston, Brookline, and the neighboring towns. Visit the Museum of Fine Arts and the Public Gardens, behold the statuary and bronze memorials, the open air gymnasia and free baths of Boston, the “ Athens of America.” Go to Chicago and do likewise before visiting the stock-yards and abattoirs (as many travelers are urged to do). See the city in its best and noblest aspects, its magnificent parks and lake front, its Art Institute and Field Museum (a permanent memorial of the Chicago Exposition and of “The great White City”). Visit the Newberry, Crerar, and pub¬ lic libraries, where the eager interest of young Chicago in good books and period¬ icals is wonderfully manifest. Do not ignore the Armour and Lewis Institutes, peo¬ ple’s seminaries of industrial education, nor the University of Chicago, the noblest educational and institutional expressions of the wonderful energy and vitalizing wealth of men who have laid an enduring economic basis for the intellectual and scientific training of the great West. If we extol the merchants and traders who made possible the art palaces of Venice and Florence, what shall we say of the extraor¬ dinary evolution which is going on before our very eyes in the great industrial towns of Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Seattle, and San Francisco. View them at their best and think of the physical diffi¬ culties which they have overcome with the aid of good engineering, better sanita¬ tion, and the best devices of modern science. The labors of Hercules are being repeated in every American city. English and American cities are beginning some¬ times to reflect the human spirit on the nobler side, as Isocrates was finely said to do always. The Greek ideal of city life was educational. — S. H. Butcher, in “Some aspects of Greek Genius” (pp. 6cM36 and 70-71), thus describes the Greek idea of the city state: The city was the teacher, the guide of life, the sovereign educator. The truth of this had been felt and acted on in Greece. Each city stood out as a person, a moral agent. It had its own character (//Gog) and individual stamp. That character it impressed upon its members. Manifold were the agencies and influences by which it worked. It spoke to the citizens through its laws and constitution, which were the truest image of itself. It spoke, as at Athens, through its art and architecture, in which the service of the state and of religion was united. It spoke through the poets, who, at the great public festivals, were more than private individuals. They bore, in some sort, the commission of the state; and when, in the hearing of their fellow-citizens they set forth their deepest thoughts upon the problems of life, they did their part toward harmonizing ancient pieties and sacred legend with the moral sense of a more reflective age. ED 1900 - 22 338 . « EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. On page 70 Butcher has another highly suggestive passage for the modern citizen: Bui the state, as conceived by the philosophers, while in one aspect it resembled a church, was also something more than a church. On its secular side, statesman¬ ship had to concern itself with the outward means of livelihood; to regulate the pro¬ duction and distribution of wealth; to lay down minute rules for the guidance of the individual from the cradle to the grave; to exercise supreme control over all the practical arts, assigning to each its due rank and place. It had to prescribe what sciences should be admitted and studied by different classes within the community. Above all, the complete culture and education of the citizen must be undertaken by the state, for this, the highest of all civic interests, was, under existing social arrange¬ ments most defective. It must no longer be left in private hands, as at Athens. The training of the citizen thus becomes the chief concern of the political philoso¬ pher. Severe, indeed, was the preparation, and long and arduous the self-discipline enjoined upon those who were to be rulers in the state; and if few could hope to attain to such perfection, those few were the men whom nature had marked out as fitted to bear rule. With Aristotle as with Plato, the construction of an ideal state merges in a scheme of national education. Civic education in Athens. — In Macaulay’s Essay on the “Athenian Orators” there is a graphic picture of Athenian education: Let us for a moment transport ourselves in thought to that glorious city. Let us imagine that we are entering its gates in the time of its power and glory. A crowd is assembled ’round a portico. All are gazing with delight at the entablature; for Phidias is putting up the frieze. We turn into another street; a rhapsodist is recit¬ ing there; men, women, children are thronging ’round him; the tears are running down their cheeks; their eyes are fixed; their very breath is still; for he is telling how Priam fell at the feet of Achilles, and kissed those hands — the terrible, the murderous— which had slain so many of his sons. We enter the public place ; there is a ring of youths, all leaning forward, with sparkling eyes, and gestures of expecta¬ tion. Socrates is pitted against the famous atheist, from Ionia, and has just brought him to a contradiction in terms. But we are interrupted. The herald is crying, ‘ ‘ Room for the Prytanes. ’ ’ The general assembly is to meet. The people are swarm¬ ing in on every side. Proclamation is made, “Who wishes to speak?” There is a shout and a clapping of hands; Pericles is mounting the stand. Then for a play of Sophocles; and away to sup with Aspasia. I know of no modern university which has so excellent a system of education. Ancient and modern cities compared. — Greek cities were by no means perfect in their municipal economy or practical politics. Nor were their citizens altogether immacu¬ late in public or private morals. Greek society was only half developed as regards family life, and Greek education broke down at some of the most practical points. The platonic republic and its socialistic ideals were never realized in old Greece, and some of them are absolutely impossible for any people under the sun. With all his splendid visions Plato was more impracticable in his domestic and educational theo¬ ries than Rousseau, with his “Social contract.” Modern cities, especially those in America, have greater obstacles to overcome than did Athens or Sparta or other Greek cities, based upon servile labor. The vot¬ ing citizens of Athens were less than 100,000. Her servile, non voting population was four times as large. Modern republics have undertaken to ennoble work and the family and popular education. France, England, and America have enfranchised the people, and American cities are attempting to educate not merely the native population, but great masses of freedmen and foreign born. The process is not merely political, but it is also educational in the profoundest sense. It is the uplift¬ ing of the common people by the means of institutions, laws, industries, and public schools. In the American Review of Reviews for April, 1895, was published a valuable his- torico-political article on “ Our civic renaissance,” by the editor, Dr. Albert Shaw, who calls public attention to the extraordinary revival of good government, civic reform , and municipal common sense in various cities of the United States. In some respects the civic renaissance in England and America is a nobler kind of renaissance than even the revival of Greek art and literature, for good government is the very EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 339 life and health of society. Nothing is paramount to the saius publica. Good gov¬ ernment not only redeems the city from evil, but in some form or other it holds civic society together and regulates or influences all that lives and moves within its sphere, even education and culture. Good government is civic salvation. Civic creed of Chicago's children. — God hath made of one blood all nations of men, and we are his children, brothers and sisters all. We are citizens of these United States, and we believe our flag stands for self-sacrifice for the good of all the people. We want, therefore, to be true citizens of our great city, and we will show our love for her by our works. Chicago does not ask us to die for her welfare; she asks us to live for her, and so to live and so to act that her government may be pure, her officers honest, and every corner of her territory a place fit to grow the best men and women who shall rule over her.— (See National Educational Association Report, 1898, p. 407, article on vaca¬ tion schools, by Richard Waterman, jr. ) TUI. Ajrt foe the People. Art for the people has long been fostered by the means of public galleries, museums, exhibitions, monuments, statues, and memorials. In England and various other countries of the Old World municipal art galleries are regular institutions, but in America they are not yet fully developed. In New York City the Metropolitan Museum of Art was erected by the city upon land belonging to the city and is leased to-day upon the most generous terms to a private corporation. In the United States interference by politicians in art matters is so much dreaded that public-spirited citi¬ zens contrive to protect the art cause in corporate ways. Accordingly, in very many American municipalities there already exists a public art gallery under private con¬ trol. The Metropolitan Museum, in New York, has a collection of art works valued at upward of $8,000,000. The association expends every year a vast amount of money in the purchase of works of painting and sculpture, in providing educational lectures upon art subjects, and in supporting scholarships for the aid of art students. The Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts is the oldest art institution in the United States. It dates from 1791, when Charles Willson Peale undertook to organize in Philadelphia a school for the fine arts. The academy was, however, legally founded and incorporated in 1805-1806. It first met in Independence ITall, where the Declaration of Independence was signed. The educational objects of the academy were thus defined: “To promote the cultivation of the fine arts in the United States of America by introducing correct and elegant copies from works of the first masters in sculpture and painting, and by thus facilitating the access to such standards, and also by occasionally conferring moderate but honourable premiums, and otherwise assisting the studies and exciting the efforts of the artists gradually to unfold, enlighten, and invigorate the talents of our countrymen.” Throughout the present century the academy has accomplished much for the collection and public exhibition of works of painting and sculpture and encouraging art talent by medals and other awards. One of the oldest municipal art societies in the United States is the Fairmount Park Art Association, founded in 1871. Its efforts were at first directed toward the pur¬ chase of works of art to beautify Fairmount Park, but the scope has been widened so as to include the whole city of Philadelphia. The association has a membership of over 1,400; it has expended over $100,000 and has secured many oil paintings, bronzes, statues, and fountains for artistic purposes in Fairmount Park, Memorial Hall, and other places. Fairmount Park Museum contains some of the best souvenirs of the Centennial Exposition held in Philadelphia in 1876. In Boston there is an art association dating from 1890. It is composed of the mayor, the president of the, trustees of the Boston Public Library, the president of the trus¬ tees of the Museum of Fine Arts, the president of the Boston Society of Architects, < 340 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. and the president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Probably the best supervision in the country has been exercised over the decorations of the great stair¬ case and corridors in the new Public Library. Eminent artists have been employed for the work of pictorial and sculptural decorations. The symbolical paintings by Puvis de Chavannes and the sculptural work by Mr. Daniel C. French and by St. Gaudens are especially noteworthy. The Boston Museum of Fine Arts is one of the very best art collections in America. This museum and the Boston Public Library are the two chief artistic attractions to visitors of the city. Both are truly educa¬ tional centers for art students, public-school teachers, and pupils of Boston and vicinity. In March, 1893, was founded the Municipal Art Society of New York City “to provide adequate sculptural and pictorial decorations for the public buildings and parks.” A membership of 500 was soon secured. Among the objects accomplished by this society are the mural decoration of the court rooms and the erection of a suit¬ able memorial to Mr. Richard Hunt, the late president of the society, a monument built in the wall of Central Park opposite the Lenox Library building. There is also a municipal art commission in New York composed of the mayor, the president of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the president of the New York Public Library, the president of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, one painter, one sculp¬ tor, one architect, and three residents of the city without any such artistic profession. This commission is practically controlled by the Fine Arts Federation, composed of the various art societies of New York City. At the instance of this federation the so-called “French law” was passed March 15, 1896, providing that no statue, piece of sculpture, or other work of art in the nature of a public monument or memorial should be erected upon any ground or within any building belonging to the city unless approved by the mayor, the president of the board of aldermen, the president of the National Sculptural Society, and the president of the Municipal Art Society. If any one of these four persons objected, the proposed monument or memorial should not be accepted. “The art commission has authority over plans for municipal buildings, bridges, approaches, parks, gates, fences, lamps, and all structures erected on State property.” Similar institutions have lately been established in Baltimore: (1) The City Art Commission and (2) the Municipal Art Society. Mr. J. B. Noel Wyatt, secretary of the art commission, makes the following careful distinction between the two institu¬ tions: The “City Art Commission” now exists under the new charter of the city of Baltimore and consists of eight members, viz, the mayor, ex-officio, and one appointed by each of the following bodies: The Johns Hopkins University; the Pea¬ body Institute; the Maryland Institute; the Charcoal Club; the Architectural Club; the Historical Society, and the park board. All designs for decorative features, such as monuments, fountains, statues, and other like objects, proposed to be placed in any public park, square, street, or public building in the city must be submitted to this art commission for their approval from whatever source they come, and their decision is absolute and final in the matter. The purpose of this committee is to further in every way the art spirit and the erection of art objects of all kinds throughout the city, but it is their strict duty to accept only those that, in their opinion, possess some real artistic merit, designed by artists of some skill. The duties of this commission end here, with the exception that it may be called upon by the mayor at any time that he may see fit to do so for its advice in regard to the designs for any public building. So much for the “City Art Commission.” The “Municipal Art Society,” on the other hand, formed in the spring of 1899, is an association whose members may be any citizens of reputable character, men or women, sufficiently interested in art matters to subscribe funds, which are to be used for the purpose of giving to the city, from time to time, various objects of art, of different kinds, for the adornment of either the exterior or interior locations in EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 341 the public parks and buildings. Such objects, in all cases, must be submitted for the approval of the “Art commission.” The existence of this Municipal Art Society is largely owing to the efforts of Mr. Theodore Marburg, who was its suggester and most active promoter. Dr. D. C. Gilman, of the Johns Hopkins University, is the first president of the society, and there are associated with him, from among its members, an executive board, consisting of well-known citizens, for the control of its affairs. In addition to the donation of art objects from its regular funds, the society will, from time to time, have in hand various other schemes looking to the promo¬ tion of art interests in the city, among which at present is the decoration of the "walls of some of the public schools, which is being done under a special committee and by a special fund donated for that purpose and not taken from the general funds of the society. Plans are now formed in Baltimore for increasing the number of statues of distinguished men, to be placed in public squares. Very many of the older and leading cities in America have academies of tine arts or art galleries, either public or private. In 1879 the Academy of Fine Arts was founded in Chicago and is now known as the Art Institute. Its rapid development is due in no small degree to the energy of its president, Mr. Charles L. Hutchinson. It now occupies a handsome building on the corner of Michigan avenue and Van Buren street. The interior plan comprises a lecture room, various galleries, and exhibition rooms, with art studios and special rooms for clay modeling and wood carving. The galleries are filled from time to time with loan exhibitions, of which the institute has held a great number, including “paintings, sculpture, engravings, autotypes, pottery, illustrative designs, etchings, and black-and-white drawings.” These exhibitions have proved very helpful to the school and interesting to the pub¬ lic. The Art Institute of Chicago has several hundred pupils every year and is exercising a permanent influence upon the art taste of the city. St. Louis also has a beautiful museum of art, w ith a large room for public art instruction. Professor Ives says: “ The work to be done in the West is not to bring French or other paintings before the public, but to do something with raw material. Nearly all the useful ores, with iron at the head, are found in Missouri. What the school and museum most help in doing is the working up of these ores with brains, so that the work shall be recognized and a school founded like those of Nuremberg and Belgian ironworkers.” The St. Louis school aims to give the the best possible training in art and at the same time to make its principles of practical service in decoration and in design. The collections in the museum are not extensive, but are growing in public interest and suggestive value. Other Western cities have their local societies of fine arts and their loan exhibitions. Milwaukee has a public art gallery founded by Mr. Frederick Layton. In Cincin¬ nati there is a combined art school and museum, and in Pittsburg the art idea is in process of development in connection with the Carnegia libraries. CIRCULATION V. EXHIBITION OF PICTURES. There has grown up in England and America a very useful educational practice of circulating collections of pictures and photographs in the public schools and in the homes of the people. Miss Barlow, one of the active leaders of the National Home Beading Union, some years ago developed this practice in connection with local read¬ ing circles and courses of university-extension lectures. Mr. T. C. Horsfall, of Man¬ chester, who has been very public-spirited in the museum work of that city, has also done much to promote the circulation of pictures in the board schools. He says that “The decision as to whether art shall be used in education is to modern commu¬ nities a decision as to wdiether the mass of the people shall be barbarian or civilized.” A social settlement, Hull House, in Chicago, wras early active in local exhibitions of good pictures and in providing both pictures and plaster casts for public schools in the poorer districts. Good educational and social use of pictures has been made there 342 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. for many years, especially among Italians and other foreign-born, with whom it is not always easy to converse. All sorts and conditions of our common humanity are reached through the eye, and it is really a great boon to the people to exhibit loan collections of good pictures at social settlements, and especially to circulate, like trav¬ eling libraries, cheap prints in small portfolios in rural neighborhoods, for the illus¬ tration of subjects of special interest, e. g., a local lecture course, class work, or home study. The idea appears to have been developed in various parts of this country, both East and West. In New York, Miss Edith Putnam has combined the idea of a small circulating library with that of circulating pictures for the use of boys and girls’ clubs, mothers’ classes, etc. Miss Putnam says: “It is very interesting to me to observe that the Italians took up very few books, preferring pictures.” In Boston there is a picture club which circulates folios of photographs in working girls’ clubs and Sunday afternoon classes. The Massachusetts State Federation of Women’s Clubs in the meeting at Springfield, in February, 1897, gave currency to the subject of “Art, the need of the beautiful in the home, the schools, the streets.” Specimen pictures were exhibited suitable for home or school use, and have been introduced into public schools of Salem, Mass. In Bridgeport, Conn., an art teacher devised a plan for circulating through the 21 school buildings 21 works of art, being reproduc¬ tions of famous pictures or works of sculpture. A good masterpiece is allowed to remain in one school for a fortnight and is then passed on to the next. (See article by IE J. Carter on “ Traveling libraries of illustrations” in the Library Journal, June, 1897.) PICTURE EXHIBITIONS IN LIBRARIES. The well-known librarian, Mr. C. A. Cutter, in the Library Journal for May, 1897, describes the experience of the Forbes Library, in Northampton, Mass., where exhi¬ bitions of photographs, posters, and engravings have been encouraged. He says: These exhibitions are a way of making the library known. People are drawn to the library to see the show, and when there it occurs to them to register and take books. Our registered membership always grows faster during an exhibition. But this is not all. In accordance with the curious fact that men see what is about them better after seeing it imitated in art, the Sella views of the Alps must have opened some one’s eyes to the winter beauty of Mount Holyoke and Mount Tom; the Soule Corots and Rousseaus must have drawn a new attention to our elms and pines. A public library should be the center of culture of its town. It should promote knowl¬ edge, literature, and art by every means in its power. Almost the only point to be regretted in the construction of our building is that it does not allow us to make it the headquarters and place of meeting of our literary clubs. It has, however, room for exhibitions, large and small, which have been very fortunate for us. Those which we have held have, I am sure, not only given pleasure, which in itself would be a sufficient justification, but have broadened their visitors’ minds; have supplied some of the advantages of travel to those who could not leave home; have renewed the impressions of those who have been abroad; have increased the knowledge of art, and educated the taste of all who saw them. The Civic Club of Philadelphia in 1896 started a circulating picture gallery, with 133 pictures radiating from two centers of distribution. Picture exhibitions were also freely opened for evening attendance by the poorer classes. Two exhibitions have been held each winter, and free tickets have been distributed through the instrumentality of labor leagues, friendly societies, clubs, and other organizations. As many as 25,000 people have attended a free art exhibition in one evening. To each ticket was attached a coupon, on which the holder could vote for his favorite picture. This privilege, of course, encouraged closer attention and discriminating judgment. The College Settlement of Philadelphia in 1896 united with the Civic Club of that city for the establishment of a circulating picture library. Framed photographic copies of works of the best artists were supplied to the settlement and properly cata¬ logued by the club. A printed slip giving a brief account of the artist and of the EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 848 particular work in hand was pasted on the back of each photograph. These pictures were exhibited at the settlement, and in some cases, as in that of mothers of children in the kindergarten, were allowed to be taken home. “Even among our Hebrew friends,” says the report of 1896, “the madonnas are favorites with both mothers and children. It is, of course, the human interest that attracts them.” * TRAVELING PICTURES. This interesting movement was started some years ago in England in connection with the National Home Reading Union, which is in the habit of supplying port¬ folios of pictures to accompany reading courses on history, art, or travel. The same idea has been independently developed in New England in connection with public libraries, and in Wisconsin in connection with the traveling-library movement. Miss Mary E. Tanner, of the State Normal School, has thus described a system of travel¬ ing pictures in Portage County: The pictures are various in kind as to* subject and manner of reproduction. They comprise flowers, landscapes, marine views, game, and religious subjects in pho¬ tographic and brown and colored lithographic reproductions. They are mounted behind gray cardboard, which is cut to form a mat. On the back of the picture is a small cardboard pocket, in which is kept a library card with name of picture written on it. There is also another pocket in which is placed a short written account of the picture and life of the artist. A tape with a brass ring on it is pasted on the back of the picture, furnishing a means for hanging the picture on the wall. On the mat¬ ting, in the lower left corner, is printed the name of the picture and artist. A stout maniia envelope protects the whole. So far these libraries have been carried into the country communities through the medium of the school, the teacher being- asked to invite the children and their parents to the schoolhouse on Friday night, when the pictures "were shown to them, and they were further interested by simple talks about the art of picture making and photography and the stories which the artist had portrayed. They were then left in care of the teacher, wTho is also a libra¬ rian. The children in the school and the people in the neighborhood were made to understand that the pictures might be taken home and kept for a week, when they were to be returned and new ones drawn. Those which were not in use were to be hung in the schoolroom, so that the pupils might derive pleasure and benefit from them. The plan has worked admirably, everyone enjoying them and speaking in the highest words of praise regarding them. In June, when they were returned from the various communities, there came the request to have them again in the fall. Many of the older people among the foreign population surrounding Stevens Point derived more from them than from the books, for, as one old man said in his broken English, “I can read your pictures, but I can no read your books.” ART DECORATION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. A new feature of public school education in America is the artistic and historical decoration of class rooms or school interiors with pictures representing the master¬ pieces of sculpture, painting, and architecture, together with historical portraits and views of historic places, natural scenery, animal and plant life, etc. Impressions received by school children from the contemplation of good pictures, good portraits, and interesting objects from nature are deep and lasting. Moreover, the beautifying of the environment of school children is in itself educational, for it cultivates the taste. In striking contrast to the bare and ugly w’alls of old-fashioned schoolrooms are the tinted and decorated interiors of the model schools in many of our American cities. The publishers of prints and photographs have cooperated with the directors of this recent movement for art decoration and it is now possible to obtain a vast num¬ ber of very attractive pictures and portraits at trifling cost. The small pictures, when artistically arranged in collective groups and hung low’ so that they can be studied by little children, are very effective as a means of popular education. They produce lasting influences upon the plastic mind of youth and are certain to convey the art idea from the schoolroom to the home. Thus the attempt to cultivate and refine the artistic taste of children makes itself felt in domestic life and in wider civic circles than in the public schools. 344 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. This educational movement in the direction of artistic school decoration began in Boston as early as 1870, and it has gradually spread throughout the Northern and Western States. The Boston Public School Art League declared it their aim “to make the schoolroom a temple worthy to receive and fitted to inspire the children of all the people to the dignity of free citizenship in the Republic.” A lady president of the Civic Club, of Philadelphia, said: “In a country like ours, where, owing to republican institutions, any of these children may some day have a share in the development of municipal art in our great cities, the importance of train¬ ing the eye to what is best and greatest is obvious.” The committee on art has ren¬ dered conspicuous service in the decoration of public school buildings. One building in particular, at the corner of Nineteenth and Addison streets, was especially chosen for the artistic commemoration of the good civic work of Mrs. J. Dundas Lippincott. The stairways and fourteen rooms of this building were decorated with carefully chosen pictures, casts, and flags. In one room there are portraits of prominent char¬ acters in American history. In another there are plaster busts of distinguished authors with various masterpieces. “Still other rooms are devoted to animal life, natural scenery, famous paintings and sculpture, effects of the forces of nature, patri¬ otism, Greek and Roman history, etc.” Particular attention is shown in the kinder¬ garten room to the choice of pictures which are easily understood by a child of 5 years old. The Civic Club has decorated other schools in Philadelphia, but none so well as the “Alice Lippincott School.” (See Municipal Affairs, March, 1898, pp. 3-5. ) This movement has lately reached Baltimore, a university city on the borders of the new South. Baltimore is already an art city. The Barye bronzes decorate Mount Vernon place. The Washington Monument, towering above the Peabody Institute, gives historic fame to the Monumental City. The Walters Art Gallery, in the immediate vicinity, contains the finest collection of French art in America. The art gallery of the Peabody Institute is of growing educational value to the public, and especially to the public schools of Baltimore. The Arundell Club, a social organization of the most cultivated ladies in Baltimore, has undertaken to cooperate with the Municipal Art League in the decoration of school halls and staircases. A representative school has already been transformed by the hand of art. Bare walls have been beautifully tinted, and these serve as backgrounds for a fine collection of pictures and other decorations. A special attempt has been made to foster the American spirit. A framed copy of the Constitution of the United States, with the heraldic shields of the thirteen original States and a picture of the Capitol at Wash¬ ington, catch the eye of every pupil and every visitor. Views of American scenery, lake, mountain, meadow, and forest, give these young Americans glimpses of the beauty of their native land. Among the historical pictures are the Landing of Columbus, the Departure of the Pilgrim Fathers, many historical portraits from Washington to Lincoln, various his¬ toric cathedrals, Venetian palaces, French chateaux, and German castles. There are also photographs of the masterpieces of art, especially of Greek sculpture and of Christian painting. This art movement will undoubtedly spread through all the schools of the city and gradually extend into the country and through the Southern States. An American artist has well said: “I sincerely trust that the school committee of the future will consider the furnishing of the walls of the schoolroom as much a part of its duty as furnishing desks and books, for as Americans we have developed too much of one side, considering nothing but that which appeals to us as practical, and ignoring that through which the glory of the past has been handed down to us.” A chapter on “Art decoration in schoolrooms,” compiled by a graduate of Johns Hopkins University, Dr. Stephen B. Weeks, was published in the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1895-96, pages 1363-1411. This chapter calls attention to the first efforts in America toward the decoration of schoolrooms, 345 EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. to the work of the Brooklyn Institute, the interior decoration of sehoolhouses, art in the schoolroom, and the place of art in general education. Miss Stella Skinner and Miss Rachel Webster, of New Haven, Conn., have published “A list of casts and pictures suggested for the first eight years of school, with Special reference to the general course of study in these grades.” This list was prepared especially for the schools of New Haven, and has lately been published in book form. An excellent paper by Miss Skinner on “Art in the schoolroom,” read before the Buffalo meeting of the National Educational Association, is reprinted in the Report (p. 1383) of the Commissioner of Education above mentioned. ENCOURAGEMENT OF v?ET. American cities have long fostered a combination of the historical and art spirit in the form of public monuments and memorials. Baltimore is called the Monumental- City because of a monument near the court-house commemorating the battle of North Point, fought September 12, 1814, with the British. The monument was begun 1815 and completed in 1825. The more stately and impressive monument in memory of George Washington was begun by Baltimore citizens in 1815 and was completed in 1829. It was adopted in 1827 by the Stake of Maryland and antedates by many years the monument built by the National Government in the Federal city in honor of the first President. Baltimore has long been recognized as one of the chief art centers in America. The Walters Gallery, with its wonderful collection of modern paintings and its remarkable museum of oriental pottery, Japanese bronzes, and rare curios, has been for art-loving Americans a veritable palace of delight. It has not been public like the National Gallery in London, or the Louvre in Paris, or the Royal Museum of Ber¬ lin; it has been more like the princely collections of Italian cities, at first open to a select few and then on certain occasions for a fee to the many. An increasing liber¬ ality has marked its management and it seems only a question of time when this home of the fine aids in Baltimore should become a home of beauty for all who choose to visit and enjoy it. Mr. William T. Walters a short time before his death was considering the project of a public art gallery in connection with the Woman’s College of that city. The plans for a $200,000 building had been drawn, and Mr. Walters had shown the greatest interest in every detail of the undertaking, which was being actively pushed forward by that generous promoter of the art idea in architecture, President John F. Goucher, from whom I learned these facts. Mr. Walters had expressed himself to Dr. Goucher as profoundly gratified with the evidences of good architectural taste shown in the buildings of the Woman’s College. “You have built well, and for the future,” said the founder of the Walters Gallery, who liked things that are solid and perma¬ nent and beautiful. All true friends of art and good architecture will echo these sentiments and honor the college president who had the sense and genius to build a church and a group of college buildings after noble Italian models of the period of the Rennaissance. Like Thomas Jefferson, when he designed from classical models the University of Virginia, Dr. Goucher intended that his college buildings should be a great object lesson in good architecture. It was this grand idea which Mr. Walters evidently appreciated in the Woman’s College. He said it would be a fine lesson for the young women of the college to look upon those buildings, and mani¬ fested a growing interest in the project of allying the Walters Art Gallery with that rising institution, which stands for art as well as for the education of women. This was a grand idea, but Mr. Walters died too soon for its realization. For the promotion of art, in America various scholarships and funds have been established by individual bequests and foundations in some of our leading cities. For example, in Baltimore the Reinhart fund, managed by the trustees of the Pea¬ body Institute, enables promising young artists and sculptors to study abroad. Rein- 346 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. hart himself was a Baltimorean, early befriended by the late John W. McCoy, and sent to Europe for the development of a manifest talent for plastic art. The work of his hands is now to be seen in the art gallery of the Peabody Institute. Reinhart showed his gratitude to Baltimore by leaving his accumulated property to the Peabody Insti¬ tute for an art-educational fund, which was so well husbanded for the institute by the late William T. Walters that the income is now very helpful to the cause for which Reinhart lived and labored. Other cities have similar endowments. In New York there is the McKim scholar¬ ship for encouraging foreign study in architecture. In Boston the Rotch foundation accomplishes the same object. Colleges and universities in the United States have their art galleries and professors of art and music. There are endowed lectureships for the maintenance of art courses in academic communities. Harvard, Yale, Colum¬ bia, and Princeton universities are prominent supporters of art and archaeology. A combination of American colleges and other patrons of the cause sustain the American Journal of Archaeology. American schools of classical and archaeological study are maintained at Rome and Athens. It is a growing custom for American professors to take what is called their Sabbatical or septennial year for travel and study in Europe. The history of art, as illustrated in famous Old World galleries, interests all American travelers, but those of the academic class usually settle down for protracted study in great centers of art and science. • The best examples of art set by city, state, and nation to the American people are decorative. Art is applied to a public educational purpose in the decoration of the corridors and stairways of the Boston Public Library and the new Library of Con¬ gress at Washington. A study and description of the details of those wonderful nineteenth century art creations would require more space than is here available; but there is no doubt that the highest artistic development which the American Republic has now reached is to be seen in this renaissance of painted fresco and art decoration for the mural interiors of municipal and other public buildings. In this line of artistic development, as in many other ways, America has been led by French example and by French artists. In an article on “Puvis cle Chavannes,” in the Conservative Review, Washington, D. C., May, 1899, Miss Dora L. Murdock, of Baltimore, an artist well trained by study and travel abroad, gives this frank recognition of art as essentially decorative: Was not the best art in the ages of great production “art in harness” as it were? In Greece each statue was destined for a given pediment or niche; in Italy each painted fresco was for a given wall, and altar piece for a particular altar. They did not think art degraded because made subservient to architecture, but ail the arts worked together to increase the architectural effect. It might be a group for a triumphal arch, the ceiling of theSistine Chapel, mosaics for the facade of St, Mark’s, or a saltcellar, a dagger, a seal, a medallion, that in the hands of a Benvenuto Cellini became a work of art. Speaking of the possibilities of American art, Brooks Adams said at a recent banquet of the National Sculpture Society: I ask you, American artists, have we no national life which fires your imagination and stirs your blood? I tell you this continent is quivering with an energy beside which the energy of Rome is as the shock of the galley to that of the battle ship. I feel it about me on every hand ; our people are possessed with a premonition of their destiny. — The Press, Philadelphia, June 8, 1899. POPULAR TRAINING IN ART. For popular training in art there are many agencies in America. At all the technical and industrial institutes there are art classes, some of them excellent. Work of a high order is carried on at the Metropolitan Art Museum, the Boston Art Museum, the Art Institute in Chicago, and in connection with nearly all the art academies in our American cities. Prominent among the art galleries are the Phila- EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 347 delphia Academy of Fine Arts, the Walters Gallery in Baltimore, and the Corcoran Gallery in Washington. This last collection, although privately founded, is virtually the National Art Gallery of the Federal city. It is manifestly the art center of Washington and will surely expand and improve with the development of the nation and of critical as well as patriotic interest in art matters. Already Washing¬ ton is by far the most interesting city in America by reason of the Library of Con¬ gress, the Smithsonian Institution, the National Museum, and other Government buildings; its general plan of broad streets and avenues radiating from the Capitol; its Washington Monument and many statues in public open spaces; the Soldiers’ Home and other parks; its scientific bureaus, and its multiplying schools, colleges, and universities. A popular educational need to-day is systematic instruction in art history. By this term is meant the historical process of art development in the most important fields, namely, architecture, sculpture, painting, and music. The fine arts are the noblest product of historic life, or as Hermann Grimm, of Berlin University, used to say, “Art is the very flower of history.” At German universities, gymnasia, technical schools, and girls’ schools great attention is devoted to what is called Kunstgeschichte, or the history of art. In every institution of higher learning there is either a museum of art or a good equip¬ ment for its illustration. It is customary for every lecturer upon art subjects to exhibit to his class some concrete image, in plaster, photograph, or engraving of every subject which he describes. At Heidelberg, where I used to hear lectures in archaeology and art history from Professor Stark, we always enjoyed looking at the pictures while the professor lectured. At Berlin, every Saturday morning, we used to go to the museum with Professor Grimm or Prof. Ernst Curtius, to look at plaster or pictorial images of Christian and Greek art. In the very presence of the art creations of great masters, these famous professors gave instruction to their students. Impressions came to our minds through the eye as well as through the ear. This is the method of teaching art history in the Volksschulen, as well as at the university. Classrooms are furnished with large-sized pictures which appeal to children’s eyes. When a teacher talks about the Pyramids of Egypt, or the Parthenon of Athens, or the Coliseum of Pome, he has a visible symbol of the object under consideration. A fine series of Bilder zur Geschichte, or pictures illustrating history, was prepared some years ago by Joseph Langl, and published in Vienna by Eduard Ilolzel. We have a set of these pictures which are in use at the Johns Hopkins University. They represent the chief epochs of human culture. They present in bold relief the monuments of Egypt, India, Assyria, Persia, Greece, Rome, the Medieval Church, Moorish architecture, Romanesque, Gothic, Byzantine, and Russian art. It is a great thing for classes of young students to be educated amid an environ¬ ment of beauty and illustrations of human history. At the Johns Hopkins Uni¬ versity, acting under a stimulus received many years ago from my German teachers, I have endeavored to surround my students with symbols of great men and of great deeds. I have always tried to illustrate historical lectures by the end of pictorial art. Since our department removed into McCoy Hall, this art idea has received fresh impulse from the architectural convenience, if not beauty, of our present surround¬ ings. The visitor to our historical department in the third story of McCoy Hall will find a suite of seven spacious rooms which are a veritable museum and art gallery combined. We have upon the walls of our lecture room portraits of some of the greatest German historians, Niebuhr, Mommsen, Curtius, Ihne, and Ranke, the greatest of all historians since the world began. There too upon the walls are pic¬ tures of famous English historians, Thomas Arnold, Edward A. Freeman, of Oxford, J. R. Seeley, of Cambridge, and James Anthony Froude. We are beginning to honor our American historians and writers on America, for already we have pictures of George Bancroft, Be Tocqueville, James Schouler, Von Holst, Andrew B. White, 348 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. William F. Allen, J. Lewis Diman, James Bryce, and other writers on American history and politics. Portraits and busts of the world’s great statesmen and public men are seen in our corridors and seminary libraries. Cicero, a representative of classical politics; Dante, the writer on Monarchy; John Locke, the great English writer on civil government and the forerunner of Rousseau and Jefferson; Wash¬ ington, Hamilton, and Lincoln, the greatest of American statesmen; Stein and Bis¬ marck, the founders of New Germany. The Johns Hopkins University, at various times, has undertaken to give some public instruction in art history. We have had systematic lectures and exhibitions representing, to some extent, the development of classical and medieval art. Mr. J. Seymour Hayden early lectured to us upon the art of etching. Dr. Allan Mar- quancl and Dr. Arthur L. Frothingham, for some years, gave special attention to these subjects at the university, and the American Journal of Art and Archaeology, under the editorship of Mr. Frothingham, was first published in Baltimore. An archaeological society was early organized by a little coterie of Hopkins men, but this has now been merged in the Baltimore Branch of the American Archaeological Institute. This local archaeological society meets occasionally at private houses in this city and is entertained by exhibitions of pictures and interesting objects of art, together with lectures upon art subjects. Besides keeping alive an interest in such matters, this Baltimore society contributes annually to the funds of the American Archaeological Institute, under whose auspices explorations are now carried on in Greece and Italy. A substantial return for these contributions is made to Baltimore by the institute, which from time to time sends a share of the antiquities discovered in the Old World to the Monumental City, where they are displayed in the art gal¬ lery of the Peabody Institute. The University Club has also lent an impulse to popular interest in art by occa¬ sional lectures and exhibitions. From time to time illustrated lectures on art sub¬ jects have been given. The club itself is an art gallery. From the beginning the club has been favored with a choice selection of engravings belonging to Mrs. T. Harrison Garrett, whose husband purchased the famous Claghorn collection, well known in Philadelphia. Members are accustomed to lend or exhibit choice etchings and engravings for the general enjoyment of their fellows. Mr. Theodore Marburg has given or lent various oil paintings. The other clubs of Baltimore foster a love of art among their members by gradually increasing and improving their picture gal¬ leries, which contain historic portraits of well-known members of the club. The Baltimore artist, Charles Didier, painted a portrait of Professor Gildersleeve, the first, and only president of the University Club. Such clubs are not for the benefit of the people. They are more or less select bodies of men, who are willing to pay an annual fee for club privileges. Other agencies must be sought besides clubs and colleges. Popular education in art must be promoted by popular institutes like the Maryland and the Peabody, by art exhibitions and public art galleries, by art training in the public schools, by art lectures in young people’s societies, in Chautauqua circles, in church circles and guilds, in working¬ men’s clubs, in the artistic embellishment of public squares, gardens, and city parks. It has long been possible for any young lady who is ambitious to study art history in a systematic way to put herself into communication with the Society for the Encouragement of Study at Home. This society had for its founder and administra¬ tive center Miss Ticknor, at Boston. Many cultivated young ladies in Baltimore have pursued intelligent courses of private reading in ancient art under the guidance of well-trained correspondents, appointed by Miss Ticknor. The necessary books were recommended; letters of instruction were sent to the student; occasional exam¬ inations were set, and an essay was now and then required. Similar work for the benefit of individual students has long been done under the direction of the Chautauqua College of Liberal Arts. One year the whole body of EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 349 Chautauqua students, perhaps 50,000 scattered individuals, were studying the “Renaissance and modern art” under “common guidance.” An excellent text¬ book was prepared for Chautauqua use by Mr. William H. Goodyear, lecturer on the history of art in the Cooper Institute, Brooklyn Institute, and the Teachers’ College. Mr. Goodyear’s Chautauqua text-book is well written and beautifully illustrated. The publication of such a book by the Chautauqua Century Press and its popular use by thousands of men and women are among the most gratifying signs of the times. Among recent authorities on popular education and art are the following: College Histories of Art (Longmans); Hamlin, Alfred D. F., History of Art; Van Dyke, John C., A History of Painting. IX. Music for the People. Vocal music in schools. — A paper on “ Vocal music as a branch of common educa¬ tion” was communicated to the Proceedings of the American Lyceum, No. X, April and May, 1833, by Mr. William C. Woodbridge,1 of Boston, one of the best expon¬ ents of the American Lyceum. He early gave popular lectures upon this favorite subject and should be regarded as one of its pioneers. The above paper contains extracts from those early lectures on musical education and is of special interest as embodying his own observations of popular musical culture in Germany and Switzer¬ land. Mr. Woodbridge appears to have visited not only schoolrooms, but village festivals, in those countries for the sake of noting the effect of musical training on popular character. We visited communities where the youth had been trained from their childhood to exercises in vocal music of such a character as to elevate instead of debasing the mind. . . We have seen the young men of such a community assembling to the number of several hundreds from a circuit of 20 miles, and instead of spending a day of festivity in rioting and drunkenness, pass the whole time, with the excep¬ tion of that employed in the frugal repast and a social meeting, in a concert of social, moral, and religious hymns, and devote the proceeds of the exhibition to some object of benevolence. Mr. Woodbridge drew a sharp contrast between European and American popular knowledge of music, and expressed his surprise at the acquaintance with musical science which he found among the common people in Germany and Switzerland, where even schoolboys can write music. Lie gave the words and music of a song composed by a Swiss peasant girl, whose only musical knowledge had been derived from her village pastor. Mr. Woodbridge visited Nageli and Pfeiffer, the fathers of the Swiss system of popular training in music, and became “convinced that vocal music was one of the most important branches of national education, especially among a free people; and from this moment we resolved that we would never cease to urge this subject upon our countrymen until vocal music should become a branch of instruction in every school in the United States.” Mr. Woodbridge actually introduced into this country Pfeiffer’s system by means of Nageli’s lessons2 and cards, which served to communicate Swiss ideas to many American teachers of vocal music. Mr. Ives, of Boston, afterwards of Philadelphia, was especially instrumental in his popular extension of Swiss elementary music transcribed from Pfeiffer and Nageli. In 1830 Mr. Woodbridge presented his subject before the American Institute of Instruction at its first anniversary, in Boston. 1 William C. Woodbridge was the editor of the American Annals of Education from 1830 to 1838, one of the best sources of information on American educational history in that period. His father, Rev. William Woodbridge, of Middletown, Conn., was the founder and president of the first teachers’ association in America, 1799. (See American Annals of Education, August, 1831.) 2 The notes of each lesson were first written on a blackboard and corresponding cards were given the pupil for home study and practice. 850 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Lowell Mason, of that city, embraced with zeal the Swiss or Pestalozzian system of instruction, and “acknowledged himself indebted to it for the only rational method of teaching, and the best style of juvenile music.” Mason taught gratuitously large classes of children in Boston and conducted a popular series of juvenile concerts, which were attended by crowded audiences. Mason and Ives together brought out the so-called Juvenile Lyre, containing selections from German juvenile music, with original compositions in the same spirit. Mr. Kingsley, of the Boston Sunday School Society, adopted the methods of Mason and Ives, and so did Mr. Hastings, in New York. From such individual beginnings the cause of American popular education in music was extended through schools and churches. The formation of the Boston Academy of Music still farther promoted the object of diffusing popular knowledge. Mason 1 and Webb were appointed to professorships in this institution, which trained great numbers of pupils and teachers who afterwards became helpful in developing and extending the love of music in New England. Indeed, from Boston’s earliest and latest schools of music have gone forth in no small measure “the extension of a knowledge of vocal music among the teachers and schools of our country.” But in Germany and Switzerland are found the historic sources of American pop¬ ular culture in vocal music. It was Luther who said “A schoolmaster must be able to sing, or else I would not look upon him.” It was a Prussian ordinance published in the Official Gazette January 25, 1825: “Among the essential branches of education which ought to be found in all the common schools, and to which every teacher who undertakes the management of such schools is in duty bound to attend, is instruction in singing.” Mr. Woodbridge in 1833 emphasized the fact that whole communities and nations in Europe have been taught to sing with as little difficulty and as much success as they are taught to read. He said, “ The teacher of the poor children of Hofwyl — chiefly taken from the highways and hedges — assured me that among several hun¬ dred pupils he had found but two with whom he had had any serious difficulty.” 2 As early as 1830 Mr. Woodbridge ma.de the Swiss methods of popular education known to American teachers in a series c-i letters from Fellenberg and Hofwyl in the American Annals of Education, vol. 1. The ground plan of Hofwyl appears as a frontispiece to that volume. Woodbridge says he gained in a few conversations with Pfeiffer more distinct conceptions of the nature and signs of music than he did in ail his “ quarters” spent at singing school. It is sometimes said that American popular education in music was the result of the old-fashioned singing school, but between that and the new school which Woodbridge and Lowell Mason introduced there is all the difference between an old-folk’s concert and the folk songs now sung by our school children and college glee clubs. Undoubtedly we had our musical inheritance from the Massachusetts Bay Psalm Book, but the old and new schools are not in the same class. Mr. Ives had great success in Philadelphia in training large singing classes. The elementary singing book embodied the general principles of Pfeiffer, as did the Juve¬ nile Lyre and Lowell Mason’s songs. In a review of the second annual report of the Boston Academy of Music, 1831, Mr. Woodbridge said, in his American Annals of Education, vol. 4, 322: “Only four years have elapsed since the introduction of vocal music as a branch of general education in our country was proposed, and the rational inductive system of instruc¬ tion announced to the public. Our pressing engagements at that time only allowed the oral translation of Pestalozzi’s works, to the gentleman who made the first experiments on the system. Our views were regarded by many as visionary.” 1 In the American Annals of Education, vol. 5, p. 6, will be found some of Lowell Mason’s early American adaptations of the German folk songs. 2 Proceedings of the American Lyceum No. 10, April and May, 1S33, p. 98. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 351 Woodbridge then goes on to show, from the report of the Boston Academy of Music, what had been accomplished by that institution, whose object was ‘ ‘ to diffuse the knowledge of music and elevate the standard of taste among the schools and the people of our country.” In the historical sketch of musical instruction in the public schools of Boston by Hon. J. D. Philbrick, printed in a “Testimonial given to Luther Whiting Mason” (Ginn & Heath, Boston), there is a confirmation of the above view regarding the origin of popular musical education in the schools of this country. Mr. Philbrick said : The first impulse in favor of this instruction in our country dates from the address on the subject delivered in Boston by the geographer, William C. Woodbridge, of Connecticut, in which he described the successful teaching of vocal music in schools which he had visited in Switzerland. Martin Luther is often referred to as having advocated general instruction in this branch on the ground of utility, saying: “The youth must always be accustomed to this art, for it makes good and virtuous citi¬ zens.” And again, “ The utility of this noble art is so great that no one, however learned he may be, can give a satisfactory account of it.” But the great pedagogues who came after the German reformer — Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, and Pestalozzi — placed universal instruction in music on a firm basis by establishing the now generally accepted principle of development as the central idea of education. In accordance with this principle, if the child is endowed by his creator with the musical faculty in ever so small a degree, that is the all-sufficient reason for its cultivation. And experience has proved that the human being born wholly destitute of the musical sense is a rare exception. This was the foundation on which Mr. W oodbridge rested his argument in favor of making vocal music one of the regular branches of instruc¬ tion in common schools. He made influential converts, who set to work to provide for teaching music in the schools: The foremost of these was Mr. George H. Snell- ing, who, in December, 1831, in behalf of a special committee appointed on his motion for that purpose, presented to the primary school board of the city of Boston an elaborate report strongly urging the adoption of music as a regular study in our primary schools. But public sentiment was not yet prepared for this measure. At length, after eight years of effort, in 1838 this branch was introduced into our schools by vote of the school board. Its progress, however, during the first half of the period which has since elapsed, was slow and unsatisfactory. The work of developing, sys¬ tematizing, and perfecting this instruction in music, by means of which our schools were made in this respect equal to the best in the world, has been accomplished mainly within the last two decades. Mr. Philbrick also said: I reckon three epochs in the history of musical instruction in the Boston schools. The first was the movement already mentioned, which resulted in the appointment of Lowell Mason as music master in 1838; the second was the appointment of Dr. IJpham as chairman of the committee on music; and the third, the appointment of Luther Whiting Mason as supervisor and teacher of music in the primary schools. In 1874 there was printed in Boston, by J. F. Loughlin, 36 Winter street, a valu¬ able pamphlet entitled “The commencement, progress, and results of systematic instruction in music in the primary schools of Boston.” The purpose was to present in compact and connected form for reference such passages as occur from year to year in the official reports made in the Boston school committee relating to the com¬ mencement and progress of systematic instruction in music in the schools of that city. In this pamplet can be followed the entire course of historical development of this feature of public education in the most influential city of New England. GERMAN INFLUENCE ON MUSIC. German settlers and immigrants exercised a remarkable influence upon the early popular development of music, concerts, festivals, and choral classes in America. As early as 1756 Benjamin Franklin, in a letter to his wife, reported that among the Moravians at Bethlehem, Pa., the church organ was accompanied by a band of flutes, oboes, horns, and trumpets. The followers of the Hussites and Count Zinsendorf appear to have been the first settlers in the New World to foster musical culture as 352 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. well as schools for girls. Haydn’s “Creation” was sung in German at Bethlehem in 1811. A philharmonic society was formed there in 1820. In Philadelphia in 1835 was organized the Miinnerchor, which flourishes to this day. Tins was ten years before the first Sangerfest was held in Germany, at Wurz¬ burg, in 1845. In 1849 the Nordamerikanischer Sangerbund, or a union of American singing societies, was organized in Cincinnati, the historic head center of German popular musical culture in the United States. In that city, in the month of June, 1899, the above Sangerbund celebrated its fiftieth anniversary in a three days’ festival. A chorus of two thousand voices sang in three successive evening concerts, and were accompanied by symphony orchestras from Cincinnati and Chicago.1 For this extra¬ ordinary musical occasion a hall was built with a seating capacity of 18,000. Even greater musical festivals in the East and in the West were the historic outgrowth of German singing societies in our large cities. The German-American element is very prominent in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Louisville, Chi¬ cago St, Louis, and other towns which have now their Miinnerchor, philharmonic societies, chorus classes for both sexes, and their symphony concerts. AMERICAN MUSICAL EDUCATION. Theodore Thomas got his idea of biennial musical festivals of American singers from the great Sangerfest in Cincinnati in 1870 with its chorus of 2,000 voices. The Cincin¬ nati May festivals are said to be the direct historic outgrowth of the German Slinger- feste. From a combination of German and American ideas have developed the most famous orchestras, the more distinctly American schools of music, the innumerable oratorio or musical societies, music halls, conservatories, and colleges of music, which are doing much to make the Americans a music-loving people. The German element is still very prominent in orchestral music, but singing societies are thoroughly Americanized. Perhaps the best distinctly American thing that has been done for musical educa¬ tion on a large scale was the Higginson endowment or guarantee of the Boston sym¬ phony concerts, which are now given every season in many of our great Eastern cities. Twenty-four concerts and 24 rehearsals are yearly enjoyed in Boston and 10 concerts are given at Harvard University. Mr. Higginson personally guarantees the salaries of the director and musicians employed, and these concerts are profitably repeated in New England cities, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washing¬ ton. First-rate talent is thus kept together in one great orchestra and the whole country is improved by Mr. Higginson’ s public spirit. Other American cities besides Boston support their own orchestras, which give every season a series of symphony concerts. Most conspicuous are the New York Philharmonic Society, recently conducted by Seidl and now by Emil Paur; the Chi¬ cago symphony, conducted by Theodore Thomas; and the Philadelphia symphony, conducted by H. G. Thunder. The Choral Society of Philadelphia and the accom¬ panying orchestra have together accomplished great things for the higher musical culture of that city. A former director of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, later of the Philharmonic Society of New York, Emil Paur, has lately been appointed Wagner director of the Metropolitan Opera Company, which has two other directors, one of French and one of Italian operas. In addition to its regular duties this orchestra gives Sunday night concerts for the people at which the singers of the opera company appear. Admis¬ sion costs only 50 cents. Such concerts are growing in popular favor in America. The finest opera in the world may now be heard in New York. In the season of 1898 a total of 100 performances were given during twenty-five weeks, and the gross receipts amounted to more than $1,000,000. Never before — in London, in Paris, or 1 See a valuable article on “Musical matters. A half century of German song in America ” (New York Sunday Tribune, June 25, 1899). See a valuable series by Mr. Krebiehl. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 353 even in Germany — have such casts been arranged as those in New York last season. The cost of a single performance sometimes amounted to $10,000 and the receipts to ^15,000.x Flourishing oratorio societies have been maintained in nearly all of the large cities of America, with choruses numbering several hundred voices. Foremost among these societies was that of New York, founded about twenty-five years ago by Leopold Damrosch, and now conducted by his son, Frank Damrosch, the organizer of sym¬ phony concerts for young people. The influence of these oratorio societies in devel¬ oping musical culture among native Americans has been very great, and the effect of symphony concerts on great masses of people has been elevating and refining in a perceptible degree. There has been a general advance in church music in all parts of the country, especially in the good training of church choirs, the employment of good soloists, better music, the extension of organ recitals, and more general appreciation of musical culture by church-going people, Protestants and Catholics alike. The Jews are building handsome synagogues in the larger cities, and make a special point of encouraging good music. It is no uncommon thing in America for Jews to sing in Christian choirs and for a Christian to direct the music in a Jewish synagogue. This fact is quite as interesting as the institution of Hebrew Men’s Associations after the model of the Young Men’s Christian Associations and the employment of Chris¬ tian lecturers before Hebrew associations on Sunday afternoons. There is a recent organization known as the American Guild of Organists, pro¬ moted by Hr. Gerrit Smith, of New York, the main object of which is the raising of the standard of church music. Hr. Smith himself has done much for musical culture by giving a series of free organ recitals of classical music on Monday after¬ noons. Hr. Smith was also instrumental in founding the Manuscript Society of New York, an organization of American composers, comprising about 200 members. At their concerts, only compositions by Americans are given. In nearly all progressive American churches, organ recitals have become an extremely popular method of public instruction and improvement. Sometimes, as at Chautauqua, these concerts are given on Sunday evening, but more often on week days. The art department of the Twentieth Club of Boston, supported by contributions from the public, in 1898 arranged for a series of free organ recitals Tuesday evenings in various churches in and near Boston. Some of the best known organists and musicians took part in these concerts for the people. Hescriptive programmes were distributed in advance to those who desired tickets. Exchange tickets were allowed to suit the convenience of holders as regards time and place. Exchanges were effected only by mail. In the United States the example of European cities is now followed in affording good music, in the public parks, at the expense of the city. New York spends every summer about $25,000 or $30,000 in this way; Philadelphia, $22,000; and the park board of Baltimore is making arrangements for a concert every night in the week in one of the six leading parks for the city: Bruid Hill, Patterson, Clifton, Carroll, Riverside, and Federal Hill. The Western cities, Cincinnati, Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Louis are even more devoted than the East to open air musical entertainments for the people. For a long time, the collection of good music and of books on music and musicians has been an attractive feature of some of our best public libraries. The public library in Boston has a musical room containing one of the finest collections in the country. There are full scores, superbly bound, of all the important niusical works. This collection was presented by a public-spirited business man of Boston. Another city in Massachusetts, Worcester, has a similar collection, and from that library was 1 English Opera as an Educator (Werner’s Magazine, November, 1898). ed 1900 - 23 354 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. borrowed the idea of adding music to the Pratt Library in Baltimore. Some time ago a musical collection was begun and, in 1899, an intelligent and music-loving Baltimorean, Edwin L. Turnbull, a graduate of the Johns Hopkins University, and himself a composer of music, made additional selections for violin and piano, which are classified under the following heads: (1) Classical music, including all the great composers of violin music; (2) morceaux de salon, or more popular compositions.; (3) selections and potpourris from operas; (4) dance music; (5) favorite melodies; and (6) national airs. Mr. Turnbull is a good example of a college man in America, who, while actively engaged in business, is employing his leisure and special talent for music in the cul¬ tural development of a great city. He is constantly composing new music and directs an orchestra on “Commemoration Day” at the university. He wrote the music for an ode bearing the title “Alma Mater,” the words written by another alumnus, Dr. J. F. Jameson. One afternoon in May, 1899, a recital of Mr. Turn- bull’s compositions was given in the great hall of the university with the assistance of a volunteer orchestra of thirty professional musicians and of various Baltimore singers. Through the intelligent efforts of Mr. Hamerik, Mr. Harold Randolph, directors of the Peabody Conservatory of Music during past years, and of many other individuals, the whole community has been awakened to fresh interest in matters of music. Not long ago the Arundell (Women’s) Club of Baltimore devoted an evening to the hearing of songs, of which every number on the programme was the work of a Baltimore composer. In the letter from George Peabody, February 12, 1857, to the trustees for the estab¬ lishment of an institute in the city of Baltimore he expressly said: “The institute shall embrace within its plan an academy of music, adapted in the most effective manner to diffuse and cultivate a taste for that, the most refining of all the arts.” The results of his liberal foundation are that the Peabody Institute now maintains a conservatory of music, with a preparatory department, which brings it into close touch with the people. The institute long maintained an orchestra and it still offers afternoon and evening recitals, students’ concerts, alumni and exhibition concerts of a high grade. The virtual endowment of the Boston Symphony and other orches¬ tras has made it inexpedient to retain the old Peabody organization, but there is abundant life still welling up from the original fountain. Besides the Peabody Conservatory of Music there are now many other excellent and popular academies of music throughout the country. Foremost among them is the New England Conservatory of Music, under the direction of G. W. Chadwick, with about 1,200 students. In some of our colleges there are endowed chairs of music. For example, in Yale University the musical professor is Horatio W. Parker, the well-known composer and organist of Trinity Church, Boston. At Columbia Uni¬ versity, New York, there is another distinguished composer in a professional chair, Mr. E. A. MacDowell. Others might be mentioned. There are in our time numerous courses of lectures for the musical education and cultural improvement of the people. The younger Damrosch used to employ his orchestra for the illustration of Wagner to popular audiences in New York City. In Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, Mr. Elliott Schenck has delivered public lectures on the Wagner operas. Especially praiseworthy is the edu¬ cational work of Mr. Thomas Whitney Surette, who, for some years has been giving, under the auspices of the American Society for the Extension of University Teach¬ ing, public lectures on the great composers of the classical and romantic period. He has the rare faculty of combining musical knowledge, real ability for public lectur¬ ing, and enthusiasm for popular culture. “Mr. Surette’ s lectures are designed to interest and instruct the same audiences which listen to lectures on other subjects, and are not meant for musical people alone. The subjects are treated simply and clearly, and there have been repeated assurances that the lectures are understood by EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. persons who possess no musical knowledge whatever.” The lecturer talks in a familiar and interesting way about his subject and, at frequent intervals, illustrates it in musical ways by piano or organ recitals. Skilled musicians and trained voices are often employed to render Mr. Surette’s selections. His work has been so suc¬ cessful in Philadelphia and in many other cities that he has been engaged by Dr. Leipziger and the New York school board to give free lectures to the people in the public schoolhouses and elsewhere in evening hours when the parents of school chil¬ dren can attend. American musical composers are rapidly developing good work, which is appreci¬ ated both by critics and the public at large. Among the more noteworthy are Messrs. Parker, MacDowell, Chadwick, Foote, Hawley, Gilchrist, Surette, Arthur Foote, Mrs. H. H. A. Beach, and many others. The best newspapers in America are contributing to the culture of the people by regular review's of musical matters and prominent notices of operas, oratorios, con¬ certs, festivals, recitals, etc. The New York Tribune began July 2, 1899, a series of articles on “musical literature.” The first article had particular reference to national and folk music. Other subjects were treated in Sunday supplements to the Tribune. A select bibliography was appended to each article for the further illustration of the given subject. Each book title was followed by printed abbreviations indicating in v'hat great collections the various authorities may be found. The following list shows what libraries are practically aiding this excellent project: New York Public Library (Astor and Lenox foundations) ; Columbia University; Pratt Institute, Brooklyn; Newberry Library, Chicago; public libraries of Chicago, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Cin¬ cinnati, and Boston; Harvard ‘University; Atheneum, Boston; Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. The articles for August 20 and 27, 1899, were on “The Music of the Bible.” Mr. Erebiehl was the author of this excellent series. The Baltimore Sun for December 7, 1894, had an interesting account from the pen of Miss Evans of a movement in that city for good concerts at cheap prices. Miss Evans said: “There has been much talk from time to time of ‘popularizing music,’ of ‘educating the masses to an appreciation of good music,’ and the like, but many of the previous attempts in this direction have been made in one or two ways — either by putting before the public poor programmes, poorly performed, at cheap prices, or by presenting good programmes, well performed, but at prices far beyond the means of the majority.” An attempt to secure a happy mean between these turn extremes w'as successfully made by the Christian Union of the First Independent Christ’s Church, of Balti¬ more. On the evening of December 6, 1894, w'as given to the people for 15 cents’ admission a programme of really good music, interpreted by prominent professional musicians. Upon the programme was printed this motto: “An effort to bring the expensive luxury of good music, v/ell rendered, within the reach of all who care for it.” The programme contained not only the names and dates, but also brief biogra¬ phies of the composers w'hose v'orks w'ere to be represented. Each division of the programme was preceded by a brief exposition of the character of the music which was to be next rendered. Thus an instructive lecture vras combined with an enter¬ taining concert. “The concert,” says Miss Evans, “was not for the benefit of anything or any¬ body as far as the proceeds were concerned. It w'as simply its own excuse — and a very good one — for being, and the proceeds will be devoted only to defraying the expense of the recital and to help defray the expense of another similar enter¬ tainment.” The idea of educational concerts has long been fostered at the Peabody Conserva¬ tory, where Mr. Hamerik and others used to lecture upon the history of music and the lives of musicians. The class concerts at the Peabody, the piano recitals, and the symphony concerts have exercised a grovcing influence upon the public taste. 356 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900. X. Educational Extension by Travel and Pilgrimage. Historical excursions. — Education by travel has long been recognized in Europe and America as an excellent means of supplementing education, especially for young men. France and all Europe welcome Americans. In recent years there has been an extraordinary revival in both the United States and Canada of a very ancient custom of making excursions to historic places. Under instructive guidance groups of college students and large companies of school children in New England have fre¬ quently been led from educational centers into the surrounding region as far as Quebec, for the sake of visiting historic towns, with their quaint colonial architecture, famous battlefields, monuments, statues, memorial tablets, etc. No foreign visitor can fail to be impressed with the interesting associations of old Plymouth, Plymouth Eock, Burial Hill, the old colony records in the court-house, Pilgrim Hall, with its ancient household furniture, utensils, guns, swords, and souvenirs of the Pilgrim Fathers and Mothers. A visit to Lexington Common and Concord Bridge, a sight ot Daniel C. French’s “Minute Man,” will give any thoughtful beholder a better appreciation of the outbreak of the American Devolution. “ By the rude bridge that arched the flood, Their flag to April’s breeze unfurled, Here once the embattled farmers stood, And fired the shot heard round the world.” A great impulse to American patriotism and popular education has been given by the city of Philadelphia, which frequently gathers her school children within the sacred precincts of old Independence Hall to hear historical addresses by public men. In Boston the same patriotic purpose is accomplished by courses of historical lectures to school children, from far and near, in the Old South Church. Excursions are frequently made from neighboring towns to these historic capitals by young people’s societies and large classes from Sunday schools and day schools. Mount Vernon, too, on the Potomac Elver, below Washington, is another favorite shrine for histor¬ ical pilgrims. The home of George Washington and his tomb are the Mecca and the Kaaba of faithful Americans. Every day in the summer season troops of school children and swarms of patriotic tourists visit Mount Vernon, coming down the Poto¬ mac Elver by steamboats from Washington or Alexandria. The grounds are full of picnic parties, and all the rooms in the quaint old mansion are crowded with eager sight-seers. The regents of the Mount Vernon Association are a society of ladies representing the older historic States, some of which have selected particular rooms in Washington’s home and furnished them in colonial style. There are still many relics and souvenirs of the Washington family, but many of the most precious things have been deposited in the National Museum in the Federal City. Every State and every citizen, every boy and girl, takes a wholesome pride in Mount Vernon. In the proper season almost every foreigner who comes to America finds his way thither and wanders through the ancient house and the adjoining gardens. Thomas Jeffer¬ son’s old home at Monticello and Madison’s country house at Montpelier are not so frequently visited, for they belong to private parties, but Mount Vernon belongs to the nation. Renaissance of the historical pilgrimage. — In the Eeview of Eeviews, October, 1893, there is an interesting article by the Eev. Lyman P. Powell on “The Eenaissance of the historical pilgrimage.” (See also, his “Historical pilgrimage of 1894” in The Spirit of ’76, September, 1894.) This graduate of the Johns Llopkins University, a former leader in university extension work in Wisconsin and Philadelphia, describes four historical pilgrimages in and about Philadelphia: (1) To historic landmarks within the city, Independence Hall, and the first halls of Congress and of the Supreme EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 357 Court; (2) to the battlefield of the Brandywine, 26 miles from Philadelphia; (3) a coaching party through Fairmount Park to Germantown, where Washington was defeated; (4) to Valley Forge and the old stone cottage where Washington made his headquarters during the darkest period of the American Revolution. In the summer of 1894 Mr. Powell conducted a large party of university extension students from Philadelphia through the historic towns of New England, New Haven, Boston, Cambridge, Concord, Salem, old Plymouth, and other places. Everywhere local receptions and historical addresses by well-known authorities were given. The exercises were well reported in the newspapers and thus served a good educational purpose throughout the country. Foreign travel. — For a young American just graduated from college there is no educational experience so delightful as a post-graduate course of foreign travel, especially when combined with protracted sojourns in such old-world centers of historic culture as London, Paris, Rome, Florence, Yenice, Munich, Vienna, and Berlin. In our mother country there is a current saying to the effect that an English college graduate, if he can afford to do so after taking his degree, makes the grand tour of Europe; if he can not afford it he stays at home and reads Green’s “Short history of England.” Sometimes the stay-at-home prepares himself for a civil-service examination, and thus wdiis a positive advantage over the richer, traveled man in the race of active, useful life. Substitutes for travel. — Many Americans can not afford the grand tour, the Wander - jahre of the German student-Bursch, or the delightful experience of French pupils of r Le Play and certain graduates of the Ecole Normale Superieure, who now wander all over Europe, and even around ‘the world, in the interest of French education and social economics. But we have many pleasant compensations and alternatives. We can go to Chautauqua and hear travelers lecture and see their pictures, or attend one of Professor Bickmore’s illustrated travel courses at the Museum of Natural History in Central Park. Better still, anyone can enjoy a course of foreign or home travel in some good American public library by means of maps, good books, pictures, and other people’s experience and observations. Anyone can soon know more about any chosen country than does the American tourist or English ‘ ‘ tripper ’ ’ who hurries through it. Humboldt used to say that he never found in any country what he did not carry with him in his head. A blind man’ s sight. — There was a well-known and influential blind man in Balti¬ more, a man of great intelligence and superb business ability. His name wras Mr. John Glenn, for years the virtual director of Charity Organization Society work in that city, where he lived and died. Once in summer time he journeyed by a pictur¬ esque route across the continent to attend a conference of charities held in the far West, and, en passant, to see the Rocky Mountains through the eyes of a young friend, Hr. Charles Lee Smith, secretary of the Baltimore Charity Organization Soci¬ ety. The blind man came home most enthusiastic regarding his observations of Western mountain scenery. Often in glowing colors did he describe it to his personal friends, but with never a word regarding his own visual limitations. As many Bal¬ timoreans can testify, this was Mr. Glenn’s habitual practice. Everywhere and always he spoke with confidence and boyish enthusiasm of men and things he had clearly and personally seen — in his mind’s eye. Another case deserving remem¬ brance is that of Helen Keller, the beautiful and accomplished blind girl, wThom the writer saw one summer morning introduced from the platform to a vast audience in the amphitheatre at Chautauqua. She said in response to the welcome : “My friends, I am very glad to see you.” Then, while the people rvondered, she added with charming simplicity: “Of course, I mean with the eyes of my soul.” Chautauqua travel classes. — Years ago at Chautauqua the writer took an historical part in the social exercises of a travel class of teachers, pleasantly conducted by George E. Vincent, now principal of the Chautauqua system. He guided his class 358 EDUCATION REPOST, 1899-1900. over European routes of travel, England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, which he himself had actually visited, and now visually reproduced for the benefit of others. He gave some of the most useful points and interesting object lessons as well as the most picturesque incidents of his own itinerary. Teachers who had also traveled through the same country as that described contributed information from their own experience. Thus all profited by the opportunities and teachings by each. Thus every teacher learned how to conduct a similar travel class in her own school, home, neighborhood, or church society. Maps, illustrated books of travel, pictures of men, women, children, social classes, manners, customs, institutions, art, and scenery were always shown in a Chautauqua travel class, and very often an evening exhibition of lantern views in the great amphitheatre, superbly illustrated to thousands of people, the travel-talk of the afternoon. For example, a beautiful review of Spanish and Moorish architecture, the famous Alhambra and the beautiful cathedrals of Spain, closely followed a teachers’ tour through that country. Nothing is more popular in American study clubs and church clubs than such im¬ aginary or pictorial tours through European countries, Egypt, the Holy Land, India, China, and Japan. There is absolutely no limit to the possible variation and appli¬ cability of this delightful and inexpensive custom of profitable educational travel by artistic and social study at home. XI. Idea of a National University. Idea of a national university. — The Father of his Country is also the father of the idea of a national university. This idea is repeatedly suggested in the writings of George Washington, but it is stated in the clearest and fullest way in the following extract from his last will and testament: It has been my ardent wish to see a plan devised on a liberal scale which would have a tendency to spread systematic ideas through all parts of this rising empire, thereby to do away local attachments and State prejudices, as far as the nature of things would or indeed ought to admit from our national councils. Looking anx¬ iously forward to the accomplishment of so desirable an object as this is, in my esti¬ mation, my mind has not been able to contemplate any plan more likely to effect the measure than the establishment of a university in a central part of the United States, to which the youths of fortune and talents from all parts thereof may be sent for the completion of their education in all branches of polite literature, in arts and sciences, in acquiring knowledge in the principles of politics and good government, and as a matter of infinite importance in my judgment, by associating with each other, and forming friendships in juvenile years, be enabled to free themselves in a proper degree from those local prejudices and habitual jealousies which have just been mentioned, and which, when carried to excess, are never-failing sources of disquietude to the public mind, and pregnant of mischievous consequences to this country. Under these impressions, so fully dilated, I give and bequeath, in perpe¬ tuity, the 50 shares which I hold in the Potomac Company * * * toward the endowment of a university, to be established within the limits of the District of Columbia, under the auspices of the General Government, if that Government should incline to extend a favoring hand toward it. The amount of Washington’s bequest has been computed at compound interest from his death down to the present time and amounts to over four and a half million dollars. Although his stock in the Potomac Company never paid but one dividend, his educational bequest is regarded by many citizens as a national debt of honor. The late I>u G. Brown Goode, assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, urged the above obligation upon Congress. If the United States Government would regard this historical debt as a national bond and provide simply for the interest on the same at 5 per cent, there would be an adequate income for a national institution, with the primary object of educating young Americans in the science of government, according to Washington’s original idea in his speech to both Houses of Congress, December 7, 1796 (Washington’s Writings, Sparks’ edition, Yol. XII, p. 71). In that EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 359 speech Washington urged “ the expediency of establishing a national university and also a military academy.” All the world knows America’s debt to West Point and Annapolis. In these days when colonial administration, civil service reform, inter¬ national law, political economy, trade and commerce are coming to the front as never before, the United States surely needs a great civil academy, or national university, as well as continued support of its Military and Naval Academies. Through its Department of Agriculture and experiment stations in connection with agricultural colleges the Government is doing great things for the American farmer. It should also provide for the civil service, or, as George Washington especially desired, for “the science of government,” or good administration. George Washington’s favorite idea was advocated by succeeding Presidents of the United States, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Ulysses S. Grant, and Rutherford B. Hayes, all of whom regarded the establishment of a national university as a patriotic duty. The Senate of the Fifty- second Congress, first session, published, as a Miscellaneous Document No. 222 a memorial in regard to a national university by John W. Hoyt, who gives a complete account of all that had been done before the year 1892 in support of George Washing¬ ton’ s proj ect. The historic array of educational opinions thus presented is most impress¬ ive and the reasons for the establishment of a national university by the Government are clearly and strongly stated. There has been in successive Congresses a select committee on the university of the United States, and some of the ablest public men in America are avowed supporters of the project, which sooner or later in some form will probably be realized by Government aid. The educational campaign toward this object is active and progressive. Three times already the National Edu¬ cational Association, the largest organized body of teachers in the United States, has indorsed this project. A national committee of 100 has been working to promote the establishment of “The University of the United States.” The George Washington Memorial Association. — This was organized in Washington, April 8, 1897, for the purpose of promoting a patriotic interest in the bequest made by the “ Father _of His Country,” for the establishment of a national university, which shall complete the American system of education, and furnish facilities for investigation and the diffusion of knowledge. The society is largely composed of ladies, who have an executive board, representing the patriotic societies of America and individual States of the Union. The recording secretary is Mrs. Susanna P. Gage, of Ithaca, N. Y., who says that the George Washington Memorial Committee desires to raise a fund of $250,000 for a building which shall be the administrative home for a national university. The committee is striving to develop the national consciousness of historic duty. They wish every man, woman, and child in the United States to hear of George Washington’s educational bequest and have the opportunity of giving something toward an academic memorial. In her published plea, Mrs. Gage says of George Washington: His will is unfulfilled. Is it not a reproach to us as a people that the wisdom of one of our greatest men has not been heeded? Education in politics and good gov¬ ernment was a part of his thought, and the need is as great to-day as ever. The safety of the home and of individual liberty depends upon the proper education of statesmen. The future of the nation and of the race demands the service of the most carefully trained minds, that by public hygiene and preventive medicine stalwart bodies may be the rule; that the complex relations of sex and of capital and labor arising from the introduction of machinery may cease to threaten the welfare of children yet unborn; that a higher type of education for every individual child may be evolved, and that material conditions may not stifle the spiritual life of the people. Opportunity for research, investigation, the factor of education which alone can produce these results, is slightly cared for in this country. Our students flock to Europe for it. Where in universities it is provided, it is done by the uncertain gifts of individuals, and depends upon the fluctuation of interest-bearing securities. The nation could receive such gifts and give stability to the income, could confer grants, and thus insure the highest opportunities to young people of genius. In a clemoc- 360 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. racy still more than in a monarchy this opportunity of genius should be given, because in a democracy the fruits of genius more readily become the property of all. In an address given at a meeting of the George Washington Memorial Association in Washington, Mrs. Gage, after reviewing what has already been done for higher education of the American people by Government aid, land-grant colleges, experi¬ ment stations, and existing universities, makes a strong plea for a national univer¬ sity for research, on the basis of national cooperation. She called attention to the fact that during the year 1896-97 over §8,000,000 were given to the various institu¬ tions of higher education in the United States. In view of the losses of original endowment which some universities have experienced, Mrs. Gage suggests that would-be founders and promoters of higher education call upon the United States Government for security, cooperation, and aid. She proposes that personal donors of moneys designed for the endowment of a national university or for the support of any of its State or local branches ask the United States Government to agree to the pay¬ ment of 5 per cent interest on all gifts specially intended to aid research. A precedent is afforded by the Morrill bill, which requires that all land-grant funds, based upon Government bounty to the State agricultural colleges, should be so invested as to yield not less than 5 per cent interest. The United States Government can easily borrow money at 3 per cent. If a donor to the cause of national education by research is willing to intrust principal and its minimum of 3 per cent interest to Government control for the purpose of promoting national education, Mrs. Gage argues that the Government itself can well afford 2 per cent extra interest in perpetuity on such a trust fund for the scientific benefit of the nation. The total 5 per cent income on such trust funds should be paid for research purposes in any designated branch of the national university. This project would convert the higher educational interests of the American people into a national trust based on national cooperation: “The generous giver on the one side, the people represented by their government on the other; the giver placing the principal with its minimum of 3 per cent interest, the government adding its share in the perpetual 2 per cent grant; both uniting for the benefit of the whole people. A special series of Government bonds at 5 per cent could be issued as individuals or corporations might choose to place their means in such investments, leaving to each donor the choice within reasonable limits of the institution to be benefited. Here would be such safe haven for troubled investors in good deeds as would bring the States and the universities great educational funds. Here there is a practical basis for cooperation between Government and private ben¬ efaction for the good of research. ’ ’ In view of the expenditure by the United States Government of $20,000,000 for the Philippine Islands, and of much larger sums raised for war purposes by the willing contributions of a patriotic people and secured by 3 per cent bonds, it would seem not unreasonable to hope that with returning peace and general prosperity Congress might indulge itself in the modest luxury of a Washington memorial bond for five or ten million dollars, to be subscribed for by the American people, the interest to be forever guaranteed by the Government to the support of a national university, with research branches in Washington and Baltimore, if not in one university in every State of the American Union. As already stated, the entire range of opinion upon national education from Washington’s time down to the present has been compiled by Hon. John W. Hoyt, chairman of the national committee of 100, to promote the establishment of “The University of the United States.” He has recently expressed his views very suc¬ cinctly upon that subject in a letter to the New York Tribune August 18, 1899: The university of the United States is planned as the logical culmination of the American system of public education, now terminating with the State universities; the stimulation, coordination, and elevation of all lower institutions to be not the least of its beneficent results. The proposed charter provides exclusively for post-graduate work; that “the university shall have authority to establish, with other institutions EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 361 of learning, such cooperative relations as shall be deemed advantageous;” and that “in all the operations of the university neither sectarian nor partisan preferences shall be allowed in any form.” The national character of the university is made complete by provision for a representation of leading institutions in the educational management, while the general direction will be in the hands of the Government. In short, the university of the United States is to be such an institution as only a great nation can make and utilize in the public interest; such a university as will alone befit the dignity of a great and growing power aspiring to lead the world in civilization. Between an undergraduate institution designed as the central seat of a particular theological propaganda and such an institution as the proposed university of the United States there can be no friction, no rivalry, no comparison. The New York Tribune, remarking upon the above letter, observed on the same date : Mr. Hoyt’s citations certainly show clearly enough that there might not be great friction, in the sense of rivalry in competition for students, between his proposed “University of the United States” and the university which the Methodists are to build up at Washington. It is not so clear that his new university could make for itself, even under the patronage of the United States Congress, such a distinct field, in the immediate vicinity of the Columbian University, the Georgetown University, the Catholic University, the Methodist University, and the Howard University, all in Washington, and the Johns Hopkins University, only an hour away, as to justify its existence, without seeming to some of them to infringe needlessly, if not unfairly, upon their field. It is only candid also to recognize the fact, so clearly pointed out a few years ago by Ur. Gilman, the presklent of Johns Hopkins, in discussing this very subject, that there is, both among the universities and among educated people generally, consid¬ erable distrust of the idea that -Congress, amid the multiplicity of its other duties, should also undertake to provide for and direct university education. Ur. Gilman undoubtedly spoke for a general and widespread opinion among the educated classes in saying: “Such apprehensions may be pronounced groundless, nevertheless it will be difficult to get rid of them. There will bean ever present expectation of political interference, first in the governing body, then in the faculty, and finally in the sub¬ jects and methods of instruction. It is true that partisan entanglements may be avoided, but it will be difficult indeed to escape the thraldom.” President U. C. Gilman, in the last chapter of his volume on “University prob¬ lems in the United States,” suggested that the Smithsonian Institution might organize a plan for utilizing the educational material now existing in Washington. The outlines of such a plan may now be indicated as a basis for further sugges¬ tions. To begin with, a head of this branch of service must be announced. This may well he the secretary of the Smithsonian; but if he is already too much occu¬ pied, let there be an assistant secretary in charge of advanced instruction and research. He must he the organizing and administrative officer. Next the inven¬ tory, already published, of the literary and scientific resources of Washington must be reexamined, and the conditions on which these resources may he opened must be clearly stated. A certain number of teachers must be enlisted who will give, for proper emolument, instruction and guidance in their specialties. There should be no attempt to provide a general or liberal course of education, but only opportuni¬ ties and encouragement for the prosecution of certain specific courses. Consequently there will be no curriculum, no public examinations, no degrees. On the other hand, there must be abundant opportunities. Any person of either sex, from any place, of whatever age, without any questions as to his previous academic degree, should he admissible; provided, however, that he demonstrate his fitness to the satis¬ faction of the leader in the subject of his predilection. Evidence of preparation in one department will be totally different frbm that required in another. Such a learned society may be developed more readily around the Smithsonian Institution, with less friction, less expense, less peril, and with the prospect of more permanent and widespread advantages to the country than by a dozen denomina¬ tional seminaries or one colossal university of the United States. The national university here already. — Many old and well-established universities — Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton, University of Pennsylvania, and some of the older State universities, e. g., Virginia, Michigan, Wisconsin, California, and many newer creations, e. g., Johns Hopkins and Chicago universities— are truly and justly 362 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. viewed as something national in spirit. With a manifest cooperation of national and State institutions, would it not be a good working hypothesis, even if somewhat nebular, to regard the national associations of America, historical, educational, and scientific institutions, as potentially a national university? This country was called “The United States” many years before the present constitutional Union was adopted. The old confederation was simply a loose aggregation of individual State governments. Each higher educational institution with corporate powers and property rights will naturally preserve its own individuality and autonomy; but the federative process has already begun among colleges and universities in the United States through Chicago and church influences as it did years ago in Canada, through influences proceeding from Toronto and Quebec. Probably that federative process will never be fully accomplished. Indeed, it is not desirable, except perhaps, within state or provincial bounds and religious or sectarian limits. A mere suggestion of what a national university might gradually become is the constitution of the University of the State of New York, Alexander Hamilton’s original creation, incorporated in 1784, which now includes, with local autonomy, all the higher educational institutions of the Empire State. This American univer¬ sity is said by M. Buisson to have suggested the idea of the University of France. The national university of the United States, with certain local officers and Govern¬ ment departments in Washington, should comprehend in a national way the higher educational interests of the country at large. For such national upbuilding the Library of Congress, the Smithsonian Institution, the National Museum, the Bureau of Education, and all Government departments with educational activities are actu¬ ally historic foundations. Some of them are very “lively stones” in the nation’s growing temple of knowledge. So are all truly national associations like the American Historical Association, the American Library Association, and the National Educa¬ tion Association. So also are State universities, patriotic societies, and institutions, State and public libraries, library schools, and every newspaper which teaches national ideas and the true significance of popular education. The board of regents of an organized national university should be strictly Federal (not State, local, or sectarian). They should comprise, ex officiis, the President and Vice-President of the United States, the Chief Justice, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Interior, and the Secretary of the Department of Agriculture, the Speaker of the House, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the Commis¬ sioner of Education, the Commissioner of Labor, the Director of the Geological Sur¬ vey, the Director of the National Museum, the Librarian of Congress, and the president of the National Educational Association. The secretary of this Federal board should be chosen by itself. Washington is best adapted to be the executive center of a national university and Congress is the true source of any new line of national policy or expenditure for education. One strong point in favor of some such project is that the United States Government already appropriates annually for educational and scientific purposes many million dollars. The national university is potentially here already. It is in manifest proc¬ ess of evolution like national unity and international peace. The kingdom of national education cometli not with observation, and he that helieveth doth not make haste. Washington, D. C., a national center of education. — The Federal city of Washington, D. C., is not only the center of American politics, law-making, and judicature, but also of American science and education. The Government is expending annually for scientific purposes, of one kind or another, over $8,000,000, more than the entire endowment of some of the leading American universities. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 363 XII. The Smithsonian Institution and the American Historical Association. The Smithsonian Institution. — The history of the Smithsonian Institution affords the most striking example of the possibility of organized scientific and educational work under the control of the National Government. The general public sees only the museum and collections, and not one person in a hundred is aware that underneath the great halls, in the basement, is an enormous work going on which connects the whole civilized world by its system of interchange of scientific publications. The interpreters of the Englishman George Smithson’s bequest for “the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” wisely construed it to mean a central clearing house for scientific knowledge. This system has grown until the Institution has now 240,000 correspondents, ranging from the Friendly Islands to the European centers of learning. The United States Government orders fifty copies of all publications of its scientific and department bureaus to be sent here, and every institution of learn¬ ing, or private individual, who wishes to distribute knowledge, can send publications to the Smithsonian Institution, which undertakes to distribute them to the desired localities. Thus an international exchange of ideas and knowledge is forever going on, and national bureaus, universities, solitary students, and isolated communities are brought into touch with one another. In nine months of last year 40,000 publi¬ cations were sent out and 15,000 received, and in the forty-three years of its existence 1,500,000 packages have been distributed. Such a civilizing work contains in itself many university functions and, combined with the more obvious features of which the public is more aware, makes the Smithsonian Institution a potent factor in the advancement of knowledge. But almost the most important point is that this is carried on under a board of regents who consist of the Vice-President, the Chief Justice of the United States, three Senators, three Representatives, and six members appointed at large. Such a board of directors for a national university would at once arouse criticism and fear of political interference, and yet for fifty years this great institution has grown and developed without a question as to the integrity of its administration. A quarter of a million has been added to its endowment by bequests from private individuals, and Congress now annually appropriates about $20,000 to further its scientific interchanges and disseminate its valuable publications. (From the address of Miss E. T. King to the George Washington Memorial Associa¬ tion, December 15, 1898. ) In the Handbook of the Library Association of Washington City, 1897, it is stated that in 1886 the library collection of the Smithsonian Institution was- deposited with the Library of Congress, to which depository accessions are sent every week; but since 1878 a small working collection has been kept in the institution itself. The strength of the Smithsonian library is estimated at 175,000 volumes, pamphlets, etc. The annual growth is said to be 30,000 volumes, pamphlets, etc. The library is not restricted to any special subjects, but is very strong in trans¬ actions of learned societies and periodicals. By virtue of the unique position which the Smithsonian Institution has occupied for so many years as the representative American institution for the cultivation of the arts and sciences, it has acquired, by gift from governments, or by gifts or bequests of private special collections, expensive governmental publications, original records and manuscripts, pamphlets, theses, and other works, rare, valuable, and curious. As examples may be enumerated: Two hundred and thirty-two tracts and theses written by Luther and his contemporaries, original prints of 1518-1546; original records and reports, many of them unpublished, on the property of British loyalists in America during the Revolution; facsimiles of British national manuscripts from William the Conqueror to Queen Anne, presented by the British Government; 54 volumes of bills, legal instruments, etc., illustrating the history of prices in England, 1632-1792, etc. A list of the catalogues in print of the collection may be found in the Checklist of Public Documents, second edition, issued by the Superintendent of Documents, 1895, pp. 189, 190. The United States National Museum. — Among the public institutions in Washington, D. C., the great National Museum holds the most popular place. It is the favorite resort of school children, citizens, and foreigners who visit the Federal city. The Museum is an extensive, low-roofed building, near the Smithsonian Institution, and contains, among other attractions, good beginnings of American historical, cultural, and ethnological collections, chiefly of American Indians, Alaskans, Aztecs, etc. 364 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Gatlin’s superb gallery of Indian portraits calls to mind some of the most celebrated Indian chiefs and tribal types. Relics of prehistoric men, aboriginal modes of living, the occupations, arts, and industries of native and foreign races are exhibited in most instructive ways. Human inventions and historic modes of transportation from women carriers to modern locomotives are illustrated by progressive series of object lessons. The place of man in nature is indicated by a series of skeletons from lower to higher orders. Animals and men native to America are exhibited in their proper setting or natural environments. There are said to be two classes in the various collections made at Washington: (1) 44 The exhibition series,” constituting the educational portion of the Museum and therefore exposed in the most attractive way to the public view; and (2) “the study series,” which is kept in scientific laboratories and is rarely examined except by experts and investigators. Probably the great mass of things owned by the National Museum is not shown at all. Duplicate collections, illustrating American ethnology, botany, mineralogy, and geology are frequently lent or given to local museums in various States of the Union and thus become of truly educational and scientific influence throughout the nation. It was a favorite dictum of the late Dr. G. Brown Goode, assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for many years in charge of the United States National Museum, that a people’s museum should be something more than a house full of specimens in glass cases. “It should be a house full of ideas arranged with the strictest attention to system. * * * An efficient educational museum may be described as a collection of instructive labels, each illustrated by a well-selected specimen.” Dr. Goode himself illustrated this dictum in practice and also his idea that good museum management, like good library administration, must be repre¬ sented or personified by one or more well-informed, scholarly, practical men, “fitted by tastes and training to aid in educational work.” In his Report of the National Museum, 1888-89, pp. 427-445, there is published Dr. Goode’s paper on 4 4 The museums of the future,” a prophetic and highly suggestive sketch, but historically based on the best experience of the Old World and the New. He reminds us that the Greek idea of a museum was that of a home or temple of the muses. Then it became a place of study, a school. Athens was called the museum of old Greece. The Alexandrine Museum was the university of the Grreco-Roman world and contained many distinct schools or colleges; also a vast library. “The history of museum and library runs in parallel lines. It is not until the development of the arts and sciences has taken place, until an extensive written literature has grown up, and a distinct literary and scientific class has been developed, that it is possible for the modern library and museum to come into existence. The museum of the present is more unlike its old-time representative than is our library unlike its prototype.” Dr. Goode was an American champion of the idea that 4 4 the museum of the past must be set aside, reconstructed, transformed from a cemetery of bric-a-brac into a nursery of living thoughts. The museum of the future must stand side by side with the library and the laboratory, as a part of the teaching equipment of the college and university, and in the great cities cooperate with the public library as one of the principal agencies for the enlightenment of the people.” The great National Museum in Washington is not made up, like so many local collections in America, of miscellaneous cabinets of natural history and mere curi¬ osities, but it is composed of a well classified and clearly labeled series of illustrations of various arts and industries, as well as of various natural sciences, zoology, botany, mineralogy, and geology. The ethnological collections in Washington are classified on a double system, in one of its features corresponding to that of the European, in the other, like the famous Pitt Rivers’s collection at Oxford, arranged to show the evolution of culture and civilization without regard to race. No one who has seen EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 365 the historic evolution of musical instruments and other inventions as illustrated in the collections of the National Museum will fail to realize the meaning of this second system of classification. Professor Huxley once described a museum as a “consultative library of objects,” but Dr. Goode thought this definition unsatisfactory because it related merely to museum contents and not to methods of use and administration. The books in a library must be removed from their place, examined one at a time, by one person, whereas the objects in a museum should be viewed in groups and scientific sequence. “The museum cultivates the powers of observation, and the casual visitor even makes discoveries for himself, and under the guidance of the labels forms his own impressions. In the library one studies the impressions of others. The library is most useful to the educated; the museum to educated and uneducated alike, to the masses as well as to the few, and is a powerful stimulant to intellectual activity in either class. The influence of the museum is not so deep as that of the library, but extends to a much larger number of people. The National Museum has over 300,000 visitors a year, each of whom carries away a certain number of new thoughts.” Think of the educating influence of that vast historical treasure-house of human arts and inventions upon a naturally observing people. Visit then the United States Patent Office, and see in its museums the myriads of American prac¬ tical devices designed to make human labor more efficient, to lighten or relieve it altogether by mechanical force. American Historical Association. — This national society, now embracing 1,500 mem¬ bers, was incorporated by act of Congress, January 4, 1889, “ for the promotion of historical studies, the collection and preservation of historical manuscripts, and for kindred purposes in the interest of American history and of history in America.” The association has its principal office in Washington at the United States National Museum, where its historical collections are gradually accumulating. Its curator is Mr. A. Howard Clark, of the Smithsonian Institution. In triennial rotation the association meets now in an Eastern city — e. g., Boston; then in a Western city like Detroit, and every third year in the Federal capital. Thus by its annual convoca¬ tions it exercises a truly national influence in historical matters. Its yearly proceed¬ ings and historical bibliographies are reported to Congress through the Smithsonian Institution and are published as a Government document, to be had free on applica¬ tion to any Congressman or at cost from the Public Printer. The association also sends to its members free of charge the American Historical Review, the quarterly magazine representing the best historical scholarship in America. The association has published a bibliography of the most important work of the State and local his¬ torical societies so that this national society has become a kind of clearing house for historical matters of interest to the whole country. One of its members, Professor Richardson, of Princeton University, New Jersey, reports annually to the Jahres- bericht of the Berlin Historical Society concerning the progress of historical literature in America. Other members report to the Revue Historique in Paris. Among other features of the American Historical Association are the following: (1) An annual prize of $100 for the best original contribution to American history. (2) An historical manuscripts commission for the preservation and publication of important manuscript materials for American history. (3) A commission on the history of colonies and colonial dependencies. (4) A general committee representing the individual States of the American Union and serving as centers of historical information regarding their own States and cities. (5) A committee of seven on the study of history in secondary schools. After a three years’ inquiry this committee has made an elaborate report upon this impor¬ tant educational subject, which has just been published by the Macmillan Company, of New York City. The inquiry was originally begun at the request of the American Educational Association, but it has been continued and ended in the interest of the 366 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. American Historical Association and of better methods of historical study in the public and private schools of the United States. (6) A committee on bibliography. (7) A public archives commission. In the future the American Historical Association, through its manuscripts com¬ mission, is likely to interest itself in the publication of some of the historical materials now belonging to the United States Government. For example, the original records of the Virginia Company, representing the colonial beginnings of this country, will perhaps be undertaken through the joint efforts of the association and of the Library of Congress. The relations of this library with the association are most friendly. The historical documents and exchanges received by the association from foreign countries and learned societies are all sent through the Smithsonian Institution to their final repository in the library of the nation. XIII. Library of Congress. Potentially this is one of the greatest educational institutions in the United States. It is the national library in which all the printed books in America are now depos¬ ited under the Federal law relating to copyright. It was founded by act of Congress, April 24, 1800, and was organized the following year on the basis of a report made by John Randolph. The first appropriation for books was 85 , 000. In 1814, when the British occupied Washington, the old Capitol was burned and the original library was destroyed. A memorable acquisition of books was the library of Thomas Jefferson, comprising 6,700 volumes. Other purchases were made, but in 1851 a second fire destroyed some 30,000 volumes. The following year $75,000 was granted for reconstructing the library rooms and $75,000 more for the purchase of books. At the outbreak of the civil war the Library of Congress numbered less than 100,000 volumes. It now contains 890,000 volumes and 250,000 pamphlets. Since 1894 the new Congressional Library1 has been built by special appropriations amounting to $6,400,000, or with the land to $6,950,000. The new building is veri¬ tably a people’s palace, not only for the representatives of the States, but also for any citizen who will take the trouble to visit it and ask for books in the prescribed way. The building is one of the most sumptuous in the world and is constructed of marbles representing the quarries of the nation and is decorated with mosaics and costly fres¬ coes, suggesting to the mind of every beholder not only the history of the United States, but the greatest events in the history of human culture. Famous names in art, science, literature, religion, law, and statesmanship are commemorated here. In the corridors are displayed the finest specimens of early printing, book making, and engraving. The literary treasures of early American colonial history may be seen by any student or passing schoolboy. The portraits, prints, and other souvenirs of great Americans are grouped in interesting ways; for example all the Presi¬ dential administrations from that of George Washington down to the living present are represented by the best and most significant engravings. It is a liberal education for an American citizen to wander through those immense corridors and see the history of his own country in its relation to the history of the world. The magnificent reading room of the Library of Congress is daily filled with all soils and conditions of men, from scholars and Government officials to the boys and girls from the Washington public schools. All are eagerly pursuing subjects of research important to their various callings. The mechanical appliances for obtaining quickly from any part of the library any desired book, are the most ingenious of 1 The building of the Library of Congress. Bernard R. Green. Smithsonian Report for 1897, pp. 625-632 (with 13 plates;. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES, 367 their kind in America. The Library of Congress has emerged from its former con¬ dition of literary chaos to a relative cosmos of order and convenience. A. 7?. Sp afford on the Library of Congress. — At a meeting of the library department of the National Educational Association in Washington, D. C., July 11, 1898, Mr. A. It. Spofford spoke of the popularization of the Library of Congress: The ultimate connection between libraries and schools is of national importance, for very few schools have enough books accessible. A step has been taken in this city to popularize libraries, by opening the national library from 9 a. m. to 10 p. m., so that Government employees and all residents and sojourners of Washington may have access to the books during the day and evening. After years of hope deferred and long and perilous delay, the Library of Congress has moved into its new home, built from the appropriation of $8,000,000, so wisely expended that every dollar tells. The building represents the flower of modern architecture, the triumph of modern art. It receives almost unanimous praise. In this casket are accumulated jewels -worthy of so magnificent a setting. In one of the upper halls is an exhibition of rare American books. We are now trying to make this the most representative library in the world. Brooks Adams, of Boston, in a recent address in New York to the National Sculp¬ ture Society, said of the new Library of Congress: I affirm that as a workshop this building approaches perfection. It is ample, it is light, it is convenient, while in rapidity of service it can hardly be excelled. In the National Library of Paris it costs an hour to get a book; in the British Museum, half an hour; in Washington, five minutes. In Paris and London one works in dark and gloomy rooms, often crowded to excess; in Washington the reading rooms are numerous, cheerful, and comfortable. In a special monograph, published by the University of the State of New York, the present writer lias discussed in extenso the relation of public libraries to popular education. Pie there considers the origin and development of free public libraries in New York, New England, and other parts of the country, together with the more modern and popular developments of these useful institutions. The public library is the people’s university, the highest of its high schools. XI Y. Museum Extension. The United States National Museum in Washington, D. C., has long been in the habit of sending out loan-museums, of varying size, to illustrate ethnology, anthro¬ pology, geology, and the various natural sciences, for the benefit of local museums all over the country. The United States Government owns vast collections of dupli¬ cates in almost every field of natural history, and it has been considered good pub¬ lic policy to distribute small portions of this scientific surplus in well-classified groups to important local exhibition centers in many towns and cities throughout the Union. New life is given by this government bounty to many a community possessing a town or village library or the beginnings of a local museum. The United States Geological Survey also has been specially active in this work of museum extension from Washington, of furnishing materials for promoting popular scientific education. As regards this phase of its work, Prof. Bailey Willis, in a let¬ ter dated June 28, 1899, said: The most conspicuous action in the way of distributing collections of specimens was the assembling and distribution of the educational series of rocks, a project started by Major Powell when Director, and completed under Mr. Walcott’s super¬ vision. Two hundred and fifty full seis of rocks and 40 partial sets have been sent out, apportioned among the States on the basis of Congressional representation, and, within the States, given to those higher educational institutions having the largest number of collegiate students. I cause to be sent to you the bulletin published in connection with these collections. In addition to this, many of the leading geologists of the Survey, including the Director, have given public lectures in most of the large cities, and have very frequently done so in Washington. Several of the geologists 368 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. of the Survey are or have been connected with the universities of the country to give courses of lectures on their special subjects. This policy is encouraged by the Director in so far as practicable when not interfering with public business. In connection with the discussion of the establishment of the national university, the Geological Survey has repeatedly been cited as an example of the relation which scientific Government institutions might hold to the higher educational institutions of the country upon the basis of a national university, it being the fact that many more graduates than can be accepted apply for the educational opportunities afforded by association with the Geological Survey. The State geological surveys are, in some cases, doing a similar work. For exam¬ ple, in Maryland, the State geologist, Prof. W. B. Clark, wrho is also connected with the United States Geological Survey and the Johns Hopkins University, authorized in 1899 the distribution to Baltimore teachers of unusual excellence representative col¬ lections of Maryland geological specimens for the purpose of fostering the museum idea in the public schools. He himself once built up, in his native town, Brattleboro, Yt., a first-rate local museum of geology and natural history in connection with the public library. He now has in contemplation a general pamphlet on the physical characteristics of Maryland and will put the illustrated description in the hands of teachers and school children throughout the State. The geological maps issued under his direction are already being distributed through the Maryland counties for educational purposes. The whole State, the agricultural college, teachers’ associa¬ tion, farmers’ institutes, public schools, and other educational forces are thus coming into a cordial federation. Maryland very early set a good example in the direction of public educational service. She was the fourth State in the Union to organize a geological survey, in 1833. In 1858 Philip T. Tyson became State geologist and did something to promote ideas of popular education in geology. Under the act of 1848 he was required each year “to deliver a public lecture, after having given timely notice, in each election district in each county, and then to deliver a course of public lectures ah each county town.” Of course this scheme as a whole was impracticable, but the idea was cred¬ itably represented lay Mr. Tyson down to the civil war. The popular cause has now been revived in better form by local lectures, although given in moderation, in prominent towns, in connection with local educational and agricultural interests. Most of the progressive State geological! surveys at the present time are dwelling upon the educational importance of bringing to the attention of teachers and pupils in the public schools the physical characteristics of the State and neighborhood. Home and school education is everywhere fostered in America, but nature study and the utilization of the immediate environment for scientific and historical study is not yet so well developed as in France. Musee scolaire. — Great interest has been awakened in New York City and through¬ out the State by a recent exhibition in Brooklyn of a specimen of Deyrolle’s “ Musee scolaire ” by the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. This is the first portable museum for school children ever brought to the United States, and it will undoubt¬ edly lead to introduction into the public schools and to an American adaptation of the whole idea of a traveling museum, analogous to the miniature traveling library and the traveling picture gallery (selected and exchanged) for schools and study clubs. The French musee scolaire, as first shown in Brooklyn, contained a series of 117 charts or object cardboards, about 2 feet square, representing and describing natural objects. The products of the earth and sea are exhibited and the industrial uses are clearly stated. For example, the plants are pictured from which the vari¬ ous dyestuffs are obtained — indigo, saffron, etc. Samples of cotton, wTool, or silk, colored with these d}*es, are also exhibited. As far as practicable, actual raw mate¬ rials are shown in glass tubes, wired to the cardboard. There are obviously infinite applications of this charming idea of pictures and EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 369 specimens, combined on one chart, and thus supplementing one another. This edu¬ cational idea will be useful in teachers’ object lessons in physical geography, geology, botany, mineralogy, history, biography, art, and literature. America has long been illustrating some of these studies by pictures and specimens, but the French musee scolaire, or school museum, will suggest the possibility of introducing a regular museum system into public education. A good article upon the subject of “A museum for small scholars,” showing the possible study of nature in small space, appeared in the New York Evening Post June 10, 1899. Another and very suggestive article on “A children’s museum” appeared in the Commercial Advertiser, New York, May 30, 1899. XV. IIigiter Commercial Schools. So-called “business colleges” have long flourished in America for the practical training of the sons and daughters of the people in penmanship, book-keeping, stenography, typewriting, and elementary branches of mathematics. A higher com¬ mercial education is now coming into vogue in our larger cities and in connection with the public-school system. Mr. William II. Maxwell, superintendent of schools in Brooklyn, lately said to the New York Chamber of Commerce: “The merchants and manufacturers of the city have done little toward improving the education of the masses by insisting on a youth’s reaching a certain standard, such as graduation from grammar schools before going to work.” The present plan in New York City is to institute so-called “Commercial high schools,” in which the first two years shall be in direct continuation of the work of the grammar schools or upper grades, and then proceed along special lines which are likely to be directly useful in mercantile and commercial life. At the same time it is intended that these specialized schools shall not be merely technical and com¬ mercial, like the old-fashioned “ business college,” but more broadly civic and edu¬ cative. Instead of confining the student’s attention to literary, scientific, or classical fields, the chosen subjects of specialized knowledge are taken from civic life and the world of politics and economics. Stress is laid upon the science of government, the laws of trade, economic and commercial history, commercial geography, commerce itself, statistics, modern languages, forms of foreign correspondence, and the progress of other countries as described by our consular reports. Here is a vast body of most interesting and concretely useful knowledge about the world in which America is actually living and moving. The point is that “things as they are” are worth studying in themselves and possess a positive cultural value. The French, the Germans, the English, and the Americans are all grasping this wholesome truth. The director of a new German institution, at Leipzig, said in his inaugural address: The commercial college is not designed as a direct preparation for breadwinners, such as commercial classes can give. It is to be the home of higher intellectual training and its golden fruits will fall into your lap, not directly but indirectly. The commercial college will teach you to think clearly; it will train your mental powers, and will provide you with ability to rise superior to the most difficult tasks and the most critical situations. * * * Our times make greater demands upon our men of business and industrial life than was formerly the case — demands which our schools are no longer able to fulfill. Full of such ideas, acquired by actual experience and now confirmed by Old World educators, the Americans in many of our great industrial cities, Philadelphia and Chicago, as well as New York, have for some time been pushing towards schools and museums for higher commercial education. In the now famous Field Museum, Chicago, were rescued some of the best and most instructive spoils of the Exposition in 1893. Philadelphia did the same after the Centennial Exposition in 1876. Balti- ed 1900 — —24 EDUCATION BEPGRT, 1899-1900. TO more and other American cities are eagerly looking forward to similar museums and to higher commercial schools and colleges, which shall intimately ally education and business. Science has long been an adjunct of industry in America. Witness the works of Fulton and Morse, Bell, Edison, and Carnegie. Columbia course in commerce. — The New York Sun of June 10, 1900, calls attention to the proposed endowment of this college course with $500,000 in chamber of com¬ merce scrip and says: The prospects for the establishment of the collegiate course in commerce at Colum¬ bia University are good. About a year ago the chamber of commerce indorsed a plan of cooperation with the university, proposed by the chamber’s special commit¬ tee on commercial education, and passed a resolution authorizing the officers of the chamber to secure the necessary funds. Because of the subscription of the new building fund for the chamber of commerce it was deemed inadvisable to make any such effort last year. Now that the building fund is completed the committee of the chamber acting upon the suggestion of the president, is endeavoring to provide per¬ manently for the course in commerce by securing the assignment to the university of chamber of commerce scrip, which is to be issued for subscription to the building fund to an amount not less than $500, 000. It is understood that good progress is being made in this enterprise. The fund is expected to produce $15,000 to $20,000 a year to run the proposed school. The course will cover four years’ work and will lead to a certificate. No degrees will be granted. All those who have attained the standing of high -school graduates will be eligible for admission. The curriculum will include the following subjects, some required, others elective: Topography, orthography, hydrography, meteorol¬ ogy, orography, geognosy, geography, German, French, Spanish, Italian, industrial chemistry, systems of weights and measures, exchange, arbitrage, customs regula¬ tions, currency and banking systems, storage bonding and harbor regulations, com¬ mercial law, rules of navigation, markets, fairs, exchange and price quotations, roads, canals and railways, commercial documents, operations in produce exchanges, inland trade and transportation, vocabulary and nomenclature, and principles, practice, and legislation. The chamber’s special committee on commercial education in charge of the proj¬ ect is composed of Seth Low, chairman; W. Bayard Cutting, Gustav IT. Schwab, James G. Cannon, and F. B. Thurber. XVI. Newspapers as Popular Educators. Good journalism has long been one of the best means of educating the English and American peoples. The rise of great newspapers is one of the most striking educa¬ tional phenomena of the nineteenth century. Probably the press has had more to do than any other agency in shaping public opinion and in developing the demo¬ cratic spirit in politics and culture. Newspapers accomplish for adults what public schools do for the young. They liberate and inform the mind. They inspire the will and train the human spirit for useful action. In one sense the public prints are the school books of the nation, educating citizens and voters to a knowledge of their duty. It is worth our while to inquire into the origin of this wonderful power which has become the day and night school of the nation. We are all students of the daily newspaper, whatever may be our academic connections. One of the chief values of reading and philosophy is the acquired ability to interpret aright the news of the world, the truth that comes straight, not from musty tomes, but from God’s own laboratories, the workshops of history and politics, the high fields of human action. The origin of the great political journals of England goes back to that period of political storm and stress known as the American and French Be volutions. Mere dates become significant in the light of central facts. In 1769 the Morning Chronicle was founded; in 1772, the Morning Post; In 1785, the Times (the modern thunderer, more powerful than the god Thor); in 1792, the Courier. Look at specimens of these, or any eighteenth century newspapers, and compare them with first-class EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 371 modern journals, and see how ideas of popular government and education have expanded. Four pages were enough for London and New York a century ago. Now there is hardly room for anything but newspapers in a modern reading room. The original motive for English newspapers was, first and foremost, to chronicle the doings of Parliament, in which, at the time of the American Revolution, the English people had considerable interest. There never were any official reports of Parliamentary proceedings until the Morning Chronicle took up this public duty. For a time Government resented such democratic impertinence, and did not resign itself to inevitable fate until 1770. To this day the newspapers are the only means of publicity for the proceedings of Parliament, which has neither shorthand reporters nor daily records like those representing the American Congress. It now seems a truism in England and America that representatives of the people should report to the public through the press. While tolerating political newspapers the English Government at first proceeded to tax them as heavily as possible. From 1789 to 1815 the burden was from 4 to 8 cents on every copy issued. The Government also levied a heavy tax on paper. In 1819, the 4-pence stamp duty was imposed upon every periodical costing less than Gd., so that a newspaper at that rate cost an English citizen the equivalent of 20 cents of our present American money. Of course this was a prohibitive tariff for the great mass of English readers. In 1815, the Times had a daily edition of only 8,000 copies, but the total number of copies of all newspapers subject to this tax on popular knowledge was, in 1801, 18,000,000. In 1821, the total had risen to 25,000,000, showing that English democ¬ racy wras learning to appreciate political and other news. Curiously enough, at first the six great London dailies favored the tax on newspapers because it gave them a virtual monopoly and prevented smaller newspapers from starting up a competition. In spite of steady increase in circulation English newspapers were by no means for the chief benefit of the masses. The man w-ho deserves the greatest credit for opposing the tax on newspapers was Francis Place (1771-1854) wdio, beginning in 1819, brought forward year after year the question of repeal of “Taxes on knowledge.” Graham Wallas, Place’s biographer, says: “It was not till 1855 that the penny stamp was abolished, and only with the repeal of the advertisement duty in 1853, and the paper duty in 1881, that taxes on knowledge ceased, and a penny, daily press became possible in England.” Any one familiar with the high educational character of the great London dailies of otir time — e. g. , the Standard, the Times, and the Daily News — and with the great provincial dailies, like the Manchester Guardian, must realize what educational leaders and tribunes of the people English newspapers now are. English journalists opened the way for political liberty and free speech in our mother country. Ruder the old lawrs of libel it used to be very easy for the English Government to imprison or send beyond the seas any editorial writer wTho had expressed himself too freely in political or religious matters, or who had spoken irreverently of the party in power, of George IV, or of any member of the royal family. In 1812, the LIunt brothers were condemned to a year’s imprisonment for having said that the Morning Post exaggerated in calling the Prince of Wales an Adonis. From 1808 to 1821, 94 English journalists were condemned to penalties of various sorts. Among these, 12 were deported. The nineteenth century is not only the era of newspapers, the best known educa¬ tors and leaders of the people, but also the era of great magazines, the standard- bearers of politics, religion, and literary criticism. To understand the origin and rise of the periodical literature of England or America is to understand the history of Anglo-American culture and progress. Of far-reaching educational influence upon the American people is the daily news¬ paper. It comes morning and evening into almost every household in large towns 372 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. and is read by every adult citizen of ordinary intelligence. The affairs of the town, city, State, nation, and the world are subjects of familiar conversation at breakfast and dinner in every household. In many public and private schools, social organi¬ zations, women’s clubs, and college classes, talks on questions of the day or so-called “current events ” are a recognized means of public instruction. At the present time special efforts are made in many communities to interest women in public contem¬ porary affairs. In a recent conference of normal school teachers in Boston, May 12, 1899, a lady teacher from Providence, where for many years the city press has cooperated with the public library and the public schools, expressed the hope that “the time would come when all women, in school and out, would read the papers as regularly and thoroughly as men do.” Doubtless too much attention is given by some men to “news” and to the editorial opinions of the daily press and too little time to good books and the best periodical literature, but on the whole, the American passion for newspaper reading shows that the Republic is vitally interested in contemporary progress, in living truth. “Ancient history” is a familiar phrase for things dead and buried; but for real news, and for new aspects even of scientific truth, Americans are very keen. Beyond all question, the daily newspaper is the most potent educational power in the United States, as it certainly is also in the French Republic, where every voter is a reader. In a democracy this must be so, for the press molds public opinion, shapes political parties, and determines elections. In America, newspapers support all measures for the public health and public welfare, including public libraries, public schools, and all other forms of popular education. The press to-day is the tribune of the people, more potent perhaps than the pulpit or the college or the public library in educating the great masses of men and women. Science and relig¬ ion are both taught in liberal, catholic, and progressive ways by the daily newspaper. Its classes of eager readers in all branches of really vital knowledge are numbered literally by the thousand. Some critics affect to despise newspaper reading, but it is the bread of intellectual life for the common people and some of the best and most cultivated writers in America are regular contributors to the press. Newspaper civilization. — Dr. William T. Harris, in an address to the Congregational Club in Washington, D. C., expressed his appreciation of newspapers in the follow¬ ing language: “Far surpassing our libraries in educative influences are our own daily newspapers and magazines. Our people are far more freely supplied with newspapers than the people of any other nation. We are governed by public opinion, as ascertained and expressed by the newspapers, to such an extent that our civilization is justly to be called a newspaper civilization” (Washington Post, October 16, 1894). Educational value. — Thus material information drawn from the daily newspaper and the monthly magazine enters into the life and thought of the rising generation. Children are taught to observe passing social and political phenomena as they are taught to study nature herself. Indeed, children soon begin to realize that history and sociology are vitally connected with nature and quite as well worth serious study as are objects in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. It is much the same whether the materials for educating the mind of youth are caught from the air or dug from the earth, fished out of the sea or taken from that great river of time represented by the daily newspaper, the magazine, the book, the sermon, the lecturer, the walk, or the talk. There was no question about the educational value of peripatetic and Socratic methods in the groves and markets of Athens. There ought to be none about the living words of the modern press and platform. Antiquarians and “ dry-as-dusts ” realize the scientific value of newspapers when they get old enough to be preserved in musty folios. Politicians, social economists, and citizens have no hesitation about utilizing newspapers fresh from the press. The EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 373 rapid rise of press bureaus in England and America and the growing tendency to exploit newspaper material for educational and social purposes shows that democracy is bound in some way to keep up with its own self-made history. The idea of adult education continued for life has long been in process of evolu¬ tion through the American press, and now there is hardly a first-class daily that does not have its educational and literary columns, its weekly page devoted to American colleges and schools, its special writers on art, music, religion, and science. There are special columns for women, children, and the household. A public school for the American people is the daily press. Of particular educational interest to many readers was a series of articles on folk music, published in the early summer of 1899 in the Sunday supplements to the New York Tribune. References were given to the standard literature upon the various national variations of this great and popular theme. Those libraries, in various cities, containing the books and music recommended, were briefly indicated. Thus the common cause of musical culture was sensibly and cheaply promoted all over the country by the cooperation of great public libraries with one metropolitan newspaper. Digests and summaries. — There are also classified condensations of American news¬ paper views and magazine articles in special organs like Public Opinion, the Literary Digest, the American Monthly Review of Reviews, etc. Many other publications give monthly summaries, topically arranged, under such heads as history, politics, religion, art, science, literature. Schools, clubs, and various associations have their weekly or monthly reviews of current events. From the primary school to the col¬ lege, it is not unusual for teachers to direct the attention of their pupils to the important events of the time. The Chicago Record's “ Home study circle .” — Not long ago, January, 1897, an enter¬ prising Chicago newspaper undertook to supply its readers every day with two columns of well-digested or well-edited educational matter, arranged under special subjects and in orderly sequence, for the “Home study circle.” The matter proved so very interesting and helpful to wide circles of readers that it was syndicated or supplied in duplicate to dozens of daily papers. The home circle studies appear in Chicago, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Buffalo, Pittsburg, Louisville, Memphis, Minneapo¬ lis, St. Louis, Denver, Los Angeles, and in several smaller cities. It is impossible to estimate the number of students who are following the course. The Chicago Record has stated that fully 100,000 people follow the work, either closely or incidentally. This is probably an underestimate, for the newspapers which represent this work have a much wider circulation. The following brief outline of “The Chicago Record Llome Study Circle” has, by request, been furnished by Mr. Ivan A. Thorson, of Johns Hopkins University, who has followed with interest the development of these courses since they began to appear in 1897. “The Chicago Record Home Study Circle” was organized in January, 1897. It appeared first as “The night school at home;” later the name was changed to “The summer school at home,” and finally in October, 1897, it assumed the name by which it is known at present. The “Home study circle” has from the beginning been under the chief direction of Dr. Seymour Eaton, of the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, who was the originator of the idea. As will be noticed from the list given below, 53 distinct courses have been published, including those running at this writing (December, 1899). The general plan of publishing these courses may perhaps also be gathered from this list. From two to three columns of the newspaper has daily been given up to the “Home study circle” work. From an elementary course, almost entirely in the more common branches, for the special benefit of those whose educational advantages have been very limited, these “Home studies” developed and broadened so as to include courses in literature, science, and art, adapted to all classes. Among the later contributors to the courses we find men representing all the leading colleges and universities in the country. The form and style adopted in presenting these courses have throughout been the 374 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. simple and direct, enabling any person with average intelligence to follow' along wdthout difficulty, though previously possessing no knowledge in the particular subject under consideration. The following is a list of the courses of instruction wdiich have been offered: I. January to May, 1897 : 1. Bookkeeping and finance . Monday. 2. Elementary mathematics (first course) . Tuesday. 3. Beginner’s course for working boys and girls . Wednesday. 4. Mechanic’s bids and estimates . Thursday. 5. Correct English and correspondence . Friday. Notes,- hints, and answers . Saturday. II. May to October, 1897 : 6. Popular and applied science . 7. Economic principles and problems _ 8. School ideas — a course for teachers _ 9. Literature and literary criticism (first) . Monday and Tuesday. . Wednesday. . Wednesday. Thursday, Friday, and Saturday. III. October, 1897, to February, 1898: 10. Common school course . Monday. 11. Civil service examination course . Monday. 12. Course in stenography . Tuesday. 13. Course in English composition . „ . Tuesday. 14. Elementary mathematics (second) . Wednesday. 15. Course in mechanical drawing . Wednesday. 16. Double entry bookkeeping . Thursday. 17. Course in commercial arithmetic . Thursday. 18. Course in ancient history . Friday. 19. Course in literature ajid literary criticism (second) . Saturday. IV. February to June, 1898: 20. Commerce and finance . 21. Course in commercial law . . . 22. Course in civics . 23. Course in parliam entry practice . 24. Course in elementary electricity . . 25. Course in English history . 26. Literature and literary criticism (third) V. June to October 31, 1898: 27. Popular studies in architecture . 28. Geography— Trade centers of the world 29. Lectures on astronomy . . 30. Lectures on health and hygiene . . 31. The world’s famous scientists . . 32. Literature — Popular living authors _ VI. October, 1898, to February, 1899: 33. Night school course . 34. Popular studies in Shakespeare (first). 35. Elementary mathematics (third) . 36. Drawing, designing, and illustrating _ 37. The w'orld’s great musicians . . . Monday. _ _ _ Monday. . Tuesday. . Tuesday. . Wednesday. . Thursday. Friday and Saturday. _ Monday. _ Tuesday. Wednesday. . .Thursday. . Friday. . . . Saturday. . Monday. Tuesday and Friday. . Wednesday. . .Thursday. . Saturday. VII. February to June, 1899: 38. Popular studies in European history . Monday. 39. The w'orld’s great commercial products . Tuesday. 40. Governments of the world of to-day . Wednesday. 41. Popular studies in literature . Thursday and Friday. 42. The world’s great artists (first) . Saturday. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 375 Till. June to October, 1899: 43. Vacation studies for young naturalists 44. Historic cities of Europe . 45. Popular lectures in physical science . . 46. Three centuries of F rench literature . . 47. Royal women of European history. . . IX. . . Monday. . . Tuesday. . . Wednesday. Thursday and Friday. . Saturday. [Course running at this writing, December, 1899.] October, 1899, to - : 48. Popular studies in Shakespeare (second) 49. The world’s great artists (second) _ 50. Desk studies for girls . 51. Shop and trade studies for boys. . . 52. Great American statesmen... . 53. Home science and household economy . . Monday and Thursday. . . Tuesday. _ Wednesday. . . .Wednesday. . Friday. . . ...Saturday. In most cases the titles furnish a good index to the contents of these courses. The subjects taken up the first year and a half were presented in very nearly the same manner as we find them presented in the average text-books on these subjects. I would make an exception to this with regard to the course in ‘ ‘ Literature and literary criticism,” as no ordinary text-book that has come to ni3r notice covers the same ground with such completeness as did this course. About the middle of 1898, a marked improvement took place in the make-up of the courses. Instead of employing one or two writers to furnish the whole set of articles on a given subject, the system of engaging for the purpose several specialists from various colleges and universities began to be introduced. Thus we find that the articles on “Popular living authors” (June, 1898) were written by such men as Pro¬ fessors Gates of Harvard, Butler of Boston University, Demsey of Ohio University, Brander Matthews of Columbia, Rev. Edward Everett Hale, and others. In tire fall term of 1898 appeared the course called “Popular studies in Shakespeare,” having the following distinguished Shakespearean scholars and literary men among its contributors: 1. Hiram Corson, LL. D., Cornell (director). 2. Edward Do wden, Lit. D., D. C. L., LL. D., University of Dublin. 3. William J. Rolfe, Lit. D., editor Harper Bros.’ Shakespeare Editions. 4. Isaac M. Demrnon, A. M., LL. D., University of Michigan. 5. Oscar Lovell Triggs, Ph. D. , University of Chicago. 6. John Franklin Genung, LL. D., Amherst. 7. Theodore W. Hunt, Ph. D., Princeton. 8. Albert S. Cook, Ph. D. , LL. D. , Yale, and several others. Since February, 1899, this system of employing several specialists as contributors to each course has been adopted with reference to nearly all the courses, two or three exceptions being made where the nature of the subjects has been such that a single contributor would seem preferable. To give a more definite idea of the work that the “Home study circle” Is doing, I shall give a brief outline of a few of the courses mentioned in the list above, with the names of some of the contributors. The authors treated in the course on “ Popular living authors,” just referred to, wTere: 1. Howells. 2. Warner. 3. Aldrich. 4. Mark Twain. 5. Riley. 6. Stockton. 7. Cable. 8. Crawford. 9. Harding Davis. 10. Bret Harte. 11. Hall Caine. 12. Anthony Hope. 13. Conan Doyle. 14. Barrie. 15. Kipling. 16. Sir Walter Besant. 17. Weyman. The plays studied in the Erst course, entitled also referred to above, were: 1. Romeo and Juliet. 2. Midsummer Night’s Dream. 3. King John. 4. Merchant of Yeniee. “Popular studies in Shakespeare,” 5. Julius Ceesar. 6. Hamlet. 7. Macbeth. 8. The Tempest. 376 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The studie's taken up under “Popular studies in European history ’ ’ were : 1. Mohammed. 2. Charlemagne. 3. The Crusades. 4. Feudalism. 5. The Italian Republics. 6. The Ottoman Turks. 7. The Moors in Spain. 8. The Hanseatic League. 9. The Huguenots. 10. Peter the Great. The contributors to this course were: 1. Edwin A. Grosvenor, M. A., professor of European history, Amherst College. 2. Dana C. Munro, Ph. D., professor of Mediaeval history, University of Pennsyl¬ vania. 3. George Emory Fellows, Ph. D., professor of history, University of Chicago. 4. Samuel B. Harding, Ph. D., professor of history, University of Indiana. 5. Willis M. West, M. A., professor of history, University of Minnesota. The course called “The world’s great commercial products” was prepared under the general direction of Dr. Wilson, director of the Philadelphia Commercial Museum, and contained a great amount of interesting information relating to the commerce of the world. The commerce of the following products was taken up: 1. Breadstuff s. 2. Meat products. 3. Dairy products. 4. Cotton. 5. Wool. 6. Lumber. 7. Sugar. 8. Coffee. “Governments of the world of to-day” included comparative studies of the forms of government in operation in the following countries: 1. France. 2. Russia. 3. Switzerland. 4. Turkey. 5. The German Empire. 6. Great Britain. 7. Italy. 8. Canada. 9. Japan. 10. India. The contributors were: 1. Albert Shaw, Ph. D., editor of the American Monthly Review of Reviews. 2. J. Whipple Jenks, A. M., Ph. D., professor of political science, Cornell Uni¬ versity. 3. Jesse Macy, LL. D., professor of constitutional history, Iowa College. 4. Frederick W. Speirs, Ph. D. (Philadelphia). 5. J. Roy Perry, M. A., LL. B., lecturer on constitutional law, University of Toronto. 6. William W. Folwell, LL. D., professor of political science, University of Minnesota. 7. J. A. Woodburn, Ph. D., professor of political science, University of Indiana. The studies taken up in the course called “Popular studies in literature” were the following: 1. Chaucer: The dawn of English literature. 2. Caxton: The old printers of Westminster. 3. Translation of the English Bible. The Bible as an element in literature. 4. Spenser: The Elizabethan age. 5. Bunyan: The religious element in early literature. 6. Early English essayists. 7. The first great English novelists. 8. Gray: Critical study of “The Elegy.” 9. Wits and humorists of English literature. 10. De Quincey: Early prose masterpieces. 11. First historians and famous histories. 12. Charlotte Bronte: Literary women of fifty years ago. 13. Literary clubs of London. 14. Ibsen: Review of Scandinavian literature. 15. Tolstoi: Review of Russian literature. The contributors were: 1. Lewis E. Gates, A. M., professor of literature, Harvard University. 2. Maurice Francis Egan, LL.D., professor of literature, Catholic University of America. 3. John Ebenezer Bryant, M. A. (Toronto, Canada). 4. John Millar, M. A., deputy minister of education, Ontario, Canada. 5. Hattie Tyng Griswold, author of “ Home Life of Great Authors,” etc. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 377 6. Julius Emil Olson, B. L., professor of Scandinavian literature, University of Wisconsin. 7. John Franklin Genung, LL.D., professor of literature, Amherst College. 8. Joseph Yilliers Denney, A. M., professor of literature, Ohio State University. This course, taken in connection with the course on “Literature and Literary Criticism,” and the course on “Popular Living Authors” (both of which are men¬ tioned above), cover in a general way the whole field of English literature. The course called “The World’s Great Artists” (1st series) included studies of the lives and works of the following artists: 5. Hogarth. 6. Reynolds. 7. Turner. 8. Millet. 1. Raphael. 2. Rubens. 3. Rembrandt. 4. Murillo. This course was liberally illustrated with portraits of artists and copies of famous pictures. The contributors were : John C. Van Dyke, L. LI. D., professor of the history of art, Rutgers College. Russell Sturgis, Ph.D.,F. A. I. A., author of “European architecture;” art critic of the New York Times. Rev. James M. Lloppin, D. D., professor of the history of art, Yale University. The subjects included in “Popular lectures in physical science” were: 1. Lakes and Caves. 2. The Glacial Period. 3. The Fossil World, and How Man Came to Know it. 4. The Origin and Nature of Soils. 5. Animal Intelligence. 6. Extinct Monsters. 7. Volcanoes and Earthquakes. 8. The World’s Time Standards. 9. The Formation of Coal. 10. The New Planet of 1899. 11. Color in Nature. 12. Wobbling of the Earth’s Pole. Contributors to this course were: 1. Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann, of Indiana University. 2. Dr. Samuel Calvin, of the University of Iowa. 3. Professor G. D. Llarris, of Cornell University. 4. Dr. I. C. Russell, of the University of Michigan. 5. Dr. Howard Ayers, of the University of Missouri. 6. Dr. James E. Talmage, of the University of Utah. 7. Dr. Harold Jacoby, of Columbia University, and 8. Dr. Edward L. Nichols, of Cornell University. The course, “Three Centuries of French Literature,” included the following: 1. Montaigne: The French Renaissance. 2. Cerneille: The Classical Drama. 3. Moliere: The Age of Louis XIV. 4. Voltaire: Period of Doubt and Criticism. 5. Rousseau: The Theorists of French Literature. 6. Madam de Stael: The Age of Napoleon. 7. Guizot: The Philosophical School. 8. Hugo: The Romantic School. 9. Alexandre Dumas: The Historic Novel. 10. George Sand: Naturalists in French Fiction. 11. Balzac: Realists in French Fiction. 12. (lustave Flaubert : Masters of French Prose. 13. Emile Zola: Modern French Fiction. 14. Alphonse Daudet: Modern French Humorists. 15. Guy de Maupassant: The Master Short-Story Writer. 16. Yic.torien Sardou: The Modern French Drama. 17. Contemporary French Writers. Among the contributors were the following: 1. Brander Matthews, LL. D., author and critic, Columbia University. 2. Benjamin W. Wells, Ph. D., author, University of the South. 3. Jean Charlemagne Bracq, A. B., lecturer, Vassar College. 4. Prof. Edouard P. Baillot, Northwestern University. 5. H. Morse Stephens, M. A., author, Cornell University. 6. Alcee Fortier, D. Lt., Tulane University. 378 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 7. Charles W. Pearson, A. M., Northwestern University. 8. Courtney Langdon, A. B., Brown University. Of the courses that are being published at this writing the first two mentioned in the list above, nos. 48 and 49, are continuations of nos. 34 and 42, respectively, of which mention has already been made. The “Desk studies for girls” are presented under the following heads: 1. New Words and How to Use Them. 2. Correspondence and Handwriting. 3. Reading Courses and a Girl’s Library. 4. Personal Accounts and Money Affairs. 5. Writing for Publication. The “Shop and Trade studies for boys” are divided into the following depart¬ ments : 1. Arithmetic of the Workshop. 2. Drawing for Mechanics. 3. Arithmetic of the Counter and Office. 4. Money Problems and Business Records. 5. Machine Drawing and Design. The course in American history, entitled “ Great American Statesmen,” includes studies of the following: 1. Samuel Adams. 2. Patrick Henry. 3. John Randolph. 4. Gouverneur Morris. 5. Benjamin Franklin. 6. Thomas Jefferson. 7. James Madison. 8. Alexander Hamilton. Contributors : 1. Albert Bushnell Hart, professor of history, Harvard University. 2. John Bach McMaster, professor of American history, University of Pennsyl¬ vania. 3. Bernard C. Steiner, Ph. D., librarian of the Pratt Free Library. 4. Frederic W. Spiers, Ph. D., university extension lecturer on American history and economics. 5. Charles H. Smith, LL. D., professor of American history, Yale University. 6. Willis M. West, M. A., professor of history, University of Minnesota. 7. John W. Perrin, Ph. D., professor of history, Adelbert College, Cleveland. 8. James A. Woodburn, Ph. D., professor of history and political science, Indiana University. 9. Andrew C. McLaughlin, A. M., professor of American history, University of Michigan. The last-mentioned course, on “Home science and household economy,” is a new departure. The following outline will give some idea of the general character of this course. I. The home healthful and beautiful: 1. The home construction. 2. The home environment. 3. The home furnishing. 4. The home decoration. II. The buying, cooking, and serving of food: 1. The economic buying of food. 2. The chemistry of cooking. 3. Foods for invalids and children. 4. The dining room and table service. 5. Carving and serving meats. III. The social life of the home: 1. Family relations and domestic life. 2. Visiting and entertaining. 3. Recreation and amusement. 4. 'Women wage-earners of the home. 5. The home in its relation to the State. IV. The care and education of children: 1. The children in infancy. 2. The kindergarten age. 3. The first years at school. 4. The boys and girls of sixteen. 9. John Jay. 10. John Marshall. 11. Albert Gallatin, 12. Andrew Jackson. 13. John C. Calhoun. 14. Henry Clay. 15. Daniel Webster. 16. Charles Sumner. EDUCATIONAL EXTENSION IN THE UNITED STATES. 379 Department No. 1 is under the general direction of Mrs. Helen Campbell, who is well known as a writer on domestic science. Department No. 2 is under the general direction of Miss Anna Barrows, managing editor of the American Kitchen Maga¬ zine, and working associate of Mrs. Mary J. Lincoln. Mrs. Kate Gannett Wells, of Boston, has general supervision of Department No. 3; and Mrs. Margaret E. Sangster, editor of Harper’s Bazar, and Miss Lucy Wheelock, the most widely known kinder¬ garten lecturer in the United States, contribute largely to Department No. 4. MELVIL DEWEY ON NEWSPAPERS. At the second international library conference, held in London, July, 1897, Mr. Melvil Dewey, director of the New York State Library, said: I yield to none in my high appreciation of what the best kind of a newspaper may do in its capacity as the strongest ally of the public library and of the public school. I am confident that early in the next century such journals will be recognized as a distinct part of our educational machinery, but I am equally clear that the worst journals, conducted merely as money-making enterprises, and catering to the worst instead of to the best elements of both society and individuals, are the most potent factors for evil, and the greatest enemy which the ideal librarian has to combat in carrying forward his best work. J. N. LARNED ON NEWSPAPERS. The true public journal -diary of the world [says Mr. J. N. Earned], which is actu¬ ally a newspaper and not a gossip paper, is most powerfully an educator, cultivator, and broadener of the minds of those who read it. It often lifts them out of their petty personal surroundings and sets them in the midst of all the great movements of the time on every continent. It makes them spectators and judges of everything that happens or is done; demands -opinions from them; extorts their sympathy, and moves them morally to wrath or admiration. In a word, it produces daily in their thought and feeling a thousand large relations with their fellow-men of every country and race, with noble results of the highest and truest cultivation.1 All the great newspapers in America have their Washington offices and corre¬ spondents. Some of the very keenest journalists (American and foreign) are stationed and liberally maintained on salary in the Federal city throughout every session of Congress, if not the whole year round, in order to keep the public in close touch with the very heart and life of the nation. The contemporary history of American politics and economics, national and international, is written from day to day in the city of Washington and telegraphed to the chief cities of the world. 1 “ The mission and missionaries of the book,” by J. N. Larned, printed in the First Biennial Report of the State Library Commission of Wisconsin, 1896, pp, 19-31. CHAPTER VI. SOME HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS BEARING UPON COM¬ MON SCHOOL EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA AND SOUTH CAROLINA PREVIOUS TO THE CIVIL WAR, Contents. — (1) Proposed plan for the organization and support of common schools in Virginia, by Henry Ruffner. (2) Address of Henry A. Wise to his late constituents. (3) Letter of Dr. J. H. Thornwell to Governor Manning on public instruction in South Carolina (1853) . PROPOSED PLAN FOR THE ORGANIZATION AND SUPPORT OF COMMON SCHOOLS IN VIRGINIA.1 By Henry Ruffner, President of Washington College. The fundamental principles of the plan here presented are, first, the organization of a system of district schools under proper superintendence, and, second, the sup¬ port of these schools, in a great part, out of the literary fund, increased to a sufficient amount by a tax on property. These principles are deemed essential to any successful scheme for the dissemination of common learning through all parts of the common¬ wealth and all classes of her citizens; but many of the following details are admitted to be susceptible of variation without injury to the result, and possibly with benefit to the cause of popular education. They are exhibited in order to show by what ways and means the great principles may be carried out, and as the primary form of a system whose outlines hawe the sanction of experience in other countries, and whose subordinate details are susceptible of amendment, as our own experience may dictate after its adoption. The details are arranged in order under distinct heads. 1. OF THE SCHOOL DISTRICTS. The people of every county and town should be organized into school districts with definite boundaries, except those parts where the population is too sparse to sustain a school. Wherever 25 children live sufficiently near to attend the same school there a district might be laid off, for even a poor people in such a case may with some pub¬ lic aid maintain a school during some three or four months in the year; and under the system here proposed they will be moved to exert themselves for this end. The districts should vary in size and form according to the population and natural features of the country. Large rivers, mountains, and miry swamps should gener- erally constitute boundaries; yet in many cases, when necessity so requires, these obstacles could be surmounted by children living near them, and therefore accus¬ tomed to them. Youngsters between 8 and 15 years of age often make light of cross¬ ing rivers and mountains about home, and parents could generally facilitate their 1 Prepared and presented to the legislature at the request of a school convention held in Lexington, on the 7th day of October, 1841, and composed of delegates from the counties of Rath, Augusta, and Rockbridge. 381 382 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. attendance at school by improving the ways or providing cheap water craft; so that this difficulty, arising from the geographical character of our State, is not so great as many suppose. It is, at all events, a difficulty which operates with much more inju¬ rious effect now than it would under a well-organized system of district schools. Where no difficulty of this sort lies in the way children over 10 years of age could generally, if need be, go either on foot or on horseback 3J or even 4 miles to school. These distances will therefore limit the possible extent of the districts. In the more populous parts of the country they should not exceed 5 or 6 miles in diameter; nor should they often, unless villages are included, be less than 4 miles in diameter, because the inconvenience of going 2 miles where the way is good will be more than compensated by the advantage of a larger, which should be a better if not a cheaper, school. Cities and towns with their outskirts should each constitute one district only, with such number and variety of schools as the number of pupils and their diver¬ sity of age, sex, and acquirements may render expedient. The advantage of having schools adapted to the age and acquirements is so great that rural districts able to sustain two schools should have one for beginners and one for advanced scholars. The districts might be laid off by the county superintendents, assisted by commis¬ sioners appointed by the county courts. Much care and judgment will be requisite to do this well. Reference should be had to the probable increase of population as well as its present state. The necessity of changing the location of district school- houses, or of making other inconvenient changes, should be avoided. 2. OF THE LOCATIOX AXD CONSTRUCTION OF SCHOOLHOUSES. Schoolhouses should be so placed as to unite in the highest possible degree the two¬ fold convenience of centrality and pleasantness of situation. In extensive districts the schoolhouse must of necessity be near the middle point, that all may reach it without too much difficulty; and pleasantness of situation must sometimes be sacrificed in part to this necessity. But in smaller districts some greater or less removal from the center should be allowed for the sake of a dry, healthy, agreeable spot, near to good water and remote from bad moral influences. The difference between the best and worst situation for a schoolhouse should have some influence in laying off the boundaries of districts. A sufficiency of ground should be attached to the rural schoolhouses, and, if possible, to those in towns also, to furnish playgrounds and other appurtenances, either useful or ornamental. The children should not be necessitated to trespass on private property or to go into the streets for exercise and amusement. In the construction of schoolhouses commodiousness is the first requisite: that is, space sufficient for all without crowding or confusion, and for a large school two apartments; a comfortable degree of closeness and warmth in winter, healthful ven¬ tilation at all times, glazed windows properly distributed, well made and properly arranged furniture, and a scrupulous cleanliness within and about the house. But not only should the schoolhouse be commodiously built and neatly kept; the architecture and the appurtenances of the house should be tasteful and agreeable to tiie eye, that the objects constantly associated with the exercises of the pupils may tend rather to refine than to vulgarize their minds, to win their affection and care rather than inspire contempt and prompt to mischief. In poor districts the building must indeed be of cheap materials and plain workmanship. But then what need of putting children to be educated into such miserable dens of deformity, dirt, and dis¬ comfort as are many of the hog-stye-looking schoolhouses of the “ancient domain?” When the seminaries of the land are such nests of filth and vermin what must the teachers be? and what the education of the pupils whose young ideas are taught “to shoot” in such gardens of knowledge and refinement? The location, architecture, and care of schoolhouses are now left to accident, and ■ i i RUFFNER’s flan FOR SCHOOLS IN VIRGINIA. 883 to the irregular and partial cooperation of individuals, who often verify the proverb “ What is everybody’s business is nobody’s business.” Without a district organi¬ zation no improvement can be expected in this and other important matters con¬ nected with our primary schools. 3. OF DISTRICT OFFICERS. The householders and parents of each district should elect annually, in small dis¬ tricts, three or four, in large districts, five, school trustees, who should appoint a treasurer and a collector for the district, and whatever other officers may be found necessary. The treasurer and collector should give official bonds and receive a mod¬ erate commission for their trouble; the trustees should not act under oath, but gratuitously. To the board of trustees should be intrusted: The selection of a site, and the purchase, or, if necessary, the condemnation of suffi¬ cient ground for the sclioolhouse, leaving to persons who feel aggrieved by their deci¬ sion the right of appeal to the county superintendent; if he confirm the decision it should be final, if he do not confirm it he should call in the trustees of a neighboring district, whose decision should be final. The contracting for and superintending the construction and repairs of the school- house, and in general the supervision and care of the school property of the district. When schoolhouses previously built are found convenient for the district, as a good- many would be, they might be used either temporarily or permanently as district schoolhouses. The legal title of the district school property should be vested in the board of trustees as a body corporate. (3) The raising of funds by district taxation to defray the expenses of ground, buildings, furniture, and other accommodations for the school, and with the consent of a general meeting of the district, to pay the teacher’s salary. But in all cases wherein money is raised by district taxation, it may be questioned whether the one- half should not be assessed on tithables, like county levies, and the other half on property, like the State taxes, that the burden may be divided between numbers and wealth, and that the rich and the poor may not oppress each other. (4) The disbursement of the school funds collected by them, or put into their hands. (5) The employment of schoolmasters for the district, settling the terms of con¬ tract with them, fixing the rates of tuition, when fees are paid, the admission of indigent children at reduced, rates or gratuitously, etc. The trustees as a corporation should guarantee to the teacher not only his fixed salary, but the proceeds of the fees, which should be collected by the district col¬ lector as the taxes are collected. The part of the salary derived from the public funds should be so far additional that if the county superintendent find the teacher unqualified for his duties, or the district officers to have failed in providing sufficient funds and accommodations for the school on their part, he should be authorized and instructed to withhold the district’s quota until these errors should have been corrected. (6) To report quarter-yearly to the county superintendent respecting the school affairs of the district, and particularly the levies, taxes, and fees laid and collected; the disbursements, and for what objects; the state of the schoolhouse and other school property; the teacher or teachers employed, and on what terms; the number of pupils attending school, and their classification according to age, sex, and attain¬ ments; the studies pursued, and the number pursuing each; indigent scholars admitted at reduced rates; the number who may have applied to be so admitted; and once a year the total number of children in the district between 6 and 11, and between 11 and 16 years old; the number of each class who are deemed unable to 384 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. pay full fees, and the number who can not read and write. The district collector could easily gather these particulars, and the statistics of the district could be con¬ veniently reduced to a tabular form, of which the blanks should be furnished by the superintendent. (7) It is implied in the foregoing articles that the trustees should frequently visit the school; they ought to consider themselves its official guardians and responsible for its good management ; they should also feel that they are public guardians of all the children in the district, in so far as their schooling is concerned; they should make the school equally accessible to rich and poor, according to their respective means, and use their influence with all their neighbors to induce them to send their children regularly to school, until they have become well grounded in the most nec¬ essary branches of learning at least. 4. OF THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. Each large county, and each two or three small adjacent counties, should have a superintendent of schools, a man of good character, industry, and learning, whose duty it should be: (1) To assist in laying off the school districts, and, when disputes occur, in locat¬ ing the schoolhouses. (2) To visit the schools under his superintendence twice a year, and oftener when his presence may be needed to correct abuses, heal dissensions, stimulate trustees, teachers, or parents, to do their parts in diffusing the blessings of good learning through all the families of the district. (3) To receive, keep, and disburse, as directed by law, or by the board of educa¬ tion, the moneys paid into his hand for the school fund, and to keep an exact account of his receipts and disbursements, and report the same half-yearly to the general superintendent. (4) To report also semiannually an account of his other official doings, and the statistics of the schools under his superintendence, in like form as they are reported to him by the district trustees. When these fail to report in due time, he should by personal visitation, or otherwise, have the deficiency made up; and all such failures should subject the district to a forfeiture of some part of its claims on the public funds, or the trustees to a personal fine. He should be annually appointed by the board of education, and, besides taking an official oath, he should give bond for the due discharge of his pecuniary obligations. He should receive a small stated salary, and a moderate daily allowance for the time spent in visiting the districts. He should be liable to a fine for neglecting any of his prescribed duties. 5. OF THE SECTIONAL SUPERINTENDENTS. Let the counties of the State be distributed into four nearly equal groups called sections, and for each of these let a sectional superintendent of schools be appointed, who should be a man of high standing for purity of character, learning, and sound judgment, and who, besides his being a member of the board of education, should exercise some general superintendence over the schools and county superintendents of his section. He should visit occasionally the counties where his presence may be useful. He should call on the superintendents of the counties visited, and inspect their books; and should visit some of the schools, and gain information from various sources respecting the school affairs of the country. When academies shall be intro¬ duced as a part of the organized school system, he should visit them occasionally. When a county superintendent fails to perform his duties, or the office becomes vacant, he should make a temporary appointment to supply the deficiency. He should be appointed for three years by the legislature, but be liable to be superseded for neglect of duty. RUFFNER’S PLAN FOR SCHOOLS IN VIRGINIA, 385 Pie should act under oath and receive a reasonable daily allowance for the time spent in his official duties. The pay of a member of assembly and traveling expenses would perhaps be sufficient. Instead of the usual sectional divisions, namely, the Tidewater, Piedmont, V alley, and Trans-Alleghany, it would be, in some respects, more convenient to distinguish the school sections as Northeastern, Southeastern, Northwestern, and Southwestern, by lines corresponding generally with the line of the James River and the two Kanawhas, and the North Mountain from the Potomac to the James River or Roanoke, thence the Blue Ridge to the Carolina line. This division would give bet¬ ter shaped sections and more convenient routes for visitation. 6. OF THE GENERAL SUPERINTENDENT. This officer being the head of the system, and charged with the highest duties, ought to possess rare and eminent qualifications. He should be a first-rate scholar, experienced in the business of teaching youth, regular and industrious in his habits, observant and judicious, pure in morals, sound in his religious principles, but free from sectarian bigotry. The reason for these various requirements will be obvious when his duties are specified. Pie should be appointed for three years by the legislature. He should reside at the seat of government, and devote his whole time to his offi¬ cial duties. His ordinary home duties would be to correspond with county superintendents and with other persons from whom useful information might be derived; to receive and digest reports from county superintendents; to study treatises and documents on education; to examine schoolbooks and consider what improvements or change may be beneficially made in the books, the modes of teaching, and the system generally; and to exercise a constant guardianship over the interests of education and the diffu¬ sion of useful knowledge among the youth of Virginia. At intervals he should make tours of observation both in Virginia and in other States to learn the operation of various systems of popular education, and to discover wherein our own may be susceptible of improvement. He should of course have a liberal salary and a reasonable allowance for traveling expenses, not only because justice to an important public servant requires it, but because the public interest requires that none but the best-qualified individuals be chosen to this office, and that such be able to maintain a family at the capital of the State in a style becoming their office; otherwise the men most apt to be well qualified for the office would be least able or least disposed to accept it. Two thousand five hundred dollars would be but a reasonable salary for an office of such importance and such labor. Perhaps it were well to appoint an officer of tlii3 sort in advance of the adoption in detail of any specific system of schools, and to let him visit divers countries dur¬ ing the year 1842, and then assist in framing the system on principles antecedently approved by the legislature; in the meantime, preparatory measures could be put in operation to raise funds and put the general outlines of a system in a train of execu¬ tion. Districts could be laid off and schoolhouses prepared. 7. OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Annually, in December, the general and the sectional superintendents should meet in Richmond as a board of education, the former being ex-officio president of the board. This board should be charged with the following duties: 1. Out of the county reports and other sources of information to prepare for the legislature a general statistical report of schools, both public and private, in the com¬ monwealth; of the school funds of all sorts, both receipts and disbursements, with ED 1900 - 25 386 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. such remarks as they may think proper on the operation of the system and recom¬ mendations of amendment so far as legislative aid may be required. (2) The appointment of county superintendents and the necessary officers of their own board. (3) The framing of general regulations and instructions for the government of inferior officers, and the management of schools conformable to the provisions and intent of the school laws, and to give uniformity, regularity, and efficiency to the operations of the school system. These regulations should, among other things, pre¬ scribe the qualifications of schoolmasters, the branches of learning to be taught in the several ranks of schools, the schoolbooks to be used, the mode of teaching and managing the schools, the rules to be observed in visiting and examining the schools, the admission of poor scholars, the application of the public school funds, the forms of reports, etc. (4) The selection and printing of schoolbooks, and their distribution among the counties, so that every school may be duly furnished with good editions at a moderate price. Large editions being printed by contract, and sold at a little more than cost, the books would come cheaper and of better quality than they do now in our schools. The county superintendents might manage the distribution of them among the districts. (5) The apportionment of the public school funds annually among the districts according to law, and to the statistical reports. Failure in district officers to report should cause a forfeiture of some part of the whole of the district’s quota for the year. Failure to maintain a school during the term prescribed to a district should produce a correspondent forfeiture. On the other hand, when a district by extra¬ ordinary exertions maintains a better school, or one for a longer period than the rules prescribe, its quota should be increased out of the sums retained as forfeits. 8. OF THE SCHOOLMASTERS. Without some public regulations on the subject the State will never be supplied with a sufficient number of good schoolmasters, nor will the best be always pre¬ ferred by employers; and without good teachers the children of the Commonwealth will never be well educated, whatever be the amount of public funds appropriated for the support of schools or the education of the poor. Great care should be taken to prevent our youth from falling into the hands of immoral or incompetent men. Many such now go about as schoolmasters — some of them lazy, drunken, unprinci¬ pled, ignorant vagabonds — who impose on illiterate and incautious parents by crafty pretensions, and gain employment by offering to work cheaply. Effectual measures should be taken to rescue the children of the State from this class of worthless impostors. While such schoolmasters are “abroad” the youth of the Republic must suffer great detriment, and better men will be driven from an employment disgraced by such professors. The following should be deemed indispensable qualifications for the office of school¬ master, and no one should be permitted to teach a school who does not possess them all in some good degree: (1) An unblemished moral character and sound principles of Christian piety. If not in full communion with a Christian church, he should at least be free from relig¬ ious infidelity and profaneness of language or sentiment, and be well acquainted with the Holy Scriptures. (2) Competent scholarship. He should have an accurate knowledge, both theoret¬ ical and practical, of the elementary branches of common learning, including orthog¬ raphy, reading, penmanship, English grammar, arithmetic, plain book-keeping, the simple elements of rhetoric and composition, geography, general history and the history of the United States, and the Virginia and Federal constitutions. To take charge of the higher order of common schools, his knowledge should extend to sev¬ eral other branches of science. RTTFFNER’s PLAN FOR SCHOOLS IN VIRGINIA. 387 (3) Aptness to teach and to govern his scholars without unnecessary harshness. (4) Habits of regularity and industry in the management of his business. To these we may add as important auxiliary qualifications, general intelligence, refinement of mind and manners, energy, firmness, and evenness of temper, with affection for children, a predilection for teaching, and an enlarged desire for the improvement of society, to which we must add that sort of prudence which will keep him from intermeddling with religious, political, or personal disputes among his employers. Vocal music should after awhile be introduced generally into our schools as a part of common learning, valuable in its humanizing influence, and as an exercise delight¬ ful to children, adapted to sweeten their daily studies, and to make them fond of the school. Teachers qualified to teach vocal music on scientific principles should be sought after and preferred when they are otherwise qualified for their office. Teachers guilty of immoral conduct or of gross neglect of duty should, on convic¬ tion, be discharged from employment, and .if the trustees fail to discharge them in such a case the county superintendent should withhold from them the portion of salary derived from the public funds, as he should in all cases when the trustees employ a teacher without the requisite qualifications, until a sufficient number of fully qualified teachers can be provided. It will, notwithstanding, be necessary to allow the poorer districts to employ such as can be had, provided always that they be of good moral character and competent to give useful instruction. 9.. OF NORMAL SCHOOLS. The scarcity of good teachers will make some provision necessary to increase the supply. A certain sum might be granted to each of the colleges, or to academies for the education of poor young men, upon the condition that they serve the State as schoolmasters during a number of years, greater or less, according to the amount of aid received. In this manner the supply of competent teachers might be increased. But in addition to this measure another, and in some respects a better, mode of increasing the supply, should be resorted to — that is, the establishment of a normal school for the sole object of educating teachers. This institution should be in a town sufficiently populous to support common schools of different ranks connected with the normal school and conducted by its teachers, these serving as examples of the most approved methods of instruction and government, and as means by which the apprenticed teachers could be exercised in the business of teaching under experienced masters while they carried on the studies of the normal school. It is evident that the young teachers so trained would carry with them into all quarters of the State not only the learning necessary in schoolmasters, but the best theory of teaching and some degree of practical dexterity. It is true that any young man who has studied under good masters has at the same time learned much of the theory of teaching. But our common schools are not gen¬ erally taught by such masters, and the art of teaching a primary school can not be learned either by observation or practice in academies or colleges, where different branches of learning are taught and different modes of discipline are proper. The masters of the normal school ought, of course, to be not only men of learning and talents, but distinguished for their skill as practical schoolmasters* The course of studies in this school should include far more than is required to be taught in common schools, that the teacher may the better understand and teach the elementary branches of common learning; that he may command higher respect from his pupils and their parents; that he may inspire his pupils with desire for the higher knowledge that they see in him, and that he may be qualified, by his profusion of light, to warm and quicken and illuminate, in some degree, the whole mass of untu¬ tored minds around him. There is another reason: Common-school piasters should 388 EDUCATION REPORT, 1809-1900. have such a broad foundation of learning that they may hope, by exercising industry and gaining distinction in the lower ranks of schools, to gain promotion, first to the higher ranks of common schools, and ultimately to the academies, and even to the colleges of the country. This policy would tend to improve the quality of teachers, to raise the standard of common education, to induce many young men of talents to embrace the office of teacher as a permanent profession, and to elevate and improve the general mind of our commonwealth. Should these results follow in the smallest degree the State would be richly compensated for the money expended in educating teachers and in giving them an extent of learning far beyond the ordinary require¬ ments of schoolmasters by profession. But the learning taught in the normal school should be mostly scientific — mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, botany, mental and moral philosophy, rhetoric, philosophical grammar, composition, natural theology, the evidences of Christianity, the Bible, and vocal music should all be studied; the German and French languages, especially the former, and perhaps some of the Latin classics, might be added by such as desired to learn them. The office of schoolmaster is too humble and too little lucrative to induce many except poor young men to seek it. The normal school would not be filled, there¬ fore, unless the State afford some aid to young men of good character and deficient means, who are willing thus to qualify themselves for teaching. They should be required in return to give bond, by themselves or some friends, for the amount of aid received, on the condition that the obligation be canceled by their teaching a certain time in the common schools of the State, or by their inability to do so by death or otherwise. 10. OF LOWER AND HIGHER SCHOOLS. In feeble districts but one school could be maintained, and in that the course of studies would have sometimes to be contracted into narrower limits than would be proper in abler districts. In the lowest, however, the teacher should be qualified to teach all the most necessary branches of common learning. When the school is of larger size, and is kept during longer terms, the range of studies ought to be wider, and the children should be encouraged, and the parents induced, if possible, to persevere until the whole was completed. Where more than one teacher can lie employed at once, the school should be divided into separate departments, the lower composed of beginners and the upper of advanced scholars; and when convenient, the older male and female scholars should also be separated, out of regard not only to moral considerations, but to the different sorts of instruction adapted to the difference of sex. But a complete system of popular education will require three sorts of interme¬ diate schools between the primary schools and the colleges: (1) Grammar schools, or as they may be called high schools, designed exclusively to prepare youth for a regular course of college studies. The Latin and Greek lan¬ guages would therefore constitute the chief parts of instruction in these schools. None should be admitted to them until they are well versed in the studies of the primary school; then they should be taught the elements of classical knowledge in a more thorough and accurate way than is customary in the miscellaneous schools usually termed academies in this country. (2) Academies for males. These should be attended only by young men destined to the more common pursuits of life, but desirous of extending their knowledge beyond the studies of the primary school. The branches of science useful to the farmer, mechanic, merchant, and citizen of the Republic should be the principal studies of this class of schools. The more useful branches of the mathematical, physical, and moral sciences, and a thorough acquaintance with the English lan¬ guage, would therefore be the chief objects of attention. German, French, and Spanish might be occasionly taught, but the Latin and Greek should be confined to the grammar schools. RUFFNER’S PLAN FOE SCHOOLS IN VIRGINIA. 389 For want of a sufficient number of these two sorts of schools, well conducted and kept distinct, as they ought to be, our colleges have become too miscellaneous in their character; the standard of scholarship has been unavoidably lowered by the defective preparation of the students for college, and the cause of learning has materially suffered among us. (3) Academies for females. These should do for the future wives and mothers of the land, a service equivalent to that which should be done for the fathers and citi¬ zens by the academies for males. We need not here argue the justice and utility of extending to the higher education of the gentler sex a share of public patronage whenever academies shall be taken into the general system of organized schools. In framing the system this order of schools should undoubtedly be kept in view; but it may be questioned whether, in the first instance, the system of common schools should not be put into regular and successful operation, and then, the broad founda¬ tion being laid, the superstructure of higher schools could be built upon it more successfully. By good management this may be done in two or three years after the commencement of operations. In the meantime the present academies, private and incorporated, would still in some sort afford classical and scientific instruction. The academical part of the system might then be arranged after this manner: The present incorporated academies to be taken into the system upon the condi¬ tions: First, that the buildings and grounds be sufficiently spacious, neat, and adapted to the accommodation of the school; second, that the trustees organize the school either as a classical high school or as an academy for teaching the sciences; and, third, that no teachers be employed but such as possess the qualifications pre¬ scribed by law or by the board' of education. Where the buildings and other means of the institution are sufficient for both a high school and an academy, both these classes of schools might be allowed, on the condition that they have a separate and independent organization, and that each be conducted upon the principles peculiarly proper to its character and object. Private academies, with suitable buildings, might in like manner be adopted, but they ought to have trustees, who should be subject to the laws and regulations respecting these institutions. Where new academies or grammar schools are wanted, the inhabitants of the place and neighborhood ought to be required to furnish the ground and buildings, in con¬ sideration of the local advantages that would accrue to them from the institution. Some aid might, however, be given in a few cases, out of the literary fund, in erect¬ ing academy buildings when such an institution is much wanted and the inhabitants are scarcely able to defray the expense. There should be an academy in every large county, or two or three smaller ones, where the spirit of education is sufficient to sustain one. The willingness of the people to furnish the buildings would generally be the proper test of this spirit. A less number of grammar schools would be requisite. Twenty or less of these, in addi¬ tion to the private classical schools, would be amply sufficient. Care should be taken not to multiply institutions of these sorts too fast. A few well-managed and well sus¬ tained schools would be more beneficial to the interests of learning than many Avith a feeble patronage, and consequently feeble teachers. The tendency in our country is to run to excess with every good thing when it once gets hold of the popular mind. Having secured the main points in a good system of education, we should then pro¬ ceed with caution. We may safely affirm, however, .that unless the Government exercise more than a nominal patronage of academies, it can do little toward regulating and improving them. Were the literary fund sufficient for every valuable purpose of education, we would recommend liberal appropriations yearly to schools of this order, but supposing the fund inadequate to a full endowment, we would choose to limit the public aid in ordinary cases to two objects in these schools: First. A yearly sum 390 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. granted to academies, male and- female, for the purchase of scientific apparatus, and to them and the grammar schools for the purchase of books for their libraries, they being all required to conform to the regulations prescribed to them as a condition precedent; and second, another sum yearly to assist poor youth of merit who had distinguished themselves in the primary schools and desired to prosecute their education in the higher schools. The institutions thus patronized should be officially visited by the superintendents, and should be required to make semiannual reports of their condition. 11. OF COMMON-SCHOOL LIBRARIES AND OTHER AUXILIARY MEANS OF POPULAR INSTRUCTION. In rural districts, especially those remote from towns, and inhabited by illiterate people, libraries will be essential auxiliaries to the schools; indeed, in all districts where the children have not generally access to social libraries the schools ought somehow to be furnished with them. Multitudes of families, and not a few of them rich enough in other things, have no books in their houses; at least none adapted to interest and improve their children. What, then, is the result when their children are taught to read? What else but that these children, having an instrument of knowledge without materials for its exercise, not only fail to use it profitably, but undervalue and throw it away as useless? In fact many neglect and forget altogether the little smattering of knowledge acquired at school. Had suitable books been put into their hands as soon as they were able to read them, great numbers would of themselves have overcome the imperfections of their schooling, and have grown into intelligent men and women. We do not expect by any means to make a whole people learned or even intelli¬ gent; but who can doubt that an adequate supply of suitable books would greatly enhance the valuable results of the school system? As soon, therefore, as the district schools have been organized, efforts should be made to establish school libraries. A strong bookcase should constitute an article of furniture in most of the schoolhouses, and in this, under the supervision of the trustees and the immediate care of the master, should be collected all the suitable books that can be procured b}r donation, subscription, tax, or other proper means. The board of education should furnish printed catalogues of books suitable for these libraries; they also might make arrangements with booksellers to supply them on the best terms and have them sent where wanted with the common school books. Thus the schools could be furnished with useful libraries at a very small expense, and in a few years the reading youth of each district might have access to a library of 200, 400, or 600 volumes, mostly small, but all profitable to their minds, at an expense not exceeding 50 or 60 cents per volume. These should be lent out for short periods and under strict regulations to the advanced pupils of the school, and to others on their paying a small library fee, sufficient to repair the damages resulting from the use of the books. Other auxiliary means for the diffusion of knowledge need be but briefly alluded to. Among these we may name lyceums, mechanics’ institutes, and library associa¬ tions. Tinder proper management these have proved themselves to be highly useful, especially where scientific lectures by competent men are duly attended to. They are for the improvement of the adult population. They rarely succeed, except in towns and large villages. Being in their nature voluntary associations, managed by the members, they can not form a regular part of our public-school system, but the Government and school superintendents may do much to promote their establish¬ ment and success by their influence and encouragement. Sunday schools are, in a moral and religious point of view, of unspeakable impor¬ tance, and as auxiliary means to promote education in general they are of no small importance. Being also voluntary institutions, connected with the churches of various denominations of Christians, they can not be generally included in the public- RUFFNER’s PLAN FOR S'CHOOLS m VIRGINIA. 391 school system; but in school districts where this sort of institution is neglected by the religious community and where no religious worship is regularly attended to, the Sunday instruction of the children should be provided for by the school trustees. The schoolmaster, with some assistance, or, when no master is employed, such intel¬ ligent, pious, and benevolent persons as can be obtained, should be induced to take charge of this important duty. The Bible and other books proper for teaching the common principles of religion should there be taught to the youthful population, who would otherwise in such cases employ the sacred day in idle and corrupting practices. 12. OF POOR CHILDREN. It has been already suggested that the district schools should lie open to all the white children within their bounds, upon such terms as their parents can afford. The operation of the school fund should reduce tuition fees to so low a rate as to enable many parents to pay them who must now, through contracted means, either stint the education of their families or degrade themselves into applicants for the charitable aid of the literary fund, and even for this aid they would often apply in vain, either because the fund was deficient or because they were not deemed poor enough to obtain the pauper’s dole. There would still be some families, however, too poor to pay even the small fees required^under this system. To provide for these in the way least degrading, the school trustees, in whose election they will have a A'oice, should be required from year to year to designate the families whose means, compared with the number of their children to be schooled, are deemed inadequate to the expense. These should be required to pay the half or the fourth of the full fees, for all should pay some¬ thing, as all can pay something, except a very few reduced to want by misfortune or otherwise in peculiar circumstances. Destitute orphans should be taught gratui¬ tously as the children of the State only. If it be said that there is still something of degradation in the exemption here proposed, wre observe that this is the necessary consequence of extreme poverty, from which no system can remove all the degradation; but those who pay something according to their ability, though it lie but little, will not feel the shame of pauper¬ ism, and those few who must go without paying at all will be less humbled by the exemption than the multitudes who, under the present mode of educating the poor, must, if they go at all, be entered on the teachers’ books as paupers, whose tuition is paid for by the public at 4. cents a day. However this may be, one thing is certain, that, in the system here proposed, provision is made for the education of the whole of our citizen population except those whom, by reason of their scattered situations, no practical system can reach; and this, we venture to affirm, is more, far more, than can be done for the extension of common schools of the best sort, or of any sort, by any scheme whatever that comes short of a district organization .and a general school tax. 13. OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL FUNDS. Experience in Virginia as elsewhere, proves that when the schooling of children is left wholly to the undirected and unaided efforts of individuals it is often mismanaged and neglected; and the more in proportion as popular ignorance prevails. Ignorance, poverty, and a blind parsimony increase the difficulty of doing well in a matter which requires associated action directed by intelligence and subjecting those who partake in it to considerable expense,. Without the agency of government, popular education has never flourished. In a despotism it may suffice to issue mandates and compel the people to educate their children according to prescribed rules. In our country a different course must be pursued. Lawrs may indeed be enacted on the subject not only authorizing but enjoining the people to attend to the education of their children, 392 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. and even prescribing the system to be pursued. But in a state of society like ours such laws, if they provide not the means of carrying their provisions into execution, will be as they have been, almost wholly inoperative. The proper means, however, in a case like this are not penal sanctions, but a well-organized system, aided by a fund of such magnitude that the moving and regulating power of pecuniary interest may be added to the prescriptions of law and the sense of duty. An excellent theory of school organization and superintendence may be devised and put into the form of law and be even adjusted for action; but without the quickening influence of a large fund it will be no better than a well constructed machine without the moving power. There are no self-moving machines in the moral more than in the natural world; and as we can not move the people in this case by fear of penalties, we must needs apply the inducement of cheap schooling for their children, and that it may be cheap to them as individuals the community must render it so by means of a large common fund. The present literary fund is now admitted on all hands to be quite inadequate to effect the general education of the people on any plan or mode of application. Only two questions remain to be determined in relation to it; how may it be sufficiently increased, and to what extent ought it to be increased? The late distribution lav.' of Congress offers the easiest and best mode of increase, so far as that may go. We firmly believe that while that law shall continue to put a large sum yearly into our treasury, every dollar of that sum should be cohsecrated to the education of the youth of Virginia. If applied to the redemption of the State debt, which is by no means burdensome, a slight reduction of taxes may ensue, but no sensible improvement in the social or pecuniary condition of the people; if it be appropriated to some scheme of internal improvement, though some local benefit may result, yet, judging the future by the past, the stock' thus created will be unprofitable to the State, and therefore the capital so invested will, like so much other capital similarly employed, be in a great measure sunk and lost forever; but if invested in profitable stocks, and the proceeds applied to the education of our youth, it can not fail to improve for ages to come that which in Virginia most needs improvement, the mental and moral condition of our citizen population. But even with this aid, the school fund will yet be insufficient unless increased by a tax. If a tax designed to reduce tuition fees in our common schools could be a public burden, and did not return to the people in the form of a substantial relief, we might hesitate to recommend it. But as the sole effect of a school tax on the com¬ munity will be to change the mode of paying the necessary expenses of education, the only reasonable question respecting it is, whether this change of mode will be just and beneficial. As we propose that this tax shall be laid on property alone, its effect will be to draw from the wealthy and those who have no families some aid for the poorer classes in giving their children a good common education. This we hold to be just, for the whole community is interested in the good education of children; the safety and prosperity of the Commonwealth depend upon it quite as much as upon courts of law, penitentiaries, and soldiers, now maintained by taxes on property. The State now acts upon this principle in the application of the literary fund to the edu¬ cation of poor children, for that fund was originally the fruit of taxation, and if appropriated to the expenses of government would save taxation on property. That the reader may judge whether such a tax will operate beneficially upon the interests of education, we request him to consider in connection all the chief parts of the scheme here proposed, including what we shall present under the next head. We are much mistaken if it does not appear that by paying about half the tuition fees, or teachers’ salaries, out of a public-school fund the education of children will RUFFNER’s PLAN FOR SCHOOLS IN VIRGINIA. 393 be easier, better, and more general than it now is or can be made on a system that does not embrace this principle. The school tax ought to be a State, not a county, tax; for if this matter be left to counties, the system will operate lamely and partially. Some counties, especially the poorest and most ignorant, will do nothing, others too little, others will do it injudiciously; all will be liable to irregular and vacillating action on the subject. There will be no unity or generality in the system, general organization and super¬ intendence will fail, and the whole system, like an ill-adjusted machine, after a crippled and irregular movement for a few years, will, as like schemes have done heretofore, come to nothing, and leave the Commonwealth as degraded by her pop¬ ular ignorance as she now is. In that case, too, the poorer counties of the State can derive no aid from the general resources of the State, and the very places where most should be done for improvement will be abandoned to their dark and helpless illiteracy. Let the State then levy a general school tax for the general good. At first it might consist simply of a certain percentage on the revenue taxes of the State, and be col¬ lected by the sheriffs in the same manner. If experience afterwards dictate any alteration in this part of the system, the change can be easily made. The proceeds of the tax should be paid to the county superintendents, whose receipts, presented to the State auditor, would acquit the sheriffs of this part of their liabilities. All the money thus collected in each county would be expended within it; for the pres¬ ent literary fund would be sufficient to answer other demands, especially if it be somewhat increased by the proceeds of the public lands. The amount of the public-school fund should be, from the commencement, sufficient to pay about half the schoolmasters’ salaries besides the other expenses of the system. The other half of the salaries would then be raised by tuition fees, or, if the people of the counties or the districts chose, by local taxes, so as to abolish fees and make the schools free to all. This plan is offered, not only because it is believed to be theoretically good, but because it will effect a compromise between the extremes of opinion existing on this subject, and therefore be likely to give more general satisfaction than any other that embraces the principles necessary to secure the great end in view. Whilst many oppose any general system sustained by taxation, others advocate a general system of free schools, supported wholly by taxation. We prefer to confine our school reform to those points which are most needful, and to such limits as the habits and sentiments of the people are likely to bear. Insisting on a general State organiza¬ tion, instead of the fragmentary and ill-concerted action of counties, we limit the dis¬ trict feature to the territories sufficiently populous, and the general tax to an amount sufficient to move and regulate the action of the districts. Of course the people not included in school districts should be exempted from school taxes. 14. OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE SCHOOL FUNDS. As the school districts will differ much in population and wealth, and consequently also in the amount of their contributions to the school fund and in their need of aid from it, the board of education ought to be governed in the distribution of the fund by such principles as will in the highest possible degree combine equity with utility. On the one hand, a district may equitably claim from the fund a share in some degree commensurate with its contribution, but, on the other hand, a poorer district has a claim on the score of utility to such an amount of aid as will enable it to main¬ tain a good school. Then, again, the population of a district, that is, the number of children to be educated, and consequently the expenditure necessary to effect their education, is another element which should enter into the calculation of what is due on the score of equity and utility both. One thing more should be regarded in appor- 394 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. tioning the school fund, mainly on the score of utility; that is, the degree of effort made by each district in its own behalf for the good education of all the youth within its limits. By aiding and rewarding these efforts the fund will operate with double force as a stimulant to exertion in all the districts, for whilst sluggish and delinquent districts incur a forfeiture, total or partial, of their ordinary quota, the districts which put forth extraordinary exertions will thereby gain an increase of their ordinary quota. To give these several elements due influence in the apportionment, we propose the following rule: The board having before them the statistical returns of the districts and the amount of funds to be distributed, let them divide this amount as follows: Two-fifths among all the districts in the ratio of their contributions to the general school fund. Two-fifths more in the ratio of their amounts of schooling during the past year, these amounts to be ascertained by multiplying the number of scholars by the aver¬ age number of months during which they attended school. The remaining fifth equally among all the districts, except that large towns which constitute but one district each should have something more by reason of their great population and numerous schools. But as this equal distribution is designed to help feeble districts which have neither wealth nor population sufficient to maintain a good school, and as towns have great advantages for education, no town should get more than a double or triple share in this equal apportionment. To show the effect of this compound ratio of distribution, let us suppose that 8300,000 are to be distributed among 1,500 districts. Then, as 8120,000 will be dis¬ tributed on the basis of taxation, a district of average wealth will get on this account $80, one of average schooling the same, and every district will get 840 in the eaual distribution. A district which on the grounds of taxation and schooling together may claim an average share will get $200 for its quota; one of double the average would get $360; one of half the average $120. Thus the weaker districts getting a larger quota than their wealth or quantity of schooling would entitle them to, they would be able, by proper exertions, to maintain a school during so much of every year as would suffice for the useful education of their children. When the districts came to be laid off and the fund to be distributed, it might be found that one-fifth is either more or less than is proper to be equally distributed, and that some variations in the other parts would be expedient. The principles here laid down are, however, so well adapted, we think, to the object in view and so easy of application that we feel confident of their being generally approved after they are well considered and understood. We should call attention only to one more particular of their operation. As two- fifths of the fund are proposed to be distributed according to the quantity of actual schooling in the districts, which will include poor scholars as well as others, it is obvious that this will stimulate the districts to get as many children as possible to attend the schools, whether they be poor or not, for an increased number of scholars will increase the quota of the district and reduce the sum necessary to be raised by tuition fees. But as precaution is necessary to prevent unprofitable schooling in a district, no scholar should be reckoned as such in calculating the amount of schooling except such as have attended with ordinary regularity during at least three consecutive months. To entitle a district to its quota it should be required to maintain a school during a certain period of the year, unless it can show a satisfactory reason for its failure. The districts should be classed according to their population and wealth. Those of the first or highest class should be required to have a perpetual school or schools, and be able to report at the end of the year a certain total amount of schooling actu- RUFFNER’s PLAN FOE SCHOOLS IN VIRGINIA. 395 ally done, or forfeit a part of their quota proportional to their shortcoming. Those of the lower classes should in a like manner incur a forfeiture if they failed to main¬ tain a school of the proper rank and magnitude during a certain term yearly. Those of the lowest class should keep up their school not less than four months yearly, for any term short of this would be in great degree unprofitable to the children and a waste of the funds. Eight months of continual instruction in a period of two years should be recommended as preferable to broken terms of four months in each year. These and other regulations to the same effect should cooperate to spur the districts to activity and regularity in the management of their school affairs, for such is the ignorance and such the indifference on the subject prevalent in many parts of the State that all these ‘ 1 means and appliances to boot ’ ’ will be necessary to give motion and regularity to our school system and to diffuse the benefits of good common edu¬ cation throughout the rising generation of our citizens 15. MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. We shall conclude with some observations and estimates which have not been sufficiently or at all introduced under the foregoing heads: First. The district system of schools has so many obvious advantages, and no dis¬ advantage whatever. Many persons argue that it is not applicable to a country so thinly and irregularly inhabited and so cut up into narrow vales and strips of peopled territory as most of Virginia is. These peculiarities in the State, and distribution of our population, are difficulties, to be sure, but not in the way of the district system so much as of the maintenance of schools in any manner. They prove the necessity of bringing all possible aids into requisition, that we may overcome the natural and unavoidable difficulties in the way of diffusing education among our people. We need the district system the more on account of these difficulties, because this system so groups and organizes the population as to make the most of whatever means we have. Every family to which schooling is attainable is thereby connected with those other families with which it can be most conveniently associated in maintaining a school, and all are compelled to contribute somewhat, according to their means, for the support of educa¬ tion among them. Thus none of the means in existence are suffered to be inert, or to be wasted by ignorance, folly, and dissension among the individuals of a neigh¬ borhood. We do not propose, it is true, to compel parents by legal penalties to send their children to school, but we offer such inducements as must ultimately prevail with all. We abstain as far as possible from coercive measures, because we remem¬ ber that the ignorant and blindly parsimonious have votes at elections, and we wish not, unnecessarily, to array their political power against the means of removing ignorance from their children. We prefer the district system for another reason. It will organize our population into small communities, corresponding with the townships of New England, the par¬ ishes of Great Britain, and the communes of France. Many neighborhood interests will thus be better attended to; new ties will bind our people together in these primary communities, and new centers of intelligence and social improvement will be created. The want of communities smaller than counties has doubtless retarded our social improvement. Second. To show the lamentable degree of ignorance in Virginia, and the neces¬ sity of an effectual reform in our school system, we need only examine the returns of the late census. More than 58,000 adult white persons were returned as unable to read or write. This amount of ignorance is enough to alarm us; but were this all that the census discloses we should not have thought it necessary to mention the subject here. An attentive examination of the returns will show beyond question that they come far short of the truth. This appears from the following facts: (1) In four large counties not distinguished for intelligence, namely, Frederick, Stafford, EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. oar* e/O Charles City, and Marshall, none of this class are returned. (2) In not a few other counties, the number returned is incredibly small, as Sin Rockbridge, 8 in Ohio, 16 in Powhatan, 17 in Clarke, etc. (3) The comparative returns of adjacent counties show an incredible difference. Thus in Cabell one-fourth of the adults are returned as wholly illiterate, but in the wilder county of Logan only 1 out of 32 adults; in Prince William, one-sixth; but in Fairfax, 1 out of 91; in Pittsylvania and Henry, one-tliird; but in Halifax, one-eleventh, and in Franklin, one-nineteenth. The like differences appear in the returns from every part of the State. Many and great errors evidently exist in these returns. They must be errors of defect, for no cause of excess can be assigned, while the negligence of the marshals, and the reluctance of individuals to report their ignorance, may easily account for defects. We venture to assert also that multitudes were reported as able to read who could indeed labor through a printed page, but who were in no proper sense readers of books or even of newspapers, and who were in reality as ignorant, if not cpiite so illiterate, as those who had never learned the alphabet. When these things are taken into the account, we must conclude that not less than 150,000 of the adult white population of Virginia are in a state of debasing ignorance. This is more than one-third of the 377,000 citizens over 20 years of age. Third. Estimated expenses of the system. Some of these estimates are necessarily liable to error, but, on the whole, we can assure ourselves that they do not vary much from the truth. 1. Expenses of superintendence. General superintendent’s salary and traveling expenses . . $2,800 Four district superintendents, pay and mileage . 1, 200 Board of education, rent, stationery, clerk hire, and printing . 500 Eighty county superintendents, at $100 each . 8, 000 Contingent expenses, such as postage, stationery, blanks, etc _ ........... 500 Total for superintendence . . . . . . . 13, 000 2. The normal school. Buildings, viz, lecture rooms and dormitories . . . . . 13,000 One professor’ s house . . . . . 3, 000 Library and scientific apparatus . . . 2, 000 18. 000 Interest on the cost and repairs, 8 per cent . . . 1, 440 Yearly increase of library and apparatus . 260 One principal professor and two assistants . 3, 000 Sixty scholarships, averaging $80 . 4, 800 Contingencies . 500 10, 000 These are all the costs properly chargeable on the system here proposed, except the expense of collecting and disbursing the proceeds of the school tax, for the net proceeds go directly to defray the necessary charges of education, which must be incurred in some way. Now if the sheriffs collect the tax as a mere addition to the revenue they can well afford to do it for a commission of 3 per cent, and as the distribution of the funds by the county superintendents among their districts will be an easy operation, 2 per cent would probably be an ecpiitable commission. The present literary fund will have to be distributed, as now, among divers and many of them distant places; but this must be done at all events, and therefore is not chargeable on the system here proposed. ADDRESS OF HENRY A, WISE. 397 Now we aver that the charges above stated for superintendence, the education of teachers, and the management of the school fund will he repaid to the people fivefold by the extension of education and the improved quality of the schools. A bad school, like bad merchandise, is dear even at a low price. Under a system whose cost will be scarcely $40,000 a year many families will have the benefit of good schools whose children are now growing up in ignorance, and three-fourths of our white population will be able to give their children a better education than they can now give them. If we suppose 40,000 square miles of the State to be laid off in school districts (thus leaving out 20,000 square miles of almost or quite uninhabited territory), and the size of the districts to average 20 square miles, including the towns, there will be 2,0G0 districts. If we assume 700,000 as the number of white people in the districts (leaving about 50,000 not included), the average population of the districts will be 350; or, making allowance for the large towns, the rural districts may average a little more than 300. Now, by the late census it appears that the number of children between 5 and 15 is upward of 26 per cent of the whole population; or, taking one- fourth as the number of proper age to attend school, the average number in the rural districts will be 75, which is a sufficiently large average for a district system — indeed, greater than necessary. The only doubt will be respecting the more thinly peopled districts; but as these may be enlarged to almost double the average space of 20 square miles, we may reasonably suppose that very few in the 2,000 would fall below half the average population — that is, below the number of 37 schoolable children — and if half these should attend school at once there would be no difficulty in sup¬ porting the district school, with the aid of the fund, during four or five months in the year; and when the school is kept only during such short portions of the year, at least half the children might be expected to attend at once if proper means are employed to induce them. If the fund applicable to the district schools should, with the aid of the literary fund, be $300,000, this would give an average of $150 to each district and $80 or $90 to the weakest, a sum sufficient to pay three months’ salary to a good teacher, and leaving only $80 or $90 more to be raised among the 25 or 30 families of the district to support their school and keep their schoolhouse in repair. This shows that a tax that will produce from $200,000 to $250,000 per annum would be sufficient to carry the plan into effect, and this tax would not be felt as a burden, because it would relieve the people from paying an equal sum in another way. Hoping that sufficient has been said to render this plan intelligible and to unfold the reasons upon which its chief provisions are founded, it is respectfully submitted to such members of the legislature and other citizens of Virginia as may think it worthy of their attention. ADDRESS OF HENRY A. WISE TO HIS LATE CONSTITUENTS.1 TAXATION AND EDUCATION. If I had an archangel’s trump — the blast of which could startle the living of all the world — I would snatch it at this moment and sound it in the ears of all the people of the debtor States and of the States which have a solitary poor “unwashed and uncombed” child untaught at a free school. Tax yourselves. First. To pay your public State debt. Second. To educate your children — every child of them — at common primary free schools at State charge. 1 Delivered in 1858, on the occasion of his retirement from Congress as Representative of the Acco- mac district, to accept the position of minister to Brazil. 398 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. That is my legacy of advice to you before I leave my country’s shores to return, perhaps, no more forever. Distrust all attempts to disturb the operations of a tax bill already passed. Disbe¬ lieve any set of men who come before you with false promises of freedom from taxa¬ tion. Listen only to those sincere friends who will honestly tell you that you must be taxed, how much you ought to be taxed, and who will counsel freely and fully with you beforehand as to the mode and subjects of taxation. In a word, learn to love taxation as the only means of accomplishing such objects as those of paying the public debt and of educating your children, rich and poor. See to it well that no revenue raised for legitimate purposes is wasted; see that it is all faithfully applied to the true ends of government, but be sure to raise enough and amply enough for every kind of State necessity, usefulness, and honor. There is no easy mode of taxation, no royal road to paying debts or to education. Industry, honesty, economy, and education alone can make you a free and happy people. Educate your children, all your children — every one of them! STATE OF EDUCATION IN THE CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT IN 1S40. Do you know how education languishes with us [in t welve counties having 37,230 free white persons, of whom 17,809 were over 20 years of age]? First. The fact appears that of the whole number of free white persons nearly one- eighth can not read and write. Second. That of the whole number of free white persons over 20 years of age more than one-fourth can not read and write. Third. That you have but 17 academies and 101 primary schools, making 118 in all, when you ought to maintain at least 259, leaving a deficiency of 111 common Schools. Fourth. That you have 2,628 scholars in your primary schools and but 695 chil¬ dren in them at public charge, when you ought to have at least 7,448 children at from 7 to 15 years of age, all at public charge, in free schools, leaving 4,175 children of that age unaccounted for. Fifth. That this number of 4,175 children of that age presumed not sent to school is nearly the precise number of adults, 4,514, who in this generation have grown up ignorant of letters. Sixth. That this number of adults, 4,514, who can not read and write exceeds even the number of voters, 4,379, in the district. Seventh. That, allowing $12 to each scholar, you are now expending but $38,643 per annum for common schools, when you ought to expend the sum of 889,376, leaving a deficiency of funds amounting to $50,730 per annum. Eighth. That this sum of $50,730 must be raised and expended' in some way to make the rising generation more learned than their fathers. This is a lamentable condition of education among us. I would never have exposed it to the scoff or pity of the world, but our own census takers have already made report thereof to the Department of State of the United States, and Congress has printed these facts at public expense. I know that a very large body of our people is among the most intelligent, and some of them among the most learned, of the country; I know how much credit and honor is due to some of our parents, who have not only rubbed nature’s rust off their sons at common schools, but have pol¬ ished their minds bright not only at our own colleges and universities, but in the universities of Europe. I know what a body of well-instructed gentlemen we have who would do honor to any society of any Athens in the land; how gracefully they live in all the means of the light of learning; what a venerable alma mater of great men we have in old William and Mary College; what a select corps of professors and teachers become our seminaries and academies; what a fine body of young graduates yearly come out of our own and the Northern schools; what an eminent professional ADDRESS OF HENRY A. WISE. 399 corps, both in law and medicine, ministers to our minds as well as our physical and pecuniary cases; what active industry, enterprise, and intelligence there is among the great body of our farmers, planters, and mechanics. I know how to account for much of the lack of learning among our people from their geographical location, living, as many of them do, on islands and long peninsulas inconvenient to schools, and how much ignorance is to be attributed to the valuable labor of poor children whose poor parents can not spare their time at school, precious as it is, to procure for them their daily bread. I know all these consoling excuses, but still the fact stares us frightfully in the face that more than 4,000 poor children in our district are growing up in the night of ignorance. Most of these doubtless are female children, and the touching fact is presented that many mothers of the generation to follow will not be able to teach their sons and daughters how to read and write. We can not mend the present generation of fathers and mothers, but we may provide intel¬ lectual food enough, and to spare, for the health and happiness of those who are to come after us. EEF.OS IX THE PRESENT SCHOOL SYSTEM OF VIRGINIA. The first and greatest error of our present system is that it proceeds upon the prin¬ ciple of charity. Common school education should not be- a State charity, but it should be the chief element of the freedom of the State. The poor man pays taxes, renders military and civil service, is subject to fines, must obey the laws, and in return he should have the protection of the laws, the ordinary privileges of citizen¬ ship, such as the right of voting, and I say he should have his children educated as of right, free of charge. And in all these respects the rich and poor should be placed on precisely the same equal footing. There should be no distinction between the children of a republic. They are not in the school sense the children of their parents, but the State is parens patriae, and they should all be regarded as sons and daughters of Mother Commonwealth. The taxes, it is true, will have to be raised chiefly from the property of the rich; but at last the school revenue is distributed as funds of the State, and when with her liberal and equal hand they are distributed impartially to all there is no feeling of dependence in any. They all alike look up to the benign State mother for the mental bounty, all praise her only and love her supremely for it, and thus is laid a foundation of amor patriae ever-during as the reminiscences of schoolboy days and fervent as the fondest recollections of life and gratitude can ever be in the human heart. As our system now is, in schools mixed of children whose parents pay for school¬ ing them and of those who are sent by the school commissioners of the State, the child of charity is humbled by the comparison of itself with those who pay. The school is not pleasant to this child, and the pride of parents so revolts at the depend¬ ence and inequality in the school that they often refuse to allow their children to enter. While the school is free of charge, still it is not free. The true course is to make it free to all, make it the school of the State, and let all her children come, ‘ ! without money and without price.” Then no human pride will militate against education, but, on the contrary, every little checked apron will be washed and ironed and every little fly-flap bonnet will be stiffened and straightened for the “school parade.” Funds and the universal school are all that are wanting to enlighten every child among us and to array human pride on the side of the school. PLAN OF VOLUNTARY SYSTEM. You need not, my friends, wait for the tardy action of our legislature. If we wait for that, I fear we will wait forever. What then? Organize yourselves by counties and districts. All that you have need to ask of the legislature is to pass an act for every county which will adopt a system for itself, incorporating for it a board of edu¬ cation with powers similar to those of the county courts for county levies and other 400 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-190&. purposes. Let this hoard be elected biennially by the votes of all the male parents and guardians, having a member for every hundred voters, according to districts to be laid off by the board. Let this board be required to levy taxes sufficient to educate every white child between the ages of 7 and 15 years, at common free schools, at the rate of $12 per annum for each child, and allowing 30 scholars to each teacher, and to pay expenses of assessment and superintendence. Let it lay off the county in districts of 30 scholars, and 1 teacher to each district. Let it have power to appoint one assessor to take annual census of the persons and property to be taxed for the school fund; of one collector of the fund, to give bond and security; and one superintendent to visit quarterly each school, to take regular account of the system of teaching, of the number of pupils, and of the qualifications and conduct of teachers and to make report thereof to the board; with reasonable compensation to each of those officers. Let this board have power to fine and to collect fines of parents and guardians, rich or poor, who fail or refuse to send their children or wards to some schools of their own selection. And let it meet quarterly or as often as it chooses, with power to pass by-laws for its own government. PLAN OF STATE AID TO COUNTIES THAT WILL HELP THEMSELVES. For every county that will thus tax itself to educate itself the State should, out of the literary fund, build all the additional schoolhouses required. It should do more, and what is all essential — it should take upon itself to furnish competent teachers in a reasonable course of time to every county in the Commonwealth. And this can easily be done. The university and the colleges, particularly, must be more liberally patronized. The universities and colleges are the fountains of good teachers. They must be upheld and encouraged, and the most munificent and beneficent mode of doing this, in my humble opinion, is for the State, out of the literary fund and by taxation, if necessary, to support at the respective colleges a number of our own Virginia youths equal to twice the number of delegates and senators in the legislature, and to require these youths, when they have obtained certificates of competency, to teach in the primary and common free schools, at the rate allowed for each scholar ($12) as long as they have been maintained at college at State charge. Let them enter into indentures to the State, and then they will obtain their education and will have worthily paid for it. Each youth of this description will cost not more than $250 per annum for his board, tuition, and incidental expenses. The number proposed is 332, and the cost to the literary fund would be $83,000 per annum. This would give to each university and college 25 State students, and distribute to each the patronage of $6,385 per annum. This would give to the State in the term of three years, sav, a corps of 332 competent teachers, certain to be engaged in the work of tuition for a period of three years more, and shedding the light of their knowledge into every recess of the State and exciting the thirst for mental improvement everywhere by their example, and when done teaching, abiding ornaments of the State. The State, too, should furnish the books for the free schools, and should have two general superintendents, one for eastern and one for western Virginia. AN APPEAL TO ALL CLASSES TO AID THE WORK OF UNIVERSAL EDUCATION. I call upon the learned professors of William and Mary and of the academies and schools; I call upon the reverend clergy of every denomination; I call upon my brethren of the bar; I call upon the humane faculty of medicine; I call upon our most excellent farmers and mechanics; I call upon parents and guardians; I call upon women who would be the mothers of scholars, philosophers, sages, and great men; I call upon all ages and sexes; I call upon the rich man and the poor man, and ADDRESS OF HENRY A. WISE. 401 upon men of all conditions, to stir — to “ live, move, and have their being” in this vital subject. Knowledge is power; it is the greatest of all power. It is the power which overcomes all social obstacles; it is the power which prostrates all political inequalities; it is the power which overcomes all physical obstructions in the way of man; castes and ranks and grades bow before it; wealth is impotent against it; it subdues the earth, and it humbles tyrants. And if knowledge is power, ignorance is weakness — utter, impotent weakness. We say we were all born free and equal. That may be so; but if we were born so, the state of freedom and equality does not last long in life if one man is to be cultivated in his mind whilst the other is per¬ mitted to grow up in ignorance. How is the man who can not read and write the equal in power of any sort, except muscular power, of the man of letters? No. Ignorance among the people destroys the liberty and equality of the people; it makes inequalities in the social state; it gives one man a preeminence and preference among men over another in the political state; it makes the very weeds of the earth too strong for man’s physical might to earn his bread; it makes the rich richer and the poor poorer, the strong stronger and the weak weaker; it is the sycophant and slave of tyrants and the foundation of despotism; it not only enslaves the citizen, but enervates the State. Does anyone suppose that if education had been diffused universally among our people Virginia would have increased in the last ten years in white population some 20,000 or 30,000 only? That her agriculture and mechanic arts would be in the low state they are now in? That the rich bowels of her inexhaustible mountain mines of iron and coal would be undug and almost unexplored? That her manufactures would have languished as they do? That the big bend of the Ohio River would not have been tapped long ago, and that the mighty Miami country, and an intermi¬ nable back country besides, would not ere this have built us an Eastern city to con¬ sume our products at home? That emigration would have flowed from us to lands not half so precious, to homes not half so sacred? Oh, my friends, the theme is full of facts, figures, and feeling. SELF-EDUCATED MEN AND BOOKS. To the poor, ignorant man I say, let no man tell you that a “little learning is a dangerous thing.” The least of it is not half so dangerous as that ignorance that can not read and write. If Patrick Henry once said “natural parts are better than all the learning in the world,” don’t believe it, though he said it. What would he not have been had he possessed only half the learning of the world? Of what would the power of his “natural parts” have stopped short in human greatness, in human eloquence, if he had been possessed of the purchase of the lever of learning? The self-made man may boast— I love to admire* him rising by the lone power of his genius — but I despise his self-sufficiency when he boasts against “the books.” Not once in an age does it happen that one self-made man stamps the age with his genius. But, at last, how can any man be said to be self-made? Those who claim to be self- made are so made by the books, if not by the schoolmaster. Tell me the knowledge that anyone of you all has which was not derived, directly or remotely, from the books? None. There is none in law, none in medicine, none in agriculture, none in mechanic arts not traceable to the books. And, my friends, if you would only yourselves go to the books, they would inform you much better than you are now instructed, by tradition, or second-hand informers. Look for yourselves; learn for yourselves. To the books! to the books! and be self-made yourselves if you will. But the schoolmaster must teach you how to read and write. Remember that the books are sealed to those who can not read and write. I will not descant upon the pauperism and the crime which “a little learning” would diminish. No, there is a much more interesting class than that of inmates of poorhouses and of jails to be dis¬ cussed. I mean one of the best classes of men on God’s earth — a class with whom ED 1900 - 26 402 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. “the gods” are said to take part in their struggles through life — that class of good men who, notwithstanding they were never taught, are so endowed by nature with noble instincts as to perform their whole duty worthy of themselves, worthy of the State, and worthy of their eternal destiny. Men whom ignorance does not debase, whom it does not enervate nor make to despair, men who work in the world against all odds of ignorance and win a crown of earthly honor and of eternal glory. I know who they are. I know every one of them in my old district by name. I would have a word with them. They are the good, hard-working, honest class of men who, notwithstanding they can not read and write, can “make their marks” in the world. May God bless them! I know an aged man, small in stature, his head is silvered over with the white frost of years, with a lively, joyous face and a twinkling blue eye that needs no glass for its keen vision, an honest heart and a hand as hard as ax helve and plow handle would have it, who does “not know a letter in the book,” and who yet is rich in the stores of practical wisdom and of real wealth. Some one near Guilford, in Accomac, can guess who I mean. I would have a word with that good old friend of mine. I speak to his noble example. I speak to him because I love him and he belongs to a class by whom I wish to be heard. I speak to him for his class. Listen to me good old man. I see you smile and swear you are not old. Well, that is exactly like you, but I am serious. You are great in my eye. You can not read and write; you will have to get some one to read what I write to you and all like you, but you have, without learning, achieved a conquest in life You began a neglected, penniless, ’friendless boy. You have worked, honestly worked at hard labor, until your hand is as hard as your heart is soft and tender. “Scorn can not point her slow-moving finger” at you. There is no blot on your name. You have dug the earth for your living and lived literally by the sweat of your brow. You have lived honestly, you have paid your debts with the cash down, you owe no man anything but good will, your industry has been untiring, a thousand and a thousand sturdy blows you have struck with a freeman’s “right goodwill” for the “glorious privilege of being independent.” Every way by which you have won “geer” is justified by honor. You have oppressed no man. You have been just to every man and have never robbed the poor, or the widow, or the orphan. You are a happy old man, there is jollity in your very eye, and temperate habits have made you heath-full y buoyant and cheerful. God has given you children and grand¬ children, and your sons and daughters are like a thick forest around you. The kind, hospitable partner of your bosom and of your journey through life still abides with you on earth, and you have laid up plenty, plenty, and have peace with it for your good old age. This is a mastery; this is a self-made man. Now, tell me, good and great old man, what would you not have been had you held in your grasp the lever of knowledge? Ah! you know what it is to have a hand¬ spike at a logrolling or a house raising. You know what a “purchase” of power is. Knowledge, learning, is all that, and more. How many blind, licks it would have saved you. How many thousands and tens of thousands more than you have now in your old “blue chest” you would have had could you have seen by “learning’s light” the dark ways of nature. Do you know that learning made your ax helve, your plow handle; that it applies in the most proper way that very handspike, your ox chain; that it prepares the very best manure; that it can beat you all hollow in applying it to the soil; that it knows more than you do all about the soil of every field you plow, and can tell you of every plant which grows on it and the food it craves? Did you know that learning saves labor, sells your grain, fixes the price, and carries it away for you? Ah! you shake your head and say, “Well, I would not give my poor, weak experience for all your book learning.” Do you say that? Well, if that be so, if you know something that the books don’t teach, I am the more urgent still. You must write it down for the rest of the world, for your own posterity. Write it, record it; you are bound to do so for the sake of some poor fellow who is to LETTER OF J. H. THORN WELL. 403 come after you in your way of life and who hasn’t your experience. But you can’t write. Pity! pity! You know something, then, which you can’t communicate to more than the few who hear the sound of your voice. Learning would enable you to do that much, at least. Suppose you go and get some one to write it down for you — your experience in cultivating corn, potatoes. You told me once tobacco was a valu¬ able medicine for horses. Write it, I say, and have it printed, and bind it, and what then does it become but book learning? Book learning to be dispensed by somebody else, perhaps, in the present or coming generation; and what is poor, despisedd ‘ book learning” at last but somebody’s discovery, somebody’s experience of nature’s laws and nature’s truths? Don’t despise it my friends; but go to that old, long-used, well-worn, leathern bag or stocking-leg purse in that same old blue chest, and take from it 12, just 12, of those hard dollars, for which you have labored so honestly and so hard, for each and every child and grandchild you have, put it in his satchel, and send him to school. DR.. J. U. THORN WELL’ S LETTER TO GOVERNOR MANNING ON PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. South Carolina College, November , 1853. His Excellency Governor Manning: I ask the favor of presenting to your excellency a few reflections upon the subject of public instruction in South Carolina. As I feel that I am addressing one whose interest and zeal in the prosperity of letters will induce him to weigh with candor, to estimate with charity, and even to invest with disproportionate value the crudest hints which spring from the desire to increase the educational facilities of the State, I shall dismiss all apprehensions of being suspected of an officious obtrusion upon your notice. You are the man above all others to whom the head of this institution should look with confidence to give fresh impulse to the general cause of education; and you will excuse me for saying that if all the suggestions which shall fall from me or the rnaturcr recommendations which shall come from yourself shall terminate auspiciously to the wishes of us both, there will be furnished a beautiful instance of providential retribution in connecting the name of the first conspicuous benefactor of the South Carolina College with the establishment of an adequate system of com¬ mon schools. A proud distinction in itself to be the friend and patron of learning, the honor is increased in your case in that it lias been preeminently your care in its higher and lower culture to dispense its blessings to the poor. Apart from fellowship with God, there can not be a sweeter satisfaction than that which arises from the consciousness of being a father to the fatherless; and if the ends which I know are dear to your heart can only be achieved, every indigent child in the State, looking upon you as its real father, may address you in the modest and glowing terms which the genius of Milton has canonized as fit expressions of gratitude for the noblest of all gifts. At .tibi, chare, pater post quam non Eequa raerenti Posse referre datur, nec dona rependere factis, Sit memorasse satis, . repetitaque munera grato Percensere animo, fideique reponere menti. DIFFICULTIES OF THE SUBJECT. I am not insensible to the dangers and difficulties which attend the discussion of this subject. It is so seductive to the fancy that the temptation is almost irresistible to indulge in schemes and visionary projects. In the effort to realize the conception of a perfect education we are apt to forget that there is no such thing as absolute perfection in the matter, that all excellence is relative, and that the highest recom- 404 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. mendation of any plan is that it is at once practicable and adjusted to the wants and condition of those for whom it is provided. A system of public instruction, like the form of government, must spring from the manners, maxims, habits, and associations of the people. It must penetrate their character, constitute an element of their national existence, be a portion of themselves, if it would not be suspected as an alien or distrusted as a spy. The success of the Prussian scheme is ascribed by Cousin to the circumstance that it existed in the manners and customs of the coun¬ try before it was enacted into law. It was not a foreign graft, but the natural off¬ shoot of popular opinion and practice. It is an easy thing to construct a theory when nothing is to be done but to trace the coherencies and dependencies of thought; but it is not so easy to make thought correspond to reality, or to devise a plan which shall overlook none of the difficulties and obstructions in the way of successful application. In the suggestions which I have to offer I shall endeavor to keep steadily in view the real wants of the citizens of this Commonwealth, and, avoiding all crotchets and metaphysical abstractions, shall aim exclusively at what experience or the nature of the case demonstrates to be practicable. I have no new principle to ventilate, but I shall think myself happy if I can succeed in setting in a clearer light, or vindicating from prejudice and misconstruction, the principles which have already been embodied in our laws. It is, perhaps, not generally known that the legislature of South Carolina contemplates a scheme of public instruction as perfect in its con¬ ception of the end as it is defective in its provision of the means. The order, too, in which the legislature’s attention has been turned to the various branches of the sub¬ ject, though not the most popular or the most obvious, is precisely the order of their relative importance. It began where it ought to have begun, but, unfortunately, stopped where it ought not to have stopped. To defend what it has already done and stimulate it to repentance for what it has not done is the principal motive of this communication. OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. Permit me, in pursuance of this design, to direct the attention of your excellency to the nature, operation, and defect of the system among us. The system consists of the South Carolina College, established in 1801; of the free schools, established in 1811, and of the Arsenal and Citadel academies. This series of institutions is evi¬ dently adjusted, without, perhaps, any conscious purpose of doing so, to a threefold division of education, in so far as it depends upon instruction, into liberal, elementary, and professional. The college is- to furnish the means of liberal, the free schools of elementary, and the Arsenal and Citadel academies of that department and profes¬ sional education which looks to the arts of practical life, especially those of the soldier. For the liberal or learned professions, those of law, physics, and divinity, no provision has been made. The college undertakes to give the same kind of instruction which is given by the faculty of arts and philosophy in the universities of Europe. Our military academies, with a slight change in their organization, might be converted into scientific schools, and free schools are, or were, designed to be substantially the same as the elementary and grammar schools of England. The scheme as here developed, though far from fulfilling the logical requirements of a complete system of public instruction, is amply sufficient, if adequately carried out, to meet the real wants of our people. The kind and degree of education for which there is any serious or extensive demand is what is provided for. To make the system logically complete there would have to be a succession of institutions indi¬ vidually perfect and yet harmoniously cooperating to a general result, which, taking the man at the very dawn of his powers, shall be able to carry him up to the highest point of their expansion and fit him for any employment in which intelligence and thought are the elements of success. It should supply the means to every individual in the community of becoming trained and prepared for his own peculiar destiny. It should overlook no class, it should neglect no pursuit. It may be doubted whether LETTER OF J. H. THORN WELL. 405 a scheme so comprehensive in its plan is desirable — it is quite certain that it is not practicable. The legislature has done wisely in confining its arrangements to liberal and elementary education. It has aimed, by a preliminary discipline, to put the individual in a condition to educate himself for the business of his life, except where his- calling involves an application of scientific knowledge which does not enter into the curriculum of general instruction. In that case it has made a special provision. I see, then, no improvement that can be made in the general features of our scheme. It is as perfect in it conception as the wants and condition of our people will justify. All that the legislature should aim at is the adjustment of the details and the better adaptation of them to the end in view. THE SOUTH CAROLINA COLLEGE. The first in the order of establishment, as well as the first in the order of impor¬ tance, is the college. Devoted to the interests of general, in contradistinction from professional education, its design is to cultivate the mind without reference to any ulterior pursuits. “The student is considered as an end to himself; his perfection as a man simply being the end of his education.” The culture of the mind, how¬ ever, for itself, contributes to its perfection as an instrument, so that general educa¬ tion, Avhile it directly prepares and qualifies for no special destination, indirectly trains for every vocation in which success is dependent upon intellectual exertion. It has taught the mind the use of its powers, and imparted those habits without which its powers would be useless; it makes men, and consequently promotes every enterprise in which men are to act. General education being the design of the college, the fundamental principles of its organization are easily deduced. The selection of studies must be made, not with reference to the comparative importance of their matter, or the practical value of the knowledge, but with reference to their influence in unfolding and strengthening the powers of the mind; as the end is to improve mind, the fitness for the end is the prime consideration. “As knowledge,” says Sir William Hamilton (man now being considered as an end to himself), “is only valuable as it exercises, and by this exercise develops and invigorates the mind, so a university, in its liberal faculty, should especially prefer those objects of study which call forth the strongest and most unexclusive energy of thought, and so teach them too that this energy shall be most fully elicited in the student.” For specu¬ lative knowledge, of whatever kind, is only profitable to the student in his liberal cultivation, inasmuch as if supplies him with the object and occasion of exerting his faculties; since powers are only developed in proportion as they are exercised, that is put forth into energy. The mere possession of scientific truth is, for its own sake, valueless; and education is only education, inasmuch as it at once determines and enables the student to educate himself. Hence, the introduction of studies upon the ground of their practical utility is pro tanto , subversive of the college. It is not its office to make planters, mechanics, lawyers, physicians, or divines. It has nothing directly to do with the uses of knowledge. Its business is with minds, and it employs science only as an instrument for the improvement and perfection of mind. With it the habit of sound thinking is more than a thousand thoughts. When, therefore, the question is asked, as it often is asked by ignorance and empiricism, what is the use of certain departments of the college curriculum, the answer should turn, not upon the benefits which in after life may be reaped from these pursuits, but upon their immediate subjective influence upon the cultivation of the human faculties. They are selected in preference to others, because they better train the mind. THE END OF COLLEGE INSTRUCTION. It can not be too earnestly inculcated that knowledge is not the principal end of college instruction, but habits. The acquisition of knowledge is the necessary result of those exercises which terminate in habits, and the maturity of the habit is measured 406 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. by the degree and accuracy of the knowledge, but still the habits are the main thing. In the next place it is equally important that the whole course of studies be rigidly exacted of every student. Their value as a discipline depends altogether upon their being studied, and every college is defective in its arrangements which fails to secure, as far as legislation can secure it, this indispensable condition of success. .Whatever may be the case in Europe, it is found from experience in this country that nothing will avail but the authority of law. The curriculum must be compulsory or the majority of the students will neglect it. All must be subjected to catechetical examination in the lecture room, and all must undergo the regular examinations of their class as the condition of their residence in college. The moment they are exempted from the stringency of this rule all other means lose their power upon the mass of pupils. Much may be accomplished lay rewards and by stimulating the spirit of competition, and great reliance should be placed upon them to secure a high standard of attainment; but in most men the love of ease is stronger than ambition, and indolence is a greater luxury than thought. For, whilst mental effort is the one condition of all mental improvement, yet this effort is at first and for a time painful — positively painful in proportion as it is intense, and comparatively painful as it abstracts from other and positively pleasurable activities. It is painful because its energy is imperfect, diffi¬ cult, forced. But as the effort is gradually perfected, gradually facilitated, it becomes gradually pleasing; and when finally perfected — that is, when the power is fully devel¬ oped and the effort changed into a spontaniety, becomes an exertion absolutely easy. It remains purely, intensely, and alone insatiably pleasureable. For pleasure is noth¬ ing but the concomitant or reflex of the enforced and unimpeded energy of a natural faculty or acquired habit, the degree or permanence of pleasure being also in propor¬ tion to the intensity and purity of the mental energy. The great postulate in educa¬ tion is, therefore, to induce the pupil to enter and persevere in such a course of effort, good in its result and delectable, but primarily and in itself irksome. The argument of neccsssity helps to reconcile him to the weariness of study; what he feels that he must do he will endeavor to do with grace, and as there is no alternative, he will be more open to the generous and manly influence which the rewards and distinctions of the college are suited to exert. There are always causes at work apart from the repulsiveness of intellectual labor to seduce the student from his books; and, before his habits are yet formed and the love of study grounded into his nature, it is of the utmost consequence to keep these causes in check No other motives will be suffi¬ cient without compulsion of law cooperating with this. There are many others which, if they do not not positively sweeten his toil, may help to mitigate the agony of thought. I have insisted upon this point because it is the point in regard to which the most dangerous innovations are to be apprehended. THE ELECTIVE PLA.N. Two changes have at different times been proposed, one of which would be abso¬ lutely fatal and the other seriously detrimental to the interest of the college as a place of liberal education. The first is to convert it into a collection of independent schools, each of which shall be complete in itself, it being left to the choice of the student what schools he shall enter. The other is to remit the obligation of the whole course in reference to a certain class of students, and allow them to pursue such parts of it as they may choose. In relation to the first, young men are incom¬ petent to pronounce beforehand what studies are subjectively the most beneficial. It requires those who have experienced the disciplinary power of different studies to determine their relative value. Only a scholar can say what will make a scholar. The experience of the world has settled down upon a certain class and order of studies, and the verdict of ages and generations is not to be set aside by the caprices, whims, and prejudices of those who are not even able to comprehend the main end of educa¬ tion. In the next place, if our undergraduates were competent to form a judgment, LETTER OF J. H. THORN WELL. 407 their natural love of indolence and ease would, in the majority of cases, lead them to exclude those very studies which are the most improving, precisely because they are so — that is, because in themselves and in the method of teaching them, they involve a degree, an intensity, of mental exercise which is positively painful. Self-denial is not natural to man, and he manifests but little experience and acquaintance with human nature who presumes, as a matter of course, that the will will choose what the judg¬ ment commends. Video meliora proboque deteriora sequor is more preeminently true of the young than the old. They are the creatures of impulse. Permit them to select their own studies and the majority will select those that are thought to be the easiest. The principle of choice will be the very opposite of that upon which the efficiency of a study depends. Experience is decisive on this point. What creates more trouble in the interior management of our colleges than the constant desire of pupils to evade recitations? And is it not universally found that the departments which are the most popular are those which least task the energies of the student? I do not say that the professors who till these departments are themselves most respected. That will depend upon their merit; and in matters of this sort the judg¬ ments of the young are generally right. But easy exercises are preferred, simply because they do not tax the mind. The practical problem with the mass of stu- de'nts is the least work and easiest done. Is it easy? Is it short? These are the questions which are first asked about a lesson. I must therefore consider any attempt to relax the compulsory features of the college course as an infallible expedient for degrading education. The college will cease to train. It may be a place for literary trifles, but a place for students it can not be. COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY. There is much in a name and the change here condemned is delusively sought to be insinuated under the pretext of converting the college into a university. The latter title sounds more imposing, and carries the appearance of greater dignity. But the truth is, there is hardly a more equivocal word in the language. “ In its proper and original meaning,” as Sir William Hamilton has satisfactorily shown, “it denotes simply the whole members of a body (generally incorporated body) of persons teaching and learning one or more departments of knowledge.” In its ordinary acceptation in this country it is either synonymous with college as an institution of higher education, and in this sense we are already a university; or it denotes a col¬ lege with professional schools attached. It is clear, however, that the introduction of the faculties of law, medicine, and theology necessitates no change in the faculty of philosophy and arts. It is not necessary to make general education voluntary in order to provide for professional instruction. There is, consequently, nothing in the name or the nature of the case which demands a fundamental change in the system in order that the South Carolina College may become the South Carolina University. For myself I am content with our present title, and if it promises less I am sure it will accomplish more than the new title for the corresponding change. As to the expediency of adding the faculties of law and medicine — theology is out of the question to the present organization — I have only to say that it will multiply and complicate the difficulties of the internal management of the institution without securing an increased proficiency in these departments of knowledge — that is, if there is to be any real connection between the faculty of arts and those of law and medi¬ cine. I dread the experiment. I think it better that the professions should be left to provide for themselves than that a multitude of inexperienced young men should be brought together, many of whom are comparatively free from the restraints of discipline, and yet have an easy and ready access to those who are more under law. The very liberty of the resident would be a temptation to undergraduates. I have no objection, however, to the founding of professional schools by the State. All that I am anxious for is that they should not be so connected with the college as 408 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1899-1900. that the members of all the schools should reside together. To be under a common government is impossible; to be under a different government would breed inter¬ minable confusion and disorder. That sort of nominal connection which requires that all medical and law degrees should be conferred by the authorities of the col¬ lege, and which is perfectly consistent with the law and medical schools, being established in a different place, would, of course, be harmless. But this difficulty might arise: The college would be unwilling to confer any degree without a liberal education — it could not, without abjuring the very principles of its existence, grant its honors upon mere professional attainment. With respect to the other change, that of allowing students, under certain circumstances, to pursue a partial course, it is evidently contradictory to the fundamental end of the college. These students are not seeking knowledge for the sake of discipline, but with reference to ulterior uses. They come not to be trained to think, but to learn to act in definite depart¬ ments of exertion. It is professional, not liberal, education which they want. The want, I acknowledge, ought to be gratified — it is a want which should be supplied — but the college is not the place to do it. That was founded for other purposes and it is simply preposterous to abrogate its constitution out of concessions to a necessity, because the necessity happens to be real. What, therefore, ought to be done is not to change the nature of the college, but, leaving it untouched to do its own work, to organize schools with special reference to this class of wants. We have the ele¬ ments of such an organization in the arsenal and citadel academies. THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. Let these be converted into seminaries of special education, which will be only an extension of their present plan, and they will form that intermediate class of schools between the elementary and the college, which the circumstances of every civilized community, in proportion to the complication of its interests, demand. These changes in the college have been favored on the ground that they will increase its numbers; but the success of the college is not to be estimated by the numbers in attendance, but by the numbers educated. It should never include more than those who are seeking for a liberal education; and if it includes all these, whether they be 50 or 200, it is doing the whole of its appropriate work. No doubt, by the changes in question, our catalogue might be increased two or three fold, but vTe should not educate a single individual more than we educate now. Numbers in themselves are nothing unless they represent those who are really devoted to the business of the place. What real advantage would it be to have four or five hundred pupils matriculated here if some remained only a few months, others remained longer in idleness, and out of the whole number only four or live applied for a degree. That four or five would be- the true criterion of success. The real question, I insist, is, How many graduate? This is the decisive point. As long as we receive the whole number of young men in the State who are to be liberally educated, whether that number be greater or smaller, we are doing all that wre were appointed to do, or that we can be legitimately expected to do; and a decline in numbers is not a necessary proof of the declension of the college — it may be only a proof that the demand is ceasing for higher instruction. The work, however, to be done loses none of its importance in consequence of the failure to appreciate its value, and the remedy is not to give it up and yield to empirical innovations, but to persevere in faith and patience, relying upon time as the great teacher of wisdom. INDEPENDENCE OF TEACHERS. Another cardinal principle in the organization of the college is the independence, of its teachers. They should be raised above all temptation of catering for popular¬ ity, of degrading the standard of education for the sake of the loaves and fisnes. They should be prepared to officiate as priests in the temple of learning, with pure LETTER OF J. H. THORN WELL. 409 vestments, and with hands unstained with a bribe. It has been suggested that if the stipends of the professors wTere made dependent upon the number of pupils, the strong motive of personal interest, added to the higher incentives which they are expected to feel, would increase their efficiency by stimulating their zeal and activ¬ ity. They wrould be anxious to achieve a reputation for the college which would enable it to command students. This argument proceeds upon a hypothesis which, I am ashamed to say, my own experience pronounces to be false. In the state of things in this country there is a constant conflict between the government of the college and the candidates for its privileges, the one attempting to raise and the other to lower the standard of admission, and every effort of the faculty in the right direction is met with a determined resistance. It is not to be presumed that young men, at the age of our undergraduates generally, should have any steady and precise notions of the nature of education. A college is a college, and when they are debat¬ ing the question, whither shall they go, the most important items in the calculation are not the efficiency, but the cheapness of the place and the shortness of the time within which a degree may be obtained. The consequence is that no college can resist the current unless its teachers are independent. In that case they may stand their ground, and, though they can never hope to equal feebler institutions in num¬ bers, they will still accomplish a great wTork and confer a lasting benefit on society. The South Carolina College has raised her standard. She has proclaimed her pur¬ pose to he to educate well, and I should deplore any measure that might remotely tend to drive her from this position. The true security for the ability of the profes¬ sional corps is not to be sought in starving them, or in making them scramble for a livelihood, but in the competency, zeal, and integrity of the body that appoints them, and in the strict responsibility to which they are held. An impartial board of overseers to elect faithful and turn out incompetent men, a board that has the nerve to do its duty, will be a stronger check upon indolence and inefficiency than an empty larder. The motive of necessity may lead them to degrade instruction to increase their fees; the motive of responsibility to a board that can appreciate their labors will always operate in the right direction. “Let this ground, therefore,” says Bacon, “be laid, that all wrorks are overcome by amplitude of reward, by soundness of direction, and by the conjunction of labors. The first multi plieth endeavor, the second preventeth error, and the third supplieth the frailty of man. But the princi¬ pal of these is direction.” So far as the undergraduates are concerned, I think that all these conditions of success are measurably filled in the present arrangement of the college, as much so as the general state of education will allow. No changes in this respect are desirable. But the interests of higher education demand something more than that culture “in passage,” as Bacon expresses it, which is all that is con¬ templated in provisions for undergraduates. WHERE THE WORK STOPS. Our work stops with the degree. We have no foundations upon which scholars may be placed ‘ ‘ tending to quietness and privateness of life and discharge of cares and troubles.” We are wanting in facilities for “conjunctions” of learned men, and, consequently, the only persons whose business it is to keep pace with the higher intelligence of the age are the few professors who are employed in the work of instruction. With only such means we must fall behind in the march of improve¬ ment. There must be more competition, more leisure, more freedom from distract¬ ing cares. “This I take to be,” says the great writer from whom I love to quote, “a great cause that hath hindered the profession of learning, because these funda¬ mental knowledges have been studied but in passage; for if you will have a tree bear more fruit than it hath used to do, it is not anything you can do to the boughs, but it is the stirring of the earth and putting new mould about the roots that must work it.” I do not look to the legislature to supply this deficiency. Other demands, 410 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. immediate and urgent must be met, and to meet them adequately will make a heavy draft upon its resources. But I do look to private liberality. Many of the founda¬ tions in Oxford and Cambridge have arisen from this source. The Northern colleges are indebted for the largest part of their funds to the same cause. Why should not some portion of the Southern wealth take the same direction? Are we wanting in the love of knowledge, in the spirit of charity, and in zeal for the honor and pros¬ perity of the State? I can not account for this remissness and apathy of our rich planters and merchants and professional men in other way than that this form of generosity has not been the habit of the country. I had hoped that your example and the example of Colonel Hampton would have given an impetus to this matter, and I shall not despair until I see the result of the festival which is proposed to be celebrated in honor of the fiftieth anniversary of the college. A body of learned men devoted to the pursuit of fundamental knowledge is what, more than everything else, is now needed to complete our system. There is wealth enough in private coffers and liberality enough in the hearts of our citizens to supply the want if public interest could only be elicited on the subject. There prevails an impression that the annual appropriations from the legislature are amply sufficient for all the ends of a college. It is forgotten that these appropriations contemplate it entirely as a place of teaching, and not the residence of scholars. In this latter respect we are wholly dependent upon private generosity. The advantages to the college and to the State and to the whole country of such a body of resident scholars can not be estimated. They might in various ways assist in the business of discipline and instruction; they would furnish a constant supply of new materials for professors; they would give tone and impulse to the aspirations and efforts of young men gathered around them, and diffuse an influence which, silently and imperceptibly concurring in the forma¬ tion of that mysterious and powerful combination of separate elements called public opinion, would tell upon every hamlet in the land. “For if men judge that learn¬ ing should be referred to action, they judge well; but in this they fall into the error described in the ancient fable, in which the other parts of the body did suppose the stomach had been idle, because it neither performed the office of motion, as the limbs do, nor of sense, as the head doth; but yet, notwithstanding, it is the stomach that cligesteth and distributeth to all the rest; so if any man think philosophy and universality to be idle studies, he doth not consider that all professions are from thence served and supplied.” This homely illustration sets the question of utility in its true light, and if I could impress upon the community, as it exists in my own mind, the deep and earnest sense of the importance of this feature in the organiza¬ tion of the college, the lack of means would soon cease to be an impediment in keep¬ ing pace with the highest culture of the age. It would soon be found that wealth has no more tendency to contract the mind in South Carolina than in Massachusetts and New York, and that there are merchant princes in Charleston as well as in Bos¬ ton. Who will begin the work? Who shall set the first example of a foundation of $10,000 or $20,000 devoted to the support of genius in reflecting light and glory upon the State? It is devoutly to be hoped that something more substantial than echo will answer who. OBJECTIONS TO THE COLLEGE. But as there are those who admit, in general, the advantages of a high standard of liberal education, and the consequent importance of such institutions as the college, and yet doubt the wisdom of the policy which directly connects them with the State, a more distinct consideration of this question will not be out of place here. The grounds of doubt are twofold: First. The college, it is said, is for the benefit of the few, and, therefore, should not be supported by the taxes of the many. What comes from all should be for ail; what is for a class should be by a class. LETT.EE OF J. II. THOEFTWELL. 411 This is the substance of the clamor by which ignorance and vulgar ambition, and, above all, a pretended regard for the rights and interests of the masses, are con¬ stantly endeavoring to steal away the hearts of the people from what, justly con¬ sidered, is the bulwark of their liberties and the strongest safeguard of their honor and respectability. Hence the cry that the college is an aristocratic institution, a resort for the rich, exclusive of the poor. The other ground is that education, in its very nature, belongs to the church or to private enterprise; that it includes elements which lie beyond the jurisdiction of the State, and that, therefore, the State has no right to interfere with it. These objec¬ tions, I think, embody the strength of whatever opposition is expressed or felt to the college as a public foundation. In reference to the first, let it be admitted that the number of those who participate in the privileges of the college is, and must neces¬ sarily be, limited. It is, of course, impracticable, even if it were desirable, that every young man in the State should receive a liberal education. Some must be excluded. The very notion of their being excluded implies that they do not share in the imme¬ diate advantages of the college. But then the question arises, What is the principle of exclusion, so far as the college is concerned? If that principle is directly based upon difference in fortune, then there is ground of complaint; otherwise, none. Does the college reject any because they are poor? Does it admit any because they are rich? Does it recognize any distinction between rich and poor? Who will ven¬ ture upon such an allegation? And yet it is only by making wealth the ground of admission, and poverty the ground of exclusion, that the college can be justly charged with aristocratic tendencies. It is notorious that the only question which the college asks as to the qualification for admission to its immunities, is in relation to the fitness of the candidates to enter upon its pursuits. All who are prepared to comply with its requisitions are welcomed to its halls, whether rich or poor. Poverty may, indeed, be a remote and accidental cause of exclusion, as it incapacitates for acquiring the fitness which the college exacts, and which is .absolutely indispensable to the end it has in view. But in these cases it is not the poverty which the college considers, but the ignorance and want of preparatory training. There are also expenses inci¬ dent to a college course which put it out of the power of those who are absolutely without funds to pursue it. A man must be fed and clothed and warmed, and the comforts of life do not usually come without money; and if he can not afford the necessary expenses himself, and his friends will not afford them for him, all that can be said is, that Providence has cut him off from a liberal education. He is not in a condition to reap the advantages of personal residence within the college walls. the pooh man’s college. But the principle of exclusion, so far as the college is concerned, is not a class prin¬ ciple, but one which necessarily results from the nature and end of its institution. It is founded exclusively for a certain kind and degree of education, and it opens its doors to all, without exception, who are prepared for its instructions and can sus¬ tain expenses necessarily incident to a residence from home. It shuts its doors upon none but upon those who shut them upon themselves or against whom Providence has closed them. A free college means a college absolutely without expense. We must wait for the realization of such a dream until the manifestation of that state in which our bodies shall cease to be flesh and blood, and such homely articles as food, raiment, and fuel be no longer needed. But if an institution is not ipso facto aristo¬ cratic, because the members of it have to pay for their victuals and clothes, then the South Carolina college is not an aristocratic or class institution. It might not be improper to inquire whether in those institutions whose glory it is to be par eminence institutions for the vulgar, it is pretended that the pupils have absolutely nothing to pay. Can a stark beggar get through them without help? If not, poverty and wealth have the same remote and direct influence in determining who shall participate m 412 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. their privileges a3 they have in the South Carolina college. From a somewhat care¬ ful inquiry, too, I am inclined to the opinion that none, however poor, ever fail to get through college who have been enabled either by their own exertions or the assistance of others to prepare for college. I am sure the number is very small. Hence, of all charges that the imagination can conceive, that of educating only the rich is the most idle and ridiculous. Most of our students, as a matter of fact, are from families in moderate circumstances — many are absolutely poor — either expend¬ ing their whole living upon their minds, or toiling in vacations to acquire the means of defraying their expenses, or sustained by eleemosynary foundations of the college or by the assistance of the college societies, or by private liberality. The public sentiment of the students speaks volumes upon this point. If there were anything in the genius or organization of the institution which distinguished it as the college of the rich, there would be a corresponding pride of aristocracy among the young men, and the poor would be avoided, insulted, or shunned, as a profanum vulgus. They would be branded by public opinion as men who were out of their place, as upstarts who were aspiring to the privileges of their betters. This would be necessitated as the common feeling by the organic principle of the body. But what is the truth? I have no hesitation in affirming that if there be a place more than any other where the poor are honored and respected, where indigence, if coupled with any degree of merit, is an infallible passport to favor, that place is the South Carolina college. It may be preeminently called the poor man’s college in the sense that poverty is no reproach within its walls, no bar to its highest honors and most tempting rewards, either among professors or students. On the contrary, if there is a prejudice at all it is against the rich; and from long observation and experience I am prepared to affirm that no spirit receives a sterner, stronger, more indignant rebuke within these walls than the pride and vanity of wealth. Let any young man presume upon his fortune and undertake to put on airs, and the whole college pounces down upon him with as little mercy and as much avidity as the jackdaws in the fable upon their aspiring fel¬ low, who was decked in the peacock’s feathers. No doubt there are many whose circumstances preclude them from the first steps of a liberal education, and who yet have the capacity to receive it, and who, if educated, might reflect lasting honor upon the State, but, unfortunately, from the imperfect and inefficient condition of the free schools, these poor children can never be distinguished. One advantage of a more adequate scheme of public instruction will be that of bringing indigent merit to the light. For such cases there ought to be the most ample provision. “This, in the words of Cousin, “is a sacred duty we owe to talent, a duty which must be fulfilled even at the risk of being sometimes mistaken.” The State should either endow scholarships or extemporize appropriations to meet the cases of those who, when public schools shall have been established, shall be reported as worthy of a liberal education by their earlier teachers; and beyond, this, as the same writer observes, it is not desirable that it should provide for the higher instruction of the poor. So much for the limitation of the immediate benefits of the college. They are confined to comparatively a few, simply because it is comparatively a few that are in a condi¬ tion to receive them. THE GOOD OF THE STATE AT LARGE. But then the important point is, and it is a point which ought never to be forgot¬ ten, though it is systematically overlooked by those who are accustomed to decry the college, that these benefits are imparted not for the sake of the few but for the interest of the many — the good of the State at large. Those who are educated are educated not for themselves, but for the advantage of the Commonwealth as a whole. Every scholar is regarded as a blessing — a great public benefit — and for the sake of the general influence that he is qualified to exert, the State makes provision for its training. It is because the “proper education of youth contributes greatly to the LETTER OF J. H. THORN WELL. 413 prosperity of society” that it “ought to be an object of legislative attention.” The many, therefore, are not taxed for the few, but the few are trained for exalted use¬ fulness and extensive good to the many. If the legislature had in view only the interest of those who are educated and expended its funds in reference to their good, considered simply as individuals, there would be just ground of complaint, but when it is really aiming at the prosperity of the whole community, and uses these individuals as means to that end, there is nothing limited or partial in its measures. It is great weakness to suppose that nothing can contribute to the general good the immediate ends of which are not realized in the case of every individual. Are light-houses constructed only for the safety of the benighted mariner, who may be actually lighted, guided by their lamps, or are they raised for the security of naviga¬ tion, the interest of commerce, and, through these, the interest of society at large? There is no way of evading the force of this argument but by flatly denying that an educated class is a public good. And if there are any among us who are prepared to take this ground and to become open advocates of barbarism, I have nothing to say to them, but for the sake of those who may be seduced by sophistry which I can not disentangle, I offer a few reflections. THE REAL ELEMENTS OF PROGRESS. In the first place the educated men in every community are the real elements of steady and consistent progress. They are generally in advance of their generation; light descends from them to their inferiors, and by a gradual and imperceptible influ¬ ence emanating from the solitary speculations, it may be of their secret hours, the whole texture of society is modified, a wider scope is given to its views and a loftier end to its measures. They are the men who sustain and carry forward the complicated movements of a refined civilization; the real authors of changes which constitute epochs in the social elevation of the race. Pitt could not understand and Fox refused to read the masterly speculations of Adam Smith upon the “Wealth of nations.” He was ahead of his age. The truth gradually worked its way, however, into the minds of statesmen and legislators, and now no one is held to be fit for any public employ¬ ment who is not imbued with the principles of political economy. The thoughts of a retired thinker once set in motion, if they have truth in them, have a principle of life that can never be extinguished. They may for a season be repressed and con¬ fined, but they finally, like disengaged gases, acquire an intensity and power which defy all opposition. They spread through society, leavening first its leading mem¬ bers and extend in the shape of results or maxims or practical results to every fire¬ side in the land. The solitary scholar wields a lever which raises the whole mass of society. It is a high, general education which shapes the minds and controls the opinions of the guiding spirits of the age; it is this which keeps up the general tone of society; it is at once conservative and progressive. The conservative tendency requires to be a little more distinctly pointed out. The case is this: The universal activity which general intelligence imparts to mind must be prolific in schemes and theories, and these are likely to be sound or hurtful according to the completeness of the instruction or the narrowness of the views on which they are founded. A half truth or a truth partially apprehended always has the effect of a lie. A higher order of culture, with occasional exceptions (for profound thinkers are sometimes eccentric), is a security against the ill-digested plans and visionary projects which they are peculiarly tempted to originate whose vision is confined to a contracted horizon and who are deceived simply because they do not perceive the bearing of a principle in ail its applications. An educated class expands the field of vision and serves as a check to the regular impulses and the impetuous innovations of minds equally active, but less enlarged. It protects from rashness, from false maxims, from partial knowledge. It is a security for public order which * can hardly be overestimated; it is the regulator of the great clock of society. Gen- 414 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. eral intelligence without high culture to keep it in check will exemplify the maxim of Pope, “a little learning is a dangerous thing,” and will prove a greater curse to the State than absolute ignorance. It is not ignorance ’ that is full of whims and crotchets; they prey upon impulse and fanaticism, and are the parent of restless- agitation and ceaseless change. It is in the constant play of antagonistic forces, the action and reaction of the higher and lower culture, that the life, health, and reign of society consists. General intelligence checks the stagnation of ignorance, and a thorough education checks the rashness of empiricism. Where this prevails there is all the inspiration without the contortions of the Sibyl. ELEVATION OF THE MASSES. In the next place, it should not be admitted that general education is the true source of the elevation of the masses and of the demand for popular instruction. Every educated man is a center of light, and his example and influence create the consciousness of ignorance and the sense of need from which elementary schools have sprung. Defective culture is never conscious of itself until it is brought into contact with superior power. There may be a conviction of ignorance in reference to special things and a desire of knowledge as a means of accomplishing particular ends, but the need of intellectual improvement on its own account never is awakened sponta¬ neously. We never lament our inferiority to angels. The reason is we are not brought into contact with them, and are, consequently, not sensible of the disparity that exists. If we had examples before us of angelic amplitude of mind, the contrast would force upon us a lively impression of the lowness of our intellectual level. If we had never been accustomed to any other light but that of the stars, we should never have dreamed of the sun nc-r felt the absence of his rays as any real evil. The positive in the order of thought is before the privative. We must know the good in order to understand the evil; we must be familiar with the day to comprehend night and darkness. Hence it is that civilization never has been and never can be of spontaneous growth among a people. It has always been an inheritance or an importation. If men had been originally created savages, they would all have been savages to-day. Those ingenious theories which undertake, from principles of human nature, to explain the history of man’s progress from barbarism to refinement are nothing better than speculative romances. They are contradicted by experience as well as by the laws of the human mind. Philosophy coincides with the Bible — man was created in the image of God, and the rudeness and coarseness of uncivilized commu¬ nities are states of degradation into which he has apostatized and sunk, and not his primitive and original condition. Civilization has migrated from one center to another, has found its way among barbarians and savages, and restored them to something of their forfeited inheritance, but in every such instance it has been intro¬ duced from without, it has never developed itself from within. Where all is dark¬ ness, whence is the light to spring? What planet is the- source of the rays that shine on it? Hence it is knowledge which creates the demand for knowledge, which causes ignorance to be felt as an evil; and hence it is the education, in the first instance, of the few which has awakened the strong desire for the illumination of the many. Let knowledge, however, become stagnant, let no provision be made for the constant activity of the highest order of minds in the highest sphere of specula¬ tion, and the torpor would lie communicated downward until the whole community was benumbed. THE PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. The thinkers in the most abstract departments of speculation keep the whole of society in motion, and upon its motion depends its progress. Scholars, therefore, are the real benefactors of the people, and he does more for popular education who founds a university than he who institutes a complete and adequate machinery of LETTER OF J. H. THORN WELL . 415 common schools. The reason is obvious — the most potent element of public opinion is wanting where onlwa low form of culture obtains. The common schools, having no example of anything higher before them, would soon degenerate and impart only a mechanical culture, if they did not — which I am inclined to think would be the case, from their want of life — permit the people to relapse into barbarism. Colleges, on the other hand, will create the demand for lower culture, and private enterprise, under the stimulus imparted, would not be backward in providing for it. The col¬ lege will diffuse the education of principles, of maxims, a tone of thinking and feel¬ ing which are of the last importance without the schools. The schools could never do it without the college. If we must dispense with one or the other, I have no hesitation in saying that on the score of public good alone it were wiser to dispense with the schools. One sun is better than a thousand stars. There never was, therefore, a more grievous error than that the college is in antag¬ onism to the interests of the people. Precisely the opposite is the truth; and because it is preeminently a public good, operating directly or indirectly to the benefit of every citizen in the State, the legislature was originally justified in founding, and in still sustaining, this noble institution. It has made South Carolina what she is; it has made her people what they are; and from her mountains to her seaboard there is not a nook or corner of the State that has not shared in its healthful influence. The very cries which are coming up from all quarters for the direct instruction of the people, cries which none should think of resisting, are only echoes from the college walls. We should never have heard of them if the state of things had continued among us which existed when the college was founded. The low-country w'ould still have sent its sons to Europe or the North, and the up-country would have been content with its:fertile lands and invigorating hills. EDUCATION LIVES ON CHARITY. The second ground of objection does not deny or diminish the importance of the college or the general advantages of higher education. It only affirms that the State is not the proper body for dispensing them. The advocates of this negative opinion divide themselves into two classes — one maintaining that colleges should support themselves, the other that they should he supported by endowments under the con- trol^of private or ecclesiastical corporations. The first was the doctrine of Adam Smith, -who may be reckoned among the ablest opponents of the policy of public edu¬ cation in the higher branches of learning. He lays down the thesis that the demand wdll infallibly create the supply; that in science, literature, and the arts, as in the commodities which minister to the physical comfort and conveniences of man, what is wanted will be procured. The double operation of private interest, on the one hand to obtain and on the other to furnish, will present inducements enough to originate all the schools that may be needed to teach all the .arts that may be desired. This ingenious reasoner forgot that in the matter of education, as Sir William Hamilton justly remarks, “Demand and supply are necessarily coexistent and coextensive; that it is education which creates the want which education alone can satisfy.” “Those again,” says the same writer, “who, conceding all this, contend that the creation and supply of this demand should be abandoned by the State to private intelligence and philanthropy, are contradicted both by reasoning and fact.” The expensiveness of the machinery which is necessary to put in motion a higher seminary of learning renders it hopelessly impossible to make such institutions self- supporting bodies, and the attempt to do so would have no other effect than to degrade them into professional or scientific schools, in which knowledge is the end and not the instrument. Hence there is not a college or university worthy the name, either in Europe or in America, that is capable of sustaining, much less of having founded, its various departments of instruction by the patronage it receives. Education has always lived on charity. Foundations and endowments, partly from individuals, 416 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. partly from the State, have always been its reliance to supply the apparatus with which the machinery is kept in motion. As to private corpofations, it is certain that the degree of interest which is taken in learning for itself will never be adequate to meet the exigencies of higher education. There must be some higher principle .at work, and impulse more general and pervading, in order to touch the chords of private liberality and awaken a responsive thrill. There may be extraordinary efforts of single men, but these spasmodic contributions will be too rare, besides that they may be hampered by unwise restrictions and limitations to answer the ends of a college. DOES EDUCATION BELONG TO CHURCH OR STATE? The only principle which has vitality and power enough to keep the stream of private charity steadily turned in the direction of education is the principle of religion. And lienee the true and only question is, Does education belong to the church or state. Into the hands of one or the other it must fall or perish. This, too, is the great practical question among us. The most formidable war against the college will be that waged on the principle of its existence. I respect the feeling out of which jealousy of State institutions has grown. A godless education is worse than none, and I rejoice that the sentiment is well nigh universal in this country that a system which excludes the highest and most commanding, the eternal inter¬ ests of man, must be radically defective, whether reference be had to culture of the individual or to his prosperity and influence in life. Man is essentially a religious being, and to make no provision for this noblest element of his nature, to ignore and preclude it from any distinct consideration is to leave him but half educated. The ancients were accustomed to regard theology as the first philosophy, and there is not a people under the sun whose religion has not been the chief inspiration of their literature. Take away the influence which this subject has exerted upon the human mind, destroy its contributions to the cause of letters, the impulse it has given to the speculation of philosophy, and what will be left after these subtractions will be comparatively small in quantity and feeble in life and spirit. We must have religion if we would have and reach the highest forms of education. This is the atmosphere which must surround the mind and penetrate all its activities in order that its develpment may be free, healthful and vigorous. Science languishes, letters pine, refinement is lost wherever and whenever the genius of religion is excluded. Experience has demonstrated that, in some form or other, it must enter into every college and pervade every department of instruction. No institution has been able to live without it. But what right, it is asked, has the State to introduce it? What right, we might ask in return, has the State to exclude it? The difficulty lies in confounding the dogmatic peculiarities of sects with the spirit of religion. The State, as such, knows nothing of sects but to protect them, but it does not follow that the State must be necessarily godless; and so a college knows nothing of denominations, except as a feature in the history of the human race, but it does not follow that a college must be necessarily atheistic or unchristian. What is wanted is the pervading influence of religion as a life, the habitual sense of responsibility to God and of the true worth and destiny of the soul, which shall give tone to the character and regulate all the pursuits of the place. The example, temper, and habitual deportment of the teachers, cooperating with the dogmatic instructions which have been received at the fireside and in the church, and coupled with the obligatory observance (except in cases of conscientious scruple) of the peculiar duties of the Lord’s day, will be found to do more in maintaining the power of religion than the constant recita¬ tion of the catechism or the ceaseless inculcation cf sectarian peculiarities. The difficulty of introducing religion is, indeed, rather speculative than practical. When we propose to teach religion as a science and undertake, by precise boundaries and exact statutory provisions, to define what shall and what shall not be taught, when 417 LETTER OF J. R. THORN W ELL, by written schemes we endeavor to avoid all the peculiarities of sect and opinion without sacrificing the essential interests of religion, the task is impossible. The residuum, after our nice distinctions, is zero. RELIGIOUS, BTJT NOT SECTARIAN. But why introduce religion as a science? Let it come in the character of the pro¬ fessors, let it come in the stated worship of the sanctuary, and let it come in the vindication of those immortal records which constitute the basis of our faith. Leave creeds and confessions to the fireside and church, the home and the pulpit. Have Godly teachers and you will have comparatively a Godly college. But what security have we that a State college will pay any attention to the religious character of its teachers? The security of public opinion, which, in proportion as the various religious denominations do their duty in their own spheres, will become absolutely irresistible. Let all the sects combine to support the State college, and they can soon create a sentiment which, with the terrible certainty of fate, shall tolerate nothing unholy or unclean in its walls. They can make it religious without being sectarian. The true power of the church over these institutions is not that of direct control, but of moral influence, arising from her direct work upon the hearts and. consciences of all the members of the community. It is alleged that experience presents us with mournful examples of State institu¬ tions degenerating into hotbeds of atheism and impiety. It may be promptly replied that the same experience presents us with equally mournful examples of church institutions degenerating into hotbeds of the vilest heresy and infidelity. And what is more to the point, a sound public opinion has never failed to bring the State institutions back to their proper moorings, while the church institutions have not unfrequently carried their sects with them and rendered reform impossible. In the case of State institutions, the security for religion lies in the public opinion of the whole community; in the case of church institutions, in the public opinion of a single denomination; and as the smaller body can more easily become corrupt than a larger, as there is a constant play of antagonisms which preserves the health in the one case, while they are wanting in the other, it seems clear that a State college, upon the whole and in the long run, must be safer than any sectarian institution. As long as the people preserve their respect for religion, the college can be kept free from danger. The principle, too, on which the argument for church supervision is founded proves too much. It is assumed that wherever a religious influence becomes of pri¬ mary importance there the church has legitimate jurisdiction. “This,” it has been well said, “puts an end to society itself, and makes the church the only power that can exist, since ail that is necessary is for any officer or any power to be capable of moral effects or influences in order to put it under the dominion of the church. The moral influences of governors, judges, presidents — nay, even sheriffs, coroners or con¬ stables — is as real and may be far more extensive than that of schoolmasters. The moral influence of wealth, manners, taste, is immense; that of domestic habits, even personal habits, often decisive.” The truth is, this species of argument would reduce every argument under the sun to the control of the church. It is just the principle on which the authority of the Pope over kings and states has been assumed and defended. The argument, moreover, is one that can be very easily refuted. If, because education has a religious element it must fall within the jurisdiction of the church, a, fortiori, because it has multiplied secular elements it must fall within the jurisdiction of the state. The church is a distinct corporation, with distinct rights and authority. She has direct control over nothing that is not spiritual in its mat¬ ter and connected with our relations to Jesus Christ. She is His kingdom, and her functions are limited to this work as the mediator of the covenant and the saviour of the lost; and if education in its secular sense is not a function of grace, but of ed 1900 - 27 418 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. nature — if it belongs to man, not as a Christian, but simply as a man — then it no more falls within the jurisdiction of the church than any other secular work. The duties of the state are civil, not sacred, the duties of the church are sacred, not civil. To exclude the church from the control of general education and to exempt it from the duty of providing the means thereof it must be shown that education is of the nature of religious things, and that the duty of superintending it is in its nature spiritual. Is not a man bound to educate himself as an individual per¬ son? Is not every family bound to educate each other, and the head of the family peculiarly bound to educate the members? If so, are these obligations, which arise out of our individual personality and out of our family relations, in any degree at all, or do they spring solely and chiefly out of our obligations as members of Christ? Is a Christian more bound, or is he chiefly bound, or is he exclusively bound — they are three degrees of the same proposition — to acquire and impart knowledge which has nothing to do with religion, but much to do with temporal success and temporal usefulness, all the positive sciences, for example, simply or mainly as a Christian or because he is a Christian? Or is he bound chiefly or at all to do so from any consideration drawn from the individual position or his relations to his family or his country? These are considerations, and there are many more like them, that require to be deeply pondered before we arrive at the sweeping gen¬ eralities which assume and assert that denominational education is only the safe and true conclusion of this “high argument. ” SECTARIAN COLLEGES. Apart from the principle involved, I have other objections to sectarian education. I say sectarian education, for the church catholic is one, in the present condition of things, not visible and corporate. What she does can only be done through the agency of one or more of the various fragments into which she has been suffered to split. In the first place, it is evident from the feebleness of the sects that these colleges can not be largely endowed. In the next place, they are likely to be numerous. From these causes will result a strenuous competition for patronage, and from this two effects maybe expected to follow: First, the depression of the standard of general educa¬ tion, so as to allure students to their halls; and next, the preference of what is osten¬ tatious and attractive in education to what is solid and substantial. It is true that there can be no lofty flight, as Bacon has suggested, “without some feathers of osten¬ tation;” but it is equally true there can be no flight at all where there are not bone, muscle, and sinew to sustain the feathers. It is also a serious evil that the State should be habitually denounced as profane and infidel. To think and speak of it in that light is the sure way to make it so; and yet this is the uniform representation of the advocates of church education. They will not permit the State to touch the subject because its fingers are unclean. Can there be a more certain method to uproot the sentiment of patriotism and to make us feel that the Government of the country is an enormous evil, to which we are to submit, not out of love, but for con¬ science’ sake? Will not something like this be the inevitable effect of the declama¬ tion and invective which bigots and zealots feel authorized to vent against the commonwealth that protects them, in order that they may succeed in their narrow scheme? Instead of clinging around the State as they would cling to the bosom of a beloved parent, and concentrating upon her the highest and holiest influences which they are capable of exerting; instead of teaching their children to love her as the ordinance of God for good, to bless her for her manifold benefits, and to obey her with even a religious veneration, they repel her to a cold and cheerless distance, and brand her with the stigma of divine reprobation. The result must be bad. The fanaticism which despises the State, and the infidelity which contemns the church, are both alike the product of ignorance and folly. «God has established both the church and the state. It is as clearly our duty to be loyal and enlightened citizens as to be faithful and earnest Christians. LETTER OF J. H. THORN WELL. 419 A BOND OF UNION. I think, too, that the tendency of sectarian colleges to perpetuate the strife of sects, to fix whatever is heterogeneous in the elements of national character, and to alien¬ ate the citizens from each other is a consideration not to be overlooked. There ought surely to be some common ground on which the members of the same state may meet together and feel that they are brothers; some common ground on which their children may mingle without confusion or discord, and bury every narrow and selfish interest in the sublime sentiment that they belong to the same family. Nothing is so powerful as a common education and the thousand sweet associations which spring from it and cluster around it to cherish the holy brotherhood of men. Those who have walked together in the same paths of science and taken sweet coun¬ sel in the same halls of learning; who went arm in arm in that hallowed season of life when the foundations of all excellence are laid; who have wept with the same sorrows or laughed at the same joys: who have been fired by the same ambition, lured with the same hopes, and grieved at the same disappointments — these are not the men, in after years, to stir up animosities or to foment intestine feuds. Their college life is a bond of union which nothing can break — a divine poetry of existence which nothing is allowed to profane. Who can forget his college days and his college companions, and even his college dreams? Would you make any com¬ monwealth a unit, educate her sons together. This is the secret of the harmony which has so remarkably characterized our State. It was not the influence of a sin¬ gle mind, great as that mind was; it was no tame submission to authoritative dicta¬ tion. It was the community of thought, feeling, and character, achieved by a com¬ mon education within these walls. Here it was that heart was knit to heart, mind to mind, and that a common character -was formed. All these advantages must be lost if the sectarian scheme prevails. South Carolina will no longer be a unit, nor her citizens brothers. We shall have sect against sect, school against school, and college against college; and he knows but little of the past who has not observed that the most formidable dangers to any State are those which spring from divisions in its own bosom, and that these divisions are terrible in proportion to the degree in which the religious element enters into them. I shall say no more upon the college. I have spoken of its end, its organization, and its defects, and have vindicated the policy upon which it was founded. What I have said I believe to be true, and I am sure that it is seasonable; and nothing would delight me more, as a man, as a Christian and a patriot, than to see all jealousies laid aside, ail sectarian schemes abandoned, and the whole State, as one man, rally to its support. It would find ample employment for all the funds which private liberality is pouring into the coffers of other institutions; and when charity had done its utmost and the Government still more freely unlocked its treasury we should have a splen¬ did institution without doubt, but one which was still not perfect. Education is a vast and complicated interest, and it requires the legacies of ages and generations past, as well as the steady contributions of the living, to keep the stream from sub¬ siding. Let it roll among us like a mighty river, whose ceaseless flow is maintained by the springs of charity and the great fountain of public munificence. Let us have a college which is worthy of the name, to which we can invite the scholars of Europe with an honest pride, and to which our children may repair from all our borders, as the States of Greece to their Olympia or the chosen tribes to Mount Zion. How beautiful it is for children to dwell together in unity. THE FREE SCHOOLS. II. The next part of our system in the order of legislation is the free schools. And here I am sorry to say that the law is not only inadequate, but there is a very extraordinary discrepancy between the law and the practice which increases, the difficulty, and has added to the inefficiency of the standing appropriation. It is 420 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. clear from the face of it that the act of 1811 was designed as the first step toward the establishment of a system of common schools that should bring the means of elementary education within the reach of every child in the State. It was not intended to be a provision for paupers. Throughout our statutes free schools mean public schools, or schools which are open to every citizen. The first act in which I find the expression is that of the 8th of April, 1710, entitled “An act for the found¬ ing and erecting of a free school for the use of the inhabitants of South Carolina.” This act created and incorporated a board of trustees for the purpose of taking charge of such funds as had already been contributed, or might afterwards be contributed, for public instruction in the province. In it the epithet free is synonymous, not with pauper, but public or common. The same is the case in the act of the 7th of June, 1712, entitled, “An act for the encouragement of learning.” Although the school was a free school every pupil was obliged to pay for his tuition. But the meaning of the phrase is made still clearer by the extended act of the 12th December of the same year. There the school was manifestly open to all. Special inducements were held out to patronize and encourage it, and provisions made for educating a certain number free of expense. The act of 1811, which is the basis of our present system, is so clear and explicit as to the kind of schools to be founded that I am utterly unable to account for the partial and exclusive interpreta¬ tion which has been put upon its words. The third section provided “that every citizen of this State shall be entitled to send his or her child or children, ward or wards, to any free school in the district where he or she may reside, free from any expense whatever on account of tuition; and where more children shall apply for admission at any one school than can be conveniently educated therein, a prefer¬ ence shall always be given to poor orphans and children of indigent and necessitous parents.” I have no doubt that if this act had been executed according to its true intent and meaning, and public schools had been established in every district of the State cor¬ responding to the number of members in the House of Representatives, the advan¬ tages would have been so conspicuous that the legislature could not have stopped until the means of instruction had been afforded to every neighborhood, to every family, and to every child. The law was wise. It was strictly tentative and pro¬ visional, but its benevolent intention has been defeated by a singular misconception of its meaning. Asa provisional law it was defective in unity of plan. The com¬ missioners in each district were absolutely independent and irresponsible. There was no central power which could correct mistakes, and which could infuse a com¬ mon spirit and a common life into the whole scheme. The consequence is that, after all our legislation and all our expenditures, we have not even the elements in prac¬ tical operation of a system of public schools. We have the whole work to begin anew. You will permit me to suggest a few reasons why we should begin it heartily and at once, and then to imitate the nature and extent of our incipient efforts. In the first place, it is the duty of the State to provide for the education of its citi¬ zens. Even Adam Smith, who, we have seen, was opposed to the direct interference of the Government in the higher or liberal education, is constrained to admit that the education of the common people forms an exception to his principle. He makes it the care of the Government, upon the same general ground of the cultivation of a martial spirit. We should be as solicitous that our citizens should not be ignorant as that they should not be cowards. The whole passage is so striking that you will excuse me for quoting it in full: THE DUTY OF THE STATE. But a coward, or a man incapable either of defending or revenging himself, evi¬ dently wants one of the most essential part3 of the character of a man. He is as much mutilated and deformed in his mind as another is in his body who is either LETTER OF J. H. THORN WELL. 421 deprived of one of his most essential members or has lost the use of them. He is evidently the more wretched and miserable of the two, because happiness and misery, which reside altogether in the mind, must necessarily depend more upon the healthful or unhealthful, the mutilated or entire state of the mind, than upon that of the body. Even though the martial spirit of the people were of no use toward the defense of the society, yet to prevent that sort of mental mutilation, deformity, and wretchedness which cowardice necessarily involves in it, from spread¬ ing themselves through the great body of the people, which still deserve the most serious attention of Government, in the same manner as it would deserve its most serious attention to prevent a leprosy or any other loathsome or offensive disease from spreading itself among them; though, perhaps, no other public good might result from such attention besides the prevention of so great a public evil. The same thing may be said of the gross ignorance and stupidity which, in a civi¬ lized society, seems so frequently to benumb the understanding of all the inferior ranks of people. A man without the proper use of the intellectual faculties of a man is, if possible, more contemptible than even a coward, and seems to be muti¬ lated and deformed in a still more essential part of the character of human nature. Though the State was to derive no advantage from the instruction of the inferior ranks of the people, it would still deserve its attention that they should not be altogether uninstructed. The State, however, derives no inconsiderable advantages from their instruction. The more they are instructed, the less liable they are to the delusions of enthusiasm and superstition, which, among ignorant nations, frequently occasion the most dreadful disorders. An instructed and intelligent people, besides, are always more decent and orderly than an ignorant and stupid one. They feel themselves more respectable and more likely to obtain the respect of their lawful superiors, and they are, therefore, more disposed to respect those superiors. They are more disposed to examine, and more capable of seeing through the interested complaints of faction and sedition; and they are, upon that account, less apt to be misled into any wanton or unnecessary opposition to the measures of government. In free countries where the safety of government depends very much upon the favorable judgment which the people may form of its conduct, it must surely be of the highest importance that they should not be disposed to judge rashly or capri¬ ciously concerning it. If the community wish to have the benefit of more knowledge and intelligence in the laboring classes, says Say, it must dispense it at the public charge. This object may be obtained by the establishment of primary schools of reading, writing, and arithmetic. These are the groundwork of all knowledge, and are quite sufficient for the civilization of the lower classes. In fact one can not call a nation civilized, nor consequently possessed of the benefits of civilization, until the people at large be instructed in these three particulars. Till then it will be the partially reclaimed from barbarism. I might multiply authorities to an indefinite extent, showing it is the general opinion of political philosophers that popular instruction is one of the most sacred duties of the Commonwealth. The opinion obviously rests upon two grounds — the importance of education in itself and in its relation to the State, and the impossi¬ bility of adequately providing for it without the assistance of the legislature. The alternative is either that the education of the people must be abandoned as hopeless or the Government must embark in the work. Surely, if this be really the state of the case, South Carolina can not hesitate a moment as to which branch of the prop¬ osition she will choose. THE FOLLY OF INDIVIDUAL EFFORT. When it is remembered that education makes the citizen as well as the man, that it is precisely what fits a human being to be a living member of a Commonwealth, we can not hesitate as to whether our people shall be ciphers or men. And that this is the alternative is clear, both from the nature of the case and from fact. Whoever considers what it is to provide an adequate system of instruction for all the children of a country; the amount of funds necessary to erect schooihouses, to found libraries, to procure the needful apparatus, to pay teachers, and to keep the machinery once set in motion in steady and successful operation, will perceive the folly of intrusting such a task to the disjointed efforts of individuals, or the conflicting efforts of religious denominations. In either case there will be no unity of plan, no competency of 422 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. means. AVhat is clone must be done partially, and, because partially, must be done amiss. All experience [says Sir William Hamilton] demonstrates the necessity of State interference. No countries present a more remarkable contrast in this respect (in regard to popular education) than England and Germany. In the former the State has done nothing for the education of the people and private benevolence, more than has been attempted elsewhere. In the latter the Government has done everything and left to private benevolence almost nothing to effect. The English people are, however, the lowest, the German people the highest in the scale of knowledge. All that Scotland enjoys of popular education above the other kingdoms of the British Empire she owes to the State, and among the principalities of Germany, from Prus¬ sia down to Hesse Cassel, education is uniformly found to prosper exactly in pro¬ portion to the extent of interference and to the unremitting watchfulness of the Government. The experience of the last half century in Germany has, indeed, completely set at rest the question. For thirty years no German has been found to maintain the doctrine of Smith. In their generous rivalry the Governments of that country have practically shown what a benevolent and prudent policy could effect for the univer¬ sity, as well as for the school, and knowing what they have done, who is there now to maintain that for education, as for trade, the State can present evil but can not originate good? There are those among ms who admit that no complete system of popular educa¬ tion can be instituted without the intervention of the State, and yet maintain that the true method of intervention is simply to supplement individual exertions; that is, they would have those who are able to do so educate their children in schools sustained by themselves, and solicit the aid of the legislature only for paupers. It is obvious, in the first place, that in this there is no system at all; the schools a.re detached and independent; they have no common life, and the State knows nothing of the influences which may be exerted within them. Education is too complicated an interest, and touches the prosperity of the Commonwealth in too many points, to be left in reference to the most important class of its subjects absolutely without responsibility to the Government. The homogeneousness of the population can only be sustained by a general system of public schools. In the next place, the scheme is invidious; it makes a reproachful distinction be¬ twixt the children of the Commonwealth, and in the last place it must, from this very circumstance, be inefficient. Parents will scorn a favor rather than permit their children to be stigmatized as the condition of receiving it. The true policy of the State is to recognize no distinction between the rich and poor; to put them all upon the same footing; to treat them all upon the same footing; to treat them simply as so many minds whose capacities are to be unfolded and whose energies are to be directed. The rich and the poor in the schoolhouse, as in the house of God, should meet together upon the ground of their common relations, and the consequences of this promiscuous elementary training would soon be felt in harmonizing and smooth¬ ing all the unevenness, harshness, and inequalities of human life. In the second place, the State should make some speedy provision for popular education in consequence of the unusual demand which, in some form or other, is indicated as existing in every section of the country. THE DEMAND FOR SCHOOLS. There never was a greater cry for schools; the people are beginning to appreciate their importance, and at no period within my recollection have such strenuous efforts been made to establish and support them. The extraordinary exertions of the various sects — exertions, too, which deserve all praise when considered as attempts to satisfy an acknowledged public want, and the success which has attended them — are proofs that public opinion is rife in South Carolina for the interference of the legislature; and if it should not speedily interfere, this great and mighty interest will pass com- LETTER OF J. H. THORNWELI. 423 pletelv out of its hands, and be beyond its regulation and control. It is a critical period with us in the history of education. The people are calling for schools and teachers, and if the State will not listen to their cries they will be justified in adopting the best expedients they can, and in acceding to the provisions which religious zeal proposes to their acceptance. Our people are not, as a body, in favor of sectarian education. They prefer a general and inexclusive system, and if they adopt the narrower one, it will be because their own Government has been inattentive to their interests. I sincerely hope that the legislature may be duly sen¬ sible of the delicate posture of this subject. To my mind it is clear as the noonday sun that if anything is to be done it must be done at once. Now or never is the real state of the problem. In the third place, the State should take the subject in hand, because this is the only way by which consistency and coherence can be secured in the different depart¬ ments of instruction. Education is a connected work, and its various subdivisions should be so arranged that while each is a whole in itself it should be at the same time a part of a still greater whole. The lower elementary education should, for example, be complete for those who aspire to nothing more; it should likewise be naturally introductory to a higher culture. It should be a perfect whole for the one class and a properly adjusted part for the other. So, also, the higher elementary education— that of the grammar school — should be complete for those who are look¬ ing to liberal education, and yet, in relation to others, subsidiary to the college or the scientific schools. This unity in the midst of variety can not be secured without a common center of impulse and of action. There must be one presiding spirit, one head, one heart. Education will become a disjointed and fragmentary process if it is left to individuals, to private corporations, and religious sects. Each will have his tongue and his psalm, and. we shall have as many crotchets and experiments as there are controlling bodies. The competition excited will be a competition not for effi¬ ciency in instruction, but for numbers. Each will estimate success by the host that can be paraded at its annual festivals or the pomp and pretension of a theatrical pageant, played off under the name of an examination. This is not the language of reproach; it is a result which, from the principles of human nature, will be inevi¬ tably necessitated by the condition in which they shall find themselves placed. Let me add, in this place, that public education is recommended by considerations of economy. Absolutely it is the cheapest of all systems. It saves the enormous expense of boarding schools, or the still heavier expense of domestic tutors, one of which must be encountered when it is left to private enterprise to supply the means of education. If the amount which is annually expended in South Carolina upon the instruction of that portion of her children who are looking to a liberal educa¬ tion could be collected into one sum we would be amazed at the prodigality of means in comparison with the poverty of the result. The same sum judiciously distributed would go very far toward supplying every neighborhood with a competent teacher. From the want of system there is no security that with all this lavish expenditure efficient instructors shall be procured. Those who employ the teachers are not always competent to judge of their qualifications, and the consequence is that time and money are both not infrequently squandered in learning what has afterwards to be unlearned. The danger, too, of sending children from home at an early age, the evil of exemption from parental influence and discipline, are not to he lightly haz¬ arded. The State should see to it that the family is preserved in its integrity and enabled to exert all its mighty power in shaping the character of the future citizens of the Commonwealth. Comparatively public education is cheap, as general intelli¬ gence contributes to general virtue, and general virtue diminishes expenditures for crimes. It is cheap, as it develops the resources of the country and increases the mass of its wealth. It is not labor, but intelligence, that creates new values; and public education is an outlay of capital that returns to the coffers of the State with 424 EDUCATION REPOST, 1809-1900. an enormous interest. Not a dollar, therefore, that is judiciously appropriated to the instruction of the people will ever be lost. The five talents will gain other five; and the two talents other two, while to neglect this great department of duty is to wrap the talent in a napkin and bury it in the bowels of the earth. THE REAL DIFFICULTY. But, after all, the practical question is one of real difficulty. What shall the State do? This is a point of great delicacy, and demands consummate wisdom. Nothing should be clone abruptly and violently. No measures should be adopted that are not likely to recommend themselves — no attempt made to force an acquiescence into any pro¬ visions, however salutary they may have proved elsewhere, which are not founded in the habits and predilections of the people or obviously indispensable to elevate and improve them. The public mind should be prepared for every great movement before it is begun. Popular enthusiasm should, if possible, be awakened by addresses and disputations, which, like pioneers, prepare the way for the law by making rough places plain and the crooked straight. Above all, we should guard against attempt¬ ing to make our system too perfect at the outset. The words of Cousin are as applica¬ ble to us now as they were to France at the time he wrote them: “ God grant that we may be wise enough to see that any law on primary instruction passed now must be a provisional and not a definite law; that it must of necessity be reconstructed at the end of ten years, and that the only thing now is to supply the most urgent wants and to give legal sanction to some incontestable points.” Festina lente contains a caution which it becomes States as well as individuals to respect. What we first need is a collection of the facts from which the data of a proper system must be drawn. We must know the number of children in the State of the ages at which children awe usually sent to school, the kind and degree of education demanded, the relative distances of the residences of parents, the points at which schoolhouses may be most conveniently erected, the number of buildings required, the number of teachers, and the salaries which different localities make necessary to a competent support. Facts of this sort must constitute the groundwork. In possession of these we may then proceed to compare different systems, adopting from among them that which seems to be best adapted to our own circumstances, or originate a new one if all should prove unsatisfactory. All, therefore, that in my judgment the legislature should undertake at present is to acquire this preliminary information, including the accumulation of facts, the comparison of different common-school systems, and the digest of a plan suited to the wants of our own people. This can be done by the appointment of a minister of public instruction, who shall be regarded as an officer of the Government, com¬ pensated by a large salary, and who shall give himself unreservedly to this great interest. Let him be required to traverse the State, to inspect the condition of every neighborhood, and from personal observation and authentic testimony let him become acqainted with the number, the extent, and the circumstances of the chil¬ dren. Let him be prepared to say where schoolhouses can be most conveniently erected, the distance at which they should he removed from each other, the kind of teacher needed in each neighborhood, and let him indicate what sections of the State are unprepared for schools in consequence of the dispersion of their inhabitants. Let him be able to give some probable estimate of the expenses incident to the suc¬ cessful operation of an adequate scheme. In the next place it should be his duty to master the existing systems, whether in this country or in Europe, and to lay before the legislature a succinct account of their fundamental provisions. Let him propose the scheme which he thinks ought to be adopted here, and let his report be referred to an able and learned commissioner, charged with the final preparation of such a scheme as we may be ready to enact into law. LETTER OF J. H. THORNWELL. 425 I shall not disguise from Your Excellency that upon many points connected with details of any and every scheme my oven opinion has long ago been definitely set¬ tled. The extent or degree of elementary education, the best mode of securing competent teachers, the principle which should regulate their salaries, the intro¬ duction of religion into the schools — these, and many other similar topics, I have investigated to my own satisfaction. But, in the present condition of the whole subject, it would be obviously premature to express the opinions of any individual. The minister of public instruction should have the whole subject before him, and whatever discussions may take place upon details should be consequent upon and not prior to this report. All, therefore, which I would now press upon Your Excellency is to have public instruction erected into a department of the Government. That is the first and indispensable step, and until that is done there never can be a plan adequate, consistent, successful. I have only to add here that this is substantially the recommendation which I had the honor to make in concert with the Bishop of Georgia some fourteen or fifteen years ago, 1838, and time and observation have only strengthened my convictions of the wisdom and necessity of the measure. MILITARY SCHOOLS. The third and last part of our system is the military schools. What I have to suggest in regard to them is that they be made to supply a want which is constantly increasing as the country advances in trade and the arts. It is a great evil that there should be nothing intermediate between the grammar school and the college, and that all who wish to acquire nothing more than the principles of physical science, on account of their application to various branches of industry, should be compelled to purchase this privilege by bearing what to them is the heavy burden of liberal edu¬ cation. They do not want Latin, Greek, and philosophy, and it is hard that they can not be permitted to get a little chemistry, a little engineering, or a little natural philosopv, without going through Homer and Virgil, Aristotle and Locke. “Two great evils’’ (I use the words of Cousin, wTho is deploring a similar state of things in France) — “two great evils are the consequence. In general these boys, who know they are not destined to any very distinguished career, go through their studies in a negligent manner; they never get beyond mediocrity; when at about 18 they go back to the habits and the business of their fathers. As there is nothing in their ordinary life to recall or to keep up their studies, a few years obliterate every trace of the little classical learning they acquired. On the other hand, these young men often con¬ tract tastes and acquaintances at college which render it difficult, nay, almost impos¬ sible, for them to return to the humble way of life to which they are born; hence a race of men restless, discontented with their position, with others, and with them¬ selves; enemies of a state of society in which they feel themselves out of place, and with some acquirements, some real or imagined talent, and unbridled ambition, are ready to rush into any career of servility or revolt.” Our colleges ought, without doubt, to remain open to all who can pay the expenses of them, but we ought by no means to force the lower classes into them; yet this is the inevitable effect of having no intermediate establishment between the primary schools and college. The remedy, as I have already shown, is not to change the construction of the college, but to employ the elements which we confessedly have, and which are essen¬ tially suited to the purpose. I shall trespass upon the patience of Your Excellency no longer. In all that I have said, I have had an eye to the prosperity and glory of my native State. Small in territory and feeble in numbers, the only means by which she can maintain her dignity and importance is by the patronage of letters. A mere speck compared with several other States in the Union, her reliance for the protection of her rights and her full and equal influence in Federal legislation must be the genius of her states- EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 426 men and the character of her people. Let her give herself to the rearing of a noble race of men, and she will make up in moral power what she wants in votes. Public education is the cheap expedient for uniting us among ourselves and rendering us terrible abroad. Mind, after all, must be felt, and I am anxious to see my beloved Carolina preeminently distinguished for the learning, eloquence, and patriotism of her sons. Let us endeavor to make her in general intelligence what she is in dignity and independence of character — the brightest star in the American constellation. God grant that the time may soon come when not an individual born within our borders shall be permitted to reach maturity without having mastered the elements of knowledge. I am, with considerations of the highest respect, J. LL Thornwell. CHAPTER VII. THE ORGANIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN COMMON SCHOOL IN THE ATLANTIC AND CENTRAL STATES OF THE SOUTH, 1830 TO I860. By A. D. Mayo, LL. D. In Chapter XVI, Part I, of the Report of the United States Commissioner of Edu¬ cation for 1893-94 the author of the present essay has traced the history of popular education in the original colonies of the southern Atlantic coast from Maryland to Georgia. It was there shown that, while the leading class of these six important provinces, including Virginia — at the opening of the Revolutionary period the most populous and prominent of the entire thirteen — were not indifferent to the education, of their own families by the methods then in vogue in Great Britain, and by other expedients adapted to a new and sparsely populated country, there was still nothing that could be regarded as a system of public school instruction for the majority of the plain white people, and the negro population was shut off from all save occasional personal schooling through books. It is unnecessary here to do more than refer to the causes that prevented the establishment of the common schools of New England in all the provinces beyond the Hudson River until a generation after the close of the war of independence. These were the cosmopolitan quality of the original population of those colonies; their obstinate differences in nationality, language, and manners, and especially the variety of religious and educational beliefs and habits brought from the Old World. In the Southern colonies the more decided prevalence of the system of slave labor was an active social barrier to general elementary education, which increased in importance until the close of the great civil war. There are few reliable statistics of white illiteracy in these provinces during the more than 175 years from the settle¬ ment at Jamestown, Virginia, till the establishment of the ETnited States Govern¬ ment; but that the results of the British system of education in the colonies was the same as at home — in leaving a large proportion of the population destitute even of the most elementary schooling — can not be disputed. But we have also shown that the great uprising in behalf of political independence in these colonies was accompanied with a very decided awakening to the importance of general education. The labors especially of the Presbyterian settlers that occupied the uplands of several of these States could be mentioned. Attention should also be called to the efforts of Thomas Jefferson and a group of like-minded statesmen, especially in Virginia, among whom were Washington, Cabell, and Madison, to establish in the new State of Virginia as a part of its organized public life a system of schools, even including the emancipation and educational training of the negro slaves, so complete that, if adopted, it would at once have given to that colony the leadership in education which it so long retained in politics. In the scheme of Jef- 427 428 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. ferson we trace the direct influence of his acquaintance with the great French, Ger¬ man, and Swiss educators, as the New England schools bore the marks of the Eng¬ lish and Scottish methods then in operation at home. But this movement among the foremost minds of these States, including the estab¬ lishment of a national university at Washington, so dear to the heart of the Father of his Country, came at once too late and too early to be adopted by the Southern people. The plantation type of rural life had already been so established by the leading class that nothing like the New England common school was possible; and the separation of classes inevitable from this aristocratic organization of society more and more told against the schooling of the children of the whole people together, until the final breaking up of the old order by the abolition of slavery as the crown¬ ing result of the civil war. But one result of this agitation of the general education of the people as a training for the new American civilization appeared in a measure not inferior in importance to the direct acceptance of the scheme of Jefferson by the six colonies of the South. This was the remarkable union of the Southern with the Northern members of the congress of the confederation in the passage of the ordinance of 1787 by the unan¬ imous votes of the eight colonies there represented, and its subsequent adoption by the First Congress of the United States in 1789. By this act the people of the South and North virtually accepted the New England and Jeffersonian idea of general edu¬ cation in the consecration of one thirty-sixth of the vast public domain already ceded to the nation to the elementary and superior schooling of the whole people of all States hereafter to be added to the Republic. Under that beneficent act all, save the original thirteen ’States of the Union, have been endowed with a magnificent outfit for the training of the children and youth for American citizenship One result of this act, unprecedented in the previous history of mankind, was the saving of the Union in 1860-1865, largely by the great Commonwealths of the Northwest, whose people had been educated at once into intelligence in letters and loyalty to the Republic. And it was no less a pledge to the Southern people that, in the fullness of time, they, too, should be permitted to enjoy the complete establishment of the American system of general education for the training in American citizenship in which, to-day, every Southern State participates for both races and all classes, to an extent even surpassing the prophetic idea of Jefferson and Washington at the dawn of the nation’s life. A radical characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon aristocratic form of society is the slow growth of popular and liberal practice in the details of a proper democracy. Nowhere has this tendency been more apparent than in the gradual, steady growth of the common-school idea in all the fifteen States which in 1860 were known as Southern from their peculiar organization of the system of slave labor. It is, per¬ haps, an inevitable, though a painful, result of the overwhelming interest among public men in the superficial changes of political and their absorption in the mate¬ rial interests of the country that no biographer of Thomas Jefferson and his illustri¬ ous Southern compeers has seemed to comprehend the influence which this supreme interest of education awakened in his mind; apparent even on the face of all his published writings. And no American historian has yet given to this element in the development of civilization in our Southern States the prominence it deserves. The educator who traces the beginning and progress of the American educational idea from its appearance in the colonial through every decade of the national life will see that never for a moment was it absent from the profound consideration of the foremost minds of the South. There is no record that any Southern statesman of the first class for two generations was ever found in open hostility to the educa¬ tion cf the whole white population. A most instructive volume could be compiled from the official deliverances of the most eminent public men of all these States, again and again setting forth the dangers of popular illiteracy, and with a more COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 429 forcible, even pathetic, eloquence urging on legislators the absolute need of action. And although these efforts met with but fitful and partial response, even when not treated with absolute neglect, yet the good seed thus providentially scattered abroad fell into good ground. Every generation witnessed the steady growth of a real educational public in all these Commonwealths. The first decided results of this movement were the estab¬ lishment of the State universities, really the head of a public-school system, in the majority of these States and the gathering of State funds in several of them for the general education of the entire white population during the first half century of the national life. There was also a sincere and to a certain extent successful effort in several of these Commonwealths to establish a system of elementary schooling for the plain white people, in some respects resembling the present system in England, even before the great revival of the common school from 1830 to 1860. A detailed account of these efforts as late as 1830 will be found in Chapter VII, Volume 2, of the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1894-95. The most significant feature of this record is not the discouraging fact of the constant failure of these experiments, even of the most promising, especially in Virginia, the Carolinas, Louisiana, and Tennessee. This only proves that from the original struc¬ ture of Southern society the successful establishment of the American common- school system, outside of a few of the larger cities and favored districts, was almost an impossibility. But it is deeply interesting to note the profound conviction of the importance of general education in numbers of the foremost educators, divines, and publicists in all these States. And equally notable is the growing desire among the masses of the Southern white people to participate in the advantages already enjoyed by the more favored class, while, at the same time, the poor substitute of the “old field school” offered to their children was like the crumbs of the feast spread for their betters. It is for this reason that in proposing, for the first time, to give a connected account of the remarkable development of the American free public school in the sixteen Southern American Commonwealths from the year 1865, the close of the civil war, to the close of the century, we begin at a period thirty years earlier; the impor¬ tant era already treated in this series of papers as “The great revival of the Ameri¬ can common school.” It is true that the results of this important movement, which virtually lifted up the old-time country and city district school of the North to the present system of graded free elementary, grammar, and high, State and city nor¬ mal schools, with the free State and city university and their ample environment of an atmosphere of general culture for all sorts and conditions of the people, were in no corresponding measure realized in the States now under consideration. Still, the educational public of the South, already an important element in its superior life, was profoundly stirred during the thirty years before 1860 by what was going on with such prodigious impetus on the other side of Mason and Dixon’s line. Horace Mann and Henry Barnard were honored names in every educational center of these States. Many of the leading educational people of the new West were of Southern origin — like Thomas H. Benton in Missouri and Abraham Lincoln in Illinois — and their influence was potent. Henry Barnard frequently visited the South, and in Charleston and New Orleans his wise counsel was heeded. Horace Mann sent Mr. J. A. Shaw, of Massachusetts, to New Orleans, who established the first successful arrangement for public schooling in that city. The third United States Commis¬ sioner of Education, Hon. N. H. R. Dawson, dated his interest in education from a correspondence between his father, in Alabama, and Horace Mann, then president of Antioch College, in Southern Ohio. Mr. Mann, at Antioch, was brought directly in contact with many ambitious and able students from the border Southern States of Kentucky and Virginia. But it was not alone or perhaps chiefly from the influence of this great Northern 430 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. movement that the thoughtful people of the South persisted, in their own moderate way, in the effort toward the final establishment of the people’s common school. Indeed during this eventful period the political and social estrangement of the influ¬ ential classes of the free and slave States, which was to culminate in the revolt of eleven Commonwealths in 1861, was a great barrier to the adoption of anything that suggested an imitation of Northern educational institutions. It will therefore be interesting here to briefly trace the progress of the Southern mind in respect to the whole question of general elementary education during the years from 1830 to 1860, and the efforts made to enlarge the boundaries of their educational system in the direc¬ tion of a practical school system. For in no other way can the surprising unanimity with which all classes of the Southern people welcomed the gift of the Peabody edu¬ cational fund, the coming of Dr. Barnas Sears and Dr. Eben Stearns, even during the turbulent period of the “Reconstruction,” and the immediate entrance upon the most notable movement in modern times for the establishment of a working system of public schooling be accounted for. The student will thus understand the work of these formative years in the building up of a widespread common-school senti¬ ment which, like one of the great underground rivers of the Southern limestone region, at last forced its way from the hidden caves of the uplands to its afflux into the open Gulf. But before we proceed to treat of this movement in the different States of the South, it will be important to do a late justice to one element of the educational life of all these States which, almost from the first, kept alive in a partial but still effectual way the central idea of the American common school. The central idea which is the very soul of the entire system— that the whole people shall establish, organize, support and supervise the educational training of all children and youth for American- Republican life — was of course in conflict with much in the constitution of Southern society. But the history of the “ Old Field Schools” of the South, so well pictured in the delightful sketches of the humors and eccentricities of Southern country life by the facile pen of the late Mr. Richard Malcolm Johnston, in successive Reports of the national Bureau of Education, has been revealed to the educational public of the country as the actual beginning, from the earliest period of the colonial life, of what is now everywhere known as the Southern country district public school for all classes and both races of people. The early settlements of the Southern colonies were, even more than in the North, entirely rural. The establishment of the plantation system of agriculture, including the social features of the landed proprietor and county magistrate of Old England, made anything like the New England system of town and district common schooling an impossibility. The more wealthy families were able to employ a private tutor or governess. Many of the most eminent men of the North, like Dr. William Ellery Charming, William H. Seward, James G. Blaine, and great numbers of others only less celebrated, spent a portion of their early post-graduate years in teaching in the South. It was also a habit of the same class of families to send their sons, and to a less extent their daughters, to the academies and colleges of the North, or even to Europe, for a liberal and professional education. But the majority of the families, even of the respectable class, found a more convenient and less expensive method of giving a desirable schooling by the adoption of a private neighborhood arrangement, including as many pupils as could be conveniently brought in reach of a central schoolhouse. In time this method, at first adopted as a -neighborhood convenience, grew into something like a general system of schooling. The teachers in the more remote districts were often of the peculiar sort described in the entertaining stories of the old field schools in the writings of Col. Johnston. On the appearance of the wander¬ ing pedagogue the families interested, after satisfying themselves of his character 'and capacity, built a log or frame schoolhouse, as in New England, as near the center of COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 431 the school community as possible; furnished it according to the “rough and ready” fashion of the day, and placed therein the master to “work out his salvation,” often with fear and trembling, as the “guide, philosopher, and friend” of the group of boys and girls intrusted to his charge. The “good old idea” of absolute submission to parental authority at all hazards, reenforced by the salutary apprehension of the rod, still prevailed. The record of these schools, established all through the South, and existing till they were supplanted by the present system of public-school instruc¬ tion, is one of the most interesting features of the old-time Southern life. But, with all these crudities and hindrances, it is easy to perceive in this arrange¬ ment some of the most characteristic features of the American common-school sys¬ tem. The “old field school” was the only place, outside the home, where the people of the South had their hands on the schooling of the children. The college and the academy, except the State university and an occasional private, corporate, or family organization, were of the denominational religious order, generally under the control of the distinctively ecclesiastical authorities, often taught by clergymen and churchmen and almost entirely removed from popular influence or supervision. But here, with no such combination, the people kept their own hands on the entire arrangement. They built the schoolhouse, hired the teacher, furnished the children, paid the bills, and left the big boys to decide on the necessity of holidays. The schools were generally coeducational, in this respect resembling those of New Eng¬ land. The text-books were miscellaneous. The subjects of study were essentially those found under corresponding circumstances in the Northern schools of fifty years ago. And although the wandering teacher was sometimes a crank, a vagrant, or even a drunkard and a blackguard-, often a foreign brother who had seen better days, yet in the more populous and cultivated neighborhoods he was often a student from a Northern college — frequently a young man whose name afterwards became a national household word. Andrew Jackson, James K. Polk, and Andrew Johnson had all “ kept school” in this way, as several of the Presidents of the United States from the North and West had likewise done. Not unfrequently a scholar of good attainments was found in the chair of the “old field school” teacher, who could give to the boys an outfit for college, and whose school work showed a genuine enthusiasm for good learning. There can be no doubt that in this habit of personal, private, and neighborhood schooling must be found the explanation of the singular preparation of the Southern people of the superior classes for the establishment of the common schools, even extended to the children of the freedmen immediately after the close of the civil war. Attention is now invited to a review- of the efforts of the friends of the common school in behalf of its establishment for the white race in the South between 1830 and 1865. The new State of W est Virginia made the first public successful movement for the introduction of the Northern system of common schools in 1864; but the detailed record of the progress of this new Commonwealth must be deferred to a possible future treatment of the development of the Southern States school systems during the past thirty-five years. VIRGINIA. The history of the American common school in the fifteen Southern States of the Union from the year 1830 until the close of the civil war in 1865 is to be understood not so much by the results actually achieved as by the steady growth of the idea of general education in the American sense in all those Commonwealths. The deeply interesting story of the beginnings of this movement for popular education in Vir¬ ginia, always the most powerful, cultivated, and influential of these States, up to the period of the great revival of the common school, from 1830 to I860, will be found in the Reports of the national Bureau of Education for 1893-94 and 1895-96. It now remains to continue this record through the forty years from 1830 to the final estab¬ lishment of the present common-school system of Virginia in 1870. 432 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, But the history of popular education in the Old Dominion will be incomprehensible to the reader who does not keep his attention fixed on the drift of the idea of the education of the entire white people, which from the days of Thomas Jefferson went on with a movement as deliberate and decisive as the operations of nature, till its final triumph at the close of the civil war. The great work of Jefferson at the estab¬ lishment of the State government in the abolition of primogeniture, the separation of state and church, and the corresponding changes in methods of legislative and judicial administration, left in the State a powerful body of enemies, who were only prevented by the absorbing perils of the war of independence and the overwhelming interest of the establishment of the National Government from forcing the sharp issue of “ the classes versus the masses ” in a declaration of political war to the death against the great democratic statesman. But there were still left twro questions even more vital than either — the abolition of negro slavery and the education of the masses for the new American citizenship. Both these were a vital part of Jefferson’s plan of State organization — indeed, were the foundation stones of his ideal of an American democratic commonwealth. Neither of these was accepted, although the majority of the leading Virginians of that epoch were to a greater or less extent in harmony with the young leader of the national democracy. These two funda¬ mental questions furnished the battle ground on which the plain people of Virginia were successfully held at bay, notwithstanding the steady growth of the complete American idea of education, until the conflict of two hundred and seventy-five years was finally solved by the triumph of the Union in 1865. Under the great enthusiasm inspired by the call to arms for colonial independence and the creation of the new Republic, it was possible for Jefferson, in 1796, to swing the general assembly of the State into a nominal adoption of a portion of his scheme for popular education. Joseph Cabell, the “right-hand man” of the great statesman through the thirty years’ wearisome conflict for the schooling of the white people of Virginia, relates that when this proposition came before the general assembly the committee on education was unanimous in approval. But the representatives of the opposition most effectually carried their point in the passage of a general law, with the provision that its organization and enforcement were to rest with the judges of the several county courts. The one thing these excellent gentlemen did not intend to do was to set up in the Virginia of 1796 the common school for all white people that lay in the mind of the greaf agitator, Jefferson. He declared that this feature of the statute was fatal to its enforcement. His own absence from Virginia, by his connec¬ tion with the administration at Washington and subsequent election to the Presi¬ dency, and his preoccupation by the many exciting questions that occupied the attention of the National Government during its early years, was improved by the opponents of popular education in keeping its public consideration as much as possi¬ ble out of sight. But meanwhile the progressive' element of the Commonwealth, including an emi¬ nent body of its leading statesmen and private citizens, were by no means inclined to have this subject entirely buried out of sight or postponed by indirection to an indefinite future. Dr. William H. Ruffner, first State superintendent of education in Virginia, in 1876 declared that he could not recall the name of a single Virginia statesman of national reputation who had openly opposed the education of the peo¬ ple. Governor Monroe in 1801, Cabell in 1806-1808, Tyler in 1809-10 had urged this fundamental question upon the attention of the legislature. James Barbour and Charles Fenton Mercer led in the establishment of the literary fund in 1810. This fund, by the addition of moneys received from the General Government, had reached the sum of $1,000,000 in 1818; a valuation much greater in its relative importance than in 1900. In the Report of the national Bureau of Education for 1893-94 will be found an account of the educational movement under the leadership of Governor Nicholas. 433 - COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. After a wide investigation of the school systems of other States — not then so far advanced that there could be found much in addition to the original plan of Jeffer¬ son, action was taken. Joseph Cabell, still the right-hand of the movement of which Jefferson was the soul, informs us that “A strong party in the legislature was in favor of a regular district-school system, but that body was induced to first establish the university with the understanding that the free-school question should be pressed as an independent movement under the leadership of William C. Rives and himself.” The statement was made to the Clarksburg Western Virginia Association of Teachers, in 1840, that the members of the legislature from that part of the State beyond the mountains — the present southwestern Virginia and W est Virginia — voted for the university under the distinct promise that a competent system of common-school education should be given to the Commonwealth for the use of its entire white popu¬ lation. The original movement of Jefferson and his co workers, even before the establish¬ ment of the Union, although “side-tracked” in Virginia, had scored a victory in the virtual adoption of the common-school idea by the Congress of the Confederation and of the new Republic, in the clasping hands by South and North under the leadership of Massachusetts and Virginia, for the consecration of a substantial por¬ tion of the public lands of the nation to the schooling of the children of all States thereafter to be admitted to the companionship of the old thirteen. It is not too much to say that this great national new departure in the interest of universal educa¬ tion, more than any other influence, prevented the final disruption of the Republic, and is responsible for the present status of the Union among the nations of the earth. The second victory of the Jeffersonian educational idea was the establishment of the University of Virginia in 1820. This enterprise, so dear to the heart of the old’ statesman, absorbed his attention during his closing years and somewhat consoled him for the deep sorrow of the wreck of his private affairs and the postponement of his larger plan for the schooling of all the white children and youth of the State. But with a skill born of the training of more than two centuries in the political science of “how not to do it,” the enemies of the common-school system of the North favored the plan of the primary school for the poor, which held on with a death grasp fifty years longer, until its grip was broken by the abolition of negro slavery and the consequent downfall of the entire order of society founded upon it by the issue of the civil war. The plan of the movement of 1820 was the proposition, in addition to the estab¬ lishment of the University of Virginia by a generous loan, afterwards made a gift, from the literary fund, to appropriate a certain annual subsidy for its support and $45,000 annually to the schooling of “the children of the poor” in reading, and writing, and arithmetic to the rule of three. The administration of the plan was intrusted to the judges of the county courts, who had so effectually shelved the common school of Jefferson more than twenty years before, in 1796. These author¬ ities, by law, appointed the twelve hundred commissioners to whom was intrusted the management of the fund, as distributed in sums varying from $300 to, in one instance, $3,000 annually among the school districts into which the counties were divided. This subsidy, distributed at the rate of 4 cents a day for each pupil — $2.50 to $5 per year in the districts — provided for the schooling of as many poor children as could be obtained in such common, private, denominational, or even extempor¬ ized. Sunday schools as were available. This scheme did not even contemplate a system of popular education for the' masses of children, who amounted in 1840 to 200,000 of the white race between the ages of 5 and 15. The theory was that all people above the pauper class could be trusted to school their own children, leaving to the State, on the one hand, the partial support of the university and military school, and, on the other, the school- ED 1900 - 28 434 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. mg of the children of the “indigent population.” The essential features of the scheme are well stated in the report of the legislative committee on education in 1841, in response to the memorial educational convention held in Richmond. They were : (1) Its discrimination of “the poor’’ from all other classes of people. (2) The inevitable revolt of the “indigent class” against this discrimination, although made in behalf of their own children. (3) The whole scheme was separated from the influence of public opinion through the appointment of the commissioners who administered it by the county courts. (4) It made no demand on the personal effort of the people. (5) Only four counties had accepted the amended plan of 1820, by which a free district school could be established by a vote of four-fifths of the people, accessible to all classes of white children, supported largely by local taxation or subscription. In 1820 the law of 1818 was supplemented by a permissive section, authorizing the people of towns and counties to establish a school open to all classes of white chil¬ dren, supported by local effort. But, as already stated, only four counties ever accepted it, and it only served as a clumsy device to mitigate the deep disappoint¬ ment of the educational public and the unwillingness of the “poor class” to proclaim themselves as paupers by the acceptance of the meagre boon thrown down to them from above. Under this apology for a genuine people’s common school, the State went on for twenty years longer, till 1860. During the first few years not more than 8,000 of the children for whose benefit this fund was distributed could be gathered in. The commissioners did not attempt, save in rare instances, to establish schools, but paid tuition to such organizations as were accessible. The funds at best, in one case, would furnish §9f for 27 children. The average school term was seventy-two days. Something better was proposed under a statute of 1829, which attempted a reform of the cumbersome method of the original law. In 1832 it was reported that 16,000 children had been schooled for §46,892. The free district schools, authorized by the law of 1829, in 1832 contained but 1,475 pupils in the State, of whom 300 were “poor.” The following years saw the whole number at school increased to 17,080, 18.006, and 19,000. In 1839 the amount appropriated by the State reached the sum of §77,180; the national surplus revenue income assigned to the State being added to that of the literary fund, 20,000 children having at different times been in attend¬ ance during that year. In 1840, 26,732 poor children were enumerated, of whom 446 attended the district free schools, and the entire cost of the elementary educa¬ tion to the State was §87,920. By these figures it is seen that despite the numerous defects in the method of schooling the “poor children” the system had a steady growth during the first twenty years of its existence. The reports of the second auditor of the State abound with evidences of his own deep solicitude for the education of the children, and his untiring efforts prove the shiftless methods of administration that robbed the system of half the efficacy to which it might have attained. Every year he returns to his open condemnation of the indifference of the courts in the appointment of commissioners who only give to one-half the poor children a school for three months of the year. And this scanty opportunity was so abridged by irregularity of attend¬ ance and the useless teaching that was too often found in the unattractive and even repulsive schoolhouses, that it was in many cases a mockery of education. Gov. John R. Thompson well remarked, in 1850, that “no more painful reading to an educated Virginian could be found than the reports by the second auditor of the State on the condition of the literary fund, with the accompanying proceedings of the school commissioners through the Commonwealth.” These reports were made by Mr. John Brown, jr., who for many years occupied the position which was the only tie which held the State of Virginia to the education of the masses of its people. In addition 435 COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. to the details of the distribution and use of the original $45,000, afterwards somewhat augmented by the income from the surplus revenue and other sources, by the 1,200 commissioners of the several counties and districts, it appeared that, in 1829, 11,799 poor children were educated at an expense of $39,948, averaging about $3.33 per cap¬ ita. In 1830 the number of pupils had risen to 14,169, receiving $39,948 — $2.82 per capita. In the beginning of the system the expenses were much larger, owing to the inefficient management by the commissioners, often appointed from the class least interested in what they were set to do. The report also reveals the fearful incapacity of many of the teachers, the practical impossibility of persuading the graduates of the university, colleges, and academies of the State to take up the work of instruct¬ ing the poor and needy, and the natural pride of the humbler class at proclaiming themselves, as it were, thrust off into a corner to feed on the crumbs of knowledge that fell from the tables of their superiors. Great numbers of these people refused to send their children to school under these conditions, preferring that they should grow up in ignorance to standing before the country as pauper recipients of the scant charity of the State. Still in some of the districts the schools appear to have been passably good and attended by the children of tlie better-off families. And beyond the mountains in western Virginia they were frequently the only schools accessible to anybody. Almost numberless were the devices proposed by the good auditor and the more earnest commissioners for the improvement of the system. The great difficulty of obtaining competent teachers was more apparent as the attendance increased and the demands on the schools were more stringent. It was suggested that the acade¬ mies and colleges should be subsidized to take a certain number of the more prom¬ ising of the poorer children and train them for this work. The commissioners were required to make special arrangements for children in sparsely populated counties. But, meanwhile, the people of the State were asking the reason why the indigent classes did not correspondingly decrease. On the one hand, the illiteracy of the Old Dominion was being demonstrated by the awkward revelations of the census, and there was a decided reaction of the rising public opinion of the country already by 1840 greatly agitated by the influence of the general movement of the educational public at home. It was in vain that the auditor and the commissioners dwelt on the perpetual increase in the school attendance and the good done even in this way; especially the fact that one of the greatest uses of the present system was the edu¬ cating of public ’opinion for something better. The foremost minds of the State were not content with the schools, and the elements were evidently gathering for a move¬ ment that, at last, would insure the development of a better order of affairs. In 1840 the population of Virginia was 740,858 white; free negroes, 49,852; negro slaves, 449,087; total, 1,239,797. The system of subsidizing all varieties of schools for poor children, at a cost of $2.50 to $4 per capita, through the expenditure of $45,000 to $75,000., under the administration of 1,200 commissioners appointed by the county . courts, “with power to act” practically limited only to the amount intrusted to their discretion, reporting to the second auditor of the State, the only tie between the education of 200,000 children and youth and the Commonwealth, had now been more than twenty years In operation. The net result appears, as set forth by Gov. David Campbell, one of the most eminent of the governors of the State, in his message to the legislature, January 9, 1839. The governor shows that by a test of the signatures of the men called to sign their own marriage certificates, in 1817, the year before the establishment of the then existing school system, in round numbers one-fourth (1,127 out of 4,682) were unable to write their names. Ten years later, in 1827, the proportion had somewhat decreased, 1,116 out of 5,048; and in 1837, 1,047 out of 4,614. In view of this condition of affairs the governor remarks, “it appears there still exists a deplorable extent of ignorance, and, in truth, it is hardly less than it was 436 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. thirty years ago when the school fund v/as created. * * * The education of females, it is to be feared, is in a condition of much greater neglect. * * * In the State there are 200,000 children (white) between 5 and 15; 40,000 report as ‘poor chil¬ dren,’ only one-half of whom are attending school. It is also to be feared that a large number of the more favored are growing up in ignorance for lack of conven¬ ient school facilities. Many at school derive little benefit from the inefficiency of teachers. * * * Thus the number likely to remain uninstructed and to grow up without good perception of their duties — religious, social, and political — is really of appalling magnitude, such as to appeal with affecting earnestness to a parental legislature.” President Henry Ruffner, of Washington College, one of the foremost educators of the State, is even more explicit, since his declarations are not influenced by an offi¬ cial political position. He writes to one of the conventions called in the interest of popular education: “More than 50,000 adult white persons were returned by the late census in Virginia as unable to read and write. These returns, beyond question, come far short of the truth. Not less than 150,000 of the adult white population are in a state of debasing ignorance — more than one-third of the 377,000 citizens over 20 years of age.” Horace Mann declared that the statistics of illiteracy in the census of the United States at this period should be increased by one-third to include the large class of persons in the States who were reported as literate on the strength of some faint ability to make out “plain reading,” but were practically unable to and never did read. This important testimony from the head of the political class and from one of the most earnest of the educators was confirmed by a prominent citizen who, writing to the convention of friends of education at Clarksburg, W. Ya., says: “The late reassess¬ ment of lands in the State shows an enormous decline in their value, and there are more persons at this time who can not read and write than there were ten or twelve years ago, although our white population has diminished. ” He looks to ‘ ‘ the West ’ ’ (now southwestern Virginia and West Virginia) for the movement in favor of the education of the masses, and “despairs of” the legislature, which seems unable to rise above the influence of local and neighborhood influences to deal with the gen¬ eral questions. These declarations from the highest authorities were not so much the cause as the result of a movement predicted by the State auditor in his reports to the State legis¬ lature. He maintains that the schooling of the lowest strata of the people is the true beginning of educational reform; compelling every class above to respond to its effort to rise higher in the scale of opportunity. Especially was it evident that the movement must come from the undeveloped and sparsely populated region wrest of the Blue Ridge and the Alleghany Range, including all of the thirteen counties of the present southwestern Virginia and the entire area of the present State of West Virginia. The six colleges of the State, with one exception, were located on the eastern slope of the great dividing mountain range, as were the large majority of the fifty academies. The financial condition of the western Virginia people, far less implicated in the system of slave labor than those of the eastern part of the State, was such that the expense of schooling by tutors, or by family, private, or academical schools was not available for the great majority of the people. Hence the schools that depended on the meager subsidy of the literary fund were often attended by all classes of the population, while thousands of children living in the sparsely set¬ tled open country among these mighty hills and valleys were growing up outside the schoolhouse. Here was the secret of the revolt against the “pauper system” of schooling then in vogue. It was shown that in many counties even the small sums doled out by the State were not used, and the “unexpended balance” was always left at the dis¬ posal of the disbursing official. It was suggested, and even at one time put into a COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 437 statute, that this supplementary fund be distributed through the academies and col¬ leges of the State; but the revolt from below compelled the authorities to ignore the suggestion and finally refuse to act, and forced the legislature to increase the sum appropriated to the education of the “indigent” until it reached the neighborhood of 75,000, and at last of $100,000. It was declared also that this condition of affairs was in itself a great hindrance to the efficiency of the colleges and higher class of academies, since these were all compelled to receive students really in need of pri¬ mary schooling. This may partially explain the claim sometimes made that, even at that day, a larger proportion of the boys of Virginia and the South than of New England and the North were receiving a “college education.” The word “college,” beyond the Hudson River, including the Central, Western, and Southern States, until a very recent date, and to some extent to-day, has practically covered a vast system of pri¬ mary and secondary “university extension” that really corresponded to the public graded school of to-day; to say nothing of the fact that the enrollment of such a variety of pupils, compelled by the imperious mental necessities of the community, forced upon the ablest teachers of the higher seminaries an amount of distasteful work which seriously interfered with the efficiency of instruction in the higher departments. The messages of Governor Campbell from 1837 to 1849, like a bugle call, evoked a hearty response from the educational public in every portion of the Old Dominion. There is no better proof of the steadily growing influence of the educational public than the class of delegates attending the remarkable series of conventions — four in number — that within the ensuing four years summoned the old Commonwealth to its duty to the children of the masses wdth a vigor of utterance and a weight of ability prophetic of the final organization of general education in Virginia thirty years later, in 1870. The first of these important assemblies represented that portion of the State at once most neglected and most in earnest, which was known in Virginia as “the West.” It was held at Clarksburg, now in West Virginia, on September 8, 1841, and was com¬ posed of 113 delegates from sixteen counties of the northwestern and Shenandoah V alley regions. It was presided over by Governor H. Lee, of Harrison County. Judge Drew (?) and President Henry Runner, of Washington College, sent impor¬ tant communications; the latter an elaborate plan of common-school reform. Two committees were appointed to prepare an address to the people of the State and a memorial to the legislature. The legislature of Virginia at that period had fallen into a habit of not regarding the appeals and petitions of this portion of the State. The next convention, October 2, 1841, took a long stride over the great mountains to Lexington, in the Shenandoah Valley, the seat of Washington College and the Virginia Military Institute. The able presidents of these institutions, Drs. Ruffner and Smith, were both committed to educational reform. This assembly wTas composed largely of delegates from the rich and beautiful valley of the Shenandoah. Here was presented the most valuable document on general education issued in Virginia since the early days of Thomas Jefferson, viz, an elaborate plan for the organization of an entire educational system of public instruction in Virginia by President Henry Ruffner, of Washington College. Dr. Henry Ruffner was born in the eastern part of the State in 1789, but in his childhood was carried by his father to the valley of the Great Kanawha, near Charles¬ ton, W. Va., where he was one of the pioneers in the manufacture of salt, at one time a leading interest in that locality. He was a graduate of Washington College, at Lex¬ ington, Va., in 1817, at the mature age of 28, and served for two years as a tutor in Mercer County. He studied theology under Doctor Baxter, president of his alma mater, was “licensed to preach” in 1819, and the same year was appointed a pro¬ fessor in Washington College. For thirty years he remained in this institution, filling 438 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. every professor’s chair, and in 1836 was elected president, which position he held until 1848, when he was compelled by ill health to resign. His administration is said to have largely increased the popularity and advanced the solid reputation of the college. He combined, after the fashion of the day, his college presidency with church missionary work as a clergyman in the neighborhood. In 1849 he returned to his old home in Kanawha County, following the professions of farmer and preacher, until his death in 1861, at the age of 72. From Princeton and Washington colleges he received the academical and theological degrees of LL. D. and I). D. He was a constant contributor to the religious press of the day, and the author of several works, literary and moral. To the Northern public of forty years ago he was best- known through the wide publication of a powerful essay on the eve of the civil war, originally read as a college club paper in Lexington, in opposition to negro slavery. But his most important publication, probably little known to-day even in his native State, was his plan for the organization of a system of public-school education in Virginia, presented to the Lexington convention in 1841. This remarkable paper by President Ruffner, the most conspicuous leader of the progressive educational public of the South at that early day, has been reprinted in a preceding chapter of this Report (Chapter VI). The next assembly was held at the capital of the State, Richmond, in October of the same year. One hundred and twenty-nine delegates from thirty-seven counties, besides members of the legislature, were present. The presiding officer was Hon. James M. Garrett. Reports were made from the committees on all classes of schools. The committee on popular education recommended a district free school system. The plan was adopted by the convention, with a memorial to the legislature and an address to the people. The general assembly responded by an educational bill which disappeared from view after its second reading. Mr. Thomas Ritchie, one of the most eminent journalists of the country and editor of the Richmond Enquirer, was an active spirit in this convention and chairman of the committee which presented its memorial to the legislature. But four years more of the “patient waiting” and the “hope deferred” that not only “ maketli the heart sick” but now and then furnishes the most decisive record of a waking up of the temper and a “ doubling of the fist ” of the mind in the forma¬ tion of an obstinate will, brought the most inspiring of all these demonstrations of the rising educational public in the memorable convention held in Richmond in 1845. This assembly, pronounced by Hr. W. H. Ruffner, first State superintendent of edu. cation in old Virginia, in 1876, “as fine a representation of the best class of Virginians as could have been found,” met in the house of delegates and adjourned to the Third Baptist Church by invitation of the famous Dr. Jeter of that important religious denomination. It was presided over by Governor McDowell. This distinguished orator and publicist was already noted for his interest in the cause of education. He was for many years a trustee of a Virginia college and greatly interested in all matters connected with the higher development of the State. In 1843, as governor, he had presented to the legislature a plan for educational reform prepared by President Smith, of the Virginia Military Institute, accompanied by a vigorous message, in which he declares that “one in twelve of the white inhabitants of Virginia can neither read nor write. This indisputable fact, which was brought to light by the census, declares a state of common education which appeals to our public authorities for immediate redress through these humiliating figures with a point and urgency of persuasion to which nothing can be added by words. If sixty days’ tuition to half of the 4 indigent children ’ of the State is the grand result which our present system is able to accomplish after so many years of persevering effort to enlarge and perfect its capacity, it is little more than a costly, delusive nullity, which ought to be abol¬ ished as worthless and a better one established in its place.” This convention, after long and interesting deliberations, prepared a memorial to 439 COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. the legislature, and chose a local committee at Richmond to present it and watch its effect on the legislative fathers of the State. The result was a report prepared by the committee on education in the general assembly and the preparation of a bill for a revised scheme of general education. The report of the legislative committee was one of the ablest documents of this period of elequent and broad-minded declarations of the educational public of the State. It faces the question in such decisive language as this: “ No measure of indulgence can cover the lamentable disparity between the promises and the results of the present system of primary education.” In 1840, out of 48,198 “ poorchildren ” (probably an underestimate) only 27,349 were educated at all. The fact that out of 740,000 white people in the State of all ages, 58,732 persons of mature age are illiterate, shows that “ the present plan has both failed of its ends and is also condemned upon public principles.” In six counties of the State the white illiteracy “exceeds the whole number of illiterates to be found in entire States of the North.” The unexpended balance of the literary fund showed that even what was distributed was not used. The praise of the system by some of its commissioners reads like “ disguised satire.” In forty counties not one-half the poor children were schooled. After a sharp arraignment of the system for its central defects, the committee thus report, rather as “devising a scheme which might carry with it a principle of self-progression and serve as a nucleus for further reforms than as the construction of any project with the delusive appearance of full and perfected proportions.” The first proposition is the constitution of a new department of public instruction with a State superintendent whose first business shall be agitation until the waters of the great deep, beneath which the all-absorbing and exhausting factions of party has submerged much of the noble zeal for education, shall have been broken up and the almost lifeless slumber of the people shall have yielded to the healthful appearance of an active enthusiasm. (2) It is proposed to transfer the appointment of school commissioners from the courts to their election by the people; to divide the counties into districts, each of which shall elect its commissioners for four years, out of whom the general body of the county school board is to be composed. (3) The sum of $500,000, half of which shall be raised by taxation, the local tax to be laid by the commissioners, wdio shall be intrusted with the distribution of the State funds. (4) A rate bill for all save the poor. (5) Frequent visits and inspection, of schools by commissioners. (6) The State superintendent to appoint a commission for inspection of schools with the local officials. (7) The State superintendent to be on the move among the people and visit the local authorities. (8) Certain State colleges to be established in which promising scholars may be trained for teachers. The committee cited the schools of New York, and had been in communication with Horace Mann and Henry Barnard. In all these declarations of the leaders of the movement and the reports of com¬ mittees, vre are reminded that the elevated ideas and schemes of Jefferson had not died with him but, like good seed cast intc strong and obstinate ground, had been ripening into even a broader and more practical view of public instruction than even he had contemplated. One is impressed with the broad intelligence, the irresistible logic, and the powerful statements of all these documents; not inferior, in their way, to the most notable deliverances of Mann, Barnard, and the leaders of the educa¬ tional movement through the nation. Altogether, the public expression of these remarkable papers by a large number of the most distinguished publicists and edu¬ cators of the State forms a body of educational literature honorable to the Common¬ wealth and deserving of perpetuation in a permanent form. The result of ah this agitation in influential quarters was seen in a new school law, giving the authority to ail the counties to establish a system of public schools. But the statute had the fatal defect of the permissive element, which for so many years held back the common-school system of several of the most powerful States from 440 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. success. Many counties seemed to have dallied with it. The number of children who attended school increased, and their opportunities were enlarged. “More had been done for primary education during the fifteen years previous to 1860 than at any period in the history of the State.” But in the words of Dr. Ruffner, “The new law was poorly devised, its enemies were active, and the results were not satis¬ factory anywhere.” The chronic weakness of the old order of society for any public reform was closely bound up with the difficulty from the growing excitement over the condition of this portion of the country drifting toward the great collision between the sections, which was precipitated by the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency in 1860. But, despite all discouragements, the good work went on. In 1850 the new constitu¬ tion of the State contained this provision in section xxiv: “A capitation tax, equal to the tax assessed on land to the value of $200, shall be levied on every white inhabitant who has attained the age of 21 years; and the equal moiety of the capi¬ tation tax upon white persons shall be applied to the purposes of education in pri¬ mary and free schools; but nothing herein contained shall prevent exemption of tax¬ able polls in cases of bodily infirmity.” This provision was accepted by the people in the vote confirming the new constitution in 1851. In 1850 public schools were established in the city of Norfolk, in four districts, governed by commissioners, and in 1858 a new schoolhouse was built in each district. In 1860 the general school attendance of the State is reported as 102,000. During these years there had been a gradual gain over the illiteracy of the State. But the fearful experience of the war, which involved more than half the area of the Commonwealth and left old Virginia a scarred and ravaged battlefield, told with fearful effect on the cause of the children. Even five years after the breaking out of the war, only 59,792 white and 11,018- colored children were in school; and in 1869, “probably a majority of the 140,000 of school age were unable to read.” But the baleful influence of the coming war was felt during the entire eight years from the adoption of the new constitution till the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency, in 1860. The enemies of the common school now found their most potent ally in the growing estrangement of the great sections of the republic and the popular hostility to all institutions characteristic of the Northern type of civilization. According to Dr. W. H. Ruffner, “After that we hear little more of public education until the smoke of war had cleared away.” In 1856 the sluggish waters were again stirred by the memorable address of Hon. Henry A. Wise on his retirement from the Congress of the United States as representative of the Accomac district, to accept the position of minister to Brazil. This document is characteristic of the man and the time, and is important as furnishing evidence of progress in public education in Virginia up to 1860. A considerable portion of it will be found reprinted in a previ¬ ous chapter of this Report (Chapter VI) . In 1850 there were reported in Virginia 12 colleges, with 73 teachers and 1,313 students, maintained at an expense of $162,574; 317 academies, with 547 teachers- and 9,068 pupils, and an annual income of $357,087; 2,930 public schools, with 29,037 teachers and 67,353 pupils, including the schools for the children of the poor. There were 77,000 white adult and, altogether, 88,000 illiterates, almost entirely of native birth. There were 14 libraries, with 60,000 volumes. The population was 894,800 white, 54,333 free negroes, and 472,528 negro slaves; 1,421,661 in all. There were 87 newspapers, with a circulation of 89,134. In 1854 the available literary fund was $1,588,020. Seventy-five thousand dollars was appropriated to the schooling of the poor, $15,000 to the university and $1,500 to the State Military Institute. There were the remains of several of the original public funds, amounting to $39,106. One hundred and nine thousand nine hundred dollars was expended annually for all public educational and charitable purposes by the State. In the forty years since the establishment of the university, some COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 441 $800,000 had been invested by Virginia in the education of some 3,000 graduates of various orders. The University of Virginia was, doubtless, then at the head of the higher Southern education; indeed, several of the Southern colleges and universities had been organized on its peculiar type of dispensing with the president and arrang¬ ing its course of instruction on the assumption that the standard was of the proper university grade. Although Harvard University, Massachusetts, and to a less extent the University of Pennsylvania, were in a way connected with the State, yet the University of Virginia, perhaps more than any single institution, set the pitch to the present system of American State universities, established, largely supported, and governed by the Commonwealth. In this respect, for a second time, the educational movement of Thomas Jefferson attained greater results outside the Old Dominion than at home; and more than one of the Southern and the new Western States had: moved in this direction. MARYLAND. In the Eeportof the United States Commissioner of Education, Volume 2, 1894-95r the condition of public school education in Maryland previous to 1825 is briefly recorded. Some of the friends of education maintain that the two original “ free schools,” afterwards developed into colleges, founded in 1696, were the logical out¬ come of the system of American common schooling by the Commonwealth. While' these and the subsequent “free academies,” established under the colonial and State governments up to 1825, were chartered and, to a limited extent, subsidized by pub¬ lic authority, and at first were doubtless regarded sufficient, with the aid of private- enterprise, for the schooling of the people, still there was little in their administra¬ tion to encourage the friends of popular education. Much of the energy and zeal in behalf of general elementary education was dissipated in the struggle to divert the small public funds from the colleges to the academies, and afterwards to the primary schools. Indeed, until 1825, vdrat was called a public school in Maryland was little more than an adaptation of the old English system of “free schools,” meagerly sub¬ sidized by the Government, but in fact private institutions, under the absolute control of a close corporation. The first genuine movement in Maryland for the schooling of the entire white- population ivas made in 1825. At that time the area of the State was some 10,000 square miles, and the population, later, in 1830, 291,108 white, 52,938 free negroes, and 102,994 negro slaves; total, 447,040. The common school law of 1825 was framed in obedience to the vigorous demand of an educational public, formed by the press¬ ing necessity that additional provision should be made for the general instruction of the people. Even twenty -five years later, 1850, 27,539 white persons were reported by the United States census as illiterate, and in 1840 1 in every 26.9 were reported as under this disability. The committee on education in the legislature of 1825 reported in favor of dividing the State into 400 school districts of 5 miles square each. The white popula¬ tion outside the towns and cities was estimated at 20 to the square mile; 6 children and youth of schoolage; SOpercentof the people between the ages of Sand 15. This would give an average of 150 children to a district. The average cost of the teacher was $300, which gave $156,000 for the education of the entire white school population in town and country, by the Lancasterian method, in which one teacher sufficed for 300 children, the laboring oar of instruction being assumed by the “raw hands,” in the persons of “pupil teachers.” The committee also urged the organization of the colleges and the county academies as a portion of the general school system, and the normal training of teachers through this agency; also an agricultural college. No provision vTas made for the 50,000 free and slave colored children, and not until the abolition of shivery and the establishment of the present public school system in 1865-1867 had this large body of children and youth any save the charitable and church parochial arrangements for instruction in letters. 442 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The legislature responded to the report of its committee by establishing the first system of public schools in the State in 1825. It proposed the appointment of a State superintendent of education charged with the responsibility of administering a great organization, and performing the many duties of that office. The justices of the court of levy were empowered to appoint nine commissioners of schools for every county, and an additional board of eighteen to act as examiners of teachers, general inspectors, and visitors of the schools. The commissioners were authorized to divide the counties into school districts of suitable size and attend to the distribution of the school moneys of the State. A tax could be enforced on the districts for building and furnishing schoolhouses. Mr. Teackle was appointed State superintendent of education, and held the office until the system was abolished, dependent on the vote of the county. It was adopted by only 13 counties. In 1828 the governor pronounced it a practical failure and the law was repealed. From that time until the close of the civil war, in 1865, the effort in the direction of primary and secondary education seems to have been largely by the incorporation of private neighborhood schools, subsidized in a very moderate way by State funds, their support being eked out by tuition fees and personal contributions. The State school funds in 1831 amounted to $112,963.78, of which $47,293.66 belonged to the department burdened with the education of the children of “indigent parents;” $5,000 was also appropriated to what was then known as the “University of Mary¬ land;” $13,800 to other colleges and academies, and $3,500 to the education of the deaf and dumb. By 1850 the educational facilities of the Commonwealth were estimated at 13 “colleges,” with 98 teachers and 1,129 students, with an income of $122,000; 223 academies, with 503 teachers and 10,787 pupils, supported at a cost of $239,000; and 898 primary schools, not under State control, chiefly private, corporate, and those subsidized for the poor, with 986 teachers, 33,111 pupils, and $221,000 expended; in all other schools there were 45,000 pupils. There were 135 libraries, containing 104,730 volumes, 68 newspapers of all sorts, with a circulation of 124,247. The “conclusion of the whole matter” seems to have been reached by the decision of the legislature in 1856, that the system of public schools established in the city of Baltimore was in a state of the most utter and hopeless prostration. The only vital spot in organized popular education during the thirty-five years subsequent to the repeal of the school law of 1825 was found in the city of Baltimore. Indeed it was largely at the instigation of the friends of common schools for the white race there that the law of 1825 was actually passed, and during this entire period that city expended more for common school education than all the rest of the Commonwealth. The law authorizing the establishment of common schools in Bal¬ timore was passed in 1825, accepted by the city authorities in 1827, and entered upon practical operation in 1829. But until the establishment of the high school for boys, ten years later, it was a day of small things for the common school in the Monument city. In 1828 a board of six commissioners of schools ivas appointed, of which the mayor of the city was chairman, and several of the foremost citizens members. The first school opened in the basement of a church under the charge of Master W. H. Coffin. John Reeve had been the pioneer of the movement; “ first to suggest the establishment of the common school and vote for it in the city council and one of the first of the city school commissioners.” “ He showed his faith by his works”— in defiance of the prejudice of the v'ell-to-do class against the piovement — by send¬ ing his own boy and urging his brother commissioners to “go and do likewise.” The number soon increased to seven, who were instructed in the school primer, speller, and definer, Murray’s grammar, and Randolph’s arithmetic. The off-day, Saturday, was devoted to a “battle royal” between the “number one” scholars and the “Old Town boys.” At first there was a great reluctance among the people to sending their daughters to the new common schools as late as 1835, only 72 of the COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 443 402 pupils being girls. There was only $1,431 available from the State funds at tne beginning. This enabled the commissioners to attempt the establishment of 6 male and 6 female schools. In fact, the 4 schools were opened in 1829 in rented rooms. The schools were free, with the exception of $1 paid by each pupil above the “indi¬ gent class ” for books and stationery. A salary of $400 for male and $200 for female teachers was allowed. The attendance in the first year was only 269 for three months, and the expenses $767.35, of which $221.50 was collected from the small rate bills and other sources. By 1835 the number of scholars had increased to 402, with $2,323 expended and $1,260 received, $3,000 having been appropriated for schoolhouses. The schools were conducted on the Lancasterian system of New "York, the principal teacher being held responsible for every 300 pupils, although the head master “ never heard the pupils recite a lesson.” Until 1839 there was no attempt at the proper grading of the schools, all under the high-school department being included in the general title “primary.” The real history of the Baltimore system of public schools begins in 1839, when the Boys’ High School, afterwards known as the Baltimore City College, was opened in a rented room with 46 pupils, and the worn-out Lancasterian method of instruction abandoned. The Bible, with a provision for the use of the Douay version by the children of Catholic parents, was used as a reading book. In 1840 the number of pupils in the public schools had risen to 1,823 and the amount expended to $12,342 — $6.73 per capita. In 1843 vocal music was introduced. In 1844 two high schools for girls were founded, which in time were housed in large buildings crowded with students. The schools were not fully graded until 4847. In 1849 the treasurer of the system was authorized to perform the duties of superintendent, and this arrangement held until 1866. In 1850 there was 1 central and 2 female high, 21 grammar, and 9 primary schools, with 119 teachers and 7,000 pupils, supported at an expense of $45,653 — $6.38 per capita — and receipts of $19,166. In 1851 arrangements were made in the girls’ high schools for the normal instruction on Saturday of such as proposed to qualify as teachers in the city schools, and this arrangement continued until the foundation of the State Normal College in Baltimore in 1866. Evening schools were also estab¬ lished in 1852, with military drill and instruction in seamanship on the U. S. receiving ship Ontario. (?) In 1860 the Baltimore public schools contained 305 teachers and 13,809 pupils, educated at an expense of $148,000 — $8.49 per capita. Previous to 1867 there was no provision for the public schooling of colored children, although the Catholic and other churches and benevolent people had made some provision for that class in private and parochial schools. DELAWASE. In 1830 the State of Delaware, with an area of 2,120 square miles, had a population of 76,748, which in 1860 had increased to 112,216. In 1850 there were 71,169 white persons, 18,073 free negroes, and 2,290 slaves; a total population of 91,532 in the State. The slave population was steadily declining and the free colored increasing up to the outbreak of the civil war. Newcastle County, including the city of Wil¬ mington, and Sussex County, at the opposite end of the State, were in many ways as far reproved from each other as one of the new Western States from Kentucky. In 1850 there were in the State 18,841 white persons of school age, 5 to 20. The little State had followed up its honorable record as the first to adopt the Con¬ stitution of the United States by placing in its fundamental law the provision (art. 8, sec. 2): “The legislature shall, as soon as conveniently may be, provide by law for establishing schools and promoting arts and sciences.” This provision, capable of great latitude of interpretation for the educational blessing or bane of the Com¬ monwealth, was repeated in the revised constitution of 1831, and is still in force. 444 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The attempt to apply this provision by the establishment of a State school fund through at least three acts of the legislature before 1807, with an effort to divert the fund to the support of the courts, with promise of future restitution, had the result that not until 1817 was §1,000 appropriated to each of the three counties “to furnish instruction to the children of poor parents in reading, writing, and arithmetic.” Tiie contemptuous reception of this plan by the parents of the “children of the poor” was so marked from the first that in 1821 a resort was had to the original British method of using the Sunday school as a primary school of elementary instruc¬ tion, and a small bonus was annually voted which, we believe, is still paid to each of the three counties for secular instruction in Sunday schools. An interesting doc¬ ument relating to this early period is an elaborate pamphlet published in 1803 by Robert Corson, of Delaware, entitled Political Inquiries, in which the author strongly advocates the most advanced ideas of universal education through the length and breadth of the new Republic. The history of common-school education in Delaware, as in several of the States of the Union, from 1822 to 1829 is chiefly to be read in the appeals of the successive governors of the State for a general scheme of public instruction. One of the most notable features of the growth of a proper educational public in the South during the long conflict until 1870 is the fact that the governors of all these States were almost unanimously on the side of the common people in their demand for better schooling. The chief magistrates of Delaware were conspicuous examples of this fact. The statesman, with his broad outlook over the entire field of public necessities, if a real statesman and not a partisan politician masquerading under that name, in our coun¬ try is far more inclined to favor reforms in public-school affairs than the average educator or ecclesiastic, each bound by the comparatively narrow view of a religious sect or a special type of school. In 1829 the State school fund amounted to $151,643 and its income, $9,255, was a meager capital with which to lay the foundation of a proper system of common schooling for the 10,000 white children and youth then sorely in need of “the great American chance.” It was a man of this sort in public life, of New England extraction, a classmate of Justice Joseph Story at Harvard, and from 1811 till the day of his death, 1875, a prom¬ inent character in the political and judicial affairs of the State, Judge Willard Hall, secretary of state in 1811-1814, 1821, member of State senate in 1822, compiler of State laws till 1829, and for forty-eight years United States district judge, who for a long generation was the undisputed leader of the public-school movement in Delaware. The educational writings of this eminent friend of popular education, though highly conservative, cautious, and at times almost timid in their conclusions, are a complete mirror of the condition of the leading public mind in the State for nearly half a cen¬ tury on this theme, and his elaborate arguments, all in the direction of the improve¬ ment of the system at an;/ particular time on the ground, are most instructive to-day for the advocates of universal education in communities in a similar condition. A reference to Chapter VII, volume 2, Report of United States Commissioner of Educa¬ tion for 1894-95, will acquaint the reader with the details of the Delaware school law of 1829, which if heartily adopted and enforced would have placed the State at the beginning of the great educational revival of 1830-1860 in line with the foremost States of the South and W est. But here, as elsewhere, it was demonstrated that it is one thing to carry through a legislature an educational statute far in advance of .the aver¬ age public opinion of an American State, especially if fathered and pushed by a con¬ centrated group of influential men, and quite another to obtain the application of the law by the people most in need of its beneficent provisions. In 1837 a portion of the United States surplus revenue distributed to the States, amounting to $286,751.49, was added to the public-school fund, which in 1843 had reached the respectable sum of $183,000, $32,000 being distributed among 182 schools with 6,148 pupils. But there Avere now almost 20,000 white children and youth in COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 445 the State between the ages of 5 and 20, all in need of good elementary common-school instruction, and the secondary and higher education lagged far behind the supply in the neighboring Southern States. The great cities of Philadelphia and Baltimore, at that period prominent educational centers, were largely influential with Wilmington and the more advanced portions of the State. Newark College up to 1850 had grad¬ uated only 77 students, and was not recognized as a State institution until 1869. Indeed, up to the period of the civil war the most notable agency in behalf of a proper system of general elementary education in Delaware was the educational con¬ vention, founded in 1836 at Wilmington, with Judge Willard Hall as president, a position held by him for twenty years, till 1856. The influence of this convention, which was rather an annual assembly of the educational common-school public than a gathering of teachers, can hardly be overestimated. By its suggestion the addition from the surplus revenue was made to the “State public-school fund.” A law of 1837 favored the little school districts by requiring only a local tax of 825 per annum to entitle them to State aid. The Newark University was aided by the common resort to several lotteries and some local taxes, and Judge Willard Hall was one of its trustees. But it must be admitted that even this important agency of common-school reform was weighted by the highly conservative ideas of its majority of members, to a certain extent indorsed by Judge Hall, its long time leader and president. The radical weakness of the school law of 1829 was its foundation on the idea of “local option,” exaggerated to its utmost limits. Judge Plall says: “The design of the system is not to make schools by its operations, but to enable and assist the people to make schools by their own exertions.” The people of any district, after it was laid out with sufficient population under the law, was endowed with “the power and responsibility of determining whether it would have a good school, an inferior one, or no school.” Although the provision for a tuition bill was incorporated in the system, it was yet left to the decision of a majority in a community opposed or indifferent to general education to indefinitely deprive any child of the bounty of the State and the opportunity of schooling. The obstinate resistance of the districts most in need to any degree of taxation for years abolished the system which, neglecting the warnings and appeals of the general convention, “lingered shivering on the brink” of failure, till even the faithful leader of the educational public gave his sanction to the plan of school keeping adopted at the close of the civil war. In 1843 the first State educational convention met at Dover. At the outset it “spiked its own guns” by a declaration antagonizing the Massachusetts idea that “ all the children of the State shall be educated by the State,” in favor of the position “ that the people must educate their own children, and all the State should do, or can do, for any useful effect is to organize them into communities, so as to act together for set purpose, and help and encourage them to act efficiently by fair distribution among all the school districts of the income of the school fund. The school of every district is thus in the power of its school voters; they can have as good a school as they please, or an inferior school, or no school. The whole responsibility rests on them, and the measure of that responsibility is the welfare or calamity of all the children of the district.” This position includes the fatal weakness of the old-time idea of exclusive State rights reduced to its lowest terms, of a city, town, county, and neighborhood right to veto the will of a majority of the people, organized as a republican State. The American system of common schools is founded on the idea that every organized Commonwealth is responsible for the capacity of its people for good citizenship. No little district, city, towurship, or neighborhood is recognized as having any right, natural or acquired, to resolve itself into a social pesthouse of illiteracy, where law and order and all the elements of republican civilization are paralyzed, because of the capricious will of an ignorant and obstinate majority. The idea of the State 446 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. applied in this town is simply the old-time European notion that prevailed, during the long despotic government of the people by privileged classes, who appropriated the wealth and opportunities of the nation, and doled out to the multitudes below such “crumbs of comfort” as seemed best in their own eyes. No democratic State ever provided for the education of its people under a theory so incomplete. Indeed, no semicivilized people has ever yet reformed itself — but only by a power that is embodied in law has it been lifted out of the slough of ignorance, superstition, shiftlessness, vulgarity, and vice included in the dictionary word “illiteracy.” The State of Delaware for more than fifty years from the day when it placed in its con¬ stitution the provision for the education of the people was held back from its proper right to the American common school by this policy of holding the public welfare at the dictate of a personal and local independence. In another most unfortunate respect did the State convention antagonize the ideas of the educational public of the State, resisting the forward movement of the people. In 1838 a movement in favor of normal schools and the general training of teachers was side tracked by a report which Judge Hall was understood to have prepared. The idea of this committee concerning this important subject was incorporated in the statement that “the teacher should lie formed in connection with the spirit of the times and under the influences of public opinion, and not educated in normal schools as a distinct professional character.” This proposition contains one-half the truth — that the teacher should "be educated in sympathy with the people and adapted to his environment. But the proposition that an ignorant, illiterate, and semibar- barous community can be safely intrusted with the fundamental duty of training its own teachers “in connection with the spirit and under the influences of public opin¬ ion” within its own borders, if applied to professional life in general, would scuttle human civilization in any age or land. The appointment of boards of examiners of teachers representing districts where any scheme of popular education was estab¬ lished was a failure from the lack of opportunities to prepare for the profession of instruction, which is the first condition of success. In 1849 the second “cold shoulder” was given by the convention to the proposi¬ tion to establish a State superintendency of public instruction. In 1846 it gave the valuable advice to the 20,000 free colored people of Delaware “to confer upon their children the advantages of education,” a position maintained by the Commonwealth even as late as 1875, when the law, afterwards held to be unconstitutional by the courts, was passed taxing the colored people for the support of their own schools. In 1891 the legislature appropriated $9,000 as an addition to the small sum that could be supplied by the repeal of the law of 1875. The utmost effort of the educational public of the State, working through this series of conventions, could only achieve the measure of success shown in the fact that in 1855, in 236 districts of the State, the same number of free schools was in operation, with 10,230 pupils enrolled. There is no information concerning the average daily attendance, length of the school terms, or value of the instruction. The public-school fund then amounted to $425,525, of which $49,469.30 was expended for the free schooling of the white children of the State. The outcome of the famil¬ iar idea was stated in convention by Judge Willard Hall in the declaration, “the stream rises no higher than its source, and so in every neighborhood where the improving influence of a good district free school is most needed there it is never found.” In 1861 the popular discontent with the slow progress of elementary education in the State reached the legislature, with the result that an act was passed compelling each school district to raise by tax the sum of $75 in New Castle, $100 in Kent, and $30 in Sussex County, to be applied to the support of the schools of the district, with power to increase this sum to the extent of $400 additional to that designated, by law; also authorizing the raising by tax any sum less than $500 for school buildings. COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 447 Thus after a fair trial of more than half a century the mischievous principle of local option in public education was repudiated and the fundamental principle of the common school asserted, that “ all the children of the State shall be educated by the State. ’ ’ The office of county superintendent of schools, created by the" law of 1829, was filled by a succession of occupants during the period now under consideration. But as it did not entitle the holder to any special exercise of authority or the enjoyment of any emolument, it was a practical nonentity. An attempt in 1853-54 to lift this office into official respectability and influence failed. But for New Castle, and prob¬ ably at times for other counties, this official did of his own accord contribute a great deal of valuable service to the people. Especially did Judge Hall and Dr. Gresham labor in season and out of season with the people of New Castle County to this end, and the city of Wilmington and the adjacent districts were largely indebted to this service for their early reputation in education. Indeed, the discouraging feature of the slow progress of the idea of elementary education in Delaware for more than fifty years of the first century of the national life is relieved, from the period of the great national revival of the common school in 1830, by the record of the public-school life of the city of Wilmington. In the year 1829, under the authority of the school law of that date, the public-school system of the county was established by a division of the territory into ten districts. Teachers for boys and girls were employed, at $100 and $75 a quarter. In 1834 eight of the ten districts were reorganized as the “united school districts of New Castle County” and the first public schoolhouse erected. In 1836 the entire number of children at school was 716. Two days of each week in the summer schools were devoted to instruction in needlework. In 1852 a final step was taken by the passage of the act establishing the present excellent system of common schools for Wilmington. The plan was in no essential respect different from that adopted in all the considerable cities of the country. In 1S61 there were 8 schoolhouses in the city, 6 being the property of the board, with 2,052 pupils and 32 teachers, supported at a cost of $24,930. The development of the system after the close of the civil war, under the faithful charge of its one superintendent, Mr. David W. Harlan, with the addition of the schooling of colored youth as a part of the general system, belongs to the record of the second great revival of common-school education in the United States from 1865 to the present time. In his interesting and concise history of common-school education in Delaware, by Supt. J. H. Grove, in 1881, we read an instructive comparison of the schools of 1830 with those of that date. He writes: “Fifty years ago there were not more than twenty schoolhouses in the State, and those owned by private individual. Children were taught mostly in private houses, and none but the wealthier class could afford to any great extent the expense of tuition. The number of children of school age wras about 15,000 in a population of 58,000. The branches taught were only primary; the books were of the crudest kind, and school furniture of the rudest material and structure. The teachers themselves were of inferior education, and candidates for college classes were few. “In contrast to this picture, which might be enlarged to any extent by the most picturesque representations of the early school life of many of the States at that period, especially those in which the common-school system had not then been developed, sufficient for us that the people now own 361 schoolhouses, w hich, with grounds and furniture, are worth $440,000, which, in addition to the present school fund, makes an entire investment of $889,787 for school purposes.” Such is the revelation of the American system of republican society, which, in the last result, culminates in the establishment of a great system for the education of the people sooner or later in every State. And such must always be the outcome of 448 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. a genuine form of republican government, which proposes nothing less than the obligation of every Commonwealth and the nation to train every succeeding genera¬ tion for that sovereign citizenship which is the highest earthly position; the organi¬ zation of a self-governed manhood and womanhood into a nationality that is in itself the noblest result of a Christian civilization. NORTH CAROLINA. In no State of the group of the fifteen Commonwealths known as Southern, in I860, was the experiment of the people’s common school of the American type more persistently tried, with results on the whole more encouraging, than in North Caro¬ lina. In all the colonies dominated by the aristocratic British ideals of society dur¬ ing the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, until a period long subsequent to the establishment of the Union, the English idea that the well-to-do people should edu¬ cate their own children, leaving to the State an intermittent and inefficient regard for the most elementary instruction of the children of the poor, was the greatest obstacle to the success of their various schemes for public education. Especially in Virginia and South Carolina this idea was so deeply rooted in the mind of the pros¬ perous classes that, notwithstanding the persistent agitation by an educational pub¬ lic representing many of the most eminent personages of the time, this obstacle was only swept away by the great deluge of the civil war. But the State of North Carolina, by its settlement, its long colonial revolutionary experience, and its history through the first fifty years of the national life, was in many significant ways prepared for the movement of 1840, which placed on the ground a common-school system of a type hitherto unfamiliar to the people of the southern Atlantic Commonwealths. The local historians of this State are fond of dilating on the notable facts that both Sir Walter Raleigh, who first brought a colony to Roanoke Island, in 1584 — from which the first American child, Virginia Dare, was born — and Sir Henry Drummond, the first governor, lost their lives for resistance to the home and colonial despotism of that period; that the first blood of the Revolutionary war was shed and the first declaration of continental independence was made in North Carolina; that the intense loyalty of its people during that wTar was in marked contrast to the indifference and disloyalty which existed elsewhere; that in 1790 the new State — the last to enter the Union — was third in population, only surpassed by Virginia and Pennsylvania, and that from 1795 to 1827 North Carolina produced all the gold mined in the United States. When to this auspicious begin¬ ning are added the matchless natural resources of the State; an area of not less than 60,000 square miles; its seaboard a mine of prospective wealth from its timber, its fisheries, and the facilities for agricultural development; its central region — itself practically a large State— adapted to every variety of farming and watered by great rivers, inviting to manufactures; its western “land of the sky,” a mighty mountain realm, with the possibilities of half a dozen States like New Hampshire and Ver¬ mont, the great expectations of its people for an illustrious future can be well appreciated. But perhaps in no respect was the old north colony so favored as in the peculiar character of its population. The German, Swedish, and Huguenot colonists mingled with a vigorous sprinkling from New England and the central settlements that first came in possession of the seacoast; the good English stock of the interior; and the powerful Scotch-Irish immigration that, in its movement from Pennsylvania to Georgia, largely occupied the beautiful Piedmont section, had one element in com¬ mon. Like the 40,000 original settlers of Newr England, they all sought the New World as a refuge from religious persecution at, home. They well knew by bitter experience in their native land the meaning of civil and religious despotism, and however differing in other ways from their Puritan neighbors, cherished deep in their hearts the spirit of revolt against the tyranny of priests and kings. COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-18G0. 449* The spreading of populations over a country so vast, and the prodigious difficulty of overcoming the natural obstacles to civilization of their new home for two centu¬ ries after the first occupation by Raleigh, kept this body of emigrants a retired and' lonely people, isolated from each other and from the other colonies; perhaps even in some ways more out of touch with their nearest neighbors, Virginia and South Caro¬ lina, than with several of the old thirteen. The narrow policy of the colonial govern¬ ment and the home rule which resisted all attempts at education outside the pale of the established church of England practically denied the right of any public school¬ ing to the masses until the close of the war of independence. The deeply interesting story of the early movement in central and northwestern*. North Carolina at the close of the war of the Revolution to build up the higher and academical education has been told in the circulars of information of the United States Bureau of Education. The first constitution of the State contained an educa¬ tional clause so broad and elastic that the whole American common-school system* could maneuver its forces within its ample space. The State university was one of the- earliest founded under the inspiration of the new national life. The family, private,,, and denominational elementary and academical schools, founded especially by the- Presbyterian clergy, were the best of their sort in the South, and by their very excellence doubtless postponed the decisive movement for the people’s common?, school to a later period. David Caldwell, the foremost leader of this Presbyterian type of education of the day, greatly influenced the early development of schooling in the State. His own home academy in Guilford County was a proper nursery of. able men. It graduated five governors, fifty clergymen, and numbers of leading characters. Among these was ‘Judge Archibald D. Murphy, the author of the first serious attempt in the North Carolina legislature in 1817 for a complete system of: State education. Pie was at once member of the legislature, judge of the courts, doctor of medicine, man of all good work in the first great movement for the mental and moral uplift of the new Commonwealth, and the real father of the State univer¬ sity, of which he declined the presidency. But he labored in vain to awaken a prevailing interest in popular education, and. in his old age in a published letter written 1831-32 says: “ It is apparent that popular education can not be efficient when left to the insignificance into which it sinks with, , no other security for its prosecution than the accidental and voluntary action which, is now left. The plan of popular schools, hitherto the only one we know, is so-- haggard and meager and deformed in its features and so rickety in its constitution that it prevents many from the use of it who have no doubt that education is of the utmost importance to the young, to families, and to the people of a free State.”' These words of warning were written five years after the beginning of the movement . to establish a State school system, in 1825, and fifteen years after the report made by Judge Murphy, as chairman of the committee on education, in the general assembly of the State. Plis report outlined a system of public education complete from the- base to the summit of society; controlled by an effective board of education, repre¬ senting all portions of the State, invested with ample “power to act.” But already the forward movement of the committees in these reports had been arrested by the remarkable emigration (“exodus,” as named by Supt. C. H. Wiley) across the overhanging mountain region of the higher Appalachian summits in west¬ ern North Carolina and east Tennessee toward “the West,” as the present State of Tennessee wTas known to that generation in North Carolina. Why the ambitious and enterprising young men of a State so endowed by nature as North Carolina should have been smitten with this strange epidemic of discouragement regarding their own Commonwealth as rather a roosting than a fit abiding place; at best a sort of “tar-heelia;” as Stephen A. Douglas used to say of his native State, Vermont, “a good State to immigrate from,” is accounted for by the native historians in various ways, among which the sparse population, lack of central towms, great difficulties ■ ed 1900 - 29 450 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. of travel, and consequent ignorance and poverty of the people, largely figure. Eighty years ago 400,000 population were scattered through a region as extended as England. These characteristics of the situation made a condition that hung like a black cloud of desolation over the more progressive youth of the State. Meanwhile the strong religious sentiment of the more intelligent classes of the middle and western counties favored the establishment of classical academies, to which even the small tuition fee was a fatal barrier to the majority of youth. The plantation class of the central region, as in Virginia, did not favor the people’s common school. The consequence was the overwhelming “break” of the young men who should have developed a new civilization on the lines of its proper, democratic life, for the new State of Tennessee. The very early settlement of this splendid domain beyond the mountains and its development into a rival Commonwealth, and the strange insensi¬ bility of the home government to the giving away of the magnificent landed estate which, from its own income, might have built up the largest common-school fund of the Union of that day, acted as a virtual paralysis to the legitimate growth of the Commonwealth in its original direction and, with other reasons, postponed for half a century the first effective movement for common schools for the masses of its people. But, even despite this drain of two generations of youth, who should have held North Carolina in the front rank of the great Republic, the longing for general edu¬ cation was in the blood and bones of the State. In 1825 a State fund for education was established and a “literary board” put in charge of it. By 1840 the annual income of this fund was $100,000. In 1840 the rising public opinion invaded the statehouse and resulted in the establishment of a system of common schools for white youth, which through various reverses and hindrances, with the exception of the few terrible years of the civil war, has held its ground. One of the most efficient friends of this movement was Hon. Willie C. Mangum, afterwards United States Senator, at this time a member of the State senate. The great obligations for the immediate success of this laudable enterprise are due to Dr. Calvin Henderson Wiley, who was then appointed to the first State superintendency of education in North Carolina, which office he held to the close of the civil war in 1865. In his interesting sketch of the history of education in his State he makes a strong point of the fact that the New England States at that time, 1840, alive with the enthusiasm of the great revival that lifted their entire educational system above a temporary arrest, owed their present success to their previous centuries of educa¬ tional experimenting. But North Carolina in no previous experience of popular education attempted to place on the ground the same complete system. The people of Massachusetts and Connecticut were, from the first, homogeneous in their origin, ideas, and opinions, while the 600,000 people of North Carolina, from their diversi¬ fied origin and previous isolated life, were almost incapable of a vigorous united policy on any save'the most elementary interests. “ The common school,” he says, “ was an entire novelty to our people — a people tenacious of old habits and greatly suspicious of innovations.” The great expectation that it would at once strike its roots into the soil and spring up a majestic forest was, of course, disappointed. “The system of common schools, to be successful in the highest sense, implied a moral revolution; it imposed new duties on the entire mass of our population; it was based on new ideas that had to become thoroughly rooted in every mind, and it opposed and sought to remove old prejudices and old habits.” Again, though in one sense “educated,” the masses of the people in this, as in the majority of the original States, was still an “unlettered people,” and in no State was the illiteracy, for sev¬ eral causes, at this time so all-pervading as in North Carolina. “One-sixth part of our people in 1840 could not read, and of those classed among the readers how many could write a plain note off hand or read so as to be understood ? This ignorance of the State was the misfortune, not the fault or disgrace, of the people, but it was igno¬ rance, nevertheless, and, in its nature, presented a strong resisting medium to the COMMON' SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 451 whole machinery of common.schools, to their principles of action, to their working and their end.” The more favored classes were infected with the Virginia, still largely the British, idea of education— that the common school was, at best, a chari¬ table arrangement for “the children of the poor,” and had no reliable interest in its expansion or even its success on its own narrow field. It was also supposed, accord¬ ing to Dr. Wiley, to be not only a public but a self-acting labor-saving machine to remove the cost and trouble of educating the children from their parents and their local community. And the chronic misery of the common school all the way up, even more keenly felt to-day, in the hour of its triumph, by its wisest friends than ever before in the day of small things, in North Carolina almost a deadly defect, the inefficiency of the average teacher was, perhaps, the most discouraging feature of the case. The schools rapidly increased and quite outgrew, both in numbers and efficiency, the old-fiekl school-teachers, who, as far as possible, were drafted into the service. In 1852 there were 3,000 schools in the State, and according to the superintend¬ ent there were not 1,000 teachers fit to do well even the elementary work of instruction in the “three R’s.” And all these defects were intensified and. magni¬ fied by the radical mistake of 1840, leaving the new system practically with no directing head. Judge Murphy had long ago seen this imperative necessity of any effective scheme of popular instruction and had placed his projected system under the control of an efficient and fairly representative board of education, at one remove from popular election. But this was too great an innovation on the boundless inde¬ pendence of the average Southern society and the almost insane dread of concentra¬ tion of powder which was the real cause of all the previous failures in this section to establish a working system of public schools. The literary board, a body intrusted with the growing school fund of the State, wTas only an apology for a proper board of directors during the first twelve years of the schools, from 1840 to 1852. The school fund established in 1825 was placed under the direction of this “board of literature,” consisting of the president and directors of the literary fund of North Carolina. There were then no public schools, and the board was simply a body of private trustees, with no power of supervision of the system of 1840, of which it was the nominal head. Tne board was itself conscious of its own impotence and besought the legislature for twelve years to place the system under efficient management. The result was that until 1852 the legislature of the State had practically no knowl¬ edge of wdiat was actually going on in the educational affairs of the Commonwealth. The income of the State fund, $100,000, was distributed, and that was the end. Every little district was “running on its own hook,” without knowledge of what was done elsewhere and with no sense of responsibility to any higher power. It was not a system in any accepted sense of that word, but a large number of schools, distributed over an area of almost national extent, each doing or not doing its own work. The only wonder wTas that the experiment survived at all and that it did not go down in a spasm of popular disappointment and disgust. That it did out¬ live this period of crude shiftlessness and in itself take account of its deficiencies in the legislation ol 1850 is a powerful testimonial to the general demand for education among the better classes of the people and the energy and wisdom of the legislation of 1850, that gave to the disorganized system an efficient head. The right man in the right place was found in Calvin Henderson Wiley, a young lawyer and member of the State legislature who, with a group of progressive associ¬ ates, aided by the powerful influence of Senator Mangurn, succeeded in placing on the statute book a second school law, the most important feature of which was the pro¬ vision for a State superintendency of public instruction. This gentleman was made the first superintendent of public schools in North Carolina, and, even more the father of the present school system of the State than Horace Mann or Henry Barnard, was, like both these great leaders of the educational revival of the period, a young 452 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900. lawyer and a rising politician. Calvin Henderson Wiley was born February 3, 1819, in Guilford County, N. C. At the age of 21 he was graduated from the State univer¬ sity, studied law, and was admitted to the bar soon after graduating. In 1850, at the age of 31, he was elected to the State legislature and again in 1852. Here by the same good Providence that arrested Mann and Barnard in their early legislative career, he was selected as most fit to occupy the responsible position of State superintendent of public instruction. For six terms of two years each he was chosen, by almost unani¬ mous consent, to this office, which he only left at the suspension of the common-school system during the closing year of the civil war and by the destruction of the school fund. His last public appearance was, as one of two members of a board in 1867, as the author of an able pamphlet setting forth the attractions of North Carolina and especially of the coast region to settlers, still in the interest of the schools, as in the development of this vast area of unreclaimed wilderness was then the only hope of a rehabilitation of the State school fund and a reconstruction of the system of free public education. The advent of the reconstruction government of the State having removed Hr. Wiley from active participation in public affairs, he entered the ministry of the Presbyterian Church in 1865. In 1869 he was appointed as general agent for the American Bible Society, first in middle and eastern Tennessee; afterwards, in 1874- 1876, for North and South Carolina. Besides his labors in the cause of public edu¬ cation, he was active in various departments. He compiled a series of school readers and published several works of fiction and an answer to Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin. He was a constant contributor to religious periodicals and an editor of secular and educational journals. He died at the age of 68 at Winston, N. C. For the twelve years from 1852 until 1864 Superintendent Wiley was not only the able and industrious official superintendent, but the foremost representative of the idea of popular education in its broadest American aspect in the State of North Carolina. So persistent and laborious were his services, and so broad his conception of the education needed for his State and his time, that no adequate sketch of the history of the common schools of North Carolina during these years could be made apart from a description of his plans and a statement of his personal efforts, relieved against the conditions of that Commonwealth in respect to the entire methods of the training of the masses of its white population for American citizenship. In the United States census of 1840, the first that seriously attempted to report the educational status of the country, North Carolina appears with a record of 2 col¬ leges and universities, 140 academies and grammar schools, 632 primary and common (country) schools — 776 in all. There were in attendance in the colleges 158; in the academies, 4,388, and in all elementary schools, 14,937 students; total, 19,488. The number of illiterate white persons was reported as 56,609. From 632 primary and common schools in 1840, the superintendent reports 2,600 common schools in 1854, with 95,000 pupils, against 14,900, a gain in fourteen years of over 500 per cent, and in the colleges 250 students, an addition of 60 per cent. In 1852 there were reported 13 seminaries, schools that assumed the title “col¬ lege,” with 600 boys and 1,000 girls as students; 300 academies, with 7,000 pupils, and 100,591 children in 2,100 primary and common schools. In 1850 the whole number of white people in North Carolina wTas 553,028, a small increase during ten years; free negroes, 27,463; slaves, 288,548; total population, 869,039. The num¬ ber of white illiterates had either largely increased, or probably was not cor¬ rectly reported in 1840 — 71,150. The show of pauperism was in pleasant contrast, and equally favorable for the deaf, dumb, blind, and insane. But we are constantly reminded by the expert statisticians of to-day that the figures of the United States census half a century ago were unreliable and that we must take these, with all local estimates of such matters, as direction posts toward an unexplored realm rather than COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 453 a veritable record of facts. But there is, evidently, a great deal more than exaggera¬ tion in the cheering report given by Superintendent Wiley of the gain in educational opportunity for the masses during the nine years in which the common-school system had been in actual operation. At the time of Dr. Wiley’s first report, 1854, the number of children in common schools was estimated at 95,000, as stated above. He mentions that the unex¬ ampled increase in the numbers of the common schools has not been at the expense of the secondary instruction. He says: “For every two good subscription schools broken down by the common schools we have at least three equally good common schools and an academy somewhere else; or three good schools for one, because there are four other schools not so good for every one thus interfered with.” The average term of the common schools in 1852 was “about four months,” and the wThole number of white children between 5 and 21, 195,000. “There are 150,000 children attending school at some time during the year in the State and 165,000 who ought to be at school.” The superintendent ventures the prediction that “the average ignorance among the generation now coming on will be at least 50 per cent less than among that now in active life. ” Although the common schools for the nine years since 1842 had walked in silence and darkness and without a voice to encourage or a report or sta¬ tistics to furnish light, they had made an advance which destroyed the ignorance of the State one-half in ten years. But still “fully one-sixth of the free, grown-up jjeople of North Carolina can not read the Word of God, and 200,000 children, for good or evil, a,re growing up in the State.” But 'when we turn from this * remarkable sketch of progress to the vivid descrip¬ tion of the local management of the common schools of the State during the entire twelve years of the superintendent’s administration, we find ourselves wandering through a maze of uncertainty concerning the actual condition of educational affairs. From the beginning he pronounces it almost an impossibility to obtain reliable information of the condition of the 3,000 schools, almost entirely in the rural dis¬ tricts, which he believes to be in operation. There is no attempt here, as there was then little in other States, to find out the average daily attendance on the schools; indeed, it is distinctly stated that the superintendent’s estimate included all who at any time had been in attendance. A full account of the pecuniary support of these schools, as drawn from the literary fund distributed according to the reports of school attendance by the local commissioners of the schools, has been a temptation to gross exaggeration in the counts to all States for generations accustomed to the working of the common-school system. On the other hand, the increasing complaint from all quarters of the incompetency of teachers and the increasing difficulties of their sup¬ port, and the labors and trials of the commissioners to resist the rush of ignorant and useless people upon this new source of income, create a reasonable doubt of the quality of instruction offered to those who regularly attended. The fearful strength of the obstacles to the success of any proper system of common schools through the alarming illiteracy of great masses of the people and other equally potent causes leaves one suspicious concerning the amazing results claimed by the superintendent, such as have never been witnessed in any other State in the Union. In short, the eloquent and elaborate reports of Superintendent Wiley, crowded with practical and broad suggestions and admirable plans for meeting the peculiar difficulties of the situation, like those of Dr. Henry Barnard in Connecticut, can hardly be taken as a thoroughly reliable record of what was actually being done in this vast region of the North Carolina of forty-five years ago. A full half of this immense area would be regarded to-day as a wilderness; and large numbers of the people were quite out of touch with the whole system, as is reported on every page of this body of school literature. During the first year of his superintendency Dr. Wiley made a heroic effort to visit the entire State, and did actually travel, 454 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. largely by private conveyance, through many counties, some of them in the remoter and sparsely populated regions. But he soon concluded that this was a waste of energy. Outside of ten counties he found no reliable means of public conveyance. He had to go by private carriage or on horseback, and two-thirds of his time was spent on the way. The illiterate class was not attracted by his lectures. The time given to any single district was all too short to admit of any very effective work. Thereafter he seems to have wisely remained more at home and concentrated his energies on the endeavor to reach the active school public of all localities by the pen, printed circulars, and consultation with people situated at centers of influence. Hence we shall be on the safe side if we read the statement with some reservation that a larger majority — nine-tenths of the children of North Carolina, from 1852 to 1865 — were in attendance on common schools than in any other State of the Union, or than even to-day in some of the most active educational Commonwealths. From 1852 to 1865 there was nowhere a proper system of gathering school statistics; even the reports of New York, Pennsylvania, and the new Western States were in many ways misleading; and all educational statistics of a State in the condition represented by Ur. Wiley are to be taken with an abundant discount. But this is evident, that during the twenty-five years from 1840 to 1865 there cer¬ tainly was in North Carolina such an uprising of the masses of the people in behalf of general education and, in comparison with some other portions of the South, such a generous outpouring of funds for its support, with a persistence in its movement, as plainly sets the Old North State at the head in popular education of all the Com¬ monwealths now under consideration; and there can be no reasonable doubt that had it not been for the interruption of the civil war, whose closing scenes were enacted within its boundaries and whose aftermath for more than one troubled decade was as disorganizing as in any of the Confederate Commonwealths, the system would have sceadilv grown, gradually clearing itself of its own infirmities, and lifted up the State to an educational level so far above its previous condition that North Carolina would not be, as at present, still one of the lowest in the scale of white illiteracy in the Union. The several more serious obstacles to the success of the movement are noted in the statement of the first superintendent, which itself bears eloquent testimony to the courage and persistency of the masses of the people of North Carolina at a day so early in the history of the common-school movement in that section. It certainly justifies all he tells us of the deep and unquenchable desire for progress by the classes that labored under the greatest deprivation in social, civic, and educational affairs. We must therefore, in our general statement of the progress of popular education in North Carolina from 1852 to 1865, leave the details of local operation to be wrought out by those most interested in the record of the times and give our attention largely to the work of the faithful State superintendent of common schools. The first report of Ur. Wiley, made in January, 1854, reveals his own plan of the educational campaign which he fought out through the twelve memorable years before the outbreak of and practically during the civil war. In reading these pro¬ foundly interesting documents we are impressed with the central purpose of the writer. To his view the common school of the type that had been evolved up to that date was the only efficient agency by which the people of North Carolina would be awakened to the fit appreciation of the magnificent resources and grand oppor¬ tunities of their native State, and through the training of their 200,000 children and youth move upward and onward along the highway of intelligence, virtue, and a lofty patriotism to the rightful position in the Republic indicated by the origin and his¬ tory of the Commonwealth. It is the education of the whole white population, through the common schooling of all classes of the dominant race, that is always apparent in his view. He plainly sets before the legislature and people the discouraging facts COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 455 of the present ignorance, isolation, and the lack of knowledge of the geography, resources, and history of their own State, and consequent absence of public spirit that have steadily reduced the third Commonwealth of the revolutionary period to one of the least prosperous, enterprising, and progressive of all. He would arrest the rush¬ ing torrent of emigration that was draining the State of so much of its best young blood by a full publication of the resources of a Commonwealth so favored by nature and opportunity that this valuable population could be kept at home. We find in these pages, and all his subsequent writings concerning these and similar defects in society in the State, no trace of the boastful “booming” of local affairs that is the chronic weakness of the provincial American mind. He thrusts the unwelcome story of the imperious needs of the State in the face of the fathers in the statehouse and points to the one infallible remedy. Hitherto the natural desire of the masses of the white people of the State for the education of their children had been diverted too much from its proper channel by the endeavor of the more favored and cultivated class to monopolize this precious privilege and draw a hard and fast line between the instructed few and the unlet¬ tered “ plain people.” But the superintendent sees in this tendency an exaggeration of the difficulties that affect the State — the widening of the chasm between the superior class and the “common people,” on whom the State must depend for its future advancement. The narrow notion of a poor school for poor children, which even at this period was in favor in all the school States west of New York, seems never to have been tolerated in his mind, and he never mentions it except to cover it with ridicule and scorn. His ideal school was the common school of Massachu¬ setts, Connecticut, New York, and the progressive States of the new West, adapted to the needs of a people practically unacquainted with and prejudiced against it as a characteristic feature of Northern society foisted upon the South. It was to be sup¬ ported by, for that time, a generous common-school fund of $2,000,000, with an annual income of more than $100,000, increased by the taxation of counties sometimes to the extent of the sum received from the State. He was well acquainted with the condition of educational affairs at home and abroad, but was not impelled by any superficial pride of rivalship by his new constituency to force upon public attention methods and practices not adapted to the end proposed. First came the inveterate trouble that exasperated the patience of Horace Mann and Henry Barnard in their own States — that of obtaining any reliable returns from the schools then in existence. While a majority of the 80 counties of the State did send a pretense of a return, through the school commissioners of the 3,000 different districts, their communications were of such a quality that it was a sheer impossibility to learn from them that which was the one thing needful to be known — what was actually going on in the common schools of their localities. Through every report, during all the years of his laborious service, the afflicted superintendent was seeking, always in a kind and appreciative spirit, to impress on the commissioners the necessity of a more intelligent and consecrated zeal and a faithful performance of their important duties. He favored the passage of the law which transferred the responsibility of their appointment from the courts to the people, perhaps not always to the advantage of the schools. His first experiment of trying to visit the entire area of such a State as the North Carolina of 1850 with but 800 ‘miles of railroad and only 10 of the 80 counties supplied with any fit provision for public conveyance was a discouragement. He succeeded better with his repeated attempts at issuing circulars. Every year saw elaborate communications directed to this class of public officials, both commissioners and examiners, printed in all the newspapers of the State and placed in the hands of every school trustee. No less vigorous was his campaign of “heading off” the veritable rabble of mental and moral incompetents who tramped over the field of the new occupation of school¬ keeping thrown open by the rapid multiplication of the schools. The average wages 456 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. of teachers were only inferior to those paid by the State of Massachusetts, and greater than in the majority of the Northern States. Indeed, as the superintendent was constantly saying, the lack of money was not the greatest obstacle to the success of the schools. We do not learn to what extent this payment of wages included the board of the teachers. He saw that the State was in no fit condition for the estab¬ lishment of the State normal school or the teachers’ institute, already doing their work elsewhere. The teachers were too isolated and generally too short of money to be gathered in considerable groups for any extended course of instruction. But with great practical wisdom he struck at the root of the evil by proposing a strict system of examination of teachers, with graded certificates of proficiency, given for short terms, taking care all the time that the examiners themselves should be “toned up” to a higher appreciation of their duties. He orders that the record of these examinations shall be posted on the doors of the county court-houses, that the people may know “who is who.” He sends out a pithy handbill, addressed to both com¬ missioners and teachers, setting forth the responsible duties of each, and orders that it be posted in every schoolhouse, that the pupils reading it may have an ideal before them by which to test their teachers as well as remind them of their own duties. He urges the establishment of model schools at many educational centers, to which the superior scholars of a wide district may be sent with a view to their training for the work of instruction, and purposes that these schools shall receive an additional subsidy. He calls attention to the fact that large numbers, especially of young women, living in poverty or even working in the fields for a pittance, may be lifted up by the common school and prepared by a system of county, model, and normal schools for the position of teacher. He suggests an admirable arrangement — the teachers’ library association — by which the school-teachers of a district may unite in a club, with a suitable library, and frequent meetings for mutual improvement, lectures, etc. He advocated a State journal of education, and at a later day a State teachers’ association, both of which were finally subsidized by public funds. He finally came to the conclusion that a system of popular normal schools, estab' lished in different portions of the State, could be profitably organized except in one or two localities. But it was then too near the opening of the great war for the project to attract attention. He also urged upon the university, the colleges, and the leading academies of the State the establishment of a department of pedagogics. In order to promote the union of teachers, school officials, and the educational pub¬ lic in general, he urged upon the counties the building of a “school hall” in every county town, a respectable building, dedicated to education, ever standing as a rep¬ resentative of the people’s great interest and consecrated to constant service for the cause. Even more zealous and untiring was his effort to use the schools for the general improvement and development of an active public spirit through the agency of the schoolbooks. He compiled an excellent North Carolina reader for advanced classes of scholars, directed to this especial purpose. It contained an industrial and histor¬ ical account of the State, its resources and opportunities, a selection of quotations from the works of its eminent personages, several pages of well-selected and original poetry, and useful tables of various sorts. The subseqent numbers of this series prepared by other hands seem to us far inferior to this, one of the best schoolbooks of the clay.. He prepared a school catechism for oral instruction, containing a full account of the: common school for beginners. He caused the republication of one of Mitchell’s series of geographies, with an appendix containing a good map of North Carolina and presenting the cardinal features of the area of the State, one of the first of this sort of publications. While urging the importance of this series of publications, the superintendent seems never to have been drawn into the habit of the wholesale abuse of Northern school books and teachers which, during this decade, became a prominent feature of the increasing spirit of sectional animosity. He saw clearly the fact that the com- COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 457 mon school could only succeed in the State by the development of a competent body of native teachers and must be used as an agency for enabling great numbers of v/orthy young people to rise in the world. He appeals to an honorable State pride, not to fill the people with an inflated sense of their own superiority, but to awaken a noble ambition to emulate the foremost communities abroad and at home in all that makes a State truly memorable. As the work went on, the superintendent urges the establishment of the graded school in all important villages and towns; of which there were perhaps fewer in North Carolina in 1850 than in the majority even of the Southern States. His eyes were open to the great material resources of North Carolina, and he labored to make them known to the masses of the people, by the publication of all available informa¬ tion, especially concerning the facilities for a large development of manufacturing industry. And he realized that the growth of villages and cities is an indispensable condition of progress in modern civilization. The undeveloped swamp lands of the State — 1,500,000 acres in extent, a mine of undeveloped wealth, chiefly on the seacoast — were then in litigation between the State University and the literary board. The superintendent deprecated the effort of the university to divert this valuable property from the State common school fund and read an eloquent lecture to the influential and educated class to come down from their offensive assumption of superiority and unite to lift up the masses for the common good. These lands finally passed into the possession of the common school fund, and in 1867, when the fund itself had been wrecked in the war, Super¬ intendent Wiley published a pamphlet as a member of the literary board, setting forth the advantages of this ‘portion of the State and urging white immigration thereto. On the outbreak of the war in 1860-61, although in full sympathy with the party of secession, Hr. Wiley, through his reports, breathes a spirit of conservative wisdom and deep concern for the people. He realized the fact that the mass of the people who most needed the common school were slow to enter on the great conflict which so wasted their substance that even to-day the State has not recovered from the awful drain. He also appreciated the fact that whatever might be the issue of the contest the State would feel the increasing need of education. If North Carolina was to be brought back to her old allegiance to the Union, then all the more would she need the uttermost enlightenment of her entire population to retain her rightful position in the reunited Republic, and if the confederacy was to become an accomplished fact, then especially would the people of North Carolina need all the training of an educated State to meet the demands of her position in a new nationality. So he urges, with great earnestness and discretion, the continued effort to sustain the schools in spite of the war. Thus, through twelve long and laborious years, did this faithful servant of the children and youth survey his native State, like a thorough engineer of education “prospecting” the wilderness in view of the years that are now upon us. Whatever may be said of the educators of the South before the war period, it is certain that no one of them had been able, under circumstances in any way so discouraging, to accom¬ plish so much as Hr. Wiley in North Carolina; and probably in no one of the State, s- that gave in its adherence to the Confederacy, were so large a number of children in school attendance up to the closing year of the conflict, as in the old North State. Hespite his constitutional optimism, Hr. Wiley was deeply sensible of the actual results accomplished by the campaign of twenty-five years, from the passage of the, improved school law of 1840. But he puts the case after a fashion that will not only be accepted by every practical educator as a reasonable explanation of affairs in North Carolina, but may be accepted as an answer to that “indictment of a whole people” nowadays so often drawn up by educational “reformers” against the American system of general universal education. In 1861 he writes to the boards of examiners: “The common school system of 458 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. North Carolina has now arrived at this critical point in its career. It has furnished us with light sufficient to enable us to comprehend our imperfections and to fill us with the desire for better things.” This circular is crowded with practical sugges¬ tions for the improvement of the teaching force, especially through the larger employment of women. In the general report of these years, 1860-61, he declares that “the State of North Carolina, by distribution from the literary fund and local taxation, distributes the sum of $278,000 for the schooling of 150,000 children four months in the year, with an average of $26 per month for teachers’ wages. The people of the State have also invested outside the common schools $2,500,000 in colleges and academies, a small proportion of it in buildings. The academical and higher seminaries bring to the State an annual income from students from abroad of $750,000, an amount ecpial to the expenditure for the common school system, and 20 per cent beside, on the whole higher school instruction.” In 1863 the superintendent, even out of the wreck of the war, frames an argument for the establishment of graded and high schools. He says: “ In addition to the annual distribution of the literary fund for common school purposes, an additional amount shall be appropriated to such communities as shall raise a like or greater sum by taxes; the amount to be employed in support of graded or higher schools for the education of disabled soldiers and the indigent children of those who have entered the army, or teachers and other useful and honorable occupations. If the schools are hot tilled with this class they will be open to all others, and all will be entitled to send their children on the payment of tuition.” This plan was indorsed by the State Teachers’ Association; but the collapse of the State fund in the closing year of the war, 1865, suspended the public school system and relieved the superin¬ tendent from further labors in its behalf. In 1854, only two years after his entrance on his great work of thirteen years, he writes: I admit that a considerable number of those who now attend school go but a few days in the year, and learn but little; but it must be borne in mind, as a very impor¬ tant consideration, that many of these are the children of those who never went a day to school themselves. Into a mind wholly ignorant, it is hard for the light to penetrate; and the man who does not know the alphabet is not sufficiently enlight¬ ened to feel his ignorance, or to appreciate a higher state of improvement. He is not open to the leadership of knowledge at all, and can, therefore, see no one above him. But as soon as he makes a start he can begin to understand his relative posi¬ tion. Hence the children of ignorant parents, who get a little smattering of knowl¬ edge at our common schools, will feel their wants when they take their position in life, and their children, if the same facilities remain, will be much better educated. The majority of the children of that large part of the population who can not read at all are learning a little at our common schools. We may boldly assert that in the second generation the dark cloud that covers the sixth of our moral surface will nearly or wholly disappear, leaving only a dim outline to indicate its former exist¬ ence. There are 3,000 schoolhouses accessible to more than ninety-nine one-hun¬ dredths of all our population, reaching to the shores of every lake and river, to the heart of every swamp, and to the top of every mountain. The temple is erected and its lights are burning, feeble and dim, I admit, in many places; but the lights of an inextinguishable fire are burning in every dark valley, in every deep cave, in every marsh and bog and fen. Lo, these 3,000 lamps! To one situated, as many of our people are, within view of only one of these tapers, shedding, perhaps, a dim and flickering light, the prospect may not appear very bright or encouraging; but to behold them, as it has been my business and pleasure to behold these 3,000 lights, suspended in one grand chandelier, and from the ocean to the Smoky Mountains penetrating every square foot of 50,000 square miles of a land of shadows, with the cheering beams of knowledge, is well calculated to fill the coldest heart with emotions of enthusiasm and to arrest the hands of the most daring invader of this constellation of hope. That this great work was a success, even despite all obstacles, in directing the minds of the masses more and more into the channel of a well-organized, improving, and creditable system of general education is beyond question. During this same I 459 COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. period not only the university but several of the denominational colleges of the State — Davidson, Wake Forest, and Trinity — with several female seminaries of note and numbers of academical schools came up and flourished. Before the outbreak of the civil war the amount of money paid to the State by students from abroad exceeded the $300,000 expended for the common schools and the interest on the original finan¬ cial plant, and the State of North Carolina was becoming an important center of the secondary and higher education, especially for the entire region of the southwest. In 1859 the school population of North Carolina was estimated by Dr. Wiley as 200,850, of whom 105,000 (59,500 males and 45,500 females) were reported as attend¬ ing school. The sum distributed for common schools was $255,641, with $51,108 remaining on hand. The whole amount of school taxation for the State was $100,450. The average length of the school term was three and two-thirds months. There were 3,488 school districts, and nearly that number of licensed teachers. The superin¬ tendent writes : The common school system and much of our other educational interest is not over twenty-one years old. Six hundred miles of railroad, several hundred miles of plank road, and a very important ship canal, besides other improvements, have been initiated and completed within thirteen years, while much of the territory of the State is yet cov¬ ered with original and invaluable forests of pine, oak, and chestnut. A large portion of the best land in the State is yet to be put under cultivation, while that now under tillage is capable of vast improvement. Our water power does not yet drive the one- hundredth part of the machinery it can propel, and our inexhaustible mineral wealth has not yet been tapped. North Carolina is larger than New England, twice as large as Scotland, half as large as Great Britain, twice the size of Holland and Belgium combined, half as large as Prussia, and one-third the size of France. It is wdth these inspiring views of the resources and opportunities of this great State that the brave superintendent, at the outbreak of the civil war, urges on his people the absolute necessity of supporting the public schools of the State. The fact that amid the tremendous exertions, sacrifices, and sufferings of the people, over 50,000 pupils were kept in the public schools of North Carolina almost in hearing of the noise of war in the neighboring State of Virginia — reaching to its very borders — testi¬ fies to the deep root the system had already struck into the soil of the old Common¬ wealth. During this year Dr. Wiley established a publishing house at Greensboro, to supply his own and adjoining States with school books, and helped to organize, at Columbia, S. C., an educational association for the Confederacy, to which North Carolina teachers owe their Journal of Education. During the year 1862 nearly 90,000 children were reported in attendance, and $81,000 was disbursed. The present record, from the lack of space, can only include the salient facts of the organization of the common school idea in North Carolina, and the policy and wise and vigorous administration of its superintendent. But it will have accomplished its purpose if it shall invite some one of the many zealous and able young common school men of North Carolina to prepare a fit biography of Dr. Wiley. No volume more interesting and practically useful to the common school public of the Southern States to-day could be published than this, especially if followed by a republication of the educational writings of Dr. Wiley — at least, by a volume of eloquent and instructive extracts from these valuable contributions to the literature of public school education. This work has been admirably done by Dr. IV eeks, of the U. S. Bureau of Education.1 Many of the expedients struck out for the adaptation of the American system of common schools to the peculiar needs of his State during this period are still capable of extensive practical adoption in every one of the 16 Commonwealths once known as the South, for all concentrate on one central purpose — the awakening, informing, and directing the attention of the masses of the Southern people to the wonderful resources and opportunities of an imperial realm; setting forth its own peculiar advantages and the obligation to use the American Wee Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1896-97, Vol. 2, Chap. XXIX (pp. 1379-1474). 460 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899=1900. common school in all its departments as the motive power of a revival of public spirit, intelligence, and skilled industry, public, social, and political development, and national patriotism. The educational records of this State during the period from 1840 to 1860— even before the final effort to establish the common school over any extended district in the Southland — are one of the most valuable legacies of the old to the new order of affairs, and should be collected, thoroughly edited, and widely consulted for the encouragement and instruction of those who now have in hand the mighty experi¬ ment of educating the 6,000,000 children and youth now coming forward to face the splendid opportunities and confront the great difficulties that still make this portion of the United States the most interesting field of educational observation in our own or any land. SOUTH CAROLINA. From the year 1830 to I860, the period indicated in this essay as a great revival in the American common school, under the leadership of Horace Mann, Henry Bar¬ nard, and a brilliant group of educators and publicists identified with this reform, the three notable factors in the educational life of South Carolina bearing on the development of popular education were as follows: (1) The continued improvement of the State college of South Carolina, with a corresponding growth in the denominational colleges and academies. (2) The establishment of the graded common-school system in place of the old- time free school for the children of the poor in the city of Charleston. (3) The steady purpose of the educational public in demanding a radical reforma¬ tion in the inefficient provisions for the schooling of the masses of white children and youth, favored by the majority of the foremost public men of the State and aided by more than one of the most distinguished members of the State college faculty. A glance at these movements, all the result of the rising demand for general educa¬ tion of the American type, will be the best preparation for understanding the com¬ plete establishment of the common school system in all its departments for all classes and both races in South Carolina within the ten years after the close of the civil war, 1866-1876. The resignation of Dr. Thomas Cooper from the presidency of the South Carolina State College in 1834 left that institution greatly depleted in the attendance of stu¬ dents, with a growing disfavor among the religious public of the Commonwealth, owing to the “advanced opinions” of the retiring president on matters theological and educational. In 1835 the number of students was reduced to 20. This state of affairs was the opportunity for the establishment of several denominational colleges, among which were Erskine, in 1831; Furman, Baptist, in 1852; Wofford, Metho¬ dist, 1851; Newberry, Evangelical-Lutheran, 1858; while a number of influential academical seminaries, several for young women, assumed their present organized form before 1860. An interesting account of these, all of which have greatly con¬ tributed to the educational upbuilding of the old Commonwealth, will be found in the History of Higher Education in South Carolina, by Mr. Colver Meriwether, U. S. Bureau of Education, Circular of Information No. 3, 1888. At this crisis in the history of the South Carolina College the cause of sound edu¬ cation in South Carolina was greatly discredited in the majority of the schools of the higher and secondary education by the disorderly habits of the students. The views of the severe critics of the present conditions of our college life will be largely modified by a glance at the records of the doings of young America in pursuit of knowledge from the earliest colonial periods, even beyond the close of the first half century of the national life. In no State was this boyish conceit of the “glorious liberty” of student life, including a widespread intemperance and a spirit of chronic rebellion against the authority of a college faculty, more manifest than in the South COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 461 Carolina College at the period named. Prof. Robert Henry, who was president as temporary supply in the year 1834, following the retirement of President Cooper, until the accession of Mr. Robert Barnwell, seems to have been especially a victim of this type of civilized semibarbarism; even to-day disguised in ‘'good society” under the various learned and polite apologies for the change of a young gentleman to a defiant rebel against good manners, respectable morals, and the ordinary obedi¬ ence to law. Bishop Stephen Elliott was elected to a new chair, “Evidences of Christianity and sacred literature,” and a strong effort was made to regain the favor of the religious public of the State by a new departure in college prayers. One decided feature of the labors of President Cooper was the establishment of a thorough study of history and political economy in the South Carolina College in advance of any school of the higher education in the country. In 1836, Hon. Robert W. Barnwell was elected president of the South Carolina College as the successor of President Cooper. This gentleman had voluntarily retired from a successful career of public life in the State legislature and Congress. He was a good type of the old-time South Carolina gentleman of wealth, scholarly tastes, and general cultivation, of which the late Governor Aiken, of South Carolina, was a con¬ spicuous example. His high social reputation, personal dignity, and courtesy of man¬ ner were a mollifying influence upon the excitable student temperament that had become the terror of president and professor and the alternate amusement and indig¬ nation of the outward world. He .resigned the presidency in 1841, having restored the attendance upon the Col¬ lege to its usual number, in the neighborhood of 200. After a brief term of service by Prof. Robert Hay came the brilliant administration of Hon. William C. Preston, who, for six years, held up the institution to the highest degree of general prosperity during its entire history. The administration of Hon. William C. Preston from 1845 to 1851 was a notable event in the history of the South Carolina College. During these years the attendance of students rose to its highest figures, 237, the average attendance being 191. The whole number of graduates during the fifty-five years, from 1806 to 1861, was 1,740, an annual average of less than 32. President W. C. Preston was by all odds the most conspicuous personage yet placed at the head of the college. His brilliant career in the Senate of the United States, where he ranked among the foremost of the distin¬ guished orators who then dominated that body, first attracted national attention to this institution. Under his popular administration the college, in the language of its historian, became “ a school of politics.” President Cooper had already inducted his classes into the British theory of free trade and awakened an unusual interest in historical and political studies. No college in the United States has probably sent forth so large a proportion of its students to eminent political position as this, from an average attendance of less than 200 and a total graduation of 1,740 up to 1861. Out of a political list of 156, we find 80 lawyers, 32 members of the State house of representatives, and 17 of the State senate. The whole number of graduates, 1,740, furnished 22 governors of States, 4 outside of South Carolina; 8 lieutenant-governors; 14 United States Senators; 39 members of the United States House of Representatives, 28 from South Carolina; 33 judges and chancellors of South Carolina, 3 of them chief justices and 3 associate judges of the supreme court of the State; 15 presidents and 39 professors of colleges; 5 bishops of the Methodist and Episcopal churches, and 14 members of other important positions in the State government. Among its graduates are the names of two men eminent in science: Dr. Janies Marion Sims and W. PI. Bardwell. The brothers Leconte, Thomas Cooper, Francis Lieber, Dr. J. PI. Thorn- well, Charles S. Venable, President McBryde, with Prof. Edward S. Joynes, all distinguished in their time, have been conspicuous members of its faculty. The successor of President W. C. Preston was Dr. James II. Tliornwell. This 4(32 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-3900. gentleman, estimated by the foremost men of his own State as among the most eminent of South Carolinians, was born in poverty in 1812. By the aid of appre¬ ciative friends he was able to study in the Chowan Academy, enter the junior class of South Carolina College, and graduate with the highest honors in 1831 at the age of 19. At 25, after six years of service as tutor and clergyman in the Presbyterian Church, he returned to his alma mater and for twenty years was occupied as profes¬ sor and president. He retired to accept a professorship in the Presbyterian Theo¬ logical School at Columbia, S. C. He preached in Columbia, was editor of the Southern Theological Review, and a voluminous writer, especially for the denomina¬ tional theological publications of the day. He died in 1862 soon after the outbreak of the great revolt against the National Government of which he had been one of the most zealous advocates. Hr. Thorn well was an excellent specimen of a peculiar type of able Americans, apparently gifted with a special aptitude for large success in a public career, but directed by circumstances to education, the Christian ministry, and literature. It was only later in life that he seems to have found his natural place. It is possible that if he had followed exclusively either of the three avenues to distinction — educa¬ tion, the ministry, or statesmanship — he might have been, as John C. Calhoun was inclined to believe, his own successor in politics, the most conspicuous leader in the old school Presbyterian Church, or the greatest of Southern college presidents. That the outcome of his life was a disappointment ad home may be accounted for by the altered relations between the character of education and the college; while a constant and intense interest in popular affairs made him even more than either — a public character. His death at the age of 50, in 1862, may have prevented him from becoming a conspicuous figure during the stormy period of the civil war, and from representing South Carolina in her subsequent career in the reconstructed Union. But certainly the educator who looks to the common school as the most vital center of American civilization, at the most critical point of the national develop¬ ment, will not question the good Providence that evidently kept him in his own true place during the most fruitful period of his life, from the age of 25 to 45, as the most celebrated schoolmaster of his Commonwealth. We first meet him as associated with Professor Elliott in the interest of popular education in 1839, at the age of 27, in a report to the legislature on the condition of the free schools of the State, made in obedience to a request to the College of South Carolina for suggestions on educa¬ tional reform by Governor Patrick Noble. In this brief statement he adheres to what he regarded the original idea of the law of 1811; that the free-school system of the State is intended mainly for the use of the children of the poor; rejects the Prussian system for its concentration of power in the Government, and the common- school system as too expensive and unnecessary for the use of the well-to-do class in the South. But he plainly sees the two main barriers to the success of the South Carolina free school: The sparseness of population in the rural districts and the ipdif- ference and “false pride of the common people,” that prevents its hearty support. In his recommendation for reform he proposes a change that could not fail to recon¬ struct the existing system into something so near the Northern common school that it could not be easily distinguished therefrom. He urges the establishment of a State superintendency as the only security for the effective working of any scheme; the extension of a State contribution to popular education to $50,000 only, and its dis¬ tribution by the State and local commissioners on the basis of school population; a State normal school and the use of the Bible as a text-book in reading. Late in 1853, at the call of Governor Morey, Hr. Thomwell prepared the remark¬ able letter on the schools of South Carolina which placed him among the foremost Southern advocates of popular education. Apparently holding still to the idea of a common school for the poor, his “great argument” soars far above and beyond all local and pedagogic limits into one of the most convincing pleas for general educa- i COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 463 tion ever made to the people of his State. Especially does he join issue with the idea of the sectarian support and control of the secondary and higher education, which had come to the front as a protest against the “infidelity” of President Cooper during his administration in the South Carolina College. He clearly sees that the American common school in every department must cut loose from ecclesiastical control and be relieved from all allegiance to sectarian or church domination. Although profoundly impressed with the importance of religion and morality as the basis of all sound education, he declares that the churches, by their zealous and faithful charge of religious affairs, can be trusted to educate a public opinion that will restrain the common schools and State universities from any permanent lapse into irreligion or immorality. The high character of the faculty and their personal influ¬ ence can be relied on for the preservation of due reverence for the sanctities of life within the college confines. This view, now practically the policy of the majority of the leading colleges and universities of the country, was all the more remarkable in Dr. Thornwell, as com¬ bined with an almost fanatical championship of the extreme creed of the old-school Presbyterian Church of the State. Indeed, the public men of the State believe his devotion to the Christian ministry induced him at one time to resign his presi¬ dency of the college, and his subsequent absorption in theological and denomina¬ tional life was the cause of his failure to achieve political distinction. But Dr. Thornwell was always a statesman, in whatever position. His famous letter on education in South Carolina wTas republished by Mayor Courtenay, of the city of Charleston, in 1888, and widely copied by the Southern press. It was one of the most conspicuous documents called forth by the great revival of the common schools, even in its partial influence on the Southern States. It stands midway in this revival period like a great searchlight, illuminating the entire field of public instruction in every department at this interesting and critical period in the history of the State.1 Under the long administration of President Thornwell the South Carolina college maintained the position in numbers it had reached under the presidency of Hon. William C. Preston, while it was constantly advancing in the quality of its instruc¬ tion and the eminence of its faculty. During this period of the reorganization of the college, after the retirement of President Cooper, appears the most eminent scholar and author ever connected with the institution — Prof. Francis Lieber. This justly celebrated scholar and author was born in Berlin, Prussia, in the year 1800. At the age of 25, after a variable expe¬ rience at the universities of Jena and Halle, suspected of revolutionary liberal views, thrown into prison and expelled to France, and for a time fighting with the Greeks against the Turkish power, he wras enabled by the good offices of Niebuhr, the histo¬ rian, to leave his native country for England. After a year of hardship in London he can^e to the United States, where he spent the remaining years of a long life, crowded with the most valuable service in the cause of the higher education. For nine years he lived in the cities of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia engaged in miscellaneous writing, among other things editing an encyclopedia and plannng a course of education for Girard College. His friends were among the most eminent, especially of the American historians of the period. Through the influence of Judge Story, Nicholas Biddle, and Governors Hamilton and Hayne of South Car¬ olina he was invited to a professorship of history, political economy, and political philosophy in the South Carolina college in 1835. Although disinclined to a residence in the South, and never really at home in South Carolina, an opponent of slavery and out of touch with many of his social and political surroundings, he remained at the college as professor for twenty-one 1 Dr. Thornwell’s letter will be found reprinted at length in a preceding chapter of this Report (Chapter VI). 464 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. years. His extreme views on public affairs and ill-concealed discontent with his environment doubtless prevented him from reaching the office of president. He almost considered himself in a state of exile, though compelled to remain by the necessities of his family. Two of his sons served in the civil war and one lost his life in the Confederate service. In 1858 he returned to New York and as a professor in Columbia College remained there till his death, at the age of 72, in 1892. But his service of twenty years in South Carolina College was doubtless the most valuable educational discipline of his life, for here he was left free to put forth his own ideas of the study of history and sociology, arid his powerful instruction prob¬ ably raised this institution to the high reputation it obtained among the universities of the country. In this department he became the same inspiring leader in the higher education of the republic as Agassiz at a later period in science. His original method of instruction, vast and varied learning, and contagious enthusiasm for his favorite studies was an inspiration and a stimulant to the intelligent student. His writings, too well known to be enlarged upon here, have become standard authority, as largely suggestive and making an important transition period in the development of this department of the American college curriculum. Other professors at this time w7ere the brothers Le Conte, born in Georgia and graduates of the university of that State, since become eminent in California; Prof. C. S. Venable, afterward known as the distinguished professor of mathematics in the University of Virginia, and others. The brief administration of President McCay, which followed the retirement of Dr. Thornwell, seems to have been unusually distinguished by the reign of disorder among the students. He resigned in 1857 and was succeeded by Judge A. B. Long- street, of Georgia. This gentleman, known as the author of interesting sketches of Southern life, had been president of the college of Emory and Henry in Virginia, the Centenary College of Louisiana, and the State college of Mississippi previous to his elevation to the head of South Carolina College. He remained in office until the college was closed by the outbreak of the civil war. His 200 students were among the most enthusiastic in their aspirations for the new nationality of which South Carolina for many years had been the most zealous and persistent advocate. Almost the entire body of students and members of the faculty entered the military or civil service of the Confederacy. It was not till 1868 that the institution was reopened with 100 students, but under the auspices of the reconstruction government of the State the university, as it was now named, became involved in the “race question” by the admittance of colored students. It was not till 1880 that it was finally reor¬ ganized in connection with the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, supported from the income of the national grant of public lands by Congress in 1862. During the existence of this institution, under its title of College and University, $90,000 has been expended in the establishment of a library, now containing some 27,000 volumes, increased by the gift of the library of Hon. William C. Prpston. During all the tumults of the sectarian educational contests, to which no State has been more exposed than South Carolina, the South Carolina College has honestly retained its original unsectarian position as the highest representative of the common school idea, and all the efforts to enlarge and improve the system of public educa¬ tion in the State have been furthered by its policy and influence. In 1881 the terms of admittance to the South Carolina College were equal to those of Harvard and in advance of other colleges and universities in the country. Under the influence of Cooper and Lieber the departments of history, political economy, and civics were developed, as before stated. For a detailed account of the South Carolina College the reader is referred to Circular of Information, No. 3, 1888, of the United States Bureau of Education, to which the author of the present sketch acknowledges especial obligations. The free school law of 1811 was passed by the hearty cooperation of the members COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 465> of the legislature from Charleston and an attempt for its repeal in 1813 was success¬ fully antagonized under the leadership of William Crafts, jr. , one of the representa¬ tives from that city. In commemoration of the services of Mr. Crafts the city •government of Charleston named one of the public school buildings the Crafts? School. Under this law the city had organized a group of live free schools for white- pupils, with teachers paid $900 per annum. On this salary these masters were- expected to supply and furnish their own schoolrooms, and five houses were built or hired for that purpose. In 1812 there were 260; in 1818, 300; in 1823, 320; in 1829r 467, and in 1834, 525 pupils. The intent of the movement was only the elementary- schooling of the white children of “ indigent parents,” and for thirty years the city did not seriously face the obligation of attempting to educate the entire youthful population, even of the superior race. In 1842 Governor Patrick Noble stirred up the legislature to ask for a general report of the workings of the tree-school system, which was pronounced a failure by the- more zealous friends of popular education, and asked for reports from the commis¬ sioners of the leading communities. The result was a mass of returns, systems, and propositions, the substance of which appeared in a published pamphlet of 80 pages.. The school commissioners of the parishes which included the city of Charleston; report that at this time there were three teachers employed at a salary of $1,200 each,, the highest rate allowed by the law, with some 350 to 400 pupils in charge. Each master was compelled to pay for his own school $300 for an assistant, $150 to $200 for a school building, besides additional expenses, leaving his actual compensation from $700 to $750. In schools that required but one teacher the salary was $600,, burdened with the same liabilities. There appeared to be among the commissioners' little unanimity on the subject of school reform. All agreed in the suggestion for a. State superintendent, but did not favor the division of supervisory power between, the commissioners and local trustees. Two of them propose a sort of manual-labor system by which the poor parents of children shall be compelled by law, when they send their children to other schools, to place them in charge of the State, in families? in the country and at boarding houses in cities. They also urge the city to provide- schoolrooms. They suggest a uniform system of teaching, and especially more- attention to religious instruction. One of the commissioners, Rev. Dr. Gadsden,, drew up an elaborate system of religious instruction by the clergy of the several Christian denominations in school hours, in school buildings, with provision for regulating immoral and disorderly character in children, reminding one forcibly of the ancient regime of colonial days in portions of New England. Nobody seems to* have considered the possibility of attempting to school all the white children by the- State. In 1852 permission was obtained from the legislature to impose a tax upon the- people of Charleston for providing school houses and other matters relating to the- welfare of the schools; the amount in no year to exceed the sum of the annual State appropriation to the city for education. In 1853 the annual appropriation was? $5,400. In this way the general amount was doubled and, until 1856, continued at $10,500. Up to this date, by a moderate exercise of the taxing power, from $3,300' to $5,800 had been annually raised, with which oue schoolhouse was built and fur¬ nished and another school lot purchased. Under a legislative act of 1855, the whole sum contributed by the State to the free- schools amounted to $74,400, appropriated in the ratio of $600 to each representative- in the legislature. Under this law, Charleston and all the lower counties were- greatly favored, as members of the legislature were elected on a representation of property. Under the stimulant of the gradual improvement of the free-school system the- people of Charleston were finally persuaded to adopt a radical new departure. In, 1837 the city practically assumed control of the College of Charleston. The trustees ED 1900 - 30 466 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. were elected by the city council and the running expenses were guaranteed by the city. For many years this arrangement held, and the institution was virtually a public school. The college always obtained its students chiefly from the low country of South Carolina, and up to 1885 had sent forth 368 with its full diploma — 42 law¬ yers, 32 physicians, 23 clergymen, and many teachers, including such public characters as Paul H. Ilayne, the editor of the great Southern magazine; Plugh S. Legare, William Lowndes, and William Id. Trescott. In 1845 the Citadel Academy was established in the city by the State, and has been retained to the present day, with a provision from an early period of its history that indigent students educated there should teach two years in the public schools of the State after graduation. During the first twenty years of its existence this school had received some 1,800 and graduated 240 students. In 1848 the city was visited by Dr. Henry Barnard, of Connecticut, on invitation by Governor Allston, and its foremost people thoroughly aroused by his eloquent and practical representation of the American school system of the North, which had already been wholly or partially adopted by New Orleans, La., Nashville and Mem¬ phis, Tenn., Mobile, Ala., Savannah, Ga., and the large cities of the border Southern States, including Washington, D. C. In 1849 Prof. Louis Agassiz came to Charles¬ ton, and for two successive years lectured in his own inimitable style on subjects connected with natural history. Through his influence the little museum of the College of Charleston was expanded to its present condition as one of the most reliable scientific collections in the Southern States. Ail this was telling on the thoughtful people of the city, who were deeply discon¬ tented with the inefficiency of their own school arrangements. Among the friends of the American school system were the school commissioners of 1854, C. G. Memminger, A. G. Magrath, and W. Jefferson Bennett. They petitioned the legislature for the establishment of a proper common-school system, and the bill was reported favorably and passed by that body. The report of the commissioners, prepared by Hon. C. G. Memminger, the father of the present common-school sys¬ tem of Charleston, states that a new schoolhouse had been erected with accommoda¬ tions for 800 children, under the authority of the tree-school law of 1811, which offered the benefits of a public school to all children, with special reference to those of indigent parents. This special provision up to that date held everywhere in the State. Boys and girls from the age of 8 or 9 were provided for in this great build¬ ing in separate rooms under distinct supervision. The commissioners state that this was done with a view to the establishment of a system of common schools, although it was a more effective way of carrying out the provisions of the old system. Five of the original schools were transferred to this building and the old hardship of compelling the teachers to furnish their own schoolrooms was abolished. The com¬ missioners enumerate the special advantages of this arrangement under eight heads: (1) Better grading; (2) lowering of expenses, the schooling of the 800 at a cost of §12 per capita; (3) bringing together children of all classes; (4) accustoming the people to taxation for educating their children in the schools they support; (5) increased popular interest, which will raise the character of the teaching; (6) improvement of the spirit of the teachers and the pupils; (7) the employment of Americans as teachers; (8) the adoption of this system in Europe and in the Northern States of the Union. The heart of the new bill was the power given to the commissioners to impose a tax for “ a sum not exceeding 15 per cent upon the general school taxable property as an addition to the fund received from the State.” Under this law the commissioners proceeded to organize, for the first time, the proper American common-school system in this, perhaps, the most thoroughly repre¬ sentative city of the South in 1856. The inauguration ceremonies were largely COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830*1860. 467 attended on July 4, and the address of Dr. S. H. Dickson, the remarkable speech of Commissioner Memminger, and others, were published. But the new system was not allowed to go into operation without a vigorous protest. The friends of the old system asserted that all this was a violation of the original law of 1811, which, although on its face authorizing an extension of the system, really contemplated only the elementary schooling of the poor. Sectional prejudice was also invoked against the importing of teachers from the North. The commissioners had visited the cities of Boston, Hart¬ ford, and New York, and had become so thoroughly convinced of the superiority of their educational system that this reconstruction had taken place. A new school house had been built at a cost of $25,000, and a male teacher employed at $2,000, and two women at $900 each had been called from the North. Several of the old teach¬ ers had been dropped or placed in subordinate positions, at a salary of $200. But it has been proved that the people of any large American city or State have generally accepted improved arrangements for the education of their children and remained deaf to the doleful warnings of the enemies of the common school. The schools of Charleston prospered under the new system and teachers, one of whom was Miss Anna Brackett, afterwards principal of the city normal school of St. Louis, Mo., under the superintendency of Dr. Wm. T. Harris. The girls’ high school was established in 1858 and placed in a spacious new build¬ ing in 1860. The intention, as stated by Mr. Memminger, was “ to establish a school which must be without a rival in the country, in furnishing that education which cultivated parents desire for their daughters. A second purpose is the education of young ladies for teachers.” The same arrangement that for many years was adopted in the cities of New York and Philadelphia, a normal school department of the girls’ high school, in which pedagogic instruction could be given, was adopted, which has continued until the present day. The address of Mr. Memminger at the inauguration of the common-school system, July 4, 1856, is a masterly exposition of the intent and action of the new departure. It dismisses the school system of 1811 to its real position as a “pauper school” system, with all implied by that degrading title. While the ‘ 1 middling class ’ ’ was repelled, the organization was under the contempt ‘ c of the poor. ” “ It is useless, ’ ’ he says, ‘ £ to look for improvement while at the entrance of the school a confession of pauperism must be made.” For, although the fund for the support of the free schools had been considerably increased, the schools were steadily sinking in popular estimation. An examination of the system had revealed the fact that “the boys themselves, as well as the community, held the schools in disrepute, and the grade of education was so low that the most inferior private schools stood higher in public estimation.” Seldom have the peculiar advantages of the common-school system been more clearly stated, with a broader view of social needs and a more inspiring outlook for the children of the entire white population, than in this admirable address. In 1860 the school children of Charleston numbered about 4,000. It should be noted that this movement, which achieved such results in this city, had extended to New Orleans, La., Nashville and Memphis, Tenn., Mobile, Ala., Norfolk, Ya. , and Savannah, Ga. It was the same great popular uprising that had swept like a “celestial breeze” through the old northeastern and central and the new northwest¬ ern States, the great revival of the American common school. The complete development of the new system in Charleston, S. C., was only pre¬ vented by the breaking out of the civil war. At the close of the great conflict Mr. Memminger, who had served as secretary of the Confederate States’ treasury, returned to Charleston to resume the work dropped in 1862. Under his wise and progressive leadership the common-school system of that city, with the Charleston College, Citadel Academy, Orphan House, and high schools, by 1880 had given to Charleston the educational distinction it now holds among the larger cities of the Southern 4(38 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. States. The grateful people of Charleston, in the year 1888, testified their grateful remembrance of the father of their public-school system by placing a bust of Mr. Memminger in the public hall of the city, amid the portraits of their most eminent citizens. The history of the free-school system of South Carolina from its establishment in 1811 to its overthrow by the issue of the civil war in 1865 is little more than an illus¬ tration of the remark of one of the most distinguished educators of that Common¬ wealth concerning its record during these fifty years: “In no country or Common¬ wealth has there been witnessed so remarkable a spectacle of unanimity of purpose among the leaders of public opinion on the subject of popular education, with the almost utter failure of results, as in South Carolina.” In 1838 a committee, consisting of Rev. Stephen Elliott and James H. Thornwell, was instructed to report to the legislature after having conferred with the various commissioners. They incorporated in their report communications from the com¬ missioners, the whole making a very interesting paper. A large part of it consists of a paper by Hon. Edmund Bellinger, of Barnwell, a graduate of South Carolina College in 1826, containing a great deal of information, historical, statistical, and other¬ wise. Mr. Bellinger quotes the series of special enactments by the colony and State during the one hundred years from 1710 to 1811 (among which may be mentioned, in 1734, the incorporation of the Dorchester South Carolina Academy, established by a colony from Dorchester, near Boston, Mass., afterwards removed to St. John’s Parish, later Liberty County, Ga, ), referring to the private-school acts at various times. The schools of Charleston at that period, 1734, are reported as having been “insufficient.” Mr. Stephen Elliott, as there declared, was the father of the first public school system, in 1811. The act incorporating this system provided fora system of local education, the quality and extent to be decided by the local commissioners. Every white citizen could send his children to school, free of expense, although in case of an overflow the children of “indigent parents” or “poor orphans” shall be preferred. Three hundred dollars per annum was allowed for each school out of the public treasury, appropriated according to the number of representatives to the general assembly from the district; but never more than thirteen commissioners for each district were to be appointed by the legislature, with power of complete supervision of the schools, and required to make annual returns. No school should be established until the neighborhood should build and furnish a schoolhouse. The commissioners could unite the funds with those of other public schools. Here was an arrangement sufficiently elastic to admit of a development into an effective system of common schools. In 1812 the law went into practical effect in several counties, but was at once beset with unexpected difficulties. In 1813 the public skepticism concerning the schools was shown by a serious attempt to repeal the law, but the representatives from Charleston prevented this action. At once appeared the chronic difficulty of obtaining reports from the different school com¬ missioners appointed by the legislature. The subsequent acts of 1812-1814 were called for by this neglect. In these the comptroller of the State was authorized to furnish each board of commissioners with a printed copy of the return demanded. In 1316 the returns from 18 districts and parishes show that 3,328 pupils had been enrolled in schools opened “from six to twelve months,” at an expense of $8 per capita. The commissioners are complimented for their labors in the cause of educa¬ tion, “without emolument and influenced by the purest benevolence.” Complaints already appear concerning the unequal distribution of the State funds, caused by the system of representation in the legislature on the basis of property instead of popu¬ lation. In 1817 the defects of the system were so apparent that the legislature requested the commissioners to send in their opinions on the changes needed to COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1880. 469 adapt the system to the varying conditions that existed in the different sections of the State. Not. one-third of the different schools in the district had made the required returns. In 1818 the same difficulty of scanty returns prevented the educational committee of the legislature from forming any decided opinion of the success of the enterprise, although indulging a fond anticipation that the time was not far distant when all the people would be sufficiently instructed for “ intelligent and independent citizenship.” The committee prudently refrains from expressing its deliberate opinion of the condi¬ tion of the system, concerning which information is so hard to be obtained. In 1819 the legislative committee retreated from any action under cover of the same “regret at the apathy of the commissioners toward this noble institution.” The commission¬ ers of Charleston are required to examine the merits of the Lancasterian system of instruction and report at the next session. The “works of John Waldo” were cir¬ culated at public expense through the district. In 1820 the committee recommend a continuance of the system, and express a hope that the “advantages of the free schools will be commensurate with expense incurred.” In 1822 an act was passed to correct the irregularities in the financial affairs of the schools; among other things providing that the distribution of State funds shall only be made to commissioners that furnish returns. It is reported that the system is growing in general approbation. A penalty of $50 and removal from office was imposed upon every member of the school commissioners failing to make a report to the legislature. In 1824 it was stated that the school commissioners are furnished with a copy of the law of 1811 and its amendments, and 50 copies of the statute with 25 quires of blank returns are to ‘be furnished to each of the parishes. In 1825 the legislature required the faculty of South Carolina College “to prepare a detailed system for the better regulation of the public schools and other seminaries of learn¬ ing in the State.” In 1826 it is said that the “returns of the commissioners are all favorable to the beneficent operations of the system.” In 1828 the State comptroller was instructed to “keep regular accounts with the commissioners of the free schools” and report at each session to the legislature. In 1836 the growing dissatisfaction with the schools moved the legislative com¬ mittee to recommend the appointment of a “ literary board ’ ’ to obtain information and report to the next legislature such reforms of the system as may be expedient. An organization, the American Literary Company, appeared offering improved text¬ books. No notice seems to have been taken of this report. A fine of $20 is imposed by law on any person refusing to serve as commissioner of schools, and $5 for not attending a meeting of the board. Districts and parishes can be subdivided into school “divisions,” one commissioner to supervise each. The board shall examine teachers. Trustees are to be appointed to act with the commissioners of every district. WTe note that the commissioners of Charleston regarded this provision for “trustees” as a shirking of duty by the commissioners. Mr. Bellinger concludes that “ In the facts we see much to encourage, much to warn, and much to instruct. Up to 1811 no general and uniform system of free schools had been in operation through the State.” The committee of the legislature com¬ plains “not so much of the defects of the system as the non-execution. From the returns of the legislature we find painful evidence that the present free-school system has not been successful. Through a period of twenty-seven years the legislature has been solemnly impressed [as have we of the present day] with the deep, unshaken conviction that the bounty of the State must not be withdrawn and that the schools must be sustained.” He then makes “statements almost incredible, but, unfortunately, not to be denied.” From these it appears that from 1812 to 1838 the number of schools and pupils was increased from 4,299 pupils under instruction, at an expenditure of $4,939, 470 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. to 604 schools, with 7,905 pupils and $39,776 expended. Great inequalities prevailed in spite of resolution after resolution. Duringtwenty-seven years returns were made in five years only. The amount expended hears no proportion to the scholars edu¬ cated. The small districts and parishes receive no regular sum, and the amount each received bore no proportion to the schools of the district or parish or to the popula¬ tion. These assertions are all borne out by published tables of figures. Since 1815 $37,000 has been annually appropriated, nearly $500,000 in all, of which $109,7-40 was accounted for. Of the 6, 762 scholars, the average number attending the schools, not 1 in 7 were children of necessitous parents. The defects of the system were: (I) Insufficiency of funds. (2) Lack of method, the money not distributed according to any reliable system. (3) After twenty -seven years it was impossible to obtain reliable returns of the use of the school money for results of the system. (4) Teachers generally incompetent; not one examined. (5) No uniform system of instruction. (6) The whole system withdrawn from the public eye. (7) State effort too diffuse, not concentrated. (8) Want of good school books and of a course of instruction. (9) Officials not paid. (10) No vigor in the execution of the system. (II) Disregard of the original purpose; the poor are not benefited, the State is not enlightened. The commissioner comes to the final conclusion: “First. That none but poor orphans and children of indigent and necessitous par¬ ents should be educated at the expense of the State. “Second. That the State moneys should be distributed according to the popula¬ tion, not the representation in the legislature. “Third. A body of executive officials of more efficiency. At present it is a paper system and a very expensive system.” He makes several suggestions for the reform of the present system, including the reduction of a majority of the commissioners; the appointment of a state superin¬ tendent of schools, paid a good salary, with “power to act”; the schoolmasters should be examined; schoolhouses should be erected; a course of study should be made for the use of the schools; the establishment of a female seminary; that every parish be empowered to send one poor scholar gratis to college; that the State furnish necessary training for teachers; that every parish should establish a society to diffuse useful knowledge among the poor. The same fatal delusion with which Mr. Bellinger was possessed runs through the reports of all the commissioners, that the free school is an arrangement exclusively for the poor. Meanwhile the governors and foremost public men of the State, as a class, looked far beyond this provincial notion. A succession of these men from the earliest period continued to remind the legislature of its duties. The original school law of 1811 was a response to the repeated and earnest appeals of Governor Henry Middleton, and adopted with only 15 “nays” in the legislature. In 1815-16, Governor Williams; in 1817, Governor Andrew Pickens; in 1822, Gov¬ ernor Thomas Bennett; in 1823, Governor J. L. Wilson; in 1826, Governor Bichard J. Massey; in 1829, Governor Stephen D. Miller; in 1831-32, Governor James Ham¬ ilton; in 1833, Governor Robert Y. Havne; in 1S35, through an important portion of his message, Governor George McDuffie, who returned to the subject in 1836; in 1837-38, Governor Pierce M. Butler; in 1839, Governor Patrick Noble, in response to whom the before-mentioned returns from the school commissioners had been made in 1840; an extended review of the system by Governor B. R. Henningsen in 1842; all enforced attention to the subject. In 1847, R. F. W. Allston made a report to the State agricultural society, in which he treated the entire school system in a broader way than hitherto, prophetic of his future action as the chief executive of the State, when the Hon. Henry Barnard, of Connecticut, was invited to South Carolina. In 1847 Mr. Henry Summer published Suggestions Relative to the Free School COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 471 System, in which the defects of the present system were attributed largely to the lack of local government and a habit of dependence on the initiative of the superior class that had less interest in popular education than any in the State. He says, at this date, after thirty-six years of experience: “It was declared on the floor of the legis¬ lature that the free school system is a failure, and no one contradicted it. It seemed to be conceded by all.” The reports of Mr. Bellinger and others, he says, have attracted little attention. Nothing was done before the movement of 1839, and that he characterizes as “a splendid nothing.” Pie urges a State superintendency, a normal school, and the moral instruction of pupils, and a more extensive course of study, including grammar, arithmetic, history, astronomy, the elementary principles of government, and philosophy. Mr. Summer “takes the bull by the horns ” and declares that there should be an adequate system of public schooling “for all the children of the State.” He denounces the inequality of the present distribution of the State school funds. Spartanburg has but 5 members of the legislature and Charleston 17, the former with a larger number of voters. He concludes by the solemn warning: “If the State does not waken from this torpor she will see men as trees walking.” • In 1853 Gov. John L. Massey takes the old Carolina system to task for its educa¬ tional failure. “The State has provided only for the education of its wealthy class. For the middle and lower classes it has done nothing, since no organized system has been adopted for this purpose.” “Seventy-five thousand dollars had annually been appropriated for free schools, the income of the free school fund, but that liberality is rather a profusion of the prodigal, the judicious generosity which confers no real benefit.” He demands an effective system of education for all the children of the State. ‘ ‘ Five years ago 20,000 adults, besides children, Avere unable to read and write. Are there not reasonable fears to be entertained that the number has increased.” He recommends the establishment of a State board of education, Avith a State super¬ intending commissioner. Along with this message the governor sent to the legisla¬ ture the memorable letter of President Thornwell, of the South Carolina College. ( See Chapter VI of this Report. ) In 1858 Plon. R. F. W. Allston, goA7ernor of the State, calls attention to the con¬ dition of the free school system, and commends the new experiment of the graded schools of Charleston. The teachers of the State were invited by the goA'ernor to assemble in Charleston in June, 1858, and examine the practical operation of the school system. A normal school had been attempted in Charleston, and the gov¬ ernor urges the establishment of another in the upper or middle portion of the State. He says: “There is nothing which contributes so much to the eleAration of the Ameri¬ can character; nothing Avhich proves to strangers the superiority claimed for our personal and social condition, as the unanimity with which the cause of education is everyAvhere embraced by all descriptions of our people.” He defends the cause of the State college and the Citadel Academy, while he discourses in eloquent terms on the absolute necessity of general education to the welfare of the Republic. In 1850 it A\Tas reported that there Avere in South Carolina 8 “colleges” with 43 teachers and 720 students, expending $104, 790; 202 academies Avith 332 teachers and 7,467 pupils, expending $205,489; and 724 public schools Avith 739 teachers and 17,836 scholars. The population of the State Avas 274,563 Avhites, 8,960 free negroes, and 384,984 negro slaves; total, 668,507. Since 1830 the white population had increased but 20,000 — 15,000 since 1840. There were 40,577 children in the State from 5 to 10 years of age; 36,974 from 10 to 15, and 30,262 from 15 to 20; 107,813 below 20. In 1854 $75,000 Avas expended on the free schools, and many times that sum on the superior education. In 1860 the population was 291,388 Avhites; 9,914 free negroes, and 402,406 slaves; total, 703,708. Since 1790 the white population had increased at about half the ratio of the colored population. That a commonwealth whose Avhite population in 1860 Avas but 300,000, one-half the population of Boston in 1898, could 472 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. lead in a secession movement, carry after it eleven great States, and precipitate a civil v,rar of four years, which destroyed or disabled half a million men, and dissi¬ pated the national earnings of a generation, only to be closed by the abolition of slavery and the destruction of a social order that had endured for two centuries, is another proof that the educational system of the old South did train people of great power and resource in public affairs. And in no American State was the peculiar influence of this educational scheme centered upon the training of a superior class for the direction of a middle and the absolute control of a servile class better illus¬ trated than in South Carolina. But on the other hand, there is no American State in which the broader view of the education of the whole people found more earnest and distinguished advocacy, or where, through the half century before the outbreak of the civil war, the experiment of a free school system was more persistently tried in the face of greater obstacles than in this commonwealth. There can be no doubt that the persistent agitation of the leaders in public affairs in behalf of secession dur¬ ing the years from 1830 to 1860 was a great obstacle to the development of the public school during the great revival period of thirty years. Yet, notwithstanding this obstacle, the city of Charleston at the breaking out of the civil war was just entering on the enjoyment of the well organized school system now on the ground. Of course, what there was of the free school system, including the Charleston schools, went to the wall during the terrible years from 1861 to 1865. But it was a new evidence of the vitality of the educational spirit that the first effort on a large scale in behalf of the education of the freedmen was made in the very heart of the old aristocratic realm of the Sea Islands, including Beaufort, under the direction of Gen. Rufus Saxton. Immediately on the restoration of National authority the old free school system, broadened into the American common school for all classes and both races, appeared on the scene, and, through the ten years of the fierce conflicts of reconstruction, increased so steadily that by 1880 the State was living under a well- digested law by which the masses of the white population were better schooled than ever before, and the largest of the northern seminaries for the negroes, Claflin Uni¬ versity, was included in the corporation with the old South Carolina College and the military institute at Charleston, under the general title, “The University of South Carolina.” From such a treasury of personal and public vitality there is no risk in predicting a rehabilitation within the coming century that may give to this proud old commonwealth a name and fame in the future that will eclipse the cherished glories of the long and stormy past. GEORGIA. No State known in 1788 as Southern began its career in the new Union with brighter prospects for general education than Georgia. The settlement of its almost illimitable area, extending from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River, under the romantic administration of Oglethorpe, by the distribution of the different bodies of immigrants, each practically to a new country — including the poor debtors relieved from English prisons; the German “Salzburgers;” a substantial New England pop¬ ulation in St. Johns Parish, afterwards the celebrated Liberty County; the Hebrews; * a group of Catholics and the Highland Scotchman in Darien — was a prophecy of the cosmopolitan and enterprising order of society that half a century ago won for that commonwealth the proud title, “Empire State of the South.” The first constitution of the State was made in 1777, a few months after the Declaration of Independence, by a people numbering scarcely 20,000 whites, with only a militia force of 2,800 muskets scattered over a territory several hundred miles in extent, threatened by an army of 10,000 Indian warriors, flanked on the south by the Tory province of Florida, with a long coast line inviting to naval assault, and a population divided in allegiance between what was probably the most tolerable of the colonial govern¬ ments, under a governor universally esteemed, and the uncertain probability of a Continental Congress 1,000 miles away. COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 473 But these people did not forget to put into their constitution the provision, “Schools should be erected in each county and supported at the general expense of the State.” In 1783 the legislature was empowered to grant 1,000 acres of wild land for a free school in each county. Under this provision one of the earliest schools of the State, the Richmond Academy, was established at Augusta, then the seat of government. This seminary still exists in connection with the public school system of that city and county. The year 1788 was memorable in the early annals of education by the founding of Chatham Academy, now the public high school of Savannah, and the famous Sun- bury Academy of Liberty County, for a long time one of the most celebrated schools in the Gulf region of the Union. Although the second constitution of the State in 1789 contained no provision for education, the good work still went on, and by the opening of the present century each of the considerable towns in the new State had its free academy of the old English type, chartered and subsidized by the legislature of the commonwealth, at Augusta, Waynesboro, Savannah, Sunbury, and other points. * In 1798 the third constitution of Georgia contained the provision, “The arts and sciences shall be promoted in one or more seminaries of learning, and the legislature shall, as soon as conveniently may be, give such farther donations and privileges to those already established as may be necessary to serve the objects of their institu¬ tion; and it shall be the duty of the general assembly at the next session to provide effective measures for the improvement and permanent security of the funds and endowments of such institutions.” President Church, of the University of Georgia, himself a native New England ‘educator, declared of this original State educational policy that, had it been fully carried out, Georgia would have had “a system of education equal if not superior to that of any State of the Union.” In 1783-84 the legislature appropriated 1,000 acres of wild land to each county for “free schools,” and 40,000 acres for a university. This constitutional provision, combined with the early legislation of the State for the charter of a university in 1785, evidently contemplated the establishment of a system of general education, with a protest against the Southern colonial habit of sending boys of good family abroad for schooling, a practice which Washington sought to abolish by his plan of a national university, but which continued for several generations in all the older Southern States. Why the generous idea of the fathers of Georgia was not followed to its logical conclusion by an ample provision for the common schooling of the entire white population is not a difficult problem. In 1790 the entire white population of Georgia wTas but 52,000. Even in 1850 there were in the State only 500,000 white people — less than the present population of Boston, Mass. — burdened with 400,000 negro slaves. The white school population in 1850, 5 to 15, could not have exceeded 150,000 at the largest estimate. In 1830, the beginning of the period covered by this essay, there were but 300,000 white people, with a school population less than 50,000. It must also be borne in mind that the enumeration of a “school population” on paper in this essentially border and pioneer country, as every section of Georgia was even to 1830, is by no means an accurate enumeration of the children and youth that could be relied upon for attending school. What with the poverty of great numbers of the settlers, their isolated settlements and rude means of transportation, the necessity among the nonslaveholding population everywhere for child labor, the terrible unhealthiness of the country, the illiteracy of parents and the lack of suit¬ able accommodations for the housing of pupils, the number that could reasonably be expected inside the schoolhouse would be greatly reduced. The entire area of Georgia is 58,000 square miles — more than seven times the size of Massachusetts, the foremost New England school State. At the opening of the war of the Revolution the hostile Indians were in possession of three-fourths of the territory of the colony, 474 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. and not till 1838, after a persistent condition of war for sixty years, was the last tribe of savages removed from its soil. These were conditions so unfavorable that we need not wonder that the most enthusiastic zeal for education should have cooled off. A secondary reason for the change of the early policy, that in 1840 had brought the State to a point of repealing all its laws favoring the common schooling of the masses and substituting a provision for the meager educating of the children of the poor, largely by subsidizing private schools already on the ground, was the logical result of the inauguration of the academical system through the churches, in opposi¬ tion to the county academies. This policy, inaugurated during the Revolutionary war and continued through the opening of the nineteenth century, was further pro¬ moted by devoting confiscated lands, of which the loyalist class in the State had furnished a large supply, to the founding of this class of schools. Thus favored, the habit grew apace. B}r 1829 there were 64 academies for a school population of not over 50,000, and in 1S40, 176 seminaries, with an attendance of 8,000 pupils. By 1860 there must have been an institution of this sort in every county, and probably in every considerable village of the State. * Of course, these academies would include among their patrons practically all the children of the well-to-do classes. And even in a State with such original democratic predilections as Georgia, the colony under Oglethorpe being the only “anti-slavery ” and “prohibition” one of the original thirteen, the rapid development of the sway of slave society, which held no less than a third of its entire population in bondage, would more and more alienate the influential class from the common school. Meanwhile, the State University of Georgia, chartered in 1785, but only opened to students in 1801 as Franklin College, was for a generation in no condition to be to any considerable degree a power on the side of the general education of the people. The institution was at first only a feeble academy, struggling for funds, and not till 1821 was it apparently recognized by the State by an act establishing a university and the arrangement for the payment of $8,000 annually, the interest at 8 per cent, of the $100,000 which was its only endowment. Under the successive vigorous years of the administration of President Waddell it gained a firmer position. The long period of the presidency of Ur. Alonzo Church, of Vermont, was weighted by the destruction of one of the three college buildings by fire, and for ten years the State made an allowance of $6,000 annually for rebuilding and current expenses, regarded as a tardy acknowledgment of the appropriation of $75,000 and more of the univer¬ sity land fund retained by the State at the final settlement. From 1841 till 1875 the state contributed nothing. It was stated by President, now Bishop, Candler, of Emory College, in 1889, that “no alumnus of the University of Georgia, many of whom have grown rich by means of the culture acquired therein, has ever made a gift to the university notable enough to get into history.” Still the university evidently had enough to do to maintain itself against the persistent opposition of the rising denomi¬ national colleges and superior academies. As in other States, its graduates have sel¬ dom been found among the teachers in the schools for the poor; and at one period of its history its president and faculty were not regarded as especially favorable to the building up of an effective system of public education. However this may have been, Governor Milledge originally gave the land on which the university was built. In 1854 another donation of $20,000 was made. Governor Gilmer donated $15,000 for the training of teachers. In 1873 the city of Athens gave $25,000 for “Moore Hall,” now the seat of the agricultural department of the uni¬ versity, and Gov. Joseph E. Brown, in 1S61, contributed $50,000 “to aid worthy young men of the State in the effort to get an education.” The administration of President Church continued thirty-five years, until 1860, the year before the opening of the civil war. It was after this that the amount of the national agricultural and mechanical land fund of the State was added to the resources of the university. While the agricultural department remains at Athens, COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 475 the mechanical State institute of technology is located at Atlanta. There are also four branches of the university — at Thomasville, Cathcart, Milledgeville, and Dah- lonega. The medical college remains at Augusta. Rev. A. A. Lipscomb succeeded President Church as chancellor in 1860, holding the office until 1874. The old college connection was maintained until 1869. Luring the seventy-five years of its existence “the university has given to the State 100 ministers, 26 Congressmen, 9 supreme and 50 superior court judges, 30 presidents and professors of colleges, 200 legislators and 4 governors, having, inclusive of its under¬ graduates, been instrumental in the educating of 6,000 persons.” In 1888 1,177 students were in attendance upon ail its departments. Meanwhile, during the generation included in the thirty-five years from 1830 to 1865, the academical system of Georgia, under both its “college” and “academical” titles, was developed to the extent that, while it gave to the prosperous families perhaps the largest opportunity for the secondary and higher education enjoyed at that time by any Southern State, it more closely than ever shut the door against the final growth of the old-time elementary school for the “poor” into a proper system of common school education. The colony of Oglethorpe, almost alone in the Atlantic South, had never been brought under the domination of the Church of England. It was composed from the first of separate groups of people, representing “every sort and condition” of religious creed and polity from the Catholic and Hebrew to the Dorchester, Massachusetts, emigrants to St. John’s Parish, who, true to the old-time, rural, New England habit, at once built a log church on the Congregational founda¬ tion, established the famous Sunbury Academy, and planted their houses on the edge of the malarial swamps, with the result that during the long period of their occupation the children were so demoralized by sickness and death that scarcely enough were left to be gathered into a good-sized school. The conclusion of the whole matter was, that, in Georgia, the State University did not have, at first, the right of way accorded to that institution at the beginning in both the Carolinas and afterwards to the University of Virginia. The different denominations appear to have been concentrated in their respective localities, and for a long time separated from each other by difficulties of transportation and the extended area of the State. But at an early period, while the State University was still embarrassed by many hindrances, the religious organizations placed on the ground a series of university, collegiate, and academical foundations that, till the present day, have stoutly contested the field of student patronage, and, by their influence, greatly held back the State from the full development of the final plan by which all public education is still administered under the inclusive title, “The Uni¬ versity of Georgia.” An early movement was made to occupy this open field by the great Baptist denomination through the establishment of a school as a manual-labor seminary for the training of the clergy, in 1833, in “two double log cabins with a garret to each, for dwelling, for dining, and for study, for both teachers and students” in Oglethorpe County. Out of this inauspicious beginning came the Mercer University of to-day. It was organized as a college in 1837 and at the close of the civil war removed to Macon by the attraction of a good situation for buildings and a gratuity of $125,000 from that enterprising city. Besides Mercer, there are four institutions of the higher education in Georgia, representing the Baptist fraternity: The Southern Female College at La Grange; Monroe Female College at Forsyth, Monroe County, founded in 1849; Shorter College at Rome, developed from a previous school by the munifi¬ cence of Dr. Shorter, who, since 1877, has expended $175,000 thereon; the Georgia Seminary for young ladies, in Gainesville, Hall County, projected in 1877, and the Georgia Female College, now discontinued, as chartered in 1850. In 1854 it adver¬ tised the formation of a normal class for the training of teachers, with 156 members. The first movement in the denominational direction, however, was made, as usual 476 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. in the South, by the Presbyterian body, so renowned in the history of this section from the date of its appearance in the Valley of Virginia, as moving along the high¬ way surveyed and graded by its numerous seminaries of the secondary and higher education. In 1823 the “ Georgia Educational Society” was organized, at a session of the Hopewell Presbytery, at Thyatira Church, from which it is claimed “arose the whole movement of denominational education in the State.” The result was the charter of Oglethorpe University, which was opened in 1837, and housed in buildings in 1840, with an endowment of $120,000. In 1842 it numbered 142 students. At the close of the civil war it was removed to Atlanta. At present it is suspended, pend¬ ing arrangements for its rehabilitation. The Rome Female College, at Rome, was established in 1845, and is now in a flourishing condition. But it was reserved for the powerful and progressive Methodist body to achieve the most distinguished success in the development of denominational education in Georgia. In 1836 Emory College was established at Oxford, Newton County. It has enjoyed the able presidency of several of the best-known educational dignitaries of that church, including Bishops Pierce and Ilaygood, Judge A. B. Longstreet, Dr. I. S. Hopkins, and the Hon. Bishop AY. A. Candler. This institution has graduated 53 college presidents and professors, 15 circuit judges, 2 judges of the supreme court of the State, 15 Congressmen, 2 bishops, and 11 foreign missionaries. Under the presidency of Dr. Hopkins a department of technology was added to it in 1885, the first in the history of the South. It has been one of the beneficiaries of the liber¬ ality of Mr. George J. Senev, of Brooklyn, N. Y., who gave the college a hall with $80,000 for an endowment and payment of debts. The Wesleyan Female College, at Macon, claims the somewhat doubtful honor of being the first in the world to confer college degrees on women, a claim disputed by several institutions in the North. But this noble institution does not need this somewhat equivocal distinction to sustain its rightful claim, not only as the earliest, but one of the most successful of this large class of American schools, combining the secondary and higher education under the general term “college,” or “university.” It was the result of a growing sentiment in the State in favor of the superior educa¬ tion of young women, in 1836, although the preliminary action was taken in 1825. Although the legislature refused a charter to this somewhat radical new departure, a remarkable address before the University of Georgia in 1834, by Daniel Chandler, jr. , on “Female Education,” revived the waning interest in this movement. The Methodist body in 1836 selected the city of Macon as the field of a seminary of the higher sort for young women, and Dr. Lovick Pierce, father of Bishop Pierce, acted as its financial agent. The present college was opened in 1839 with a president and faculty of 5 professors, several associate teachers, and 90 students. The first class graduated in 1840. During fifty years of its existence, 1840-1890, 1,106 students have received its degree of A. B., and 70 the degree of A. M. It wras one of the few important educational foundations in the Confederate States of the South that kept open doors through the civil war, only being closed for two or three weeks by the occupation of the city of Macon by the Union Army. In 1850 its present name, Wesleyan Female College, was substituted for its original title, the Georgia Female College. Mr. Seney also favored this institution by a contribution of $125,000. The La Grange Female College, at La Grange, was founded in 1833, and in 1847 received a college charter. Its alumni number more than 400 graduates, and it now enjoys a fair degree of prosperity. Madison Female College, incorporated in 1850, was one of the institutions that perished during the civil war. The Georgia Meth¬ odist Female College, founded in 1851, at Covington, Newton County, after being transferred for a time, finally returned to its old allegiance in 1882. Andrew Female College was established in 1854 at Cuthbert; Dalton Female College in 1872, and the Methodist College at Gainesville, and others of a more recent date. The Pio Nono College, established at Macon in 1873, is now a training school of the Jesuit Order. COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 477 Besides this development of the higher education under denominational control, there are in the State the Griffin Female College, at Griffin, chartered in 1850; the Georgia Military Institute, chartered in 1851, which did not survive the destruction of its buildings during the civil war; College Temple, now transferred to public school purposes, and Brandon College, founded in 1856, one of the first coeducational schools of this grade in the State. Among the most notable schools for the secondary and higher education of girls in the Southern States is the Lucy Cobb Institute, at Athens, Ga. This admirable school owes its foundation to Gen. Thomas R. R. Cobb, and its name to his daughter, Lucy, who died at the age of 14, near the time of its establishment. It was opened in 1856 under the principalship of Mr. Wright, from the North. Until 1872 it suf¬ fered from the trials and reactions of the civil war. Since the year 1880, under the presidency of the accomplished Miss Nellie Rutherford, daughter of a professor of the University of Georgia, which is situated in the same city, it has risen to its present eminence among the superior schools for young women, not only in Georgia, but in the Southern States. It includes among its teachers several of the professors of the university. Mr. Seney gave it a beautiful stone chapel, with additional aid toward an endowment, and at present it is one of the most prosperous of this type of seminaries in the State. Martin Institute, a college for boys, first opened in 1818, but chartered under its present name in 1859; the Home College, for young ladies, at Atlanta; Young Female College, atThomasville; Butler and Gainesville Colleges; West Georgia Agri¬ cultural and Mechanical College; Southern Georgia Male and Female College, at Dawson ; a number of business schools, including Macon Commercial College, and others at Augusta, are maintained. Our space forbids the mention of the great number of seminaries for both sexes and races which, according to the universal custom west of the Hudson River, assume the name and functions of the whole field of education, from the primary class to the few engaged in college studies. The Georgia Historical Society, at Savannah, established in 1839, is one of the most flourishing and useful of its class in the South. Its roll of membership con¬ tains the names of many of the most eminent men in the State, and its historical contributions are well known. It includes the Telfair Academy of Arts and Sciences, the gift of Mrs. Mary Telfair, which supports a flourishing school of art. It would exceed the limits of this essay even to mention the private and denomi¬ national institutions of the secondary and higher education now in Georgia; for an account of which the reader is referred to Circular of Information No. 4, 1888, of the United States Bureau of Education entitled “ Education in Georgia, by Charles Edge- worth Jones,” to which we make due acknowledgments; much more to attempt even the enumeration of the great number of academies and private schools of local impor¬ tance, mostly thrown open during the thirty-five years between 1830 and 1865. Our chief intention in this reference is at once to account for the slow growth of a sub¬ stantial public-school system, in which the State, until a recent period, has lagged behind several of the Southern Commonwealths less favored with wealth, population, and general prosperity; and the remarkable development of ability,' especially in the regions of industrial and public life, among the superior class, which has given to this Commonwealth . its proud title — “The Empire State of the South.” In no Southern State during the thirty-five years previous to 1865 was the opportunity of acquiring what was regarded anywhere in the United States “a good education,” so extended and so accessible to large numbers of the ambitious youth of the more favored class as in Georgia. But while the State was thus, from its earliest history, cognizant of the needs of its prosperous class, which included a much larger proportion of its white population than any other of the original Southern States, it became to a great, extent unmind¬ ful of the imperious need of its numerous poor white contingent for the elements of knowledge. The original plan for the endowment of the county academy by 478 EDUCATION EE POET, 1899-1900. generous gifts of wild lands indicates a lively sense of public responsibility for gen¬ eral education. But these endowed seminaries — to that extent public schools — were chiefly situated in the centers of population, or brought around them a considerable section of the more intelligent class, and were always lifted above the average means of the people most in want of what an American State should be first to give. As early as 1792, 1,000 acres of land were voted as the endowment for an academy in each county. In 1817 an appropriation of $250,000 was made by the legislature as a fund for the support of free schools through the State. In 1821, $500,000 was appropriated as a fund to be equally divided among the academies and free schools. In 1823 the interest of this free school moiety, some $20,000 to $30,000, was distrib¬ uted among the counties in proportion to their white population for the education of the children of the poor. Of course, this sum, even with the precarious addition of private benevolence, would only be a revelation and aggravation of the peoples’ want, suggesting what was needed rather than what could be done. Its practical effect was to discourage the establishment of a separate school system as a proper foundation for the improving of the academical and collegiate education, and to bring in the mischievous habit of subsidizing private and denominational, ele¬ mentary, or academical seminaries, by the payment of tuition fees for such of the poorer class as were not too proud to accept a stigma so offensive as “pauper” in return for a gratuity so inadequate. No child or youth under 8 or over 18 years of age could avail himself of this provision for free tuition, and none for more than three years. A child neglected until 8 years of age is far more inclined to run with the crowd of ignorant and ungoverned youngsters than to go to school; and after 14, in a new country, there would be many things to which he could be put by an illit¬ erate family rather than exposed as a pauper to the ridicule of a set of well-off aca¬ demical boys and girls. A subsequent change of the law in 1843, limiting the ages to 6 and 16, did not mend matters. The whole number of children of this class, as late as 1860, was estimated at 40,000 to 50,000; nearly one-third of all in the State between 6 and 16. The history of the endeavors of the legislature of Georgia to wrestle with the ques¬ tion of the suitable schooling of the masses, in the face of the indifference and hostility of the friends of the college and academical system, is a record of several heroic attempts, which came to a general collapse in 1840-1843. In these years all the laws aiming at a common-school system were consolidated into a poor school code, under which the Commonwealth staggered on until several years after the close of the civil war. In 1836 one third of the United States surplus revenue distribution of $350,000 was set apart as “a permanent free school and education fund,” and a committee of observation was sent North to inspect and draw up a suitable scheme for an improved common-school organization. This committee reported a plan for an arrangement not unlike the American common school of that day. They also informed the fathers of the State that “out of 83,000 school children in the State, only 25,000 were in attendance at any school.” This report was published in an edition of 300 copies and contained the draft of an act for the establishment of a general system of common-school education. This committee seems to have been composed of men of expanded ideas. They rejected both the Lancasterian and the manual labor systems, which had a brief but disas¬ trous career, although favored by many of the foremost educators and statesmen of the country, and struck the keynote of the American common school in the demand that the “rich and poor shall be educated together.” The committee proposed to divide the State into “school divisions,” chiefly by counties; appointing comrnis- ioners as superintendents for each division, laying off divisions into school districts, building schoolhouses, and supporting schools. The legislature responded in 1837 by a law establishing a system of common schools on an amended system modified to take effect in 1839. By this act all the funds for the secondary and elementary education were consolidated into “a general fund for common schools.” In 1838 it COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 479 was also provided that a county tax could be levied at the discretion of the courts, on the recommendation of the grand jury, never exceeding one-half the general tax, for the enlargement of the common-school fund. But here the legislators of Georgia, as of many other States, had forged ahead of their constituents. The prospect of mixing the academical and elementary depart¬ ments of education in a school common to rich and poor woke up an opposition which, in 1840, repealed both the laws of 1837 and 1838, and set apart a permanent free school fund. In 1843 the counties were authorized to raise, by local tax, an amount sufficient, with the State distribution, to educate the poor children. The recipients of this bounty of $20,000 to 40,000 candidates annually for the whole State were called to run the gauntlet of an examination and estimate by the inferior courts as the warrant for the reception of 7 cents a day, accounted in these regulations as a fair compensation for teaching the three Bs; a very clever device for keeping this contingent reasonably small. This act of the legislature of 1840 touched the low-water mark of legislation in Georgia for one-third the children of the State and accounts for all the obstacles that have hindered the development of the common-school system, some of them not removed even until the present day. Of course, under such a no-system, the educa¬ tion of the poor languished in a chronic neglect; the returns of the number of poor children were grossly neglected and, when made, were unreliable, not including three-fourths of the number who were willing to report. Hardly one-half of these went to school at all, and then only for four months in the year during three years. As late as ±849, and in 1850, 15 counties made no returns at all, and others had never made a return. In 1845 Governor George W. Crawford declared in his message that in 1844 only 53 of the 93 counties made application for the benefit of the free school fund, although this neglect exposed the county to the penalty of losing the right to apply. As usual, this law bore hardly on the poor counties, where the majority of this class were found. This policy was characterized by one of the leading educators of the State in these decided terms: We have made the schools mere charities. We have been living under the impres¬ sion that the children of our State belong to two classes; one rich and the other poor families. We have declared the schools to be the very embodiment of discrimina¬ tion, with an extreme measure of the disorganizing element. The poor schools of the State, by reason of the law which creates them, are robbed of the influence for good they might otherwise wield. Their low scholarship is a premium on pauperism. It is unnecessary to portray the condition of popular education in the State for the ensuing thirty years, until 1870, when the present common-school organization was effected and Col. J. B. Lewis was appointed commissioner under Governor Bullock. He was followed in 1872 by Hr. Gustavus J. Orr, the Horace Mann of Georgia, whose devoted and illuminating administration went on until terminated by his death in 1887. The picture of this old type of Georgia schools has been so well drawn by the late Mr. Bichard Malcolm Johnston in his recent monographs on the “old-held schools” of the early time,1 illustrated by the racy sketches of Judge Longstreet, after¬ wards president of South Carolina College, and the characterization of Superintend¬ ent Orr, that it is not necessary that the description should be repeated. Still, the characteristic of any American community is, somehow, to remove by personal and local effort the defects of any imperfection of law or failure of administration. Doubtless, in hundreds of communities the inevitable demoralizing results of such a no-system of schooling were somewhat averted by the efforts of public-spirited and enlightened individuals, churches, and families. And, as we have invariably seen in all our previous record of Southern educational life, the foremost public men of the commonwealth spared no words in their con¬ gee Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1894-95, Ycl. 2, pp. 1699-1733; 1895-96, VoL 1, pp. 839-886. 480 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. slant appeal to the people in behalf of the masses of their constituents. As early as 1837 Governor Schley protested against the popular delusion that the poor should be discriminated against in education, and declared the pittance of $40,000 given to the schools “a system ridiculously defective,” and the social discrimination “invidious and insulting.” In 1845, Governor Crawford returned to the subject with words of weight and solemn warning. In 1851 the then governor spoke out with fervid elo¬ quence in behalf of a system of education “common to all.” In the same year a committee including President Church, of the State university, and Bishop George F. Pierce, of the Methodist denomination, appointed by an educational convention held in Marietta, presided over by Hon. E. A. Nesbit, issued an address to the people of Georgia, probably written by Bishop Pierce. It was declared that “the present sys¬ tem has not and can not assure the objects of general education or the education of the poor, and should be superseded by another.” Hon. Thomas R. It. Cobb, of Atlanta, the founder of the Lucy Cobb Institute for Girls, as chairman of a committee of dis¬ tinguished gentlemen, prepared a memorial to the legislature from the State Central Agricultural Society to the effect that “we must have public schools in every school district in Georgia,” which was circulated and widely read through the State. Gov¬ ernor Joseph E. Brown, afterwards United States Senator, who demonstrated his inter¬ est in the higher education for the “poor boys” by a gift of $50,000 to the University of Georgia, and also in the common-school system later, as chairman of the public school board of Atlanta in 1858, in his message to the legislature spoke out in his own vigorous style, urging the draft of a common-school system for the children and youth of the State. He says: “Many of the noblest intellects in Georgia, now bedimmed by poverty and not developed for want of an education, may be made to shine forth in all their splendor, lighting up both church and state by their worthy deeds.” Governor Herschel V. Johnson, candidate for the Vice-Presidency of the United States on the Stephen A. Douglas (Union) ticket of 1860, as governor at even a later period, 1886, “laid his finger on the pulse of the coming century” and pro¬ tested against the “narrow stinginess” that is so often more conspicuous in states¬ men than in individuals. He says: “Let the broadest and most practical education of the children be an object of universal concern.” The results of this long neglect of the common schooling of the masses before 1860 was even more evident during the ten years from 1865, even as late as 1880. Hon. Alexander PL Stephens declared to the author of this essay in 1880 that great numbers of the white people in his own Congressional district in Georgia were not able to obtain clothing for their children sufficient to risk the exposure of attending school during the comparative mildness of even a Georgia winter. In 1880 it was declared that 128,000 white and 320,000 colored persons over ten years of age in the State were wholly illiterate. Happily this great commonwealth at last is rising to a competent view of the necessities of its people and making creditable exertions to realize the declaration of its recent governor, “Education is the foundation of the State.” - • It was only on the eve of the outbreak of the civil war that, under the stimulant of the stirring message of Governor Joseph E. Brown, the legislature laid the foundation of a proper system of common schools. On December 11, 1858, $100,000 was set apart from the earnings of the Western and Atlanta Railroad, a State property, for educa¬ tional purposes, and it was provided that, as the State debt should be paid by the school fund, a like amount of the bonds of the State should be deposited in its place. The people were authorized by this law to establish free schools by their share of this fund, and one county led the educational movement which now includes the 93 counties of the State. The collapse of this experiment during the war was followed by the stagnation of an educational interregnum of 12 years before the common¬ wealth took up the final work of the establishment of the American common school for all classes and both races in 1872. COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1800. 481 ALABAMA. Like all the Southern States of the Union, Alabama began the establishment of the common-school system at the summit, and through a generation of agitation worked in an intermittent and experimental way downward toward the base, the- elementary schooling of all classes, through the initiative of the commonwealth, for good American citizenship grounded on fit intelligence and sound character. The- State was able, at an early period, to utilize the national endowment of university lands, and, after four years of preparation, on April 18, 1831, the State University of Alabama was opened to students. Few of the Southern States have been able to invite their young men to the feast of the higher education under more flattering auspices. The university was founded in a pleasant site in the suburban portion of the original capital, Tuscaloosa. Its outfit of buildings was far in advance of any in the old thirteen States, consisting of a spacious- “rotunda,” the finest auditorium in the State; Washington and Jefferson “colleges;”' “the lyceum,” a building containing the university cabinets and lecture rooms; four- residences for the professors, and a “hotel,” the general refectory for the students. The first president was Ur. Alva Woods, a native of Vermont and a graduate of Phillips Academy and Harvard University, Mass., numbering among his classmates- George Bancroft, George B. Emerson, and Ur. Stephen IJ. Tyng. After two years*-- spent in European travel and study, he served as professor of mathematics and natural history in Brown University, It. I., and, from 1828 to 1831, as president of Transylvania University, Kentucky. For seven years President Woods presided over the new institution — years of con¬ stant anxiety, closed by a disastrous financial collapse which threatened the existence of the university. Added to this was the usual outbreak of disorderly conduct among the students, who were largely composed, as must have been inevitable, of boys with meager additional preparation in letters or discipline for proper college life. The resignation of the president and the entire faculty in 1837 closed this some¬ what inauspicious period of the university beginnings. Among the professors were three gentlemen who afterwards rose to distinction: Henry Tutwiler, Plenry W« Hilliard, and Bichard T. Brumby. The university opened with 94 students in attend¬ ance during the first year, and from the classes of the first seven years went forth several men afterwards well known in the political and professional life of the State. The second venture of the university on the troubled sea of the higher education in the Southern States began in 1837, under the presidency of Ur. Basil Manly, born in 1795, and graduated with the first honors of South Carolina College in 1821. For the coming sixteen years he was engaged in the ministry of the Baptist Church, eleven years in Charleston, S. C. Here began his labors as a friend of education by his interest in the foundation of the Baptist Theological School, at Louisville, Kv., and Furman University, at Greenville, S. C. In 1837 he was called to the presidency of the University of Alabama, which he held until 1855,. when failing health enforced his resignation after eighteen years of a successful administration. Buring the fol¬ lowing thirteen years he wrought in his profession, as Baptist clergyman, and died in 1868. For the details of his long and successful presidency of the university the reader is referred to the excellent History of Education in Alabama, Circular of Information of the United States Bureau of Education, No. 3, 1889, by Mr. Willis G. Clark. The most notable incidents of this period of the development of the institution are, first, the heroic attempt to reform the status of college discipline and advance the respect¬ ability of college life in general. The students were clothed in an attractive uniform and required to appear in “black silk gowns made after a prescribed pattern,” while the faculty were expected to wear “an appropriate black silk gown” at all public exercises. ED 1900 31 482 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900, The new departure in the line of discipline was an attempt to do by force of law what Horace Mann twenty years later really accomplished at Antioch College, Ohio, by the force of a matchless personality and the law of love. It attempted to hold every student in a way responsible for the good behavior of the entire body of its fellows. On the commission of any serious misdoing the students suspected of com¬ plicity were ‘ ‘ severally called up) ’ ’ and each put upon his own ‘ ‘exculpation. ’ ’ If any student testified to his own innocence his pfiea was accepted, liable to rejection in case he was detected in falsehood. But if, according to the unwritten law of the average American college boy, he declined to “ exculpate himself,” he was regarded as taking on himself the guilt of the criminal and compelled to leave the university. For more than ten years the trustees and faculty labored to carry this impracticable scheme of college government into effect. During this brief period there were not less than four general demonstrations reaching the dignity of a college “riot,” requiring the temporary suspension of large numbers of students, once suspending the sessions of the institution. Finally both the uniforms and the exculpatory system of discipline were wisely abandoned, and the university went on with the usual ups and downs of student behavior. The experiment was a useful object-lesson on the folly of a college faculty, a body of learned gentlemen, drawn together largely from the clerical profession, endeavoring to force a scholastic and ultrareligious idea of youth¬ ful manners and morals upon a crowd of young fellows gathered in from every class and condition with every variety of previous social and personal training. Alabama, in 1831, w'as virtually a frontier State, its young p>eop)le including the usual amount of excellent material for good, with a fair proportion of distinguished citizenship. It was not so much a reflection on the character and manner of the boys as on the impracticability of their educational guides that this experiment, both in dress and behavior, went finally to the limbo of so much experimenting on the raw material of young America, Better than this was the effort to enforce a higher test of scholarship for entrance, and a more severe type of examination. At a p>eriod somewhat later than this, a trial was made of the University of Virginia system of “electives;” practically a permission to every boy, with an outfit little above an elementary school, to enter the university and attach himself to as many or as few chairs as permitted by the faculty, remain as long as lie would, and leave with such “certificate of progress” as he had earned; the full honors of the university, of course, only given to the very few who had gone through a severe examination in the several departments required for a complete graduation. It was, in fact, an effort to transport the university system of central Europe into the backwoods of the new American Republic. It is an evidence of wisdom that a faculty containing men like President Manly and Professor Barnard, after a fair trial made at the instance of the trustees, rejected the scheme as impracticable and pro¬ ceeded to the more practical organization of a fit curriculum with several depart¬ ments, largely under the control of the teaching force of the university. In 1845 the university wras favored by the building of an astronomical observatory, well supplied wuth instruments of investigation, under the direction of Prof. Frederick A. P. Barnard, who first appears here in his distinguished career as an educator in the South, terminating in his long and celebrated presidency of Columbia College, New York. During the eighteen years of President Manly’s administration the university enjoyed, in turn, the services of several teachers, afterwards among the most distinguished in the annals of both the Southern and Northern higher educa¬ tion: Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, afterwards president of Columbia College, New York; Prof. R. T. Brumby, who was a noted pioneer in the study of the natural sciences in the South; A. Y. Bush, in mathematics; Michael Tuomey, pwofessor of geology; Dr. Lanclon C. Garland, Henry Tutwiler, and Dr. John W. Mallet. It seems to have been a constant habit of the professors and presidents of the Southern universities and colleges, during their early years of development, to circulate from one institu- COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 483 tion to another, thus giving to all by turns the opportunity of superior instruction. And as many of these men were among the more prominent educators of their States and several from Europe, there was more than the usual amount of good teaching and valuable administration in this department of Southern education from 1840 to 1870. The number of students in the university increased slowly. The States of South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee were already in the field and the University of Virginia, with the great name and fame of Thomas Jefferson behind it, was twenty years ahead; while the older Northern foundations, Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and Columbia, still drew their proportion of students. But the growth of the university during these eighteen years seems to have been healthy, as far as possible in a State so poorly supplied with the secondary education, and unsuccessful experiments were usually discarded as soon as their failure was recognized. One of the most important events in its history was the organization of the State geological survey, which, begun under the direction of Professors Brumby and Tuomey, with the aid of distinguished experts from other States, first revealed to the country the great mineral wealth of the commonwealth. The attempt to establish a law school at first failed, and the medical department, located at Mobile, was a later annex. In 1850-51 an important forward step in instruction was made in the establishment of written examinations. In 1846 the number of students had not reached 100; in 1848, 102; in 1851-52, 126, and in 1855, at the resignation of President Manly, 112. During the eighteen years of President Manly’s presidency, 252 had graduated with the usual dispensation of college honors. The financial affairs of the university had been rehabilitated, to the extent that there remained a permanent fund of somewhat less than $300,000; the annual expense being $25,000. Several new buildings had been erected. The resignation of President Manly in 1855 was followed by the appointment of Dr. Landon C. Garland as his successor; a position held for ten years, until the destruction of the university buildings by fire during the closing days of the civil war. The services of Professor Barnard had been lost by his call to the new Univer¬ sity of Mississippi, and Prof. R. T. Brumby, who rendered valuable services to South Carolina in his investigations into the extensive phosphate deposits of the coast that have so greatly enriched that State, had resigned. Prof. Henry Tutwiler also had retired, to establish his unique private classical academy at Greene Springs. In place of these came, as a permanent resident, Prof. J. W. Mallett, afterwards of the univer¬ sities of Virginia, Texas, and Pennsylvania, and Robert K. Hargrove, afterwards bishop of the Methodist Church South and head of Vanderbilt University, Nash¬ ville, Tenn., and Prof. Crawford II. Toy, afterwards in the Baptist Theological School at Louisville, at present connected with the divinity school of Harvard University. Three new houses for the professors, a new college hall, and an increase of the endowment fund by the State to the amount of $300,000 were among the outward gains of the institution. The establishment of a military department, suggested by the threatening of sectional war, increased the attendance of students to the largest number hitherto matriculated, 137, and appeared to solve the vexed problem of discipline. The educational status of the university was somewhat distracted during these years by the experiment of the University of Virginia system forced upon the reluctant faculty by the trustees. It was tried for several years and finally rejected. The institution was also greatly agitated by the increasing spirit of political discontent in the States over the progress of the antislavery movement in the nation. The year of the acceptance of the presidency by Dr. Garland was also notable from the appearance of the Republican party in the field of national politics, with the great agitation of national political complications; the whole movement closing with the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency of the United States in 1860. 484 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. The State of Alabama seceded from the Union on January 11, 1861, and the city of Montgomery became the capital of the new Southern Confederacy. All this raged like a tire in the blood of the student portion of the university. A large number of those in attendance at the breaking out of the war entered the Confederate Army, and during the four years of conflict, although the area of the State wras not the theater of actual strife, it was impossible to keep the university in operation in any other form than as a military training school for cadets. “The conclusion of the "whole matter” was the destruction of the university buildings by fire on April 3, 1865. The cause seems to have been a skirmish wdth the advance of the Union army of cavalry under General Wilson, brought on by the student guard of cadets, including some loss of life, for which the military commander was not responsible. Under this provocation the entire group of the university buildings was given to destruction by the order of the Union commander. This great loss has, however, been more than redeemed through a subsequent grant by Congress of valuable mineral lands in the nothern portion of the State, from the income of which the new university has emerged with more ample accommodations than before. For additional particulars of the history of this interesting foundation the reader is referred to Circular of Information of the United States Bureau of Education, No. 3, 1889, already quoted. Meanwhile, during the thirty-five years between 1830 and 1865, the usual devel¬ opment of the secondary and higher education in the Southern States, on the lines of the denominational and private academy, had taken place in Alabama — La Grange College and the Southern University, by the Methodists; Howard College, by the Baptists, and St. Joseph’s, by the Catholics, with several academies of wide repu¬ tation. The Judson, at Marion, the Alabama Conference Female College, and others, received a large development before 1860. These seminaries also had the advantage at different times of numbering among their presidents and faculties several of the ablest educators in the State and section — Robert Paine, afterwards bishop of the Methodist Church South; Professor Tutwiler; Prof. C. G. Smith, afterwards president of the University of Alabama; Dr. J. L. M. Curry, at present agent for the Peabody and State education funds; Prof. C. C. Calloway, Professor Lupton, Prof. A. A. Lipscomb, and others. The Catholic college of St. Joseph’s near Mobile has been well known at home and abroad, and numbers among its graduates a great company of distin¬ guished men — 100 lawyers, teachers, artists, Congressmen — among whom were a large number of clergy, and men distinguished in every department of Southern public life. Perhaps the most unique and justly celebrated educator of Alabama during this period was one who has more than once appeared in the present sketch of educational affairs in the State, from 1830 to 1865, in the person of Henry Tutwiler. This remark¬ able man was a native of Virginia, born in 1807. He wTas one of the earliest students and an A. M. of the University of Virginia, with Hon. R. M. T. Hunter, Robert Toombs of Georgia, Edgar Allan Poe, and Alexander H. H. Stuart. He knew Jef¬ ferson in his retirement at Monticello. In 1831 he was called to the professorship of ancient languages in the new University of Alabama, where, although but twenty-four years old, he at once became a marked man in the educational affairs of the institu¬ tion. In 1837 he resigned, with the entire faculty, and was afterward engaged at Marion and La Grange colleges. His broad scholarship and progressive ideas of the higher education had already been manifested. Indeed, it was doubtless from his growing experience with the secondary and higher education of the day that, after thirteen years spent in the regulation service of the college professor of half a century ago, he resigned, and established at Greene Springs, Ala., the celebrated school in which he wrought for the thirty-seven years before his death, at the age of 77. He was twice chosen to the presidency of Alabama University, and was the recipient of distinguished honors at home and abroad. He left a family of eleven children, of whom the best-known daughter, Miss Julia Tutwiler, is still at the head of the State Normal School at Livingston, Ala. The Greene Springs School was founded in COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 485 1847, at a local watering place in a remote part of the hill country in Hall County. He found in the sanitarium the building for the use of his school. He shared in the old- time idea that a school for boys should be built up in a natural or artificial wilderness, where the work of education could go on in almost complete isolation from the great world. But, in other respects, he was far in advance of his day — certainly in his own State — in his views concerning the mental training, moral discipline, and gen¬ eral culture of the secondary and higher sort. “To prepare young men for the busi¬ ness of life or for the higher class in the college and university,” was the object proposed and adhered to through the thirty-seven years of his able and successful mastership. The classification of studies was made possible in his school. The cur¬ riculum was expanded to include much that is now acknowledged as essential to a good seminary and college training. A well-selected library and apparatus, by which the isolation of the school was made endurable, were a vital part of the semi¬ nary. In his own isolated field he should be classed with Dr. Arnold, Horace Mann, Dr. Barnard, George B. Emerson, and President Kingsbury as a pioneer in that view of the higher education wherein many of its modern excellences are found and its greatest achievements at present made manifest. Up to the year 1854, no satisfactory arrangement had been made in Alabama for the elementary schooling of the masses of the white population, who were practi¬ cally excluded by lack of means from the enjoyment of the academic and collegiate opportunities provided for the more favored class. It is probable that the “old field school,” which was almost the sole recourse of this portion of the people in the older Southern States, was here in operation, besides the variety of home instruction by which a considerable number of the better-off sort of families sup¬ plied their own educational necessities. There had been efforts in various counties and townships to utilize the United States school land grant for local convenience. But, with all these spasmodic undertakings, the real problem of the education of the responsible masses of an American commonwealth for good American citizenship had not yet been faced during the thirty-five years of the existence of Alabama as a State. The condition of affairs resulting from this neglect had been suggested as usual in the messages of several governors to the State legislature. But it was not until 1852 that the city of Mobile, then the most important in the State, made the first advance in the direction of a proper common school system for its white population. Previous to this, for twenty-six years from 1826, the city had gone through an experience similar to that of the city of New York in the attempt to support a system of public schools virtually under the control of a close corporation. By several acts of the legislature a board of commissioners had been empowered to erect a school building by the aid of a lottery, and distribute the small income from the county school fund and a special tax at their own discretion. In 1851-52 some $5,500 was annually parceled out among a number of city and private institutions; the commissioners not pretend¬ ing to exert any control over either teachers or schools. It was declared that “ about one-half of the children in this favored land and wealthy community are growing up without a knowledge of the simple rudiments of learning.” The price of tuition for one scholar in a private school would exceed the ordinary income of a laboring man. The crisis was precipitated by the movement of the commissioners to sell the Bar¬ ton Academy building, a fine structure, built in 1835 on land donated at a reduced value to the city for educational purposes by the aid of a lottery and private sub¬ scription. It was claimed that from the sale of the school building a sum could be realized whose investment would increase the annual distribution among the private and parochial schools. On this issue the friends of a new order of things took the field, and by a strong popular majority it was voted to attempt the organization of a more extended school system. 486 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Notwithstanding the almost utter lack of funds, the new board of commissioners proceeded to put the great schoolhouse in fit condition for occupancy. The school opened with 400 pupils in November, 1852. In three months the number increased to 850, with primary, grammar, and high- school departments. A deputation of the commissioners visited the public schools of New York, Boston, and other Northern cities in 1853, and such new features as were adaptable to the locality were introduced. The people approved this action by a substantial majority, and in 1854 the city and county were districted, a superin¬ tendent of schools was appointed, and the foundations laid for the upbuilding of the common schools in Mobile, then the city of second importance in the entire Gulf region of the Republic. The whole expenditure for the first two years was 132,428.68 — one- third from tuition fees at a lower rate than in the private seminaries of the city. In 1854 the legislature passed the act that finally established the public-school system of Mobile, separating it in all essential respects from the general educational system of the State, with only the connection of the annual reception of its quota of the school funds of the commonwealth. By a wise provision of the charter the school authorities were prohibited from subsidizing sectarian schools, a policy which lingered long in at least one of the neighboring States and retarded the proper devel¬ opment of the common school, especially in the rural districts. In 1856 the cost of the schools of Mobile was $21,890, one-half from tuition. There were 5,920 children and youth of school age. In 1857 the receipts amounted to $37,000 and the expendi¬ ture to $38,000. The office of superintendent of schools in 1859 was transferred to the principal of the boys’ high school. At the outbreak of the war the city of Mobile was paying $46,600 for the schooling of more than 6,000 pupils. One important feature of the girls’ high school was the teachers’ class, which, as in the similar case of Charleston, S. C., became a normal-school department for the supply of the teaching force of the city. The opening of the war greatly crippled the resources of the school authorities, although some of the schools were held in ses¬ sion to some extent until the occupation of the city by the national forces in 1S65. The closing of the schools by the deposing of the Confederate authorities was fol¬ lowed by a vexatious conflict of administration during the period of reconstruction, the details of which belong properly to a history of the common schools of Alabama subsequent to the close of the civil war. This important movement in the chief city of the State was followed, in 1853, by legislative action in response to the urgent suggestions of the governor for the improve¬ ment of the very unsatisfactory educational affairs of the State. The report of the legislative committee in 1853 seems to have been the first revelation to the people of Alabama concerning their actual situation in respect to the education of the masses of white children. It was shown that the bountiful national gift of school lands, valued at $2,000,000, had, during the past thirty-five years, been so embarrassed by differ¬ ences in the policy concerning its administration and great inequalities of distribution in different localities that, outside the establishment of the university, it had been of small benefit to the children. “From the original character and value of the soil in different portions of the State, it happened that, in several counties, the lands thus set apart for common-school purposes were very valuable; in others comparatively worth¬ less, in some entirely so.” In thirteen counties the lands exceeded half the value of the entire school grant, with little more than one-fourth the population. In one county a white population of 6,981 enjoyed an annual fund of $4,830, while Mobile, with a white population of 17,500, had no land fund whatever. Cane County, with 10,900 population, had less than $600, and Pike County, with 12,700 people, but $449. Sometimes a whole township would be owned by one man or a few families living on large plantations, who, out of the public-school money, would send their boys to the COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 487 university and their girls to expensive academies. There were few public schools in the State, the number of scholars being 35,000 to 40,000 of a population of 130,000 white children between the ages of 5 and 15. The great obstacle to the development of education had been hitherto the interminable disputes in and out of the legislature concerning the proper use and consolidation of the public-school funds. An attempt to take the sense of the people on the consolidation of the funds for general use failed from the neglect of a majority of the districts to vote under a doubt of the constitu¬ tionality of the measure. Under these circumstances the committee recommended the appointment of a superintendent of education for the State, with the exception of the Mobile district, with some improvement of the existing laws, leaving to subsequent investigations such action as would lead to the establishment of an effective system for the schooling of the entire white youthful population. There were 52 counties and 1,512 school townships in the State. This report of the committee of the legislature, Charles P. Robinson, chairman, was accompanied by a draft of an educational bill and tables, showing the organization and conditions of local school affairs. It appeared that, in 1851, 89 of these town¬ ships received from the taxation of the State $32,736, while the remaining townships received but $31,912. The latter amount was distributed in sums ranging from 50 cents to $150; “so much money thrown away by the State, for all practical purposes of education.” This report was submitted to the legislature on September 30, 1853. But there seems to have been no decisive action on the subject until January 24, 1854. The legislative committee, of which Judge A. B. Meek, of Mobile, was chair¬ man, contained as a member Mr. J. L. M. Curry, a young representative of the Tal¬ ladega district, henceforth to become a commanding figure in the educational affairs of his own and adopted State and the nation. The report of the committee, January 18, 1854, enlarges upon the revelations of the last year. An eloquent and condensed statement of the whole subject is contained in these sentences: “It is not only the highest interest but the clear right and imperative duty of a State, such as ours, to provide a system of common-school education. The property of the State is depend¬ ent for protection and safety upon such a suggestion, and should therefore pay for its establishment and maintenance.” Hitherto the location of the national grant of lands for the use of the separate townships of the State had been the chief cause of the obstacles to the establishment of such a system. “The means of education were furnished most liberally where they were not wanted, while the needy sections were left almost or entirely without them.” In 873 of the 1,572 townships the sum real¬ ized from 558,720 acres had reached the amount of $1,575,598. The remaining town¬ ships, nearly one-half the whole number, had received less than one-third that sum. “The fund, as now administered, is an unsatisfactory mass of misapplied bounty, pro¬ ducing inequalities inconsistent with the spirit of our institutions, establishing a class of accidental and not meritorious beneficiaries, and presenting aristocratic features prejudicial alike to social and educational excellence.” The committee proposed an arrangement similar to that adopted by several of the new Northwestern States; that the legislature should supply by general tax an annual sum that would reduce these inequalities and provide for an effective system of education for the entire State. Of the 140,000 children of school age 100,000 wTere receiving no school instruction. “So great mental destitution is apparent in no other State.” The example of other States is quoted. Notably, Louisiana is cited, which annually spent $450,000 in the support of a free-school system. At $2 per capita $280,000 would be required in Alabama, which could be raised in addition to the $80,000 income of the sixteenth section fund; a sum only one-fifth of the revenue of the State, and requiring no additional taxation. The chairman of the legislative committee reminds the legislature that the demand for this great advance in educational facilities is “clamorous,” coming from “the great body of the people who are the chief support of the State in peace and war, its 488 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899=1900. rightful rulers in all legislation, and their voice should be heard and obeyed.” He urges that “the elementary branches of learning at least should be free to all pupils, without money and without price.” The report closes with a vivid picture of the industrial capabilities of the State, prophetic of what has come to pass during the last twenty-five years of new life in this great Commonwealth. The bill reported by the committee was an elaborate document. It provided for an “educational fund,” consisting of (1) interest on a portion of the surplus revenue fund of 1836; (2) the income, at 8 per cent, of the proceeds of the sales of public lands, added to the national gratuity to Alabama in place of the valueless school lands of certain portions of the State in 1848; (3) the income, at 6 per cent, of funds com¬ ing from the sales of the sixteenth section lands in the several townships; (4) the sum of $100,000 paid by the State; (5) several appropriations of minor importance. The administration of the system was provided for by a State superintendent of education, three commissioners of free schools chosen in every county, and three trustees of schools for each township. The State superintendent was to be appointed for two years, by the general assembly, with a salary of $2,500, and the duties gen¬ erally assigned to this official. Two persons, elected for a year by popular vote, with the judge of probate, constituted a board of county school commissioners, with power to district the county, by consent of the local trustees, distribute the general funds, examine teachers, exercise a general supervision, and manage all general funds for building and furnishing schoolhouses. Every two years three trustees from the citizens of any township should be elected by general vote, to whom should be intrusted the duty of employing teachers, administering the local funds, and reporting to the county commissioners once in three months on the general condition of the schools. Five thousand dollars was appropriated for the support of the State superintendency. The general income should be distributed with a view to equalize, as far as possible, the previous inequalities of the small townships. All white children and youth from 5 to 18 years of age should be admitted to the free public schools, which should be properly graded, a moderate tuition fee being collected in cases where the salaries of teachers were too meager. The city of Mobile was exempted from the provisions of this law. General W. F. Perry was elected as first superintendent of public instruction under this law in 1855, and with a financial backing of $237,500 and a school population of 145,588 the State launched forth in the great experiment of educating all its white children and youth. In 1856 the number of children of school age was reported as 171,000 and the funds were increased to $267,690. The number of schools in 1856 was 2,260, with 89,000 pupils, which, added to the number in Mobile and the stu¬ dents in colleges and academies, made 100,000 under instruction in some form; one- fourth the white population of the State. In 1857 the fund had risen to $281,800, with 90,000 in school and 178,000 of school age. The excess of expenditure above the general fund was made up by contributions in the local districts, and private schools were subsidized for an extension of term. In this way a term of six school months in the year was said to have been provided. The board of cbunty commis¬ sioners gave place in 1856 to a county superintendency. In 1858 Superintendent Perry was succeeded by Mr. G. B. Duval, who reports 2,597 schools with 98,000 registered pupils, with the average daily attendance of 42,274, six and one-half months of school term, and an expenditure of $564,210; more than one-half the entire cost paid by the parents of children in attendance. But this grand avenue of popular education thus surveyed and laid open on paper by the people of Alabama, proved, from the first, no advance along a well-defined highway, but the common road of a new country, obstructed by forests, strewn with rocks and sloughs, almost impervious to travel. The superintendent reported, at the end of the first year, that from the difficulty of handling the embarrassed State funds, COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 489 the inefficiency and delays of local officials, and the indifference of that portion of the people most in need, the work had proceeded slowly. It was not till December, 1855, that this official was able to get in motion. The immense difficulties besetting a popu¬ lation spread over an area so vast, made it almost impossible to concentrate popular attention on a new and strange organization of public schools. The establishment of a county superintendency was a step forward, and, from the first, there wras a steady tendency among the masses toward the idea of popular education. But the rising tide of political agitation in 1858 appears to have submerged the movement, as for a number of years there are no published reports. Of course, under such a condition of affairs as prevailed from the first, it is impossible to estimate the actual value of the schools, the efficiency of the teachers, the regu¬ larity of attendance, the courses of study, the methods of instruction and discipline, and the general results of a school system beset by so many and serious hindrances. But the State had at last undertaken the great good work of schooling its white children, and has pursued it with varied success during the past forty years. The report of Supt. John Ryan in 1866 is a melancholy rehearsal of the calamities that had befallen the State since the opening of the civil war. There had been no reports from the educational department since October, 1859. Yet the public schools were, after a sort, kept open by the appointment of a provisional superintendent in July, 1865. The records, books, papers, etc., of this office were carted about the country in boxes to keep them from the hands of the spoilers during most of the time after 1863. Hon. J.B. Taylor, the predecessor of Superintendent Ryan, is credited with this almost romantic official devotion. No schools were opened in 1865, yet the superintendent believes that all classes of schools through the State were sustained to some extent by private enterprise. The public system was con¬ tinued in Mobile until April, 1865, the date of the occupation of the city by the Federal forces, and during the year following, by order of the commanding general of the military department, with an average daily attendance of 1,500 in the city and some 200 in the county. The superintendent issued an appeal to the people of the State to rally to the support of education. Although the schools had been depleted of their attendance by the terrible scourge of war, yet he recognized that the coming in of a new order of affairs w ould demand even greater efforts for the people’s instruction than of old. He notes the great desire of the people to avail themselves of such opportunities as remained, and congratulates the schools on the fact that large numbers of the better educated persons of the State are ready to take up the work of teaching. The city of Huntsville, in the extreme northeast of the State, as early as 1833 had established an academy for boys and girls, the female department with an attend¬ ance of 100, under the direction of three teachers educated in Miss Catharine Beecher’s school, in Hartford, Conn., engaged at a salary of $500 a year, with board. This school was among the first in the public-school system of the State and, like num¬ bers of the old-time Southern academies established by the people or private corpo¬ rations for public use, it is now included in the general common-school system of that, one of the most beautiful and flourishing of the cities of the State. In 1830 the population of Alabama was 309,527; in 1840, 590,756; in 1850, 771,623; in 1860, 964,201. From 1850 to 1860 nearly half the population were negro slaves. With the report of Superintendent Ryan, in 1866, the original system of public schools established in 1854 came to an end. By the constitution of 1867 the entire educational affairs of the Commonwealth were placed in charge of a State board and the schools were declared free from tuition fees. The history of the rise of the pres¬ ent scheme of public instruction dates from the year 1868, when the nevT system went into practical operation amid the discouragements and exasperations of the years immediately following the close of the civil war. 490 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. FLORIDA. The vast territory upon which, after its purchase from Spain by the United States in 1819, the general name of Florida was conferred, includes 58,680 square miles; 37,555,200 acres; as large as Great Britain and Ireland. No Southern State is so diver¬ sified in its opportunities for sustaining a dense population, and no semi-tropical State can boast a greater variety of products. One million acres of its area are still designated as “swamp lands,” a title that here, as in the Northwest, originally signified an unexplored area, sometimes of untold fertility. In 1830, the opening date of this essay, the population was 18,385 white, 844 free colored, 15,501 negro slaves; total 34,730. In 1840, the population had increased to 27,943 whites, 817 free colored, and 25,717 slaves; total 54,477. In 1850 there were 47,203 white, 932 free colored, and 39,310 slaves; total 87,445; of whom less than 20,000 are reported as under 20 and some 14,000 of proper school age — 5 to 15. The educational statistics of 1850, of doubtful accuracy, report 34 academies, with 49 teachers, 1,251 pupils, and $22,700 estimated income; 69 public schools, with 73 teachers and 1,878 pupils, costing the State and their patrons $32,000; a total of 4,812, however, were returned by families as attending school, with 4,000 persons above the age of 20 unable to read and write. These statistics of early Southern schools are known to be greatly misleading by the neglect to give the “ daily average attendance,” the only reliable test of the real schooling of a people. Otherwise, the new State, then only five years old as a community, admitted to the Union in 1845, might congratulate itself on having more than one-tenth of its entire white popula¬ tion under instruction. As it was, the unreliability of educational statistics at this period in our country was such that this and similar estimates can only be received as suggestions. It is an easier task to follow the slow rise of the common school in Florida during the twenty years of its life as a State of the Union, from 1845 to 1865, the close of the civil war. This story is so well told in the Circular of Information of the national Bureau of Education (No. 7, 1888), that there is little need, for the general purpose of the present essay, of doing more than furnishing a summary sketch of what was attempted and what was done up to 1860, when the report of the United States Census is that 2,032 pupils were instructed in the “public schools” at an expense of $20,099, in addition to the 4,486 pupils in “academies and other schools.” The present common-school system of Florida was spread on the statute books in 1868-69 and set to run its race from its humble beginning of 250 common schools with 7,500 pupils of both races in 1870; a school population, 5 to 21, of probably 75,000, 1 in 10 of whom attended school. The story to be told of Florida is essentially the same as in all the States of the South before the civil war. Here, as in Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama, there was, from the first, a well-defined common-school public, occasion¬ ally coming to the front and against almost insurmountable difficulties attempting to stir up the ruling class to a sense of the importance of educating the masses of the white people. In Florida the ordinary difficulties were increased by the fact that, as late as 1870, the majority of the population of the State was confined to 7 counties in the northern portion of this all-out-of-doors empire. In 1831, fourteen years before the admission of the Territory to the Union, the Florida Educational Society was formed in Tallahassee. It proposed nothing less than a S}Tstem of general education for, probably, some 5,000 white youth in the Territory. The governor of the Territory was authorized to appoint three commissioners to obtain all informa¬ tion necessary for founding an efficient system of education. An education fund was provided to support this movement and an attempt made to incorporate the manual-labor system of schools, then running its brief career of experiment in the country. But the effort was, from the very circumstances of the case, abortive. COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 491 The oldest settled city in the Territory reports that but half of the 341 children between 5 and 15 in the place, were in any school. Four years later, in 1835, an attempt was made by the territorial authorities to secure the national Congressional land grant, and in 1839 three school trustees were authorized to be chosen in each township to lease the school lands and apply the revenue to the instruction of the children. By subsequent amendment there was authorized a sort of supervision of the action of the trustees by the judge of probate of each county, who, as later in Texas, was named as superintendent of schools for his district. There seems to have been little to report as the result of this, the first attempt to plant the common school in what was then perhaps the least known physical area of the Union, with an Indian war on hand and nine-tenths of its terri¬ tory practically an unexplored wilderness. In 1849, four years after the admission of Florida to the Union, an appropriation was made by a legislative act to provide for the establishment of common schools for white pupils, of whom there were, between 5 and 15 years of age, more than 15,000 in the entire State. The sixteenth section of national school lands was consoli¬ dated, by 1852-1854, and the interest of the school fund established from this and some other sources was apportioned among the counties; a sum not exceeding 30 cents per capita to every child of school age. Although the counties were author¬ ized to tax not exceeding $4 per capita for every child of school age, only two of them seem to have acted at all towards reusing any addition to the sum received from the State. In 1853 the screw was turned somewhat tighter by a provision that the county commissioners might take from the county treasury such sums as were deemed necessary to the support of schools. But as there was no obligation to account to anybody for this operation there was little result, and such funds as were provided for many of the counties were passed over to the support of favorite private schools. By the influence of Hon. D. S. Walker the citizens of Tallahassee were permitted to establish a public school, supported by a tax levied on the people of the city, in 1852; placing this on the roll of southern cities that entered on the good work of public schooling before 1860. In 1858 the result of all these efforts was stated in the report of a school popula¬ tion of 20,855, with only $6,542.60 appropriated to all the counties from the interest of the very moderate school fund, and that a few counties were trying the experi¬ ment of schools in session three months in the year. All this had been done in the attempt to put into actual operation the provision of the first constitution of the State, formed in 1838, but adopted in 1845, which contained these provisions: “Sec. 1. The proceeds of all lands that have been, or may hereafter be, granted by the United States for the use of schools and a seminary or seminaries of learn¬ ing shall be and remain a perpetual fund, the interest of which, together with all monej'S derived from any other source applicable to the same object, shall be annually appropriated to the use of schools and seminaries of learning respectively and for no other purpose. “ Sec. 2. The general assembly shall take such measures as may be necessary to pre¬ serve from waste and danger all lands so granted and appropriated to the purposes of education.” The extent of these lands was 704,692 acres for common schools, with 400,000 acres additional, and 85,714 acres for the support of two seminaries, of which only 115,000 acres of the common-school lands had been sold and 47,000 acres of the seminary lands had been disposed of previous to 1873. Although the State fund was involved in the general collapse of 1865, yet the State assumed the annual payment of inter¬ est, which, in 1872, amounted to $15,000 from the common-school fund; not twice the $3,000 appropriated by the Peabody education fund for the support of common schools in Florida during that year. This record confirms the remark of the author of the History of Education in 492 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Florida, made in 1889: “The old order was well-nigh void of any system, and until a very recent period there were no studies pursued in the schools that would be classed under the higher education.” In 1840-1845, years before the admission of the State to the Union, there were reported 18 academies with 735 pupils, with 51 common schools and 925 scholars. The census of 1850 gives 47,000 white inhabi¬ tants, for whom were provided 34 academies and 69 common schools with 3,129 stu¬ dents. In 1860 we read ol 97 public schools with 2,032 pupils, and 138 academies and other schools with 4,486 students, with an income of $20,000 from all sources for public schools. Tire result of the attempt to organize the secondary and higher education by the State before 1860 was even less a success. In 1823 Congress granted an entire town¬ ship, both in east and west Florida, for “a seminary of learning,” to be located by the Secretary of the Treasury; and this was increased, in 1845, on the admission of Florida as a State, by the addition of two entire townships of land. In 1851 the legislature enacted that “ two seminaries of learning shall be established, one on the east and the other on the west of the Suwanee River, first for the purpose of instruct¬ ing male and female persons in the art of teaching in the common schools, and next to instruct in mechanic arts, geometry, chemistry, husbandry, and the fundamental laws on which depend the rights and duties of citizenship.” Here was a programme, then, well up to the ideal of any State in the Union in respect to normal schools, industrial education, and instruction in civics. This act was followed by another, bearing on the organization and conduct of these schools; one established at Tallahassee and the other at Ocala. In 1862 each of these semi¬ naries was placed, by law, in charge of a board of education, appointed by the gov¬ ernor, composed of six members with the county superintendent of education, to whom were intrusted the appointment of teachers, the establishment of an experi¬ mental school, the erection and furnishing of buildings, and appointments for the industrial department, with the charge and distribution of all State funds appropri¬ ated thereto. Each county was entitled to as many free students as it had members in the lower house of the legislature; ail others were expected to pay “reasonable tuition.” In 1848 the East Florida Seminary was located at Ocala, where it remained until 1866, when it was removed to Gainesville. Until its removal and even until a later period, 1877, it seems to have been little more than a local high school, the counties included in the organization rarely sending free students. The West Florida Seminary, at Tallahassee, was established in 1856, by the offer of $10,000 from the city and the donation, in 1857, of a valuable academical school property rated at $10,000 and a grant of $2,000 annually for the teaching of the children of the city. In 1858 another seminary property was donated for a girls’ “annex.” In 1882 these two departments were merged in a consolidated organization. Before the war the college served an excellent purpose as a superior local school for the State capital. In 1850 there were in Florida no college libraries reported, and only one public- school library of 200 volumes, with the State library of 4,000 volumes. This deficiency was made good during the subsequent twenty years by 75 public and 178 private- school libraries, containing more than 100,000 volumes. The new era of education in Florida began after the close of the civil war, under the act of 1868-69, and the appointment by the “reconstruction” governor of Mr. C. T1 lurston Chase as superintendent of common schools. Mr. Chase for four years labored at the pioneer work of commending the system of general education for all sorts and conditions of children and youth to the public mind. From the small beginning of 250 schools and 7,500 pupils, in a State then containing 188,000 people — 96,000 white and 92,000 colored, the bulk of the population in 9 counties — the work has gone on to its present condition, where Florida aspires to a superior position among the common-school States of the South. COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 4U3 MISSISSIPPI. The State of Mississippi has an area of 47,156 square miles, 30,179,840 acres. The first settlers in 1763 occupied a strip of territory along the Mississippi River, 20 miles wide at the north and 60 at the south. The remainder of this immense realm was largely a wilderness, an appendage to Alabama, originally known as western Georgia, which in 1802 ceded to the United States all territory outside its present limits. In 1803 the vast territory of Louisiana was acquired by purchase from France. Until 1795 Mississippi was alternately under the French, English, and Spanish dominion. The Louisiana purchase, in 1803, gave actual possession of this realm of fighting sav¬ ages. Only in 1817 was this portion of the United States territory admitted as a State to the Union. In 1820 the new State of Mississippi had a population of 42,000 white and 33,000 colored; total, 75,000. By 1830 a considerable portion of the State had been reclaimed from the savages, and the population during the ensuing ten years — by 1840— had leaped to 375,000, in 1850 to 607,000, and in 1860 to 791,000. At each enumeration after 1830 the negro, as now the freedman, shows a majority. The educational clause in the first constitution of the State, in 1817, is a repetition of the good old deliverance of the ordinance of the Northwest Territory: “Religion, morality, and knowdedge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.” But, up to 1820, nothing had been done save the establishment of a dozen academies, one of which, at Washington, the original capital of the Territory, assumed the compli¬ mentary title, Jefferson College. The institution was subsidized by a periodical gift of Congressional lands and “fought a good fight” against discouraging odds, until it was cut down to the rank of a village academy by the removal of the capital to Jackson. Apart from the charter and subsidy, the State had nothing to do with these academical schools, they all being either private, corporate, or denominational seminaries. In 1821 the people of the village of Columbus, on the extreme eastern border of the State, the whole country north, wTest, and south being largely a wilderness, took their own educational affairs in hand and, from their portion of the sixteenth section school lands, built up the Franklin Academy, which for two generations held up the banner as the “first free school of note and promise in the State.” It still exists as the higher department of the common-school system in that pleasant little city, which also contains the State Normal and Industrial College for white girls, one of the most characteristic new departures in the later development of Southern education. In the same year an attempt wras made to establish a literary fund for the educa¬ tion of poor white children and the general support of schools. The bountiful gift of 800,000 acres of school lands by the National Government was largely squan¬ dered through the same craze for a rapid increase of population that in so many States has wasted this patrimony of the children. In Mississippi a system of leasing the lands for ninety-nine years on personal security was established, which, by 1845, had reduced the $2,000,000 reasonably expected for their future value to a dreary waste of “promises to pay,” too often not worth the paper on which they wrere written. The little that was gathered together from the wreck in the establishment of the literary fund was lost in the collapse of the Planters’ Bank, through which this and other public funds wrere manipulated out of existence. Nevertheless the work of establishing academies, with or without college names, went on apace. During the twenty years from 1830 to 1850, seventy-six of these institutions of various degrees of merit and demerit were established. The majority had only a brief history, although several of them became the foundations of schools now regarded as the leading seminaries in the State. On them and the habit of sending the sons of the superior families abroad and to the North for college train¬ ing the State for more than a quarter of a century after its admission to the Union 494 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. chiefly depended for everything above the ordinary elementary and a partial supply of the secondary education, until the year 1846. Several of these secondary schools had before this assumed the name of college and doubtless did, like all the original seminaries of the country, give instruction in the classics. Yet Governor A. G. Brown, the father of the only genuine early attempt to establish a system of public schools in the State, declared: “ During the twenty years from 1820 to 1840 no less than 110 colleges and academies, male and female, had been inaugurated in Missis¬ sippi. Most of these had a fitful existence and then went down to the great recep¬ tacle of old and useless things — the tomb of the Capulets. The children of Mississippi were largely educated in private schools.” Probably, there was in this new State which, as late as 1830, had only a population of 75,000 white people, with not over 15,000 of proper school age, 5 to 15, scattered over a Commonwealth still two-thirds in the woods, with such a lack of large public spirit that each little settlement might well set up its claim of neighborhood “rights,” a more effective description of family, township, and neighborhood schooling than in any other away from the great world. For, after the first miscel¬ laneous immigration to the “shore” of the great river, the State was largely settled by the better class of planters, coming from all the old Atlantic Southern States in patriarchal fashion, bringing their household goods with a long train of the servile class. There was neither an isolated mountain region nor an almost uninhabitable coast country in Mississippi as a huge propagating district of an illiterate multitude, as in some of the original Southern Atlantic commonwealths. At an early period there came to the State an unusually large number of Northern immigrants, of whom many of its superior people, like Walker, Prentiss, Gholson, and others, were illustrious representatives. These people, many of them college graduates and men of loc?J influence at home, would not neglect the education of their families. And as the fertility of this new paradise made the acquirement of what was there regarded wealth a comparatively easy matter, they would not be interested in the second-rate plantation “academy,” or even the so-called “ college” in a far-off village, but would send their boys back to the old home schools, northward, or even abroad, and give the girls such opportunities as could be brought to their own families through the tutor, the governess, and the neighborhood school. This accounts, on the one hand, for the fact that in the matter of white illiteracy Mississippi has always, as to-day, remained far ahead of the majority of the Southern States, 11.9 per cent over 10 years of age; and, on the other, the less creditable fact that, for all practical purposes, there was no effective system of public schooling for the masses of the white people until the period of reconstruction at the close of the civil war. But Mississippi, like every State of the South, was never misled into hostility to popular education by her foremost public men. Her roll of educational governors will bear comparison with that of any State of the Union at that early day. As early as 1821, when the State was but 4 years old, Governor George Poindexter declared in his message to the legislature: ‘ ‘ The education of our youth is the main pillar of the temple of liberty, without which the superstructure can not be supported; and it is equally true that ignorance is the footstool of tyranny and the irrevocable precursor of the downfall of the Republic. ’ ’ In 1825 Governor Wal ter Leake said: ‘ ‘Without knowl¬ edge, republican virtue must dwindle to a shadow; in such a state of things liberty is only a misnomer for licentiousness.” In 1832 Governor David Holmes wrote: “ It is an acknowledged truth that the facility of obtaining an education is a subject of primary importance, and ought to claim the unremitting attention of those to whom the high functions of legislation are committed. ’ ’ In 1 836 Governor Charles Lynch said : ‘ ‘ Pri¬ mary schools are regarded as deserving in an especial manner from legislative action that fostering care necessary to impart to them the life and vigor for the diffusion of knowledge.” He declares the revenues of this State for this work “abundant and ample, requiring only a judicious appropriation to effect the purpose.” This was COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-18G0. 495 before the wreck of the national school land fund, which, if properly handled, would have enabled the State, with its limited population, to have surpassed all in the South in the support of common schools. In 1839 Governor A. G. McNutt told the legislature that “it is essential to the preservation of our liberty to provide sufficient means and proper inducements to insure the enlightenment of every child in the State. Common schools should be established in every township having a sufficient number of electors to authorize the employment of a teacher. The children of the rich and the poor could thus acquire learning sufficient to qualify them for the ordi¬ nary avocations of life, free of charge.” Governor T. M. Tucker, in 1843-44, reminds the x^eople who pay a school tax without children to be educated in common schools that “the whole community would thus be benefited, education diffused, extra pro¬ tection of life, liberty, and the property of the citizens, by imparting peace, quiet, and stability to the government.” Greatest of ail these was Governor A. G. Brown, in 1844-1846. He boldly asserts that “for universal education we are to look to common schools, and not to those great seminaries where the more elevated studies of polite literature are taught. My advice would be given to a good system of common schools which should be open to all, and at which the poor should be educated gratis. There could be no greater or more fatal error than for the rich to say ‘ we have no interest in the education of the poor.’ The man who brings forward and carries successfully through a well-digested plan of common schools will erect for himself in the hearts of his countrymen a monument more lasting than marble — as enduring as time itself.” This brave and able chief magistrate, taking advantage of the rapid increase of population and wealth in the State during the years from 1830 to 1840 that followed the clearing out of the Indians, with the securing of the school lands obtained from the Chickasaw reservation, 174,550 acres, valued at $6 per acre, all save 37,000 acres of which had been sold, from which the State had realized a school fund of $100,000, was able to open the batteries upon the legislature in a way more vigorous and practical than any of his predecessors. In 1843 the legislature, anticipating the loss that befell the school fund from the loose and shiftless legislation of their predecessors, made a partial reparation by pro¬ viding that the State treasury should issue bonds for the seminary fund, with inter¬ est at 5 per cent per annum, representing all moneys previously paid into the State treasury on account of the fund, from the time when the sum was so paid up to the date of the passage of the act, January 26, 1843; therefore the governor was directed to establish this fund with annual interest at the rate of 8 per cent upon all moneys due from the State. The university lands had been sold in 1833 for $277,000, of which $200,000 had been lost in the downfall of the Planters’ Bank. But, with the legis¬ lature not interested in the movement for a home university, the governor dilates with especial energy on the habit of the leading people of the State of sending their boys to the North and abroad for the higher schooling. Already had the antislavery agitation in the Northern States assumed a phase especially alarming to a State so poorly acquainted as Mississippi with both the mining and manufacturing indus¬ tries of her more fortunate neighbors, in which the resources of the Appalachian Mountain realm hold the making of a new empire, and with a colored contingent reaching 197,000 of the 376,000 of its entire population, the governor shrewdly avails himself of the rising discontent in the State to discuss the necessity of the great work of the home schooling of the boys. He fell into the mistake of favoring a division of the funds of the higher education by the scheme of a central university and auxil¬ iary branches, by which the State of Georgia is still embarrassed. In 1840 Governor McNutt declared that “the discordant views of the members of the legislature in regard to the location of the State university have heretofore pre¬ vented the passage of a law providing for the final disposition of the fund,” and again urged prompt action on the subject. The result was that “a law was passed 496 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. providing that seven possible sites for a university should be selected by the legis¬ lature, and three commissioners elected to secure a location.” The question of the selection of the sites woke up the slumbering element of the quarrel between the northern and southern portions of the State, which had more than once come in sight of the issue of a threatened secession of the ‘ ‘ old south, ’ ’ as that section of the State was called. The real contest was finally narrowed down to the question between Oxford in the north, and Mississippi City on the gulf in the south. The final choice of Oxford by the legislature by a majority of only 1 did not leave the defeated portion of the commonwealth in a very enthusiastic mood to send their sons to what they regarded the headquarters of political corruption and heresy. Indeed, the proposi¬ tion in 1846 to put the university in operation, precipitated a violent discussion, and the appropriations were only voted by a sectional majority. By this act the trustees were authorized to expend $25,000. The power of full control over the seminary fund given by the act of 1844 was repealed. On January 14, 1846, the corner stone of the principal edifice was laid. By 1848 the buildings were so far advanced that the legislature voted an income of $11,000 per annum — $6,200 by direct appropriation, and the remainder the interest of some $90,000, all that remained of the exploited seminary fund. At a subsequent meeting of the trustees it was decided that the president should receive an annual salary of $2,000, and the professors of $1,500. A notable act of the legislature in 1848 provided that no intoxicating drinks should be sold within 5 miles of the college grounds, and the thirsty student was remanded to the good nature of his temporary host or to a raid on the shelves of the apothecary for relief. The faculty was elected in 1848. In this appointment the board of trustees had an illustration of the embar¬ rassment of riches that confronts a new administration at Washington, there being 17 candidates for the presidency, 60 for the professorship of mathematics and astron¬ omy, 67 for the ancient languages, and more than 30 fo:1 natural philosophy and chemistry; 180 in all. From this multitude, Gov. G. F. Holmes was chosen first president, with a faculty of three professors of mathematics, natural philosophy and chemistry, and the classical languages. The university was opened in 1848, with two classes and 60 students. In 1849 an addition to this number was made by the appointment of Judge A. B. Longstreet who, in 1856, resigned to accept the presi¬ dency of the South Carolina College at Columbia. The Mississippi institution suffered a great loss by the resignation of Dr. Frederick Barnard, after the beginning of the civil war. In 1854 the chair of political science and laws was established. None of the members of the original faculty of the university were natives, and but one was a resident of the State; Mr. George F. Holmes was by birth an English¬ man, called from William and Mary College, Virginia; another, a native of Kentucky and a graduate of the United States Military Academy at West Point; the last, a South Carolinian by birth and a graduate of the University of Georgia. The peculiar diffi¬ culties of an isolated situation, deficiency of income, scarcity of text-books, etc., were at an early day appreciated. The first set of students appears to have been even more unruly than even the regulation life of that department of a Southern college would warrant ; it being said that “ never was an institution of learning attended by a body of students so disorderly and turbulent.” Under all these drawbacks, it was not remarkable that the university “made haste slowly,” the attendance for only two of the first ten years ever exceeding 178. In 1849 the vacant presidential chair was filled by the election of Rev. (afterwards Judge) A. B. Longstreet, LL. D., whose administration continued until 1856. Although the attendance was reduced to 76 during the first year of his administra¬ tion, it reached the highest figure previous to 1860 on the eve of his departure to assume the position of president of the South Carolina College at Columbia. It is declared that the presidency of Dr. Longstreet was a great success in establishing discipline among the somewhat crude and youthful student body, through the exer- COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 497 cise of the line executive capacity afterwards displayed in his success in the South Carolina College. The loss to Mississippi by the departure of President Longstreet was more than repaid by the appointment of Dr. Frederick A. P. Barnard, who left the University of Alabama for a professorship in the University of Mississippi. His appointment at Oxford was confirmed in 1859 by the title of “chancellor.” It may almost be said that the proper educational history of the State University of Mississippi began with the appointment of Dr. Barnard to the chief position of direction. This eminent educator, perhaps the most eminent of the numerous per¬ sonal contributors of the old Northeast to the higher education of the South, was born in Sheffield, Mass., in 1809. Pie came of excellent New England stock, his paternal ancestors both in Connecticut and Massachusetts being of the most valuable type of citizenship, while, through his mother, he traced his ancestry up to Roger Will iams. His early school life, in which he was put to the regulation task of com¬ mitting school books to memory, including the English and Latin grammar, at once stimulated this useful faculty and filled him with a profound disgust for the mechan¬ ical methods which then held sway in all dealings with the humanities. He soon found his way out of this mental prison house into the open highway of literature, mathematics, and the study of modern languages. He graduated at the age of 19 from Yale College, not only with the highest class honors but with a reputation already gained for scholarship in more than one line of acquisition. After two years engaged in teaching in Hartford, Conn., he was appointed to a tutorship in Yale at the age of 21, where he remained a year. Meanwhile he had published a number of school books on arithmetic, edited a treatise on conic sections,., and valuable writings upon the languages of Europe, with all of which, except the Slavonic, he became familiar. He was for a time connected with the asylum for the deaf and dumb in Hartford, Conn., and afterwards in New York, and there pursued with great interest his investigations on the line of the natural methods of instruc¬ tion and metaphysics. Pie had also developed a talent for journalism, which he fol¬ lowed all his life, and became a skillful, practical printer by working at off hours in school and college. A treatise on grammar was a part of his versatile authorship. In 1837, at the age of 28, Dr. Barnard had the call to “go South,” which at this early period came to so many of the superior young men from the Northern States,, to positions in the rising colleges of that section. His first service was in the Uni¬ versity of Alabama, in the city of Tuscaloosa. He appeared before the legislature of Virginia, at Richmond, on his way southward and, largely through his efforts, the establishment of the present asylum for the deaf and dumb at Staunton, Va., was greatly furthered. At the new University of Alabama his teaching soon became con¬ spicuous. He published the Alabama Almanac in 1839, and for several years edited a series of journals and periodicals. He became widely known as a popular lecturer on subjects connected with the higher educational institutions, and showed his growing appreciation of the superior schooling of young women by inviting the pupils of the Tuscaloosa Female Seminary and the ladies of the city to his lectures in the university. In 1846 Dr. Barnard was placed on the commission to run the boundary line between Alabama and Florida. In 1848 he occupied the chair of chemistry in the university and reconstructed the scheme of instruction in that, department. One of his most conspicuous services to the university was his appointment to examine and report on the proposition to substitute the system of elective studies pursued in the University of Virginia for that already in operation in his own university. PI is arguments against this scheme, which has captured so many of the higher institu¬ tions of the South, although they did not prevent a three-years’ experiment with the method in the University of Alabama, were fully justified by the result. In a series of letters to Hon. A. B. Meek, of Mobile, Professor Barnard outlined in full the advanced ideas of college discipline which are now being adopted by many of the leading institutions in the country. His idea was that the troubles in college disci- ED 1900 - 32 498 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. pline are chiefly owing to the artificial separation of the students, in distinction from the ordinary notions of good breeding, and the making of college life a charmed pre¬ serve within which the crudeness of youth can be vaunted in grand contempt of the outside world. As a vital part of this condition was the notion that an institution of learning should be established in a wilderness, or isolated from the general life of the community in a town. His final service to Alabama was in connection with the first geological survey of the State — to point out the great value of the enormous mineral deposits and urge the importance of railroad connections for their development. So it was not as a tyro, but as a coming man at home and abroad, that Dr. Barnard came to the new University of Mississippi in the eighth year from its establishment. The vigorous administration of President Longstreet had overcome the difficulty of student insubordination, and the institution was ready for his great executive power in the proper development of the higher education. He first came in 1854 as pro¬ fessor of mathematics and natural philosophy. At the outset lie was confronted by a deficiency in the means for the prosecution of scientific and mathematical studies which had already prevented the acceptance of a call to this position by other emi¬ nent men. He prepared a memorial to the legislature setting forth the importance to the university of this department, followed by an address to the fathers of the State, which secured an appropriation of $20,000 a year for five years. So well was this sum applied that, on assuming the chair of the presidency in 1856, the university in general respects was fully abreast of the better sort of col¬ leges in the Union. His address to the graduating class of 1856 on “the relation which exists between the education of the university and the common schools” was one of the most notable deliverances by any high university official in the Southern States in behalf of the struggling cause of general education as applied to the neces¬ sities of the white people of the Commonwealth, and especially was it valuable in connection with the effort to make a success of the new common-school system in Mississippi, already under fire from the hostility of its enemies and the general apathy — still everywhere the deadliest foe of the people’s common school. He also developed at length, in a pamphlet widely read, his idea of the organization of a proper university; on the one hand providing for a college course as the foundation of specialties in the direction of practical industries, and showing that the schooling of a “ business ’ ’ or trade seminary could not fill the place of a proper post-graduate course, which would furnish the country with the captains of industry to lead the grand army of intelligent workmen, armed with the mighty forces of labor-saving machinery of the new age. In connection with these valuable labors President Barnard instituted important reforms in the conduct of college affairs, to relieve the overwork of the professors by the appointment of four tutors, and generally to introduce methods in the admin¬ istration. All this time the institution rvas running the gauntlet of a perpetual assault on the soundness of its religious faith by leaders of the different churches. The president himself had been consecrated by a bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church and during his presidency with great acceptance had served as rector and pastor in the village church of that denomination. But this did not lessen the force of the violent attacks on his religious and moral character, especially by certain incompetent professors displaced by his influence. The governor of the State was made the chairman of the board of trustees of the university, and in 1859 the title of the chief executive official was changed from president to chancellor. A proposition that the university should be included in the plan of a series of observations con¬ nected with meteorology of capital importance was favorably received and the prepa¬ rations already made; as was also a contract for the building of a great astronomical telescope by Alvan Clark, of Cambridge, Mass. All these plans were suspended by the breaking out of the civil war. The development of this broad policy of Chancellor Barnard, under favorable con- COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 499 ditions, promised to lift the University of Mississippi to the front of the State univer- versities of the South. But all went down in defeat at the coming on of the great civil war. The news of the fall of Fort Sumter found a military company, “The University Greys,” organized and drilled and demanding from the governor of the State the opportunity to be mustered into the Confederate service. Contrary to the advice of Professor (afterwards Senator and United States Justice) Lamar and Con¬ federate President Jefferson Davis, who wisely demurred to this early destruction of “the seed corn of the Confederacy,” the permission was given. After satisfying himself that the parents of the students generally approved of this conduct, Chan¬ cellor Barnard resigned himself to the inevitable course of events. The student company was ordered to Virginia and saw active service in the first battle of Manas¬ sas, and Professor Lamar was elected a lieutenant-colonel in the Confederate army. The university, practically dissolved by the departure of the majority of the students, was finally suspended by the resignation of Chancellor Barnard and the faculty, save two of the professors, who remained on the ground and conducted a high school during the war. The buildings and estate were used for hospital purposes by the Confederate, and at the close of the war passed into the charge of the Union forces. By the faithful efforts of Professor Hilgard, State geologist, the majority of the valu¬ able instruments and the library were saved. The trustees, in their report to the legislature, declared that at no period had the university been in a condition of such prosperity with the most flattering expectations for the future as when it was sub¬ merged by the rising flood of civil war. The subsequent history of the university and the distinguished career of its great chancellor, Dr. Barnard, especially as president of Columbia College and University, New York, which, under his powerful administration rose to its present eminence, belongs to the educational record of the country after the return of peace in 1865. The war also swept down the majority of the academical and collegiate schools then existing in the State, including the already discarded experiment of the State com¬ mon schools, not to be renewed until 1868-1870. For the establishment and support of the University of Mississippi, from 1846 until its suspension at the outbreak of the civil war in 1862, the State had expended the sum of $480,000. In 1854 a chair of “governmental science and law” had been established with Dr. William F. Stearns, and afterwards Hon. L. Q. C. Lamar, as pro¬ fessors, and a class was formed of 7 in 1854 and 28 in 1859. In 1848 the seminary, fund in the control of the State was $200,000, on which the legislature returned an annual interest of 6 per cent, with the addition of $2,000 for the support of the department of law. Another annual appropriation of $20,000 for a period of five years for improvements and deficiencies was made in 1856; of which $80,000 was used for the library, observatory, chemistry, and apparatus, the latter being declared by experts ‘ ‘ the most perfect in its arrangements and appointments then existing in the Union,” and the library containing 4,000 volumes. The cabinet of minerals was also declared one of the best in the country. For all these superiorities the university was greatly indebted to the administration of Chancellor Barnard. In all that pertained to the study of the natural sciences at that period in American colleges the furnishing of the university seems to have been well up to the highest standard. But the State held back in the reparation of the great losses brought upon the seminary fund from the inexperience and mismanagement of its legislature. Governor McRae, in 1856, declared that the sum due the university from its orig¬ inal fund by the State was $874,000 instead of $200,000. The latter sum, made up from the fragments saved from the general wreck, was paid into the treasury in cash. In 1880 the legislature of the State by formal act assumed the lost seminary fund as a State obligation to the extent of $544,000, and ordered the payment of 6 per cent interest. This arrangement first gave the university a permanent reliable working fund of $32,643 annually. Every senatorial district in the State was allowed to send 500 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. a student free to the university and all young men preparing for the Christian min¬ istry and all students unable to pay tuition were received without charge, with a pledge that the name of the beneficiary should be held in profound secrecy. Dur¬ ing the ten years previous to 1859, 241 in the department of liberal arts and 34 in the department of law had been graduated. The attendance had risen from 80 in 1849 to 168 in 1859. The years 1856 and 1857 had seen 233 and 264 in attendance, the subsequent falling off being attributed to the establishment of two denomina¬ tional colleges, in 1857, within 50 miles of the university and the withdrawal of stu¬ dents representing the religious bodies to which those colleges belonged from the State institution. The State feeling that prompted this movement had been rudely strained by an acrimonious debate on the choice of the first faculty, on a motion by two trustees that no clergyman should be eligible to a position as teacher, and no department of instruction including the subject of religion should be established. Although the motion did not prevail, it did awaken the activity of the different religious bodies in the State to push the work of building up, each, a rival college to the State University. Among the faculty and teachers of the University of Mississippi at this period were several gentlemen afterwards of local and national distinction, among whom were Judge Alexander M. Clayton; Hon. Joseph Thompson; President A. B. Long- street, of native parentage, though born in Augusta, Ga. ; Chancellor Frederick A. P. Barnard, and Prof, (afterwards United States Senator and Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States) L. Q. C. Lamar. Subsequent to the reorganization in 1865 it enjoyed the presidency of John X. Waddel, Gen. Alexander P. Stewart, and Edward Mayes, the accomplished author of the valuable circular of information of the United States Bureau of Education, the History of Education in Mississippi, to which acknowledgment is here made for essential aid in the preparation of the present essay. Some ten years after the establishment of the State University the first move¬ ment was made in favor of a similar opportunity for the higher education of the young women of Mississippi. Miss Reneau, a native of Mississippi and a resident of Grenada, in 1856 caused to be presented to the legislature a memorial praying for the establishment of a chartered State college for girls. The indorsement of Gov¬ ernor McRae and the importance of the subject carried a bill through the legisla¬ ture iii 1856, with a selection of Yalabusha County as its site. The scheme failed for lack of any endowment. Three times afterwards did this enthusiastic lady renew the effort, once in the form of a bill for a Congressional endowment of the college by 500,000 acres of land. No action being secured for the scheme, the persistent Miss Reneau again attempted to revive it, in the form of a female department of the University of Mississippi, in 1872. In this form it again passed the legislature, but with the fatal provision that all action of the State should be conditional on the favorable action of Congress. This not being secured, the scheme again fell to the ground, to be finally resumed by the passage of another bill, in 1873, incorporating “The Reneau University of Mississippi.” This college, on paper, was never born into the world of mortal existence, for lack of funds. The persistent pioneer removed to the State of Tennessee, where she spent her life. But her idea lived and in 1879 was taken up by Mrs. Annie Coleman Peyton. After a protracted campaign of five years the present industrial institute and college for white girls was established at Columbus, in 1884. This institution, which aims at concentrating in one great school the academical, industrial, and normal train¬ ing of girls, at the expense and under the supervision of the State, was one of the most notable results of the great revival of popular education in the South since the close of the civil war. It has succeeded under great difficulties in Mississippi, and has already been adopted on a larger scale by the States of Georgia, Alabama, South and North Carolina, and will doubtless become a permanent feature in the educa- COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 501 tional life of the State. In 1890 the State and the city of Columbus had expended upon this institution the sum of $245,000. The attendance had been as large from the first as the capacity of the buildings and the town would justify, from 341 in 1885-86 to 312 in 1889-90. A few sporadic schools in Mississippi, from the year 1803, had been supported by the sixteenth section national gifts of land and, from the year 1821, to some extent, schools had existed by provision of the literary fund. But the State owed its first serious attempt to provide for the general schooling of its white children and youth to the same indefatigable friend of the people’s education as had initiated the move¬ ment in 1844 for the State University. Governor A. G. Brown was one of the rare class of public men who do not content themselves with the intermittent or even eloquent patronage of popular education in an official document, whose chief value lies in its adaptation for use on the stump or by the press in the engineering of a hotly contested election. He spoke out and spoke again. Previous to his first elec¬ tion as governor of the State he issued an address to the people of Mississippi urging the necessity of a good system of schools which should “give to every white child, free of charge, the advantages of a liberal education.” In his inaugural address, in 1844, he dilated at length on the same necessity. Not discouraged by the indif¬ ference of the legislature, he issued to the presidents of the boards of police in different counties a letter of inquiry concerning the use made of the sixteenth sec¬ tion school lands. He was supported by Judge Thatcher, a native of Boston., Mass., who addressed a letter to the governor on the same topic. He forced the scheme of general education into the platform of both political parties and was elected a second time on the Democratic ticket, with a full understanding of his great interest in the cause. The result was the act of 1846, which, for the first time, attempted the establishment of a uniform system of common schools in Mississippi. The law provided that a board of five commissioners for each county should be appointed by the board of county police, one for each police district. This board had power to designate certain schools as “common”, with a general supervision over them, and to license teachers whose salaries were to be paid from the county school fund. The boards of police could also lay a special tax for common schools, by the consent of a majority of the resident heads of families given in writing. The county school fund was to consist of several taxes received from a variety of sources, among which were liquor saloons, peddlers, etc. The school commissioners were intrusted with the general management of the sixteenth section school lands in behalf of the different townships and were required to make an annual report to the secretary of state, who was, ex officio, State commissioner of common schools. But the scheme was weighted by the fatal defect of so much of the original South¬ ern public-school legislation; its permissive character. Any township that had a larger portion of the school lands than its neighbor would refuse to go into a general county union of funds. The heads of families could control the taxing power of the county, if disposed. The governor, in his last term of office, recognized the partial failure of the law and proposed its repeal, with the substitution of a more vigorous statute and the addition of a State normal school for the training of teachers of both sexes. He was taken away to Washington as a member of Congress, and the legisla¬ ture “ran wild” in the passage of four additional laws, fashioned to meet the special wants of different portions of the State, represented by 5, 6, 7, and 17 counties, the remaining 35 counties going on under the law of 1846. In 1849 the auditor of the State made a report to the legislature to the effect that already in some counties schools were established. The State was in a fever of excitement over the rapid immigration that had increased the population to 600,000. In 1848 there were 2,540 children between 6 and 20 attending the common schools, 1,300 of them in the city of Columbus, 47 denominational and 11 private academies reporting. The secretary, in 1851, reports that owing to the lack of special and local statistics the law pro- 502 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. viding for a general system 'of common aehools was virtually repealed. “ Indeed it is difficult to tell what the law is.” He was able to report only for 13 counties. He concludes by saying: “It is not so much my purpose to make a report upon schools as to show why I have not done it.” From this date to 1859-60 the legislative tables groaned under the succession of educational bills for the benefit of different localities of the State, the legislature of 1859 and 1860 having passed more than 26 statutes of this sort. The result of the movement from 1846 to 1860 was practically the building up of academies in several quarters of the State and a miscellaneous “keeping the movement before the people.” But for all “aid and comfort ” to popular education, it was little but a noisy and con¬ fusing “thundering in the index” preparatory to a rational scheme for the education of the children and youth. All this was going on in connection with a good deal of private, parochial, and neighborhood schooling. Between the years 1850 and 1860 35 academies and colleges were chartered in the State. The governors still kept up their urgent plea for better things. Governor Mat¬ thews in 1850 declared that the common school system adopted in 1846, “if not a total failure, has fallen short of the expectation of its friends.” He recommends, “after ascertaining what available revenues we possess, to supply any deficit that may be required to carry out a general system of common school education by a tax upon the persons and property of all the citizens of the State.” Gov. John A. Quitman in 1851 returned to the subject and urges “the adop¬ tion as early as possible of an effectual common school system.” In 1858 Governor McWillie proposes that “a State superintendent of schools be appointed to traverse the State and find out what is being done, and that all appropriations be suspended until this information can be obtained.” He reminds the people that “we have expended hundreds of thousands of dollars for the benefit of thieves and murderers hi the management of a penitentiary. Let the money of the State be expended in the education of the people, and it will be a better appropriation and prevent more crime than such institutions.” The only reply to these earnest reminders of neglected duty was the increased scat¬ tering fire of local statutes, passed evidently at the instigation of any representative of a locality which desired some peculiar and charitable arrangement for deciding on some plan for “not doing it.” Much, however, should be attributed to the growing excitement in the field of national politics. The leading public men of the State were dominated by this absorbing question, every year, like a threatening cloud, drifting nearer and nearer. The majority of the legislature were in no state of mind to attempt the construction of a complete system of universal education in the face of a wasted school fund and the general opposition to taxation for any purpose. Thus, while the families of the upper class in this way — by home, private, and denomina¬ tional schools — supplied their own educational wants, and the lowrer class of illiterate white people did not care for more than their own supply of learning for their chil¬ dren, the burning zeal of every religious sect to gather its own share of public patron¬ age for its own system of academies and colleges, with the exasperation of a class of agitators against the use of all Northern schoolbooks and the employment of North¬ ern teachers, and a state of society in which every man and every neighborhood seemed to be living independently, and all concerted action of a community gave place to a morbid and implacable assertion of personal and local independence, it was impossible that the American common school could find its home in the Missis¬ sippi of a generation ago. It was not until 1867, at the end of this bitter experience of school life, that the educational public lifted its head and began, amid the tumults and exacerbations of the period of reconstruction, to lay the foundations of what at present — thirty years later — is at last assuming the form and substance of an effective system of public instruction for all orders and conditions of people in this Commonwealth. COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 503 KENTUCKY. The history of education in Kentucky, from its first recognized existence as the great “all-out-of-doors” west of old Virginia, in 1780, to the full establishment of a system of common school education founded on a permanent school fund in 1850, is the record of a prolonged conflict between the friends of popular education and the scholastic ideals of the mother State, which held on a full quarter of a century at home after the lusty daughter of the Old Dominion had given in her adherence to the common school, in 1840. The upshot of this prolonged warfare, with its occa¬ sional triumphs and discouraging reverses, was the establishment, in 1837-38, of a common school fund, by appropriation of $850,000 of the $1,433,750 which was Ken¬ tucky’s portion of the United States surplus revenue distributed to the States in 1836. The school law of Kentucky in 1838 proposed to establish a common school in every district of the Commonwealth subsidized from the income of the school fund, con¬ ditioned on the building of a schoolhouse and the imposing of a local tax for its sup¬ port. Rev. Joseph J. Bullock, as superintendent of public instruction, opened the campaign of the children’s war, which was only closed by the decisive victory for the cause of public instruction in 1850. In this memorable “campaign of education,” extending through a generation, from 1821 to 1850, one of the most notable results was the production of an educa¬ tional literature not inferior to any that had appeared at that period in the Southern States, and entitled to an honorable mention in the history of the great movement, with its splendid development of leadership, in the older Commonwealth. The messages of Gov. Gabriel Slaughter for 1816-17 were a veritable “Gabriel’s trump,” to summon the friends of the children and youth to the assault upon the illiteracy that was already invading the masses of the people in Kentucky. He advocated a scheme of popular education which would “shoot” the light of knowl¬ edge in at the door of every log cabin among the mountains and every plantation mansion of the blue grass country or city home in Lexington, then the literary cen¬ ter of the new West. In the debates concerning the appropriation of the new literary fund to the two colleges of the .State. Mr. Robert B. McAfee distinguished himself by an eloquent tes¬ timonial to the series of educated men in the history of the new Commonwealth, that might to-day be used with profit as a theme of declamation by the school boys and girls of Kentucky. Gov. Thomas Metcalf urged, with great force, a public provision for the education of the girls and young women of the State; especially appropriate in a Common¬ wealth which had been honored by the services of Mrs. Jane Coombs, its first teacher, at Harrodsburg, in 1775. Under his administration a strong legislative report was made on the subject of an additional distribution of public school lands to other than the new States of the Northwest; responded to by Maryland and New Hampshire and Georgia, but with no immediate result. Among these legislative documents on the subject of popular education, one of the most interesting was the report of a committee appointed to examine the systems of common schooling in the different States of the Union, with the view of recommend¬ ing a suitable plan for home use in 1821. The chairman of the committee was Mr. W. T. Barry, then at the beginning of an eminent public career as judge of the highest courts of his own State, United States Senator, and a member of the Cabinet. This document has been justly named, by a historian of Kentucky, “one of the greatest State papers of the Common wealth.” Judge Barry is perhaps the most distinguished of the long list of the public men of Kentucky during the entire gen¬ eration before the civil war who gave his influence to the unpopular cause of a system of common school education wTorthy of a rising Commonwealth always noted for its lofty claim of national distinction; an example, unfortunately, not imitated by too 504 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. many of the most noted leaders of political parties, whose embittered personal and public contests have been one of the chief misfortunes of the State. The committee had, with great pains, obtained information of the public school systems of the leading States of the Union, and their description of them is among the most valuable portions of the report. But the plain and powerful manner in which the whole question of the people’s right to education was put in this admirable paper leaves the reader to marvel that the system proposed by the writer did not at once conquer prejudice, awaken indifference, and move the legislature to immediate action. Undoubtedly it produced its effect, but, like many a great public deliverance, it was an educational projectile that woke the echoes above the head of the genera¬ tion at which it was aimed, only to strike with powerful impact upon the children of the fathers who had underrated its proper significance. One of the most interesting features of this report is a series of letters received from eminent gentlemen of other States, including ex-Presidents Adams, Madison, and Jefferson; Gov. Robert Y. Hayne, of South Carolina; Mr. William Duane, of Phil¬ adelphia, and others. In his communication to Judge Barry, James Madison made the oft-quoted remark, “A popular government without popular information or the means of acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce or a tragedy, or probably both. Knowledge will ever govern ignorance; and a people who mean to be their own governors must arm themselves with the power that knowledge gives.” John Adams, although “at present blind and paralytic,” wakes from his lethargy to compliment “the wisdom and generosity of your legislature in making liberal appropriations in money for the benefit of schools, academies, colleges, and the uni¬ versity; an equal honor to them and their constituents; a proof of their veneration for literature and science, and a portent of great and lasting good to North and South America, and to the world — great is truth; great is liberty, and great is humanity, and they must and will prevail.” Col. F. W. Parker, the well-known school man, formerly of Quincy, Mass., will be happy to recognize his beloved constituency in this letter of John Adams, written in 1822: “In this small town of Quincy, consisting of not more than 1,400 inhabitants, I think they voted this year $1,700 for the support of schools — more than one dollar a head for every man, woman and child in the place. The central public school pours out of its doors at 12 o’clock every day from 100 to 200 boys and girls, as happy as Scott or Shenstone has described them and their masters in their works. There are not less than four or five schools kept by women in different parts of the town for children of both sexes too young to be able to travel to the central school.” The Adams family has kept its hand on the old town, now the city of Quincy, even till this day; and until a very recent date the Adams Academy, established by a fund by both the ex-Presidents of that name, was taught by the son of Edward Everett. Thomas Jefferson also, “ bending under the weight of age, debility, and on account of a dislocated, lame, and stiffened wrist, making writing slow and painful,” replies not in as happy a frame of mind as his old friend and opponent, Adams. He sits up at Monticello, evidently smarting under the rebuff from his own State, which rewards a generation of labor lasting through his official life by a beggarly pittance of $45,000 per year for general education. He writes of this Virginia plan: “After costing us to this day $180,000, if a single boy has received the elements of a common educa¬ tion, it must be in some part of the State unknown to me.” William Johnson, Henry W. De Saussure, and Robert Y. Hayne reply for South Carolina. All seem ill at ease at what they feel compelled to communicate concern¬ ing the public schools of their State costing twice as much per capita as those of Mas¬ sachusetts, while “exclusively confined to the poorer class of citizens.” The longest reply is from the pen of Mr. William Duane, a distinguished lawyer and friend of education in Philadelphia, who drew the will that established Girard College in that city. This is the only communication that attempts to discuss the COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 505 prevailing methods of education. Mr. Duane, after giving the most favorable account possible of the imperfect system of public education in Pennsylvania, is outspoken, first, in his contempt for the Lancasterian or the Monitor system of instruction that was running its course as the most conspicuous educational “fad” of that generation. Pie says: “The public schools of Pennsylvania are inefficient and not worthy of your attention.” He scouts the popular method of instruction as one that confines its impressions to the mere accumulation of words and appears to leave out of view the only important part of education, that of arranging and comprehending ideas or discriminating among facts. “Its chief recommendation,” he declares, “is its cheap¬ ness.” He sums up the whole case by the declaration, “In my own opinion the prevailing systems of education are all wrong from the first to the last stage. There is only one system of education in existence fit for a country that is free or for a people to whose institutions knowledge is essential in an age when knowledge is power and ignorance is weakness.” That system he indicates as the natural method of Pestalozzi. After giving a brief description of the great reformer he says: “There is one school for girls taught in Philadelphia by Madam Fitegeat, a disciple of Pesta¬ lozzi.” He also informs the committee that Joseph Neff, a Swiss educator and a coadjutor of Pestalozzi, was then living on a small farm near Frankfort, Ky. Pie urges the friends of educational reform to send their sons to him as a sort of normal or model school for the State. Pie also speaks of West Point and the military acad¬ emy of Captain Partridge in Vermont as worthy of notice. Says Mr. Duane: “In presenting this system to your attention I am offering to you an opportunity to do honor to your State, your country, and human nature.” The natural method of instruction thus commended in the day of its obscurity is now the basis of all successful teaching in this and every civilized land. The fact that a circular sent by the same committee to numerous distinguished people in their own State, solic¬ iting information concerning the condition of education in their neighborhood, was treated with almost absolute neglect, explains somewhat the indifference of the legis¬ lature to the powerful appeal of this, one of the most notable documents connected with the history of education ever issued in Kentucky or the South. Nearly ten years had passed before the people of Kentucky were again addressed by a report of the committee on education of the House of Representatives, in re¬ sponse to a governor’s message in relation to schools and seminaries of learning. The well-worn copy of this document before us is one of its second edition of 2,000 copies. The committee, through Mr. Charles S. Morehead, its chairman, makes an earnest and pertinent appeal to the legislature. It refers to the report of the auditor of the State, concerning the educational situation; that from more than half the counties there had been no returns concerning educational affairs. From 8 counties there were reports only of the number of the children. From 34 there is also a statement of the number at school, pronounced “unreliable.” Such as it is, the record shows that in 34 counties there were 51,000 children, with 11,000 at school. The commit¬ tee state that “not more than one-third of the aggregate number of children are in school.” Whether this refers to one- third of all between 5 or 6 and 21 we are not informed. The reluctance to move in popular education is ascribed, among other causes common to all new States, especially to the fact that “much the larger portion of the population of Kentucky is derived from Virginia, where the efforts in behalf of this subject have been signally unsuccessful.” The literary fund, established in 1821, had increased to $141,000, with an annual income of only $8,450. In the lack of any effective support for the system, the committee recommend a permissive scheme of local taxation for schools, and with feeble logic attempt to persuade the legislature of the superior economy of a common-school system. Transylvania Uni¬ versity was just then in want, and the plea for State aid by a loan from the literary fund is well put. But the most inviting portion of this report is a letter from Rev. Benjamin O. 506 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Peers, a clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church, principal of a classical school in Lexington, and afterwards for two years president of Transylvania University, who was requested by the legislature to communicate any information in his power on the general subject of common schools. Mr. Peers had not only read and reflected upon, but, probably beyond any man then in Kentucky, had actually seen the common-school systems then in operation in the different States. The committee of the legislature had included in the invitation Rev. Alva Woods, late president of Transylvania University. Mr. Peers had visited the schools of all the New England and Middle States, including Maryland, Virginia, and Ohio. Several of these States he finds stand for the fundamental idea of the common school; that the property of the State should educate the children of the State for good citizenship. The methods of applying this common idea are reduced to three. First, of Massachusetts; second, of Connecticut; third, of New York. In all these the State only attempts to support the teachers; the school books, school-houses, fuel, and incidental expenses are mat¬ ters of local or private concern. In Connecticut the means of school support are derived from a large fund, in Massachusetts exclusively by taxation, in New York from a fund and taxation united. The writer proceeds to give a clear and interesting resume of the different systems of public schools in these three States, preferring for the use of Kentucky that of New York, in which the Common wealth, through the distribution of a moderate school fund, stimulates the people of every school district to local taxation. He touches on the radical features of the case by showing the willingness of the people to submit to taxation for education, as noted in the State of Massachusetts, which seems to be a satisfactory arrangement to the people of that State. He sees clearly the defects from the undue multiplication of schools in New England and New York, and the consequent cheapening of the occupation of teaching. But he does injustice to the schools by forgetting that the same popular reverence for learning that has built up and supported a system of general education for 150 years in New England has attached to the office of teacher a respect similar to that of the clergyman. Teaching, certainly in its higher grades, was always regarded in New England as one of the “ liberal professions,” whose compensation is found not so much in the money received as the regard of the people for the instructors of their children. The rate of compensation in Connecticut, New York, and Massachusetts, as to the average wages of the country teacher, was generally supplemented by board, and was not especially different from the salaries of other professional men; the country parson, even when minister of the entire population, being regarded as “passing rich” on $400 a year. He rightly declares this cheapening the common school destructive to the one object of educating the rich and poor children together, since the former will invariably abandon the public schools. He represents the public schools of Boston as “the pride of that literary capital and the acknowledged models for the Union.” Another defect is the great variety of school books tolerated in the majority of the schools. All these points are well taken, and with the exception noted above concerning the teachers, were in 1830 a warning to all States proposing for the first time to “ create” a system of public instruction. The four conclusions drawn from this examination were: (1) The necessity of legislative action. (2) The division of the State into school districts. (3) The danger of relying on a large school fund, as demonstrated in the State of Connecticut, and the great advantage of stimulating local taxation by the distribution of a moderate State subsidy, dependent on the corresponding action of the district, (4) “That nothing whatever can be advanced by legislation unless the people be personally and permanently interested.” Here the report touches the vital point in the educational habit of this great State; the slow development through half a century, of the disposition to raise funds sufficient for the education of the children and youth COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830*1860. 507 among the masses even of the white people of the State. The public sentiment under¬ lying the common schools of New England was truly named “An inheritance from the past. It was started and cherished by the religion of the Puritans.” The funds appropriated by the State for education did not seem oppressive; “not being exacted from the people, the schools were established, sustained, and supervised by the people.” The report also exposes the mistake of intrusting the administration of “the paper system” to the ordinary executive officials of the State and locality, with no regard to their interest in the cause. It notes the fact that the town of Northamp¬ ton, Mass., furnished not one pupil to the celebrated Pound Hill School, established by George Bancroft, then known through the Union. It urges a system of training competent teachers. It suggests the publication by the State of a welbselected set of schoolbooks and a “public library placed in every log schoolhouse,” and adds, “Would to heaven we had in Kentucky, or even in the Union some Brougham who would give to that mighty agency — the press — its appropriate use.” May it not have been in response to such petitions going up to the God of Light all over the Republic seventy years ago that a Horace Mann, a Henry Barnard, and the glorious company of educational reformers, led by these- great captains of the grand army of the children and youth, appeared even while the petitioners were “lifting their eyes up to the hills” for hope and strength? The report also dilates on the advantage of teaching the children the facts of civil government. A collection of letters from distinguished literary and public men of the North and East shows with what eager interest this movement for universal education in Ken¬ tucky was watched by the foremost people of the Union. The immediate result of this report — one of the ablest and most instructive as a document for public distribution ever presented to the people of a new American State — was the passage of one of those permissive school laws which, for half a cen¬ tury, were the despair of Southern educational progress. The State was arbitrarily divided into school districts, by the carving of the counties into irregular tracts of the open country containing a sufficient population, and each of these artificial communities was permitted to decide for itself whether it would be taxed for a system of common schools, with the almost imperceptible stimulant of the pittance received from a literary fund, whose entire sum for the Commonwealth did not amount to $10,000. The result was exactly discounted by the enemies of the cause from the beginning. Not a school district acted under this permission, and the “system” fell from the press like a scrap of official waste paper. But the spirit that animated such declarations as have been noted was not to be daunted by another failure. It was six years before the opportunity came of striking for a new effort. It appeared in the distribution of the national surplus revenue, in 1836, among the different States. The historians of Kentucky appear to think that the previous agitation, inaugurated by Maryland and especially favored by Kentucky, for a more equable distribution of the national domain for education, especially among the original thirteen and the additional States of Ken¬ tucky and Tennessee, was responsible for this action by Congress. However this may be, that the indirect appropriation of the only two distributions ever made to the establishment of a common school fund in many of the States was in some way connected with this movement can not be doubted. The common-school public in Kentucky at once “took time by the forelock,” and evidently before the hostile element was organized for action pushed through the legislature the school law of 1838. This law was approved February 16, 1838, and on the 20th of March Rev. Joseph J. Bullock, a brother of Judge William Bullock, who wTas an influential actor in the passage of the statute, was appointed first superintendent of public schools in Kentucky. The law thus presented to the people was an elaborate statute, containing nine provisions. The first appropriated the interest of $850,000 of the $1,114,000 already 508 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. received from the surplus revenue distribution, and all additional sums that might be specified, as a common school fund, with a provision that $150,000 more should be so applied, if the fourth installment of the national distribution should be received. Here was scored the first victory of the opposition — in cutting away more than a quarter of a million of dollars from the entire amount. A State board of education was established, consisting of the secretary of state, the attorney-general, and the superintendent of public instruction, who should be nom¬ inated by the governor and approved by the senate. To this board was intrusted the management of all the public-school funds of the State, and it was a corporation subject only to the legislative power of alteration and amendment. The superin¬ tendent of schools was to be appointed for two years, at a salary of $1,000 per annum. Tie was intrusted with all matters generally assigned to that official in the public- school States of the Union. Besides the general supervision of the school system, he was also, “ with the advice and consent” of the board of education, empowered to make the proper distribution of the State fund to the counties and the different school districts. The board of education was also authorized to appoint five commissioners of schools in each county, who were intrusted with the entire supervision of public education. By their direction, the county courts were to attend to the proper divi¬ sion of the counties into school districts, each district to contain not less than 30 nor more than 100 school children between the ages of 7 and 17. Also to make arrange¬ ments for the legal voters in ail the school districts to vote on the question of accept¬ ing the new system, which included the duty of providing a schoolhouse, with incidentals, and supplementing the small public gift by a tax sufficient to support the common school. In case the district accepted, the commissioners of each county were burdened with several obligations, to see that the voters of each district were charged to elect five school trustees, and to raise a tax for the support of the schools. These five trustees were required to furnish a proper school building or room, to hire teachers, fix their salaries and pay their wages; in fact, to assume the legal super¬ vision of the schools and make yearly reports to the county commissioners. This board of five county commissioners was weighted with a great burden, being, indeed, the motive power of the entire system. Appointed by the State board and working without salary, it was expected to perform an amount of labor which, in the condition of public opinion among its constituents, was little less than placing upon each member, during his official year, a work demanding all his time and requiring the service of an expert in public affairs. The commissioners were expected to supervise the division of the county into school districts and the election of teachers in each of them; to receive, be responsible for and appro¬ priate all the State school moneys among the districts; to make full reports to the State board, based upon the reports of the local trustees, including a large amount of detailed inspection; to be responsible for all loss of public-school funds attrib¬ utable to their own neglect or maladministration; and to examine all teachers. The persons chosen as trustees were compelled to accept and act, on penalty of a fine of $5 or $10, and could not resign except by permission of their own board. One of the provisions of the law, possibly the first in the school legisla¬ tion of the Republic, was the privilege of voting granted to every widow or maiden assessed for taxation, and every minor possessed of property could vote by him¬ self or his guardian. All lands belonging to bank corporations were subject to the school tax, and the corporation could vote by its agents in school elections. A clause in favor of those districts in a county which adopted the system provided that, in case of a refusal to act for five years, the portion of the school money not used should be passed over to them. The cities of Louisville and Lexington, having already established systems of schools, were excluded from the general provisions of the act. COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. It is easy to see at a glance that, although this school law might become a valu¬ able agency for educating the people of the State into a proper school public, it con¬ tained in itself the possibilities of the conflict that involved the Commonwealth through the ensuing eighteen years in one of the most intense and bitter wars through which the American common school has achieved a final triumph in any American commonwealth. It attempted at once the NeAV England system of dividing the State into school districts; in Kentucky and the South a purely artificial division of territory, based on the number of children, in one case including the area of half a dozen towns in Connecticut or Massachusetts, and impossible in any populous village or city. It required such a mass of local legislation and political responsibility as had never before been known in the States where the county is the unit of government. So, while doubtless valuable as an education into the habit of the local administration of public affairs, it ran counter to all the public habits of the people and at once aroused the jealousy and opposition of the “court-house ring” that was always the center of public affairs in the county. The appointment of the county school commissioners by the State board of edu¬ cation removed the county and State boards from popular sympathy and gave the appearance more of a law imposed upon the “free and independent” people of the county, with very large powers of manipulation and direction in the most important matters concerning the schooling of the children. The commissioners were compelled to work without pay and to perform an amount of labor and complicated public busi¬ ness in the face of an unsympathetic constituency that might challenge the courage and patience even of a friend and would appall any man inexperienced in or hostile to the common school. It was inevitable that such an arrangement would be, except under especial con¬ ditions, an unwieldy and ineffectual machine. The fatal weakness of the permissive system was, in itself, a sufficient cause of its destruction. In view of the great amount of public indifference and opposition, it left any district of a county at liberty to reject the proffered gift of public money and continue in its old situation of public illiteracy. Besides the defect of the New England system noted by Mr. Peers, the endless subdivision of the State into little districts would open the way for mischievous personal influences, especially in a country -where such influences were dominant and too often interested to avoid taxation. In this, as in the law of 1830, we may almost charge the opponents of the system with the policy of secretly leaving the overenthusiastic friends of the public school to pass a law that could not be enforced, anticipating the opportunity of destroying it by a series of attacks on every vital point, as was certainly attempted, with almost complete success, during the ensuing fifteen years. The first State superintendent of public instruction, Mr. Joseph J. Bullock, assumed this important position on February 20, 1838, and was compelled, by failing health, to decline a further appointment at the end of his term of two years. In January, 1839, he made his only report, which covered a year’s administration. This, like the previous reports of Barry and Peers, is a document of permanent value in the able and suggestive public-school literature of Kentucky, than which that of no American State more richly deserves a proper collection, edited and annotated, in a library of education, for the study of every teacher, school official, and intelligent voter in the country. Superintendent Bullock was no visionary educational enthusiast, who sup¬ posed that a “paper law” could establish a system of common schools in a State perhaps, in 1838, more under the influence of violent ecclesiastical and political parti¬ sanship than any in the Union. He fortified himself by extended reading of the best educational literature at home and abroad. His first check was the difficulty of obtaining information concerning the work of the county commissioners. In many instances his letters were unanswered, and, except in the limited space that could be covered by a personal visit, it was 510 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. difficult to obtain any important information. At the end of the first year there were still ten counties where there had been no appointment of school com¬ missioners. The correspondence of the office had already become a great burden. The superintendent touches the heart of the difficulty in the pregnant sentence: “It soon became evident to my mind that there was need for a public sentiment to be created in order to the success of the system.” In the heroic attempt to “stump” the State in the cause he visited 20 counties and made numerous addresses, but was arrested by ill health. He comgs to the conclusion that “great changes can not be effected at once.” At the end of the first year only 13 of the counties had even reported the number of children between the ages of 7 and 17. In only one county had the commissioners complied with the request for information of the number of children of this age unable to read. Rut from a general understanding of the subject, the superintendent estimates that “at least one-third of the children of this, the school age, in the State, were unable to read, and had no means of common- school education, and unless something is done to remedy that evil this deficiency will soon be greater.” In one of the most intelligent counties of the State not more than half the children were going to school, and it was not probable that two-thirds could read. The general verdict of all classes of public men in the State was to the effect that “one-third of our white population is entirely uneducated.” Tiie fund set apart for common schools was $850,000, with an income of $65,978.27. During the first year only $1,005.27 had been expended, the schools really not yet being in operation. The superintendent believes that the small sums thus distributed to the districts will not “ act as an incentive to the people to tax themselves with a degree of energy which promises at present a movement for general education.” He proposes a tax of one-third of a mill on the dollar of all the property in the State, and argues forcibly in favor of this policy, quoting the words of Edmund Burke: “Taxes for education are like vapors, which rise only to descend again to beautify and fertilize the earth.” He suggests that for two or three years the annual income of the State school fund shall be paid to those districts which have accepted the system. The law should require the schools to be kept at least four months in the year. One dollar, instead of 50 cents, should be assessed as a poll tax. In view of the great defects of ordinary teaching, the superintendent speaks of the normal school, and, under the conditions existing, proposes the utilizing of the colleges and academies of the State for the work. He urges that the State superin¬ tendent receive a salary sufficient to enable him to visit the different portions of the State and take counsel with the people on the great cause. He presses home, with irresistible logic, the economy of the public-school system to the State. In New England, New York, and Pennsylvania the average cost of educating a child is $4, while in Kentucky it is $20 per annum in private schools. In Boston $10 furnishes better instruction for the children in public than $20 in private schools. In New York the cost was $6.50 in public and $25 for private schools; in Cincinnati, $6.40 for public and $16 to $36 for private schools, the average cost of private tuition in Ohio being in the city $25 and in the country $16. The entire white population in Kentucky in 1839 was 600,000, with 150,500 of school age (5 to 17). Half of these, 75,000, at private schools, at $16 per capita, would cost $1,000,000 per year. Thus the entire school population of Kentucky could be educated with no additional expense, simply by distributing the burden from individual caprice to the imposition of a tax on property. Only by such a policy could the office of teacher be made respectable. He contrasts the condition of the great European nations, England, Prussia, and France with Spain and Italy; summons the states of antiquity to the bar of investigation; notes the State of Massachusetts, which “expends to the amount of $1,000,000 per annum in the shape of direct taxation for her common schools.” He touches on the importance of public education as a prevention of pauperism and crime. “England expends more in prisons and charity than Prussia COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 511 for her common schools,” in ten years expending in the transportation of criminals to Australia more than $40,000,000. The argument from sparseness of population was met by the fact that the 600,000 white people of Kentucky occupied an area of 40,500 square miles and were distributed in a way that every district of 16 square miles would contain 60 persons of school age, and the majority could have schools accessible to their homes. “ If it is true that negro slavery is an enemy to popular education, let slavery be abolished. ’ ’ He quotes from the fathers of the country in favor of the right and duty of the State to edu¬ cate. Chief Justice Marshall says: “I can not he more profoundly convinced than I am that virtue and intelligence are the basis of our independence, and the funda¬ mental principle of national and individual happiness.” He appeals to the State pride of Kentucky. “The whole civilized world seems to have been awakened from its slumbers, and the nations are combining in one mighty effort to spread light and knowledge among the people; and sad indeed will be the condition of the State that stands still and leaves the education of its people to chance and caprice.” The pres¬ ent movement for internal improvements already in operation in the State, without corresponding enlightenment of the people, “will only expose our nakedness and degradation to the scorn and comment of visitors from all countries under the face of heaven.” Nothing but the limitation of space in this essay prevents the entire repubiieation of this magnificent plea for the common schools to the people of Kentucky by Dr. Bullock, its first State superintendent of public instruction. It is significant that in this State the battle for the children was not to any considerable extent fought by its great public men; but rather by clergymen and laymen who spoke and worked for the masses of the white people, then but half converted to the gospel of universal education. There can be little doubt that the very absorption of the foremost public men of Kentucky in national politics, a natural result of the great political interest and influence of Virginia, emphasized by its position as the first new State of the Union beyond the Appalachian Mountain world, was largely responsible for this. And the dominating class of this period in the history of the State, the leading pub¬ lic men, the clergy, and the wealthy planters, took excellent care of that department of education in which their own sons were trained for the continued mastery of the commonwealth. At the time when, according to the statements of its great educa¬ tional reformers, one-half the children of the State, 100,000, were out of school, there were 6 colleges in operation with 800 students, 100 additional receiving similar education out of the State, and 5,000 pupils in. academical and private grammar schools. The State has paid dearly for its long discrimination of educational oppor¬ tunity between the different classes of its people, as shown by the great number of men of high order of ability who left Kentucky in their youth, not only for the distant Southwest, but especially for all the great free States north of the Ohio and west of the Mississippi rivers. The second State educational report, January, 1840, by Supt. H. Id. Kavanaugh, afterward bishop in the Methodist Episcopal Church, emphasizes the urgent appeals of Superintendent Bullock. But the difficulties apprehended by the first head of the system now appeared in all their formidable proportions. Superintendent Kava¬ naugh is compelled to state that, two years after the passage of the school law of 1838, “the schools have nowhere, as yet, been put into operation under the sanction of the law. All the efforts of the Board of Education to ascertain the number of chil¬ dren in the several counties between the ages of 7 and 17 have hitherto proved abor¬ tive. Hence the superintendent has never been able to make an apportionment of the funds to the counties and the counties are not authorized by the law to go into operation until the apportionment is made.” For this state of affairs the superin¬ tendent declares the people are not responsible. The question of public education has never been submitted to them. His experience, during a tour extending through a 512 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. year of his administration, demonstrated that when the masses of the people were properly informed concerning the subject their approval was practically unanimous, although want of organization and lack of familiarity with the subject generally left them almost helpless to carry out their desire. He states that tire counties have often been prevented from the districting of the territory by the expense of making a complete survey, and because the agreement of two of the three judges is necessary to the accomplishment of the preliminary work. The neglect of the commissioners was the most dangerous element in the failure. While 20 or 30 counties were ready to accept the law, the people really had no opportunity to vote, by the strange indifference or hostility of the official body to whom they looked for the action which should place them in communication with the State superintendent. The superintendent again brings forward the ‘‘astounding fact” of the great illiteracy in the State. At the end of ten years, after repeated efforts to obtain the facts on this subject from the commissioners, only three of the counties have responded; two of which report — one that not one-half and the other that not one-fourth of the children from 7 to 17 can read. So the entire machinery of the common school of the State still awaited the movement of the commissioners appointed by the State board before the public school could be more than “a system on paper.” Meanwhile a financial panic had swept over the Commonwealth from 1839 to 1842. The legislature had pledged the State to an extended system of internal improve¬ ments. In 1840 “the school funds of the State were seized upon and applied to the liquidation of the internal improvement debt.” The peculiar method was, by invest¬ ing the school fund in the bonds of the internal improvement scheme, leaving the support of the schools to come from the interest of these bonds, which was practically nothing. Whatever may have been the intention of this movement (upon which the historians of the State differ), its practical application was to prevent the public- school system from going into any general efficient operation for the coming six years. In 1840 it was announced that, outside a pittance of a few thousand dollars, there were no funds to meet the demands of the common schools. In 1843 the State was in debt to the school fund, by the failure to meet its legal demands, to the extent of $116,000, the entire principal of the school fund having been spent in the building of “new turnpike roads” and the “improvement” of the rivers of the State. This was, in fact, a virtual declaration of war against the common-school system by its enemies, as represented by a majority in several legislative sessions of the State. The first attempt to abolish the office of State superintendent of education had failed. In 1843 an effort was made to abolish the public-school system altogether. While this did not succeed, a vital wound was inflicted by an amendment of the school laws, providing that no district could be taxed for the support of common schools without a vote of two-thirds of the people, and the office of special district collector of school taxes was abolished. The result of this was that, in the legal complications that at once sprang up around the exciting question of taxation, this, the most vital feature of the statute, without which a State school system was impossible, fell to the ground. The end was not far off. In 1845 the board of education surrendered the State school bonds, representing the fund of $917,500, and they were burned in the presence of wit¬ nesses. The explanations of this act were, (1) “That the State held the original bonds, which were on separate pieces of paper and could, without difficulty, be recorded in the books of the secretary of State and the second auditor, to have the same force and effect and bear the same rate of interest as the original bonds; and that this was an act of commendable prudence for the protection of the State and preservation of the bonds.” (2) Another eminent Kentucky statesman declares that the legislature, “ in order to reduce, on paper, the State debt, ordered the school bonds to be canceled, and thus was blotted out the school fund.” (3) Mr. Cassius COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 513'. M. Clay, then the leader of the antislavery party of the State, asserted that this wae “a gigantic effort on the part of the slaveholders of the State to prevent the peoplo from being educated, as being incompatible with the interests of slavery.” Whatever may have been the original intention of any or all three parties, the result was never disputed. During the period when this policy prevailed at the statehouse the cause of popular education in Kentucky was practically stranded. The third and fourth reports, by Supt. B. B. Smith, afterwards bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church of Kentucky, cover the period for 1840-41. During this time this indefatigable official had personally visited 70 of the 90 counties of the State; a journey of eight months through 2,500 miles of territory; equivalent,, sixty years ago, to a corresponding tour to-day through the entire 16 Southern States. His administration was concentrated on “the effort by the pen and press to extend information and awake the people from their strange apathy upon one of their vital interests.” lie had endeavored to enlist the influence of the clergy of the leading religious denominations in the good cause; and the public assem¬ blies of the Methodist and united Baptist churches had passed forcible resolutions. But he is compelled to report that “of the main results of the exertion there can be- no actual measurement.” Twenty of the ninety counties had been districted in 1840; but in only one of these eighty districts had the voters been called together. The first common schools in the State, under the law of 1838, had been organized in the town of Versailles in 1840. The meager reports from a few counties show that the rates of assessment for local taxation varied from 5, 8, 10, 20 to 30 cents in $100. The number of children between seven and seventeen (the public school age) , as computed by imperfect returns,* was 170,000, while the number in attendance in common schools was in the neighborhood of 42,000. In all the counties 1,100 male and 200 female teachers were employed. One appropriation from the school fund had been made. The failure of the commissioners as examiners of teachers is noted, and the suggestion made for the appointment of a special examining board. The superintendent’s first report calls attention to the announcement of “the astounding fact” that “the commissioners of the school fund have failed of being able to make arrangements for meeting the semiannual payment of the interest accruing from the State bonds held by the board of education, leaving this department entirely without the means for meeting the engagements to pay any drafts upon them for common- school purposes on the 10th of January, 1841.” The report of the next year shows that while an increasing number of the counties had gone through the motions of being districted, 33 in all, “in whole or in part,” 81 districts have adopted the law entire, 15 only in part, and 10 have for the first time obtained State aid. These dis¬ tricts have received but $3,500, of which $1,250 was paid to the superintendents of schools and $2,000 to the schools. The number of county commissioners had been reduced from 5 to 3, and it is suggested that a similar reduction of trustees in the district would be advisable. One bright spot appears in this almost total eclipse of the school system — the renewed prosperity of Transylvania University. The city of Lexington and Fay¬ ette County had rallied and contributed $100,000 to the erection of a new college building. Members of the Transylvania Institute had aided, and private benefac¬ tions had also been made. The medical and law departments of the university numbered, respectively, 250 and 71 students. The academical department lingered behind, through having no president, with only 90 students and a low state of funds. The trustees report that “the institution has been left for the most part to struggle for itself, and has for many years enjoyed the empty honor, without reaping any of the solid advantages of being a State university. All the real estate and funds belong¬ ing to the university have been derived from the liberality and culture of private individuals in the city of Lexington. “Col. James Morrison had left the university the residuary legatee of his estate. The city of Lexington had been granted repre- ed 1900 - 33 514 EDUCATION REPORT, 1399-1900. sentation on the board of trustees.” The superintendent urges the legislature to come to the rescue and give the institution “funds equal to the control which they exercise in its management.” It is earnestly desired that a department of pedagogics should be established in the university, and that it be rendered efficient and brought in connection with the common-school system of the State. The school law of 1838 had been amended in 1839 by reducing the number of county commissioners to three and providing for a compensation of $1 per day; excepting the lands of free negroes from school taxation; declaring that the property of nonresidents in school districts should be taxed, and that the distribution of the school fund should be confined to the districts accepting the system. In 1842 the commissioners were relieved from the dependence upon the county courts in the arrangement of districts. A board of three professional school examiners might be appointed by any county commissioner’s board. Where a district failed to impose a tax, the communities raising a subscription may claim the distribution of the State fund. The poll tax may be raised to $1.50, but can not be less than 50 cents, per capita. The consent of three districts in any county shall bring the State distribu¬ tion. The State superintendent shall spend eight months of each year in traveling and lecturing. When any county fails to adopt the common-school system, the amount due shall be paid over for the education of the indigent class. In 1842 the superintendent was instructed to report on the possibility of undertaking the prepa¬ ration of teachers and on the expediency of placing the State in communication with other States of the South by a conference on matters of educational policy. In January, 1843, Supt. G. W. Brush made a, brief report, the substance of which was that, in several instances, cities and towns have adopted the school system and are supporting it by their own exertions, but all agree that the restoration of the school fund shall be demanded. There were now due five installments of interest, amounting to §116,375, with a prospect of a deficit of §125,000, of which only less than §1,000 had been recovered. The county commissioners advised that this state of affairs should be remedied. A new law provided for the taking of a school census in each city and a more careful examination of teachers; also providing that the State University shall establish a department of pedagogy for the training of common- school teachers. A private letter addressed to IT on. Henry Barnard, in February, 1843, by Bishop B. B. Smith, concerning his State, is skeptical concerning education; revealing the great illiteracy of certain portions of the State, stating its results, and declaring that these statements were made with no motive save “ the broadest one of bringing all the sons and daughters of Kentucky very speedily into the best possible common school.” In response to the petition of a convention of the friends of education, addressed to the legislature at this period, a majority of the legislative committee on education recommended the abolition of the office of State superintendent, on the ground that the legislature is perfectly competent to receive and act directly upon the reports of the different school districts and save the expense of §1,000 a year to the echool fund. They also recommend the resumption of the use of the school fund for the benefit of the schools. The history of Kentucky, by ex-Supt. Z. F. Smith, in view of this period of the educational record of the State, says: “The administration of three governors had come and gone in Kentucky with no substantial practical results for our common- school system. The entire outcome of ten years’ legislating (1838-1848) upon the subject of education in Kentucky was that we only had a law upon the statute book that had not taken root in the affections and life of the people. The system had a precarious existence, and fears were entertained of the repeal of the school law.” One of the superintendents (Dillard) had suggested that “while a majority of the COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 515 substantial citizens were not opposed to education, they needed more a sense of equality and less of distinction and exclusiveness.” But the day of the turning of the tide had now come. The legislators that had yielded to the persuasions and commands of the enemies of the common school were gradually learning that as fast as the people actually gave their minds to the sub¬ ject of universal education they were firm in utter disapproval of this disastrous policy that had well-nigh accomplished the destruction of the only system of popular instruction ever seriously attempted in the Commonwealth. While portions of the State were bravely toiling, almost against hope, the State itself seemed more and more averse to aid in building its own foundations on the schooling of even the chil¬ dren of its ruling class, vln 1847 Bev. Robert J. Breckenridge was appointed State superintendent of education, and, according to the spirit and manhood which after¬ wards made him one of the most distinguished of the Presbyterian divines of the country, he gathered himself together in twenty pages of the most decisive talk and most illuminating tables of statistics with which the fathers at the State house had been confronted for many a long day. In this work he was supported by Gov. C. C. Crittenden, afterwards colleague of Henry Clay in the Senate of the United States. Superintendent Breckenridge very plainly informed the legislature that, owing to a persistent violation of the intent of the school law of 1845, the condition of the schools was “far from satisfactory.” The school fund of the State ought to produce a yearly income of $65,000; but “in point of fact not the firth part of the sum is yearly appropriated to that object.” While the county commissioners were required to forward their reports before December 1 of each year, in order that by the February 1 succeeding the usual distribution of funds might be made, he had received, at the close of December, reports from only one-fourth of the counties and only one of the cities. The result was, ‘ ‘ to deprive the remaining counties of the State of all the benefit of the law for the present year. ’ ’ In the larger part of the counties reporting the system had only been partially adopted, three or four of the twenty or thirty districts only reporting; and barely one-third the children in them attending school at all, or at best but half the year. The entire income of the State school fund divided among the children would give only the fraction of a dollar to each child between 5 and 16 years of age. At present the people were relying on private contributions and tuition fees to eke out nine-tenths the cost of the schools. He points to a great out¬ rage: that while the expropriation is yearly made to every child in the State, a great proportion of it, not being used, is covered back into the State treasury for ordinary purposes of expenditure, thus depriving the children of $50,000 of the $65,000 secured to them by the statute. He suggests that the entire sum should be given to the dis¬ tricts in actual operation, thus making numbers of good schools, which would be the most powerful argument to the people for their multiplication. From these suggestions the superintendent branches off into a dissertation on the practical impossibility of offering the Northern system of common schools to a State like Kentucky, and, presumably, to every State of the South. Only a portion of the State is fairly suited for this experiment. The artificial division of the counties into school districts is an innovation on the system that makes the county the political unit. He suggests that the sums assigned to each county should be divided among all schools that act under the law, located according to the public convenience. He also makes a suggestion that all private schools should be included in this subsidizing, and the distribution be extended to the higher institutions of learning. The system which he had in view resembled somewhat the present public-school organization of England, in which all varieties of private and church schools in cooperation with the provisions of the law are subsidized, while systems of board schools for the cities and destitute districts furnish the resources for the school population. To a practical man, like Dr. Breckenridge, it is difficult to see how it could seem possible that a 516 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. State or section of the country, in which the aristocratic order of society was even so thoroughly developed as in the States of the South in 1848-1860, could be brought under a system of education that fitted a region as different in its social arrangements as Great Britain from the United States. But all these speculations were secondary to the intention of the new superintendent, which was to rescue the State school fund from the spoilers of the legislature, or from the condition into which it had been permitted to fall by the strange apathy and neglect of education among the people. He says that in 1847-48 the fund amounted to $717,500. In addition to this there was an interest account, the result of several years of the diversion of the proper income of the fund to other purposes, of $294,000. In short, the entire school fund amounted to $1,288,500, with $65,000 income for the use of the schools. He therefore boldly challenges the legislators at once, as “an act of simple good faith,” to draw up a State bond to be executed #to the board of education for this appropriated income in the past, amounting to some $300,000, and that the entire sums should be secured to the children. The yearly loss to the school fund from the neglect of the interest account was more than was applied to the schools. He “strikes out from the shoulder” in this defiant sentence: “I charge upon your honorable body that it has so managed as to divert the larger part of the annual interest of the school fund from the sacred cause to which it was devoted; so managed that nearly $300,000 of interest thus devoted are now due this fund; and that ail the interest upon interest thus devoted has been totally lost to this fund; so managed that the schools of the State have received less, year b}T year, than the fund thus lost by not receiving interest even upon the interest.” He demands in imperious style the immediate issue of the interest account of $300,000, and that the interest of this be annually used or added to the entire fund. Until this is done, he declines to discuss further the interior condition of the schools, but feels under the necessity of demanding for the superintendent of schools such an office in the statehouse as befits the dignity of his position. Of the 90 counties of the State, 27 had reported. In them, with the exception of three which had kept school the year round, the trustees had reported school terms of three to five and then six and seven months. He publishes a list of the 72 derelict counties of 1847, 55 of which did not report in 1846, and asks the commissioners of the same to comply with the law and submit their reports. Thirty-four counties had not received anything from the State since 1840, and had not reported at all. In the 27 counties reported there wTere 12,330 children entitled to receive $3, 786. 70, and 4 counties, with 8,072 children entitled to $2,481.69. The full account is posted in a short table: Children of the State between 5 and 16 . 173, 968 Reported in the common schools . 20, 402 The more than seven-eighths not reported and not benefited by the school system . . . „ . . . 153,566 The cost of schooling all the children in attendance in four cities . $8, 072. 00 In the remaining portions of the State less than one-thirteenth of the chil¬ dren receive any benefit from the system, to wit . 12, 230 If the fund were all invested the sum to be distributed among the coun¬ ties would be . . . $65, 000. 00 The interest of the fund actually invested would amount to . * . $50, 000. 00 As it is, the board of education will receive, under the acts of 1844-45. . . $6, 268. 30 The State faced this charge and, by the act of 1848, February 20, six weeks from the reading of this tremendous report, the governor was authorized to draw a new bond for the arrears of interest due the board of education. This was issued for $368,768.43. An additional act provided for a tax of 2 cents on the $100 for the ben¬ efit of the school fund, thus insuring the payment of the interest of the entire sum. Next followed an act securing the sole use of the school fund for the schools, and stopping the ruinous habit of diverting the sacred patrimony of the children to ordi» 517 COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. nary State expenses. Then followed the final step that virtually replaced the school fund and placed in the revised constitution of the State, in 1849, a provision by which it was held irrevertible, as sacred from invasion or spoliation under any pre¬ text. The last ditch of the opposition to the common schools was found in the con¬ tention of Governor Helm, in 1850, that the school fund was not a part of the State debt payable at the State treasury. But the plain people of the State did not listen to this counsel, and that portion of the constitution which confirmed their judgment concerning the common schools was firmly established. The courageous superintendent, in his report for 1848, congratulates the people on taking the two first steps of this reform, and declares the passage of the new tax law for the common schools “under all the conditions of the case one of the most remark¬ able exhibitions of popular sagacity and wisdom ever made in a free government.” The tax thus voted would reach the sum of $50,000 or $60,000 annually. The fund, in 1848, before this addition was $1,299,268.42. Independent of the new tax, the income was $65,000, but as yet there was no provision for raising this amount beyond a few thousand dollars. The superintendent declares that the State, at the risk of repudiation and dishonor, is still drifting under a policy careless and treacherous to the sacred cause; and, emboldened by his recent victory, his language becomes more pointed and significant than before. He sets plainly before the legislature the past condition in respect to the schools, and then declares that until further provision is made for the payment of the interest on the whole school fund “the entire charac¬ ter of the State must continue to suffer, and the school system of the State continue to retrograde, a pre}^ to all the inroads attending a small provision and entirely insufficient supplies in the ordinary annual income of the State.” Having delivered himself of this weighty matter, the superintendent proceeds again to the discussion of his own idea of the system of education proper for the State. The income of the consolidated school fund would be possibly $120,000 per year. His previous suggestion of subsidizing private schools is dropped, and he pro¬ poses a system of high schools, one in each county, in which a few of the best pupils of the district schools should be educated, free of tuition, for a few years. These high schools should also be open to all on the payment of a moderate fee. A central university should also receive students from every county under conditions that would make it a proper State university. The superintendent reports an increasing interest in education and warns the fathers of the State that their policy of meeting the demands of the school men will test the capacity of the entire system to secure the confidence of the people. The Transylvania University appears to be passing again into an eclipse. The law of 1839 created a board of overseers bound to report to the legislature the management of the institution by the trustees, of which the State superintendent was a member. This board had never reported and in the meantime important changes had taken place in the university, and its condition was not satisfactory as a State institution. The superintendent urges other matters essential to his station as superintendent of edu¬ cation. He suggests the use of the Bible as the best and cheapest reading book. He closes this interesting document with this impressive paragraph: “ I should consider the destiny of Kentucky placed far beyond the reach of chance if the means of edu¬ cation were brought within the reach of all the people, and that education based on the only sure foundations — of morality and intelligence.” Fifty-six of the counties did not report in 1848, and the superintendent gave notice to their commissioners to report or resign. Thirty counties still remained outside, having never reported or received anything from the school fund since 1840, if ever. Forty-three counties, a gain of 16 from the previous year, had reported. There was now an attendance of 24,026 children, with an expenditure of $8,409.10. There were three cities with 7,475 children, expending $2,616.15; together making the whole number 31,501 children, and $11,025.25 expended. There were 183,458 children of school age in the State, of whom 151,957 were not found in the common schools. It 518 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. was estimated that of the 67,220 parents of the children 7,436 had no property for taxation, 12,964 less than $100 of taxable property, 12,344 from $100 to $400, 5,685 from $400 to $600, and 28,791 with more than $600, so that 102,436 of the 183,458 of the school population of the State were dependent on the more favored class for the means of education. On the question of the school tax of 2 cents on the $100 74,628 voted in the affirmative and 37,748 in the negative, a majority in 70 of the counties of 36,882. In 1849, thanks to the administration of Dr. Breckenridge, as superintendent of educa¬ tion, the constitutional convention inserted in the fundamental law of the land a pro¬ vision whereby the sum of $1,225,768.42 of the common-school fund, plus $73,500 in stocks in the Bank of Kentucky and $51,223.29, the balance of unexpended interest of the fund for 1848, with whatever future additions might be made, “should be held irreversible for the purpose of sustaining a system of common schools.” The interest and dividends of the school fund, besides any sum obtained by taxation or otherwise, should be appropriated in aid of common schools alone, and the general assembly should make provisions for the payment of the interest of the school fund. Each county should receive its due proportion of the distribution, and if not used it should be preserved for the future use of the county. The State superintendent of public instruction should be elected for four years by the people. The people by a large majority had voted a tax of 2 cents on $100 for payment of the annual interest of the school fund. In 1852 the school code was revised, with several important changes. The school age was changed to 6 to 18 years. The public money should be expended for com¬ mon schools alone. The State board of education should adopt rules and regulations for the government of the common schools, and recommend the tax bonds to be issued. The superintendent should visit and lecture in at least twenty-five counties a year until the entire area of the State was covered; afterwards visit schools one week in each month. His office should be in the city of Frankfort, or within 60 miles of the capital of the State. The number of county commissioners was reduced to three, and their term of office fixed at two years, their compensation being $1 per day for not exceeding twenty days in the year. No school district should contain more than 100 or less than 20 free white children. The three district trustees should visit their school at least at the rate of one visit a week. The common schools must be in ses¬ sion at least three months in each year and be free to all white children from 6 to 18. A private school or seminary may be regarded a common school for a portion of a year. The regular bounty of the State was thus withdrawn from all seminaries and colleges outside the district common schools and such private and other seminaries as for a time came under the regulations of the State and local authorities. Dr. Breckenridge held the office of superintendant until 1853, longer than any of his predecessors. The result of his invaluable administration was seen in the first report of his successor, Hon. John D. Matthews, in December, 1853. In that year the average attendance in the schools had become 72,000; the entire enrollment 101,300. The sum of $140,858 had been appropriated for the schools, and the State tax had given $69,258. The school fund had mounted to $1,400,270. Each child in the State was entitled to a stipend of 70 cents for the 230,000 of school age. As a supplement to this report Dr. Breckenridge retires with a “ general statement, ” in which he reviews the field of conflict for the past six years, recounts the victories gained, and protests against several changes in the school laws, especially the provision for entirely free education, which he declares is an impossibility in the present con¬ dition of the State, the method of distributing the school fund, etc. HE closing words are worthy of preservation: A vast work has been done for popular education in this State; but it has been done under vast opposition and against vast obstructions. * * * An immense fund has been created, organized, and secured; and when in a moment of political frenzy it was destroyed it has been by a glorious series of legislative and popular COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 519 acts redeemed, restored, augmented, and made sacred. The whole State has been organized into school districts, and a complete and general system of popular education in its lowest stage been firmly and wisely established. Many thousands of comfortable schoolhouses have been erected, and many thousands of additional teachers have found honorable and remunerative employment. Many tens of thou¬ sands of the sons and daughters of the State have received in those schools the first elements of education, great multitudes of whom if not for these schools would never have received any education at all. And, perhaps, more than all, a public sentiment, and what is better and deeper, a public principle, fixed, general, and earnest, has been lodged in the minds and established in the hearts of our people that the work is a good work, that it can be done, and shall be done. He disclaims honor for all this, save as the successor of his predecessors, and thanks the press, many statesmen and philanthropists, and many private citizens, “not a few in the humbler walks of life. ’ ’ ‘ ‘As for myself, ’ ’ he says, ‘ ‘ I count it one of the most fortunate events of my life, as it will always be one of its most precious reminiscences, that I also have had my share in a period so full of good, and good only. ” “ There is a glory greater than the glory of wealth, and power, and arms, and conquest; the glory of learning, gathering, cherishing, diffusing, promulgating knowledge, whereby men may adorn their lot in this life whatever that lot may be, and whereby, as far as knowledge can, they may be led to know a better life to come. ’ ’ But this work, great as it was, did not satisfy the greatest of school men and admin¬ istrators of education yet produced by the State. He saw clearly the weakness of lim¬ iting the support of education to the elementary, and pleaded with great eloquence for the public support of the secondary and higher departments. He also perceived clearly that the State was iff no condition in 1852 to make the common schools entirely free, since an income of $500,000 at least would be required for the annual support of even the system on the ground for six months in the year. He seems at times inclined to favor the present British system of subsidizing all varieties of schools, so that a larger number could be educated. The subsequent history of common schools in Kentucky, nearly half a century later than the time when these predictions and warnings were put forth, shovrs his remarkable knowledge of the people of the State and the practical insight into the condition under which the people’s children could be trained for citizenship. Robert Jefferson Breckenridge was born in Kentucky in 1800, and died at Dan¬ ville, Ky., in 1871. He studied at Princeton and Yale and graduated at Union College, New York, in 1819; vTas admitted to the bar in 1823, and practiced as a lawyer eight years. For four successive years he was a member of the Kentucky legislature. As a public man he advocated the emancipation of the slaves; and his disappointment at the failure of that policy induced him to abandon politics and study theology at the age of 29. In 1832 he became the pastor of a Presbyterian church in Bethlehem, where he remained thirteen years. In 1845 he was elected president of Jefferson College, Pennsylvania. Two years later, he returned to Lex¬ ington, Ivy., as pastor of the First Presbyterian Church. At the same time he was appointed State superintendent of instruction, in 1847. His great labor as State superintendent was carried on in connection with the pastorship of his church, with¬ out an office in Frankfort, on a salary of $1,000 a year. After his retirement from this office he was appointed professor of theology in the divinity school at Danville, Ky. , vdiere he spent the remainder of his life. He became a great povrer in what was known as the old-school division of the American Presbyterian Church, and was widely known as a prominent writer on religious and other topics. At the breaking out of the civil war in 1861 he became at once prominent as one of the most impor¬ tant and courageous supporters of the Union cause in the South, although a son and a nephew, then Yice-President of the United States, united with the Confederacy. His last public service was the presidency of the National convention that nominated Abraham Lincoln for a second time to the Presidency of the United States, at Baltimore, in 1864. 520 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. It is doubtful if the annals of American education furnish a more conspicuous instance of a public service more decisive, rendered against greater obstacles and conducted with greater courage and wisdom, than the six years of the administration of Dr. Breckenridge as State superintendent of public instruction in Kentucky. He understood the people of his own State as few of the most distinguished statesmen of Kentucky have known them. He appeared at the crisis of the conflict that was not, as in New England and New York, a battle for important reforms with the continued support of the common school, but a war to the death against anything that by any figure of speech could be denominated a system of public instruction. And although from the first he was followed by an intelligent and right-minded “middle class,” in no State of the Union has the dominant class in church, state, and society been more fully set against the uplifting of the masses by an effective system of public instruction than in Kentucky. It was an emergency where but one policy could have prevailed; the policy of a courage that faced popular defeat and persisted to the end. If the masses of the white people, one-third of whom could not read in 1838, could be aroused to the necessity of education; could be persuaded, against all their prejudices, to submit to taxation and stand firm against the leadership that so far had withholden the great boon of common schooling from the children, all would go well. That it did go well and that this great State was finally brought to an enduring fidelity to the common-school system, as later, in even a greater peril, it stood fast against the deluge of disunion, was more due to the splendid leadership of Dr. Breckenridge than to any single cause. His reports and addresses on popular education form perhaps the most conspicuous section of a valuable school literature, to which the friends of the common school will revert as to a living spring of inspiration in the still troubled conflict for the reformation and expansion of the system. His analysis of the obstacles that prevented the complete success of the American common school in a slave State was the most correct ever made and has been vindicated by the history of every Commonwealth of the sixteen that favored that type of labor until the close of the civil war. The tables of statistics annexed to the first report of Superintendent Matthews in 1853 revealed the progress of the common schools of Kentucky during the twelve years from their first establishment in 1841. In that year only 4,950 children were reported as the school population of the entire State; in 1853, 201,225. In 1841 but 2,160 were attending the common schools, in 1853 72,000 were in regular attendance. In 1847, when Dr. Breckenridge assumed the State superintendency, there were reported only 20,000 of school age and 10,220 in average attendance. Under his administration of six years not only had the State fund been secured from destruc¬ tion, the State constitution revised in favor of public instruction, new school laws been placed on the statute book, and the annual income for public schooling raised to $150,000, but the attendance on schools had increased sevenfold, and the people of the State for the first time been awakened to the support of the system of public instruction to a far greater degree than by the repeated efforts of the previous forty years. The report of Superintendent Matthews for 1854 contains a fervent plea for the establishment by a tax of 3 cents on every $100 of property in the State as a perpetual income for education. The taxable property of Kentucky in 1854 was estimated at $405,830,168. Of the 80,218 parents of the 227,123 children between 6 and 18, 11,578 were reported as without property; 8,530 with less than $100; 13,391 from $100 to $400; and only 39,895, representing 116,846 children, with more than $600 of taxable possessions. Only 30,000 parents in a white population of 800,000 confessed to $1,000 of taxable property, on which was paid $3 as a school tax. The average attendance on the schools for 1853 was 76,420, the highest enrollment being 116,243 and the number of school age 207,210, a gain of 4,000 from the previous year. There were 3,257 districts in which schools were kept and 102 of the 103 counties had reported. COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 521 In 1855 the good work was still going on. There were 229,424 children recorded as of school age, of whom 113,763 had been registered as enrolled, with 73,000 in average attendance. One hundred and fifty thousand dollars was expended in 3,371 districts, with some 5,000 teachers employed. The people had voted the 3-cent tax on $100 by a majority of 3 to 1, only 5 of the 103 counties voting “no.” The largest majority vote ever given in the State was this for education — 82,765 to 57,526 — and the wealthy citizens vied with their poor neighbors in the support of schools common to all. The new tax raised the income of the common-school system to $121,749. Superintendent Matthews recommends a system by which the Morrison College of the Transylvania University could be improved by the appointment of two additional professors for political science and English literature, including a depart¬ ment of pedagogy. To this school a certain number of pupils should be admitted with free tuition and $1 per week, paid during forty-eight weeks, with the obligation to teach in the common schools from three to five years, according to the time of receiving instruction. The trustees of Transylvania University had offered the State the use of their buildings and the service of the entire faculty for this purpose. The property was estimated at $100,000, and $10,000 from the State fund would be required for the experiment. The report of Superintendent Matthews made in 1857 covers the 'School years of 1855-56. It opens with a laudable “flourish of trumpets” over the condition of the common schools. “The system of State instruction never presented a more pros¬ perous or gratifying condition.” In 1855 the number of children of school age was 229,424 ; for 1856, 245,181. The income applicable for the public school Avas limited to $1.20 per capita, from the increasing numbers. The largest number at school in 1856 was 139,805; the average attendance, 92,367, an increase in sixteen years from an average attendance of 2,160, was a cause of thanksgiving. There were 3,888 school districts in 104 counties. A change of the law making the minimum school term five instead of three months is urged. The income of the common-school funds in 1856 was $291,630; the amount disbursed the previous year was $149,016; in 1856, $142,603. The 3-cent school tax, with certain other sources of income, had furnished $286,265. The general condition of the school fund is reported as favorable. There had been several important amendments to the school laws in 1855-56. The most valuable in its direct effect on the schools was the reduction of the county school commissioners from 3 to 1 — appointed for two years by the county court — practically the system of county supervision adopted in several of the Northern States. The compensation — $2 a day for fifty days’ work — was a practical notice to this official to visit every school in his county at least once a year. The superintendent contrasts the condition of the common schools of Kentucky with other slave States with great satisfaction to his own Commonwealth, and emphasizes the additional opportunity of education afforded by “ numerous high schools and superior boarding schools for both sexes, and five or six colleges with able faculties, and all of them fairly endowed. “Every facility and all the advantages of other and older States, in every branch of science and in every department of learning, may be obtained by the youth of our State on his native soil.” How far the good superintendent’s esti¬ mate of the quality of all departments of education in Kentucky in 1856 was stimu¬ lated by his almost violent reference to the growing crusade in the nation against the institution of slavery — a point in which he differed from all the previous occu¬ pants of his office — must be judged by a careful reading of the returns and the grow¬ ing factor of sectional interest connected with the first political campaign in 1856, on an issue distinctly based upon the restriction of the extension of the “peculiar insti¬ tution” into the new Territories. But on one point there could be no discussion. The State of Kentucky certainly had a sufficient wealth of young manhood and womanhood to supply a native teach¬ ing force for the new common-school system. Every State superintendent had 522 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. urged the necessity of making some competent provision for the training of teachers. The most vulnerable point in the new schools was the incapacity of their corps of instructors, and the bitterest taunts of their enemies were directed against the aver¬ age country schoolmaster. Half the teachers in many of the northern border coun¬ ties were drawn from the northwest and Pennsylvania. The distinguished states¬ man, James G. Blaine, and a long line of less celebrated public men and well-known women, began their career as master or mistress in a Kentucky schoolhouse. At this juncture the old State Transylvania University made the advance which rallied the legislature to provide for what, on paper, seemed the most favorable arrange¬ ment for a great normal college yet adopted in the country. In 1855 the trustees of the university made a full offer of the institution and all its effects, $200,000 in value, to the State, including its entire reorganization under a new board, for the especial object of establishing what would now be called a State normal college. The history of this noted institution had been, from the first, a record of varied success and depression, with but scant consideration from the Commonwealth, which gave it the name — with few of the advantages — of a State university. Transylvania University was founded in the territorial period of Kentucky by a grant of 20,000 acres of the escheated lands of loyalists of the Revolution, then in Virginia, in 1783. In 1794 the new State established the Kentucky University. In 1798 the two rival institutions were united under the name of Transylvania Phi i ver¬ sify. The general endowment of the former college was cut down by a Kentucky State law, excepting certain of these lands from escheat, and of the $30,000 obtained from the remaining 8,000 acres, $20,000 were lost by the failure of the Bank of Ken¬ tucky. Another gift from Virginia, 1787, of similar nature was refused by the State in 1802. In 1815-1820 the State gave to the University some $3,000 and in 1821 two gifts of $10,000 and $2,500. This finished the account of the State with its uni¬ versity until 1829, when the buildings were destroyed by fire. They were restored by the gifts of Col. James Morrison, the city of Lexington and other contributors assisting, with $20,000 from the same hands for a professorship, certain scholarships also being founded by the city of Lexington. These benefactions had raised the institution from its ashes, and, with renewed fortunes, it had come up to the year 1856. The eloquent plea for a normal school by Superintendent Matthews had its effect, and in 1856 law was passed for the complete reorganization of Transylvania Uni¬ versity under a board of trustees, consisting of the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, the chief justice of the court of appeals, the attorney-general, the speaker of the house of representatives, and the superintendent of public schools, in addition to the seven permanent trustees, the administration to be divided equally between the two classes of officials, which would be a close corpora¬ tion. The new board was intrusted with all the privileges and duties of the original university. The fit organization of a proper college course would be completed, 1 1 with especial reference to the fact that the effort of said universitv thus reorganized was to furnish the Commonwealth of Kentucky with a sufficient and constant supply of good teachers, who were to be citizens of this State, while it should indirectly afford the means of instruction to pupils who may not have in view the profession of teach¬ ing V There was to be a president and four professors in the academical depart¬ ment, each professor presiding over a special chair. “All branches of learning commonly taught in the district schools, together with the training and practice of teachers, shall be included in one or the other of the professorships.” The trustees had direct power over all the operations. Every county had the right to send one pupil constantly, free of charge, for instruction, and there was a bonus of $1.50 per week for board, and each county and city should send a pupil for every representative in the legislature, to be chosen by the county commissioner of schools by competitive examination, to the number of 116. The university gave two full 523 COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. years of instruction, which the pupil was to reimburse by teaching for a similar term in the common schools. The recipients of this bounty were to be young men, not under 16 nor over 30 years of age, for the two previous years residents in the State. A post-graduate course of one year was opened on the same conditions as the regular course, and every normal pupil of requisite capacity could receive additional instruc¬ tion. Other students could be admitted to a college course b}^ paying tuition. The legislature voted 810,000 per annum for the support of the normal department. The reorganized university was opened in 1856. The inaugural address was an eloquent and popular presentation of the proper use of a normal school, with the environment of a department of moral science, physical science, mathematics, and ancient languages. The professors had charge of the several departments, assisted by those of the other classes. The president warmly dilates on the advantage to the university from this addition of a fine body of young men of mature age and fixed- habits brought there by a special purpose, and urges the indirect influence of the improved common-school system in preparing the future material of the college departments and their influence upon the entire sphere of the higher education in the State. “The total want of accurate instruction and thorough discipline in the early stages of education is an utterly unmitigated evil, a crack in the foundations which now threatens the whole superstructure and endangering all. * * * The very attempt to hide the defect recoils upon the moral nature, strikes in upon the inner man, and slowly fashions him for inevitable moral turpitude.” He looks to the normal school always to lead in this great reform. “Its method not only the best, but the only possible good method. * * * This habit, formed in the normal school and transferred to every department of the university, would of itself suffice to revolutionize our system of education and raise up a new race of statesmen and citizens.” The law reorganizing the university was passed by a vote of 56 to 37. The trus¬ tees elected a president and five professors and the State Normal School was opened in Lexington, September 1, 1856, with 80 pupils. “No school of similar character in this country ever commenced v’ith that number of pupils, or under such favorable auspices, or with so full a corps of instructors.” One hundred and nineteen students were received during the first year from 90 counties. But with all this triumph¬ ant beginning, the superintendent regarded it important to devote nearly a half of his report of 29 pages to an elaborate defense of the necessity of normal training in general and the new normal university in particular. The physical condition of the office of State superintendent remained unchanged. With the exception of a brief period during the administration of Dr. Bullock, it had been migrating between Louisville and Lexington, and the occupant had per¬ formed its burdensome duties in connection with the cares of a church pastorship. All the incumbents of the office had been clergymen. Drs. Bullock and Brecken- ridge were ministers of the Presbyterian; Dr. (afterwards Bishop) Kavanaugh of' the Methodist; Dr. (afterwards Bishop) Smith of the Protestant Episcopal; Dr. Brush of the Methodist, and Dr. Diller of the Baptist Church. Up to this date, 1856, there had been a zealous avoidance of the subject of the common-school reforms by the leading politicians and statesmen of the Commonwealth, with the exception of sev¬ eral of the governors, who honestly cooperated with the growing educational public in the work. This was in singular contrast with New England and New York, neither having, with the exception of Dr. Sears, placed a clergyman at the head of the common-school department. The report of Superintendent Matthews, in 1858, covering the school year of 1857, opens with a discussion of the important office of county commissioner of schools. An attempt to make this office elective, with a salary, was frustrated, on the ground that it would drag the entire department down into the maelstrom of county partisan politics. The superintendent advocates the election of the school commissioners by 524 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. the people with an adequate salary, and giving them the appointment of the local trustees. Two hundred and fifty-four thousand children had been reported as of school age, with an average school attendance of 88,931, the largest number attending being 138,522. The number of district schools was 4,221. The superintendent urges the distribution of the school funds on the basis of actual attendance of the children. The income of the school fund for 1858 was estimated at $304,466, and the entire amount of the State fund at $1,455,332.03. But these preparations for the constant growth of the elementary education were rudely dashed by the repeal of the law of 1855-56 establishing the State Normal Uni¬ versity and the consequent abandonment of that institution by its transfer to the original board of trustees by a large majority of the legislature. The reports of the trustees and the State superintendent dwell with almost pathetic pride upon the immediate success of the experiment. During the first year there were 203 students in the university, 80 of whom were in the normal department. It was claimed that this body was carefully selected by the county commissioners, had done themselves credit in the school, and had faithfully labored in the common schools in return. The somewhat boastful proclamation that this the first institution of the kind in the South had surpassed all similar schools in the older States was based on the ideals and expectations of its professors. The public treatment of this truly broad and practical agency was due to the fact that while the masses of the people of Kentucky were coming up to the support of the elementary common district school to a greater extent than in any State of the South, the six colleges and numerous private and secta¬ rian academies still to a great extent represented the determination of the “superior class” and a large division of the religious public to hold fast to the secondary and higher education as their rightful possession. The reorganization of the Transyl¬ vania University as a proper State college, with the free training of a considerable body of young men as teachers, was a menace to this idea that could not be endured. By an adroit play on popular prejudice it was not difficult to swing a legislature so largely representative of the rural population of the State over to the extreme action of 1858. The afflicted Superintendent Matthews, •who thus saw the offspring of his hopes so relentlessly stricken down, sets forth the indignity so evidently directed against the education of teachers. With this destruction of his plan Transylvania University was relegated to a history of bitter contention from which it has only within the past twenty years been delivered. The report rendered to the legislature in April, 1860, by Supt. R. Richardson opens with a clear and forcible history of education in Kentucky through its entire historic period. It is a convincing demonstration of the determination of the mass of people in the State to stand by, at least, the elementary department of a free-school system and pay reasonably for its support, notwithstanding the revolu¬ tionary and disastrous happenings of the past fifty years. The late State auditor, Mr. S. Page, is credited with a great service to the State through many years. The superintendent urges a movement to increase the rate of interest for the State school fund from 5 to 6 per cent. Having thus set forth the great cause of congratulation for the rapid development of the common school in the State, the new superintendent turns to a consideration of the defects that still encumber the system and to a large extent contribute to the strong opposition which still cripples it. He complains that of the 10,060 local officials of the system “many are so ignorant of the matters included in school supervision as to be incompetent to be qualified for any statement of facts touching their respective districts.” Another and more serious defect was the unwillingness of the majority of the citi¬ zens to contribute, by local aid, to the improvement of the schools. Four of the larger counties of the State did contribute to the extent of $100,000. Thirty additional COMMON SCHOOLS IN \ THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 525 counties gave from $250 to $5,000 each. Outside these 34 the remaining 70 counties were relying chiefly on the State fund, which maintained a poor school, under an incompetent teacher, for barely four months. The State of Delaware was supporting a common school of seven and one-half, and Alabama of six or seven months. The superintendent speaks of a reactionary policy that would cut down the school system of every State and reduce it to the condition of a degradation of the entire system “to a petty scheme of hire and salary and compel it to be what its enemies desired.” The policy of school directors here, as in other States, is deplored. Only 5,000 are reported and the work of destruction still goes on. The necessity of a uniform sys¬ tem of schoolbooks and of better schoolhouses is urged. The State association of teachers was organized in 1857-58, and county associations were being formed as tributaries. The Educational Monthly Teacher was published under its auspices. The subject of school libraries is mooted, the cities of Louisville and Lexington having already moved in this direction. The gradual falling off of the average attendance from the schools is attributed to the lack of competent teachers, and to this cause are traced nearly all the defects of the system. Lie suggests a general plan for some method of training teachers for the State. The reports of 1860-61 are filled with the evidence of the calamities that have already befallen the common-school system from the outbreak of the civil war. After a brief period the attempt at neutrality by the State in the great conflict had made the Commonwealth the proper seat of war. In no State were the inevitable results of secession more painfully realized — the estrangement of families; “the father against the son and the daughter against the mother;” the entire tragedy of internal disorder concentrated within the State. Although the Commonwealth had remained devoted to the Union, and, after the first year of the war, was generally free from dangerous invasion, yet it was impossible to prevent the disastrous effects of a widespread discontent. In the year 1861 the attendance of the children at school fell off from the average number of 107,000 to 61,000. The deficit in the col¬ lection of taxes from the unsettled condition of the State reduced the income of the schools from $481,900 in 1860 to $201,000 in 1861, and the number of districts in which schools were supported to 201. In place of a discussion on the condition of the schools and methods of reform, as in former years, Superintendent Richardson devotes the report of 1861, printed June, 1862, to an eloquent declaration of the results of the great conflict, up to date, in the diversion of school funds from their legitimate use to the support of the war; the scattering of school children, and the general loss of confidence in the work of popular education in the South. While the entire North had gone on in its school system, even in the face of the greatest exertions and sacrifices of treasure and blood, the superintendent maintained that every State that seceded from the Union had lost its hold on the common-school work, so well begun, and only in the border Commonwealths that remained true to the Union had the children been cared for at all. The superintendent insists that the present attitude of Kentucky on the great question of the preservation of the Union was due to what had been done during the past ten years in the interest of the education of the masses of the people, and declares that the counties most con¬ spicuous in the support of the common schools had been uniformly most loyal in their devotion to the Union cause. By 1863 the reports of Superintendent Richardson had a still more melancholy tale to rehearse. The occupation of the State by the military forces of the Union and the repeated alarms of invasion by the Confederate armies had so disturbed communica¬ tion that it had become difficult to gather the report for 1862. The average number of pupils attending the schools had been reduced to 43,654. A law passed August 30, 1862, which required every teacher and official of any school, established or char¬ tered by the State, to take a solemn oath of loyalty to the Union, had worked a fur- 526 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ther disintegration of the common school, causing the loss of probably 10,000 chil¬ dren in attendance on the common schools alone. The money expended from a reduced income was $271,000. The voluntary contributions for education had largely fallen away. With the passing of the year 1862 the storm of war drifted far southward, leaving the people of the State measurably free from the deplorable effects of the civil strife. The two years of conflict had cut down the attendance on the common schools more than 50 per cent, one half the districts in the State having ceased to support the schools or failed to report, and the average attendance of 1862 was 63,000 less than in 1860. In 1863 the tide again began to take an upward turn. Public confidence was in a measure restored and the new State superintendent of education reports an average attendance of 73,306 in 3,212 districts. But as this essay has already been prolonged beyond its legitimate limit — 1860 — the future of the common-school system in Kentucky must be studied further in the history of the thirty-five years since the close of the civil war. The history of the effort of the State of Kentucky to deal with the higher and secondary education is, far beyond the record of the elementary common school, the story of great aspirations and well-meant endeavors, hopeful at first, but thenceforth so embarrassed by private and sectarian interference that there is little to record until the period subsequent to the civil war. The first movement to endow the county academy under the name of college or institute, in 1798, by the gift of 6,000 acres to each county, was postponed until 1821, when its utter failure arrested further action. The failure came from the habit of appropriating money for education with no responsibility for it3 use. Each of these schools was practically a private or secta¬ rian corporation, entirely removed in its administration from any concern of the State. And, worst of all, the school funds thus given in a liberal spirit, by loose leg¬ islation were apt to be squandered by careless, probably sometimes by dishonest, handling. It is asserted that some of these gifts, if properly managed, would have amounted to a fund of $5,000,000, and that an average income of $60,000 was not an extravagant estimate of their value. The downfall of this scheme of public subsi¬ dizing this type of schools woke up the ambition and rivalship of all the religious bodies of the State, of private friends of the secondary and higher education, and even of the secret societies, like the Masonic order, sometimes of an entire town or city. From this time on until the breaking out of the civil war this work of establish¬ ing this class of seminaries, generally with names and pretensions too high for their actual accomplishment, went on apace. Almost every village of any proportions had one, and the larger places often more than one, of these. The presence of a popular president or the influence of a clergyman of a powerful church for a longer or shorter time would divert a train of pupils in one direction. Of these, a few of the most worthy and best supported survive to-day. A history of this side of the edu¬ cation of the State, which for all practical purposes was the only method of conduct¬ ing the secondary education for the half century before 1860, would be a great assistance in the estimate of the education of the foremost people of that day, which made the name of Kentucky of national import, and in 1860-1865 attracted the eager attention of the Republic to the battle of giants in this now “dark and bloody ground ” of the civil war. Probably a score of seminaries of greater or less worth have at dif¬ ferent times obtained the name of college. Several of these, by right, may claim this title, and for half a century past have to a certain extent done the work of the old- time rural or village American college in a way often more efficient than is some¬ times done in schools of greater pretensions, with the courses of study more ample and resources corresponding. As far as concerns the support of the higher educa¬ tion by the State the educational bounty of the Commonwealth has had no other object outside this early arrangement than Transylvania University. COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 527 The history of Transylvania University may be regarded a century-long romance of the early educational life of the great West. The original institution from which it was born was established, on paper, by a grant of the legislature of Virginia in 1780 of 8,000 acres of escheated lands belonging to parties unfriendly to the country during the war of independence. The founder of the school, Col. John Todd, obtained the appropriation and was probably responsible for the high-sounding pre¬ amble of the legislative act. After a little skirmishing, under the presidency of Rev. Thomas Rice, a native of Virginia and a graduate of what is now Princeton University, it was transferred to Lexington in 1793 and located in a building on a vacant private lot until housed in a home of its own, raised by private contribution. From the first hour of its existence it seems to have been regarded as a prize of Sectarian contention. In 1795 the State endowed and chartered the Kentucky (Presbyterian) Academy with 6,000 acres of land. In 1798 the two institutions were united under the name Transylvania University, which began its existence with a princely endowment of 20,000 acres of land contributed by Virginia and 6,000 acres by the State to the Kentucky Academy. The first proof of the waning affection of the new State for its first-born educa¬ tional child was the release of the escheated lands of its Tory citizens. This, at “one fell swoop,” deprived the university of its main support, leaving only some 8,000 acres of land, sold for $30,000. The second act was “like unto it,” abol¬ ishing the charter of the University of Kentucky, in which this university fund was included, and leaving it minus two-thirds of its endowment. The third movement was to repeal the law by which Virginia had granted to the university one-sixth of the lands in the district of Kentucky, finally given to William and Mary College. But, nothing daunted, the first university beyond the mountains began its career at Lexington, Ky., in 1798, with a tuition fee of <£5 a year — one-half cash, one-half in' 1 1 property’ ’ — with boarding £9 per year in £ ‘ property, ’ ’ pork, corn, etc. J ohm Filson , the first historian of Kentucky, was its friend, and began the great work of introducing the scholars of the nation to the Southwest — the advanced guard of the mighty army of pedagogues of both sexes that has so ministered to the educational aid and com¬ fort of this vast section. The lot upon which the two-story brick building stood was donated by the citizens, and Professor Filson was a teacher. The appointment of a Baptist clergyman as teacher in 1794 precipitated the quarrel which resulted in the secession of the Kentucky Academy in 1798, and left the academical department, under Rev. John Moore, as first president. In 1799 the departments of law and medicine were added. The professor in the lawr department was Col. George Nicholas, followed by Henry Clay, William T. Barry, the author of the admirable educational legislative report of 1821, and others. A donation of a building from the city of Lexington and a succession of able legal professors gave this law school a national reputation. The professor of the medical department was Dr. Samuel Brown, a native of Pennsylvania and a student of Edinburgh. This department of the univer¬ sity was said to have been the first arrangement for reliable medical instruction in the West. In 1804 President Moore was succeeded by Ur. James Blythe, a native of North . Carolina, a graduate of Hampden Sidney College, promoted from the professorship of mathematics and philosophy. He held the position fifteen years, and afterwards was professor of chemistry in a medical college in Indiana. The first university degree was given by Transylvania in 1802, and in 1804 Indian students were admit¬ ted. The medical department grew steadily, and its first degree wras granted in 1818. In 1817 a determined effort vras made in behalf of the university. A new college building wTas contributed, by the city of Lexington, and Dr. Horace Holley, of Boston, was invited to the presidency. This gentleman, a member of one of the most bril¬ liant of the Connecticut families of that day, was born in Salisbury, Conn., in 1781; as usual, taught in the common schools, and graduated at Yale in 1803 with distinc- 528 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. tion. Beginning the study of law in New York, he attached himself soon to Dr. Timothy Dwight as his teacher in theology, and in 1805 was ordained to the Congre¬ gational Christian ministry at the age of 24. In 1809 he was found in the pulpit in one of the most popular churches of Boston — Hollis street — afterwards known through the pastorate of John Pierpont and Thomas Starr King. His personal qualities, pop¬ ular manners, splendid oratory, and versatility of faculty attracted immediate atten¬ tion. He soon became to the New England Christianity of that early day the fore¬ runner and prophet of the notable separation of the “liberal” from the “ evangel¬ ical” sections of the Congregational Church, under the leadership of Dr. William Ellery Clianning, about the year 1820, in connection with Buckminster and others, one of the most important representatives of the “advanced” religious movement in New England. His occasional preaching at New Yrork and Washington attracted great attention from prominent public men, and suggested his name as a fit person to undertake the pioneer university work of the new State of Kentucky. Under the administration of Professor Holley the university was reorganized, and the medical school rose to special importance. In 1819-20 the State made the small contribution of $8,000, and in 1821 increased its appropriation by the gift of one-half of the profits of the Lexington Branch of the Bank of the Commonwealth for two years, amounting to the small sum of $10,000. In 1824 a further contribution was made of $20,000. In 1825 it was asserted that Transylvania University possessed the best college library in the Union, having received donations from private individuals, including Edward Everett, and also from the British Government. The medical library was said to be excellent. The institution became known in the East, and attracted the attention of many distinguished people, including Lafayette and the Earl of Derby, Judge William T. Barry, known as judge of the State courts, after¬ wards United States Senator and a member of the President’s Cabinet. In 1826 the medical school had 281 students, with 53 graduates, the largest then in existence in the United States. In 1823 Col. James Morrison, one of the new wealthy men of the State, endowed the academical department with a gift of $20,000. The power of President Holley to carry out his broad and liberal policy was one of the questions always debated by the educational public in the estimate of the distinguished head of a growing university. It is unnecessary, especially since the recent publication by the Filson Club of Louisville, Ky., of a thorough review of the causes of the separation of President Holley from Transylvania University, to enlarge on this unhappy incident in the history of the higher education of that State. Doubtless, his free and popular man¬ ners, possibly somewhat his want of tact, more evidently his growing dissent from the dominating type of theology in the Southwest, had each its part in kindling the flame among his opponents which finally drove him from his great position and broke his heart. After a brief attempt to establish a new college in New Orleans, he fell sick, and on the home voyage to the North died on shipboard. His wife migrated to Texas, and after a residence there returned to New Orleans, where she died. His brilliant administration had raised Transylvania from the obscurity of a provincial academy to the fame of a university known at home and abroad. Only 22 students had graduated from it during the sixteen years of its existence previous to his com¬ ing. During the nine years of his presidency 666 had been sent forth. Among his professors and pupils was Benjamin O. Peers, author of the famous report on common schools of 1830. The dedication of a new medical building was another of the fruits of his labors. In 1828 Rev. Alva Woods, D. D., was chosen to the presidency of Transylvania from Brown University, Rhode Island. After a residence of two years he entered upon the presidency of the University of Alabama. In 1829 the new buildings of the university, with the law and college libraries, were destroyed by fire. Dr. Woods was succeeded by Rev. Benjamin O. Peers, a graduate of Transylvania, a clergyman COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 529 of the Protestant Episcopal Church, and at one time president of an academy. He served for two years. In addition to the Morrison College department, founded by Col. James Morrison from his gift of $20,000, now the center of the university, a theological department was opened in 1835. In 1838-39 the city of Lexington donated $70,000. Seventy people incorporated a Transylvania institute with $35,000, and the pupils of the medical department furnished a lot for the new medical building costing $15,000. But from the continual neglect of the State and the persistent rivalry of the different religious bodies, each of whom was building up its own college while carrying on the war against the State institution, Transylvania had steadily declined until 1842. The control was then given to the Methodist Church, and Bishop Henry B. Bascom was chosen as president. The institution at once ral¬ lied and for seven years the prospects of the university assumed their old aspect. The resignation of Bishop Bascom in 1849 threw the university back upon the hands of the State. Prof. J. B. Dodd was his successor until another reorganization in 1856. In that year came the attempt to establish the most important and broadest normal college in the Union, in connection with the faculty of Morrison College herein already described. The failure of this movement by the reaction in the legislature in 1858 has already been noted. Dr. L. W. Green was president during this experiment, called from the presidency of Hampden-Sidney College in Virginia. He retired to the presidency of Center Col¬ lege, Danville, Ivy. The medical school went on until the opening of the civil war. This department had held its own during all the vicissitudes of the Academical College, and up to 1861 had graduated 2,000 students. After the failure of the normal school experiment, the academical department sunk to the dimensions of a grammar school, under the principalship of Dr. J. Iv. Patterson, now the able president of the State Col¬ lege of Kentucky. In 1865 the university was united with the Kentucky University of the Christian denomination, and its history from that period illustrates the attempt of a denominational school in education to represent a growing American State. Its final separation from State relations has resulted in its present position as one of the= most useful institutions of learning in Kentucky, under the direction of the impor¬ tant religious body known as the Christians or Disciples. The graduates of Transylvania University during the period of sixty years from its5 foundation in 1798 included great, numbers of men distinguished in State and national affairs. Its downfall was one more proof that the American system of com¬ mon-school instruction in its higher no less than its elementary department can not safely form a connection with the denominational or any other system of public- instruction save one over which the people, through their representatives, have complete control. The few States that still persist, and the National Government in its dealing with the Indian tribes, are certain to abandon a policy so antagonistic to American ideas. The State of Kentucky, by the aid of the Agricultural and Mechan¬ ical College land grant of the United States in 1862, was able in 1867 to attempt the establishment of a proper State university, coeducative and already of established reputation, with a valuable normal school department, under the presidency of Dr. Patterson, who stood by the deathbed of old Transylvania during the stormy period of the civil war. The history of the secondary education in Kentucky, under the auspices of the State, subsequent to the decay of the original system of the subsidized academy of each county, about the year 1820, is substantially confined to a record of a few of the larger towns, still the principal cities of the State. The rapid development of the denominational religious academy during the forty years before the civil war was the chief hindrance to the growth of the free secondary public school. The same influ¬ ence that finally broke down the effort of the Commonwealth to establish a State university and left Transylvania to be fought over by a succession of ardent combat¬ ants, forced into the school laws a provision which, until subsequent to 1865, restricted ed 1900 - 34 530 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. the State practically to the support of the country district school. At the same time the larger towns, which chose to establish and support the nearest approach to the modern graded school system then in the West, were exempted by the statute from the control of the county school authorities, each municipality being rated as one district, with no connection with the State save the receipt of its own quota of the school fund. The original towns thus favored were Maysville, Lexington, and at a later period Covington. Indeed, until 1856 the modern free high school, open to the entire white population, was not established in Louisville, the most flourishing city of the State. Before that period several of the towns had aided in the establish¬ ment of a grammar or classical school, established, partially supported, and to a cer¬ tain extent governed by a municipal law under a special provision of the charter. But the history of the common school of Kentucky, until after the civil war, does not include what is now known as the free high school outside the few municipalities where it was the exception in the movement that for thirty years so agitated the Commonwealth. Of these larger towns, the city of Lexington, Fayette County, is the earliest to which attention was attracted for its interest in education and as the first center of culture and literary and political interest in what was then one of the most remote portions of the civilized earth. As soon as the place was occupied as' a fort, about the time of the breaking out of the Revolutionary war, a private school was set up by John McRay, who at once demonstrated his capacity to attend to the then important department for thrashing by slaying an impertinent wild-cat who dared to attack the master on his throne — the schooihouse desk. Land was given for a “Latin and English school” at an early day. In 1787 Mrs. Jane Woolman, of Philadelphia, established the Lexington Girls’ School, with tuition of £4 a year, pay¬ able in cash or “truck.” Another school followed, and in 1788 Transylvania Uni¬ versity, under its final name, was set up, probably the first attempt beyond the Alleghenies under the United Stakes Government to establish the higher education. The fact that Lexington, Ivy., for that early period was regarded as the center of the cultivated society and foremost professional life of the new Western world, and the early union of the denominational schools of the different religious bodies with Transylvania University, and the attempt to dispense with ecclesiastical inter¬ ference by the appointment of a new board of management, ‘ £ not one a professor of religion;” the administration of President Horace Holley, a minister of the “liberal” type from Boston, extending over a period of nine years, from 1818 to 1827, by all odds the most notable period in the history of the institution; the union of ail the opposing -forces which forced his retirement; the renewal of the fierce war of the sects, resulting in the capture of the institution in 1842 by the Methodists, which brought in a brief period of success; the failure of the effort to reorganize in 1854 as a State normal college, and the final union with the important Christian denomination in 1856, which made a prodigious struggle to maintain it in connection with the Commonwealth, and, failing in this, lias at last come into full possession of the college; all this, which has already been told, was a great obstacle to the full development of the common school system in Lexington. What with the great influence of the central institution which according to the custom really included every type of schooling, the numerous schools — private and public — that rose and fell for the training of children and youth of all ages, the high aristocratic tone of society in this and the adjacent blue-grass region, the strange indifference of the majority of leading public men, several of national reputation, in the city to the great movement that was agitating the masses of the people for general education, the common school interest, save at one or two brief periods, was not conspicuous. In 1840 the city of Lexington reported a voting population of 2,571, with 2,622 children; a total valuation of $18,399,621, the second in the State. The city had a population of 27, 756 and received $1,055 from the State school fund, with 1,325 chil- COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 531 dren at school; 256 white persons unable to read. There were 39 male and 5 female teachers. But in the report of the first two State superintendents, 1839 and 1840, the failure of the fund reduced the allowance of the city to $583.20 for 1,458 children between 7 and 17. In 1842 the city government reports $1,524.42 expended for “ city school.” A private fund of $7,000 was being gathered fora “ free school. ” At this time the condition of Transylvania University was absorbing the interest of the educational public of Lexington, and, for the time and place, large contributions were given to its rehabilitation from destruction by fire and the depression of the years that followed the retirement of President Holley. Meanwhile Lexington had long since become the first of the notable new places beyond the mountains. In 1789 the first horse race is reported, the precursor of the great reputation of the city and region for fine-blooded stock and the development of the race track, so noted that the chief historian of the State pauses in his nar¬ rative of interesting events to record the doings of the most celebrated horses, while the public vocabulary has been adapted to the popular habit by speaking of almost every industrial, political, social, or educational movement as “a race.” The town claims the publication of one of the first newspapers west of the Alleghenies, in 1787. In 1811 John Reynolds, then governor of Illinois, passing through Lexington, speaks of it as a “ handsome town.” It was the place of meeting of the first legisla¬ ture and became the residence of several men of national eminence of the period. Among these were several of the contestants of the claim of Robert Fulton as the first steamboat inventor in the Republic. Its roll of distinguished men, including the celebrated name of Henry Clay, was hardly exceeded by any town in the Republic previous to 1840. In 1800 the population was 2,400, Cincinnati, Ohio, being spoken of as an adjacent village of 750. A great i ‘ revival of religion ” in that year may have saved the rising town from the bad reputation that clung to several of the original cities of the Ohio Valley, and its sanitary character was in strong con¬ trast to what was called “the graveyard of Louisville.” In education it boasted among its citizens the names of Barry and Peers, whose educational reports to the legislature in 1830 and 1840 were among the most powerful influences that contrib¬ uted to the final establishment of the common-school system in 1849-50. The historians declare that in 1816 “ Lexington is known as the most elegant and cultivated city of the West.” High-toned social entertainment was the order of the day. It was still as large as Cincinnati and kept with as good care as the oldest town of the Union. The lunatic asylum was the first of the kind established west of the Alleghenies, and the largest in the United States. It was established as a local charity in 1816 and dedicated by the eloquence of “ Kentucky’s favorite son” — Henry Clay, of Ashland. The price of young male negroes in 1817 was from $500 to $700. A great event was the visit of Lafayette in 1825. During the reign of President Holley the little city bore the title, “The Athens of the West.” Its leaders in society, education, and the professions were well known. The university had a national reputation. The public press abounded in literary articles, and its reputa¬ tion for authorship was the best in the West. A liberal social atmosphere added to the interest, and with the charming rural surroundings of the fertile countryside, Lexington became a favorite resort for strangers and visitors from abroad. A Bible society was formed in 1822, and in 1823 the first religious journal founded in the Southwest opened its batteries on what was described by the popular theology as “the rising infidel tendency of the country,” represented by the liberal teaching in the person of President Holley. The record of the political performances of rival politicians, in which the discussion of national affairs was liberally mixed with bitter personal rivalries, even to the extreme verge of the “free fight” or the more formal duel, was one of the chief entertainments of their constituents. Mary Todd, the wife-of Abraham Lincoln, was born in Lexington. The best speech of Henry Clay at home was made before the “Lexington Junto,” the predecessor of a larger asso- 532 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ciation, in 3 798. The learned naturalist, C. S. Ralinesque, was a professor of Transyl¬ vania University in 1824. Jefferson Davis was a student in Transylvania University, and the stranger to-day is shown the window in the ohl mansion where the young student was to he seen at his books. Lexington early became the headquarters of ecclesiastical and theological interest. Rev. Barton A. Stone was the leader of the little group of people called “Christians,” since known by the name of the rival sect of “Disciples,” an offshoot from the original body, now become one of the most powerful of the religious bodies of the Southwest, numbering among its followers Henry Clay and large numbers of the public men of the State. Among its clergy Rev. Alexander Campbell was best known in this sect, having been the founder of Bethany College, West Virginia. In 1843 occurred the famous theological discussion between Alexander Campbell and Rev. N. L. Rice, with Henry Clay — a distinguished judge and a prominent colonel being selected as directors. The first macadamized road, the successor of the plank road, that lifted the inhabitants of the great Southwest above the abysmal mud for half the year, appeared under the patronage of leading citizens as a new highway from Lexington to Maysville. The first railroad in the West also took its departure from this famous little city in 1830, $7,000 being contributed by its citizens. One million dollars was regarded sufficient capital for a connection with Portsmouth on the Ohio River. In 1832 Lexington became an incorporated city, its first mayor, Chancellor Hunt, a graduate of Transylvania University. Mr. Timothy Flint, in his “ Mississippi Valley,” breaks forth into ecstasies over the beauties of the adjacent country, the loveliness of the city, the hospitality of its people, and its progress in all the arts of life. Gen. Andrew Jackson, a candidate for the Presidency of the United States, was greeted at a mammoth “barbecue” about the same time. An orphan asylum was established in 1833. In 1834 the Catholic Church founded one of its many institutions for edu¬ cation and charity in Lexington — St. Catherine’s Academy. With all this stir of life and the gathering testimony of so many of the public and superior people of the Southwest to this favored place, we need hardly be surprised that the attention of the people was for a long time detained from the establishment of the common school. In 1834, moved by the growing numbers of children, the city established a school in a discarded church building with 107 pupils under Master Gayle, assisted by his daughter. A committee of three, appointed by the city council, had charge of the movement. In 1836 a private fund of $10,000 was given for its use. For that day the gift was regarded generous. During the years of depression, previ¬ ous to the administration of Superintendent Breckenridge in 1848, the State appro¬ priation had fallen below $1,000 per annum for nearly “200 (?) children of school age.” In 1848 Fayette County contained 1,056 white children between 5 and 16, while Maysville had 1,000, Covington 1,230, and Louisville 4,982. Fayette County was put off with the pittance of $70 from the depleted State fund, while Lexington with 1,121 children received $392.35 of State aid. In 1853 the powerful hand of Superintendent Breckenridge had arrested the com¬ mon school in its downward trend, and increased the amount of State aid to all the cities. Lexington reports in this year 1,378 of its 1,484 children in the common schools, with an average attendance of 910, with $943.75 from the State distribution. The historian of the city, writing in 1872, remarks: “In this year [1853] the public school had attained a prosperity greater than it ever acquired before or since. Not a single private school for the education of boys was in existence in the city; every¬ body sent his children to the city schools, and the ceremonies that attended their closing exercises indicated the interest and pride that was taken in them by the citizens.” Mr. James O. Harrison, chairman of the school board, had devoted him¬ self to the upbuilding of the schools. As usual in the Southern States, the improve- COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 533 meiit of the citizenship of the place was associated with the success of the common- school system. In 1854 the number of children is reported at 1,500, with an average attendance of 1,000 and State aid of $1,000. In 1856, the increasing number of children, 1,683 the highest number in school, with an average attendance of 1,500, and $2,000 received for their support from the school funds, seemed to predict a beginning of the decline, as there appears to have been no State tax, and the support was from local funds and private contributions, This was the year of the existence of the normal class connected with Transylvania University, and the uplift of the hopes of the com¬ mon-school public were soon to be dispelled by the act of the legislature in repealing the law. In 1856-57 the receipts from the State were $1,718 and $2,082, with an increase of pupils — 1,432 and 1,735. In 1858, with a State aid of $1,890 and a school population of 1,575, the average attendance had fallen to 640, less than two-thirds being found at any time in the common schools, the city having about one-half the school population of the county. In 1860, 479 was the average attendance, less than half the full number attending, with 1,459 reported of school age, and an income from the fund of $1,081. Only 781 were in average attendance (about half the population of school age) in 1861. Rising again to 1,089 in average attendance, with an income of $1,755.60, in 1862, it fell to 600 (one-third the school population) in 1863. The State was involved in the great war, and the attendance on the common school was but one-half that of 1860. Lexington, in an exposed position, the center of the frightful political agitation of the Commonwealth, especially suffered with the remainder of the State. A rally in 1864 to an average attendance of 1,079, and a distribution of $2,174, suggested the coming of better days; but in 1865, the year of the collapse of the Confederacy, the average attendance sunk to 485 — one-fifth the school popula¬ tion— 898 the highest and 390 the lowest number attending. The situation was not materially improved in 1866 — 2,000 school population, 600 average attendance, with no receipts from the State. It is evident from this statement that from the year 1853, in comparison with the condition of the city, the interest in the common school in Lexington had declined. The close of the war found the system in peril. The increase of pupils of the private and denominational schools from the class able to attend and pay for this type of instruction was marked, and this form of education was largely relied on by the major portion of the well-to-do people of the city. The sudden influx into Lexington of crowds of the colored people from the adjacent country involved the educational public in a new situation. There were three cities somewhat exempted from the effect of the general school statute of Kentucky in 1838, under the following provisions: “That the provisions of this act, so far as it relates to Jefferson, Fayette, and Mason counties, shall not apply to the cities of Louisville, Lexington, and Maysville. And these cities shall be considered as having adopted the system of public schools by taxation, and be entitled to all the benefits of the act, on the report of the government of their public schools of the number of children within said cities of the ages named in this act; and that part of the school fund which these cities shall be entitled to shall be paid to the mayor and council for the use of the public schools of said city.” The city of Covington on the Ohio River was afterwards added to these three places and the special history of these, of which Maysville was still among the first in population and wealth in the State, will now briefly be treated. But of all, perhaps the least of the group in this respect, Maysville, for more than a genera¬ tion, was a conspicuous leader in the educational life of the new time. The latest his¬ torian of Kentucky, Professor Shaler, of Harvard University, says: “Mason county became the best school county in the State, and from it came an unusually large number of teachers, editors, and other literary men.” This he ascribes to the original settlement of the county by immigrants in large number from Pennsylvania, 534 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. New Jersey, and New England, especially to the immigration from Connecticut. “In the beginning the New England people probably did not amount to over fifty families, but it was an important contribution to the life of the colony.” Mason County was the eighth of the nine counties already formed in Kentucky in 1792, when the State was admitted to the Union. It then included a large territory on and adjacent to the Ohio River which has been subdivided into nineteen counties and portions of counties. In 1790 the entire county contained 2,722 people, the least in population of the nine; Fayette, with 10,419, being the first, and Jefferson, including the village of Louisville, but 4,765. In 1870 the population of Mason County was 18,126 — the fourth of the original nine. Its first county town was Wash¬ ington, now a small village, a few miles inland from the Ohio River, and Maysville, now the chief and most populous city of the county, was only a landing on the river bank. The first settlement was in 1784, by a party of Virginians. It was “estab¬ lished” by act of the Virginia legislature under the name of Limestone. It grew steadily, overshadowed by its steep “bluffs,” the little county town of Washington, in 1805, boasting 100, while Limestone contained but 50 houses. In 1810 Maysville contained 335 people and 100 houses. The Baptist Church building was the first erected in northern Kentucky, at Washington, Mason County, in 1785. Those famous pioneers, Simon Kenton and Daniel Boone, and later others of the same sort, were connected with the settlement of the county and its chief city. The Methodist brethren were in due time on hand, and the family that brought the good tidings to the western wilderness was connected with the second Methodist Church founded on the continent. In 1790 a young Master Davidson, concerning whose doings as a schoolmaster we should be interested to hear more, as in so many other cases, was called to display his talents in battles with the wild-cats and the wilder men of the woods, with which the historians of the early West so encumber their narratives. The quality of the original stock that occupied the land in old Mason County was proved by the great number of eminent citizens, some of national reputation 'and others possibly more useful in their day and generation in their own common life than the more conspicuous brethren who were sent to the State and national capital cities. It was only by gradual growth that the county mounted to the population of 18,000 during the eighty years ending with 1870. In 1840 its school population was one-fourth of its entire population, a ratio which declined to one-fifth in 1870. The fertile uplands in the rear of the river were a great attraction to the settlers from the North, of whom Pennsylvania supplied a large proportion, while the class most distinguished in public affairs was largely of New England origin. But while never one of the great cities of the Ohio Valley, and for half a century past steadily declining in the ratio of population and wealth, Maysville had so wrought in the cause of education that in 1838 we find it among the three cities exempted from the general operation of the new State school law by reason of having a special school of its own, supported partly by the bounty of the State. In 1840 Mason County had not adopted the school system of 1838, while Maysville had 578 children of school age. In 1842 there were 510 children in the town with 100 in a school, taught twelve months in a year,' with $250 State aid and $650 assessed. In 1847, at the appearance of Dr. Breckenridge as State superintendent of schools, Mason was still among the more destitute counties, while Maysville had 1,000 children and received but $300 from the State. In 1856 Mason County is credited with a taxable property valuation of $9,534,209, and a school population of 3,382, of whom 1,260 were in average attendance. Maysville had 702 children, with 175 in average attendance, with a ten months’ term, $562. SO of State aid, and an expenditure of $950. LTp to 1859 the public school record is still unfavorable, of 910 children of school age but 227 having attended at any time, and the average attendance only 173 ten months in the year. Throughout the war the decline went on. In 1861, 995 of school age, 150 in average attendance eight months in the year, with $627 from the 535 COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. State and $050 distributed. And, as late as 1S69, the record is 1,071 of school age and only 317 in attendance for ten months. The conclusion from this is that while in general sympathy with the common- school system of the State, Maysville at an early period established common schools for a portion of her children, subsidized in addition to the distribution of the State fund; yet the educated class of the city during the years before the civil war was more in favor of private and academical schools than otherwise. In 1870 the city was credited with a free high and three district schools, while live seminaries, two for male and three for female students, and several other private and parochial schools, declared Maysville, for a city of its description, still an educational center of the old-time sort. Mason County at present is, however, regarded one of the most advanced in the State in its support of the common school for the rural districts. Another of the cities that were at a later date exempt from the general operation of the school law of 1838 was Frankfort, after 1793 the capital city of the new Com¬ monwealth. When Lexington became the first capital in 1792 it was the most populous town in the State, the entire population being over 70,000 and that of Frankfort 1,000. Why the seat of government vTas removed to Frankfort, a place still under fire from the savages, and for many years a village of moderate proportions, is one of the mysteries of the involved and intense public life of Kentucky. In 1840 the town was organized under the new school law, with 230 children in four schools, taught by two men and two women, with the, for the day, generous salaries of $750 and $550; although the course of study in the schools, afterwards largely extended, then included Latin, geography, and grammar. Their support, in addition to the limited State fund, came from a tax of 25 cents on each $100, from which $775 was obtained. Notwithstanding the fight of the opposition against laying the tax, the good work went on, and the progress was more than could be expected. At the end of the first year it was proposed to submit the question of the continuance of the schools to a second vote of the people. The attendance increased the second year, which reduced the per capita cost of education from $27.38 to $14.20. In 1856 the number of chil¬ dren of school age was reported as 456; in average attendance, 145; in 1859, 659 children, with 90 in average attendance six and one-half months. The city had no school in 1863, the middle year of the civil war. By 1869 the common school had taken a “fresh start” toward the new order of affairs, there being 320 of the 815 children of school age in average attendance three months in the year at $4.50 per capita, the entire amount received from the State $684, with the usual addition of local funds. In 1810 Frankfort is described as a village of 140 houses. The city claims the honor of the establishment of the first full sectarian school in Kentucky, in 1819, with 30 scholars, whose instruction seems to have been centered upon committing the verses of the Bible to memory. The entire school had committed 36,640 verses. One class in two and one-half years had read the Bible entirely through, from 5,000 to 7,000 verses each, and were perfect in the Assembly’s Catechism, from wddch these industrious pupils had committed 600 separate proof texts. The population in 1840 was 1,917; in 1860, 3,702, only 200 greater than that of Maysville, 3,499. It is to be regretted that the interest of the historians of Kentucky is so largely confined to the Indian fighting of the early, and the career of the ‘ ‘ distinguished citizen ’ ’ of the later, period that such commonplace matters as the education of the masses of the people, even in the most important towns, is only to be dug out of obscurity by a laborious research through historical material often confused and rarely altogether reliable. The city of Covington, Kenton County, appears in the list of excepted cities before Frankfort. The county was organized as late as 1840, and its first county seat, Inde¬ pendence, was situated 11 miles south of Covington. But the city of Covington is now second in importance in the State, opposite Cincinnati, Ohio. Until 1815 it was a small settlement, known only as a “ ferry. ’ ’ It was named from C eneral Coving- 536 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ton, a distinguished public character in the State, and in 1834 received a city charter. In 1840 it had a population of 2,000, which twenty years later (1860) had increased to 16,471. Covington is now a growing city of 60,000 people, and with its neighboring city, Newport, and several large villages adjacent, represents a population of 150,000 opposite Cincinnati, still the great city of the lower Ohio Valley. In 1854 the num¬ ber of school children was reported at 3,000, and in 1860 at 3,782. In 1842 Covington first appears in the record of Kentucky city schools, with a school population of 2,609 and $243.60 of the disbursed State school fund. In 1848 Kenton County appeared as one of the districted counties, with a small school population outside the city and no report for the time. In 1859, with a city population of 16,000, 3,439 children of school age were returned, with 1,031 in average common school attendance. These villages, that were the incipient cities of Kentucky during the period cov¬ ered by this essay, are fair representatives of what was going on in what were then the centers of the secondary and higher schooling of the State. In the subsequent development of education during the past thirty years a large number of county towns and old-time “college villages” have taken up the complete organization of the common school, in many cases absorbing the local academy as a free high school, and, in a measure, bringing the denominational colleges in elbow-touch with these new “ seminaries of learning.” But as the real common-school life of these places has been almost entirely developed since the close of the civil war, the record of their often remarkable work does not fall within the time limits of this paper, which exclude by far the most interesting chapter in the history of the common school in Kentucky. For although the city of Louisville had moved at a comparatively early date in the direction of the public schooling of its white population, yet it was only during or soon after the close of the war that its present excellent system of secondary academical and industrial training was fully organized. There is a great advantage in presenting the record of a city of this importance as a whole. Long before the outbreak of the civil war, the two cities, Cincinnati, Ohio, and Louisville, Ky., had in all ways outgrown the inland and border towns of Kentucky, of which Lexington, the chief, for a time could justly claim to represent the beginnings of cultivated and influential municipal life in the vast region of the new West. Thenceforth Louisville rapidly came to the front as the foremost representative in Kentucky of the new American life of a united country. The recent publication of the admirable volume containing the record of the growth and present status of this, one of the most beautiful and characteristic of our West¬ ern American cities, with the contributions of the Filson Club and the group of scholars gathered about what is probably the most valuable collection of early his¬ torical documents beyond the Alleghenies, will furnish ample material for the sketch of this closing epoch, the culmination of the long-drawn conflict of the common school public of Kentucky to bring the educational opportunities of their State in line with the great commonwealths, more than ever now their neighbors, on the northern shore of the Ohio. It will be seen from this account of common-school education in these the more advanced county towns, and even the chief cities of Kentucky, previous to 1860, that the progress of the proper graded-school system — the most conspicuous product of the great educational revival from 1830 to 1860 — had been slow. While probably almost every branch of knowledge included in the common-school curriculum of the day was in one way or another taught in these schools, yet neither the free high school nor any very effective system of the free grammar school had been exten¬ sively organized. Up to a very recent date the county academy for general instruc¬ tion and the private or denominational female seminary had retained their hold on the more favored classes as the only method of securing an education above the ele¬ mentary common school of the country and the mixed schools of the towns. Almost every considerable village in the State had its seminary, of which it was proud and COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1839-1860. 537 which its leading citizens supported for the schooling of their families. In no State of the Union is it more important that a complete history of the numerous academical schools with the large number of “ colleges” should be studied in order to obtain a fair estimate of the general culture of the influential class and such pupils as could press upward into the higher regions of school life than in Kentucky. As late as 1877 the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education published the names of 13 “colleges,” 20 “female colleges,” and more than 50 seminaries and academies for the secondary and higher education. The proportion of this class of schools, mostly of a denominational character, to the population of the State was much larger during the period from 1830 to 1860. The common-school system at this late period had converted very many village and city supporters of the old idea, and the common school public, trained by a fifty years’ “campaign of education,” from 1820 to 1870, was pushing forward toward the triumph of the past ten years. No State is now more alive with enthusiasm for the great good cause of universal education, whose corner-stone is the American common school, than this Commonwealth, whose edu¬ cational public has so long and so bravely fought and so nobly won in this the grandest movement, including the most notable reforms, in the history of the modern world. TENNESSEE. The author of the chapter on “The public-school system of Tennessee,” Thaddeus P. Thomas, M. A., in the able Circular of Information of the National Bureau of Education, No. 196, Higher Education in Tennessee, writes: “One cause of the slow development of the system of public schools in Tennessee and throughout the entire South has been the failure to recognize the importance of laying a good educational foundation. There has been a tendency to forget the fact that the effectiveness of the higher education depends largely upon the vitality of the common schools. * * * It is largely due to this,” and other causes, “that the public-school system of Tennessee, as a vigorous and effective system, has no real history before 1873.” Hon. James Phelan, in his History of Tennessee, writes: “The history of the com¬ mon school of Tennessee is in the main a history of the public lands of Tennessee, and the history of the public lands of the State is the history of confusion. This confusion, which is much too intricate to unravel in a short space, originated in the act of cession, and more than 300 acts have been passed on subjects growing out of the relation between the public schools and the school lands of the State.” The Hon. W. R. Garrett, of Nashville, Tenn., in an elaborate address delivered before the department of superintendence of the National Educational Association, at Washington, March 6-8, 1889, gives the key to this failure of Tennessee to profit by one of the most munificent educational land grants of the Union, in these forcible sentences: “In Ohio and in the other States carved out of the Northwest Territory the sixteenth section in each township was designated and conveyed direct to the inhabitants of the township. The admirable system of United States surveys defi¬ nitely located the grant, and the title was vested. Tennessee, which had been admitted ten years before its land cession, had not been reached by this system of surveys. The township and the section could not therefore be designated, and Con¬ gress did not vest title in the inhabitants of a township or district. The provision was in the following words: ‘And the State of Tennessee shall moreover, in issuing grants and perfecting titles, locate 640 acres to every 6 miles square in the territory hereby ceded, where existing claims will allow the same, which shall be appropriated for the use of schools for the instruction of children forever.’ This provision imposed a duty on the State, but failed to vest the title in the subordinate civil division. Ten¬ nessee had no series of civil divisions of 6 miles square corresponding to the township. The grant was not then definitely located and vested. In the meantime much of the land had been taken up by valid claims, and, with the rapid stream of immigra¬ tion which poured in, the squatter preceded the surveyor. Many acts were passed 538 EDUCATION REPOST, 1899-1900. by the legislature to protect the school lands; but from the vague nature of the grant, and possibly from the failure to appreciate its value, the opportunity to utilize it was lost.” The corresponding provision, which required the legislature to appro¬ priate 100,000 acres for the use of two colleges and 100,000 for the use of academies, one for each county, the land not to be sold for less than $2 per acre, and the pro¬ ceeds to be vested in funds for the secondary and higher education, failed to be largely useful from similar causes. It was to this very “embarrassment of riches” in the presence of an empire of fertile and attractive wild lands, and. its natural result upon the population of the old thirteen colonies, impoverished at the close of the Revolutionary war, that the long period of indifference and conflict which postponed the children’s day in Ten¬ nessee for almost a century was largely due. The body of the early settlers of Ten¬ nessee contained the usual proportion of men educated according to the idea of culture for the man of affairs in the Southern Atlantic States a hundred years ago. The majority of the early settlers were people of more than ordinary intelligence, possibly in an Anglo-Saxon state the best material for the founding of a great repub¬ lican commonwealth. Theodore Roosevelt, in his “Winning of the West,” declares that among the early settlers of Tennessee and Kentucky not over 3 or 4 per cent were obliged to make their mark in the signature to the ordinary business and public duties of the day. Of course the presence of negro slavery, which created a strong aristocratic order of society, and the earnestness, not to say violence, of the sectarian religious spirit in this early generation, with their inevitable results in a sparsely settled country, would tell against the formation of a public opinion favorable to hie Amer¬ ican common school, then little more than a school of the New England States. In addition to this, the first settlers of those two original Territories were at once confronted by the terrible war with the Indians, which only ceased with the close of the war of 1812-1814. When we recall with what a strange lack of practical busi¬ ness sagacity and foresight the people of Ohio, despite their great advantages of a township organization, wasted their own splendid land grant for education, we can not wonder that the people of Kentucky and Tennessee, who had literally watered their homes and landed possessions with their own blood in almost perpetual war¬ fare, should have protested against giving up their own land titles to secure what seemed but a distant good — the building up of a system of common schools, with which they had but little practical acquaintance in the older Southern States from which they came. But the original settlers in 1789, in convention at Jonesboro, East Tennessee, adopted a constitution for the revolting State, Franklin, placed therein a provision for the “encouragement of all kinds of useful learning,” and provided specifically fora university at the center and public grammar schools in each county, to be endowed by public lands and supported by local taxation. In 1790 the State of North Carolina finally ceded to the United States the entire area now known as the State of Tennes¬ see. Congress soon after created a Territorial government and President Washington appointed William Blount as Territorial governor. In 1794 the Territorial assembly first met in regular session at Knoxville, then in the second year of its settlement. One of its first acts was the creation of a school, which exists at the present day as Greeneville and Tusculum College. The next day another institution was launched by the legislative act which created Blount College, in the vicinity of the little village that had been the Territorial capital. This new seat of learning “struck twelve” at the beginning by declaring itself undenominational in religion. Its board of 17 trustees included the governor; the first two United States Senators and the first two judges; Governor John Sevier, first governor of the State and first Representative in the Con¬ gress of the United States from the Mississippi Valley; four subsequent United States Senators; three governors of the State, and the proprietor of the first newspaper pub- COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 539 lished in Tennessee. Nine of these gentlemen bore the title of ‘ ‘ esquire, ” “ all honor¬ able men.” A little two-story wooden building, erected by subscription on a square donated by Colonel White, the father of the town, was the outward beginning of the college. Knoxville was then a settlement in the wilderness, on the outskirts of civili¬ zation, a cluster of log and frame houses surrounding a palisaded and loopholed block¬ house. The first president of Blount College was Bev. Samuel Garrick. The presi¬ dent, one professor, and teachers were occasionally “ granted leave of absence” to go off to an Indian tight. There was no provision for the support of the school by public taxation, and it received nothing during its existence from the Territorial or State government. Its support was from small tuition fees and voluntary subscrip¬ tions. The two rival “colleges” at Washington and Greeneville obtained the mass of the academical student material of the new Territory; and its larger tuition fee and higher collegiate pretensions made it especially the school for the more favored class. The first and only graduate was William E. Parker, in 1806, and before another appeared the institution was merged in the larger arrangement of East Tennessee College, now known as the State University, at Knoxville. But even then Blount College had anticipated the educational demand by almost a century through the admission of young women. Five names of Tennessee maidens appear in its calen¬ dar. Of these Barbara Blount remained foremost in “honorable mention,” being named as “attentive, diligent, untiring, and ingenuous.” The name of “Barbara Hill” was given in honor of her to the beautiful eminence to which the institution was removed from what is now a crowded district of the city. It is not to report what has already been written elsewhere concerning the history of the university at Knoxville until 1830 that this present record is made, hut to fix the impression that the failure to utilize the splendid landed endowment for a full State system of education in Tennessee was not owing so much to the indifference of the people as to the endless complications that involved the administration of the public lands for more than an entire generation, and which have made even a passing refer¬ ence to this topic almost an offense to the educational public of that State to-day. We shall not waste time and patience in any new attempt to unravel the “ins and outs ” of this terrible entanglement, with its 300 statutes bearing on the one subject of the common school. It is not remarkable that the people of Tennessee, weary of this never-ending strife, which almost seemed a part of the public collegiate and com¬ mon-school interest, should fly to the old-time refuge of local private and denomi¬ national schools. For nearly three-fourths of a century, like the European peoples of the past, they educated their children in the numerous colleges, academies, and private schools that sprang up in every considerable community. In 1840 Tennessee is reported as having an outfit of 8 “universities and colleges,” with 492 students; 152 academies and grammar schools, with 5,539 pupils, and 983 primary schools, with 25,090 scholars; 8,907 children “schooled at public charge,” with 58,521 illiterate white persons over the age of 20. At that date the population of the State was 829.210, of whom 640,627 were white. In 1850 the population had increased to 1,002,717, of whom 758,836 were white. There were then 18 colleges, with 83 teachers and 1,705 students, with an annual income of $67,689; 264 acade¬ mies, with 404 teachers and 9,928 pupils, with annual receipts of $175,926; 2,689 public schools, with 2,819 teachers, 104,107 scholars, and $200,000 expended. Seventy-eight thousand one hundred and fourteen white people over 21 years of age could not read or write. Only 21 libraries were reported, with less than 50,000 volumes, ail save 8,000 of the State library in institutions of learning. In 1860 the number of mature white illiterates was 67,000. In regard to popular illiteracy there is no reasonable doubt that before 1860 the number of illiterates, especially in the South and Southwest, was greater than represented by the figures of the national census, while the scarcity of books is proof that other thousands of people, able after a poor fashion to read, never did use books to any appreciable extent in their educa- 540 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. tion for the duties of private and public life. A discouraging feature of this record is the great preponderance of white female illiteracy. In Tennessee, in 1860, the excess was 16,000 — 27,000 men and 43,000 women — which, with a small contingent of “free colored,” raised the army of ignorance to 72,000 illiterates, all past the age of legal citizenship. In 1850 North Carolina and her daughter Tennessee, with the exception of the new State of Arkansas, represented the two highest percentages of white illiteracy in the Union — North Carolina 32 and Tennessee 26 per cent. This had been reduced, in 1860, in North Carolina to 25 percent, probably by the public school system inaugurated by Dr. Wiley, and in Tennessee to 20.36 per cent. Virginia reported, in 1850, 21.54; in 1860, 17.59 per cent; Maryland, at the same dates, 18.56 and 13.88; Louisiana, 18.87 and 11.55; Kentucky, 22.20 and 18.01; Georgia, 20.17 and 18.08; Delaware, 26.05 and 25.09; Arkansas, 27.84 and 18.94; Alabama, 20.36 and 17.24. But meanwhile Nashville, Knoxville, and several of the lesser cities of Tennessee had already become notable seats of learning. It would be a profitless and ungenerous task to reproduce, in the present historical record, the details of the long struggle of the powerful State of Tennessee, a Common¬ wealth that before 1860 had given to the Republic two Presidents of the United States and a notable body of eminent public men in national and local affairs, with its orig¬ inal land endowment and the wreck they finally became. The lesson of this conflict is, however, not that which two of its three senators in Congress implied in their opposition to the Blair bill for national aid to education in 1880-1890. For it was not inevitable, seventy-five years ago, or at any subsequent date, that a generous national grant for popular education should demoralize an American Commonwealth. On the contrary, the history of the common school in almost every State of the great west and on the Pacific coast is a protest against this assumption. But with the loose habits of local organization and government that prevailed in the eight Southern States that received the National Government grant of school lands, coupled with the opposition of the more influential and the indifference of the lower white class for a whole generation to the American system of common schools, it was not strange that several of the ablest of the Southern representatives in Congress should shrink from an experience like that which had accompanied the management of educational funds in the time past. It will, in this essay, only be necessary to take up the record of the State Univer¬ sity at Knoxville and the University of Nashville, the only considerable institutions that ever claimed a State representative character during the period from 1830 to 1860; to attempt to set forth the varied fortunes of the public-school system inau¬ gurated in 1834, through its numerous changes up to its partial collapse at the out¬ break of the civil war; and especially to call attention again to the services of the great representative of universal education who for twenty-six years, at the capital of Tennessee, held up the banner and marshaled the people in words that now thrill the reader like the blast of a trumpet — Philip Lindsley. THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE. In 1807 Blount College, which, during the thirteen years from its establishment in 1794, had been a respectable academical institution of the grade then denominated “college,” and had sent forth a number of students, afterwards distinguished in the annals of Tennessee and the neighboring States, wTas merged in the East Tennessee College. The history of this event is so interwoven with the early management of the public land grants, first by North Carolina to the United States, second by the Congress of the United States to Tennessee, and third by the State of Tennessee, as represented by its legislature, that it would be almost vain for an “outsider” even to venture an opinion concerning the practical wisdom of what was done, or the possibility, under the peculiar conditions of the case, that anything radically different could have taken COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 18304860. 541 place. This question has been discussed again and again by the ablest advocates of the differing theories of public obligation. We have only to refer to writers like Phelan, Garrett, Sanford, and Merriam for the best of the later explanations of the conflicting and almost exasperating political policy by which the people of the great State of Tennessee have, even to the present day, been withheld from any effective direct support of their own State university system. But one suggestion may be made which seems to have often escaped the attention of many of these disputants. It is simply “a delusion and a snare” to attempt to discuss the policy of dealing with the Indian tribes, and the final question which is so involved with the Indian policy which was adopted by many of the States of this Union, either the thirteen colonial or subsequent territorial Commonwealths, on the assumption that their people ever recognized as valid and obligatory the moral, civic, and social ideals and duties, acknowledged as binding on Stales and communities in our own day. The original settlers of the American colonies, except those of Penn¬ sylvania, who, according to the historian Parkman, treated with Indians wdio had already been conquered by the Iroquois, and were compelled to bear the degrading name of “old women,” never regarded the Indian as the same kind of human being as he figures to-day in the Hampton and Carlisle schools and the recent Mohonk annual conventions of his friends. Neither the American Indian nor the African negro a hundred years ago was held by any civilized people to be a man entitled to the rights or regards of Christendom in the affairs of this world, however eminent may have been the zeal of the clergy and pious laity of the churches to convert him to the Christian religion as a security against the awflul pains and penalties of heathen¬ ism in the world to come. The whole circle of ideas and practices by which a new territory of the United States is now governed and the claims of the original settlers adjusted is the result of three hundred years of turbulent and painful national experience, and was not even conceived, and much less recognized, by the multitude of impoverished immigrants who, at the close of the long and terribly exhausting Revolutionary struggle and the discouraging period of the confederation, thronged the wild mountain passes of Appalachian America and settled in what appeared to their longing eyes the paradise of a splendid new world in States like Kentucky and Tennessee. The method of survey and occupation of land, as fixed by the slaveholding colopial order of society in the southern Atlantic States, wTas hostile to the system of accuracy in determining boundaries, establishing townships, and allotting farms and great estates brought to the Northwest from New England. The settlers of the new Southwest, brave, religious according to the ideas of the day, honest and patriotic, believed that the nation gave them new homes, which vTere to be made habitable by incessant toil and hardship, and defended by themselves at the daily risk of life, through the almost incredible labors and sacrifices of more than one generation. It is simply idle to talk of what the new State of Tennessee should have done con¬ cerning the management of their school lands when there was no State of Tennessee apart from the very people who had made it, the vast majority acknowledging no especial natural right of occupation by the pagan savage, or any duty to turn them¬ selves out of house and home to build up what they generally regarded as a college for the education of a small professional class. So when the settlers of these Southwestern States were compelled to face the situation, to educate in the limited sense in which it was then regarded, as a personal, social, and civic necessity, they had no realization of what we now call the American system of universal education at the public expense — a scheme, as far as they knew it, under general disapproval in every State from which they had come. All the educational methods they had known were in the old-time field schools or, at best, in the private seminary established by a church or kept as a means of living by a master, supported by tuition fees and private subscriptions. There was no special difficulty of getting as much of this as any community cared 542 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. for by any of the common expedients then in use; and a good deal more of that was obtained in some communities, and often of a better quality, than the educational historians acknowledge. To judge harshly the people of Tennessee, or of any of these new Southwestern States, because of their long delay to utilize the public lands for a well-developed scheme of popular education is to assume a condition of public opinion and a theory of public obligation in this matter which only appeared in the ideals of a few of the more advanced States, and appeared in them rather as a long¬ ing and prophecy for a far-off future than as a guide to present legislation. So we turn from the long and wearisome undertaking even to lift this original land and educational policy up into intelligent shape with the simple conclusion that the Tennessee of the first half of the nineteenth century and the Nashville of the twenty- seven years of the campaign for education by Lindsley were not the Tennessee and the Nashville of to-day. Instead of deploring the waste of the great resources and the almost unaccountable and inexplicable opposition to public education during the long period from the settlement of the State to the close of the civil war, it is far more profitable and, on the whole, more fit and fair to seek out the permanent and progressive side of this mixed and conflicting history of popular education; to do justice to the efforts of the academies and colleges, private, church, and corporate, and, above all, to do honor to the labors of a band of teachers, educational leaders, and reformers who during these long and discouraging years toiled for the children and laid the foundations of all of the present great uplifting agencies of to-day. As we contemplate the present prospect of the University of Tennessee at Knox¬ ville, under the very able administration of the past ten years, we can look with more complacency upon the slow progress and the exasperating trials and hindrances of the early day of its proper establishment as the East Tennessee College in 1806. The able historian of the university characterizes this period in the following expressive language: “ From the death of the first president, Rev. Samuel Garrick, who bears the twofold honor of planting the Presbyterian religion in the wilderness of Tennes¬ see, founder and first pastor of the first Presbyterian Church of Knoxville, and the first president of East Tennessee College, to the close of the civil war, the history of th« college is a story of struggle and repeated disappointment, of heroic effort on the part of successive presidents, conspicuous among whom were Shannon, Coffin, Estabrook, and Cook, of alternate periods of advance and retreat.” “The history of the period before the civil war was largely taken up with the effort to realize the land-grant fund and to overcome the popular prejudice which was engendered against the college on account of this struggle.” Indeed, from the year 1807 till 1820 the institution was unable to open its doors. A succession of legislatures recorded the humors of their constituents by a series of postponements of the payment of both principal and interest on the college and academical lands, until it might well appear that the popular expectation was that the lands were to be turned over to the people as a free gift. An attempt to lift the sinking infant from its cradle by that primitive method, a lottery, failed from inability to sell the tickets. In 1820 the college united with the Hampden-Sidney Academy, which had been chartered under the same expectation of a public subsidy at Knoxville in 1806, and its principal, Rev. I). A. Sherman, became president of the united schools, although each retained its own board of trustees and conducted the business of education on its own empty treasury. In 1821 Governor McMinn forcibly reminded the legisla¬ ture of the deplorable confusion into which the educational land-grants of the State had fallen, and a similar call for justice was sounded by his successor with no result. But in 1822 relief came indirectlv from an agreement with the State of North Carolina which, in consideration of the exemption from taxation of lands donated for the payment of the soldiers of the Revolution, had transferred to the State University of North Carolina a direct gift of 60,000 acres of land; passed this land over to Tennessee — 20,000 acres to be given to the East Tennessee and 40,000 to COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 543 Cumberland College at Nashville, regarded as the Western State University, In 1825 the college obtained what is estimated as the small sum of $24,000. The greatest misfortune of this prolonged warfare between the settlers and occu¬ pants of the lands and the educational claimants for their rights was the growth of an almost vindictive popular prejudice against the colleges. This feeling, of course, was nursed by the small political demagogue, and skillfully worked up by leaders of the different religious bodies in the effort to make the people dependent on the church as the legitimate dispenser of both the secondary and the higher education. This long-drawn warfare of thirty years between the college and the people of the districts in which the university lands had been located was closed by a treaty of peace in 1838, whereby the East Tennessee College consented to accept the gift of half a township of land. Out of sale of this it realized the sum of $34,000, in place of the $100,000 in land grants, contemplated by Congress in its original gift to the State. This sum, at interest, in thirty years would have amounted to $300,000. The college realized by all these donations from the State not more than one-fifth of this sum, which would have furnished an ample, even a munificent endowment, according to the ideas and practices of the American college foundation of that period. It was also a misfortune that, during the first thirty years of the history of the East Tennessee College, there had been no effective public school system in the State. Hence, this institution fell into the usual habit of all the State universities in the South established before the advent of the common-school system. One and all, in their curriculum and methods of instruction and discipline, persisted in the regu¬ lation way of the old-time American, which was only an imitation of the British col¬ lege of the period. Many of their presidents and professors were men of unusual ability and, for the time, of ample scholarship. But the ambition to rival similar institutions in the old States and even the European schools, of which many of their teachers were graduates, lifted them far above sympathy with the ungraded sec¬ ondary and elementary educational establishments of that day. They became often a refuge for the sons of the wealthier citizens and the nurseries of the social and political theories held by the leading class of Southern society. Even to the present day, the cause of universal education is hindered in some of these States by this sin¬ gular lack of conciliation, even of sympathy with the State University, which should be the head of the public school system and of the graded high and elementary departments established during the past thirty years. As it was, the East Tennessee College, previous to 1838, had sent forth a small class of graduates, afterwards distin¬ guished in the annals of the State, after a fashion justifying its existence even under the exclusiveness of its educational policy. An even more destructive result of this experience of thirty years was the fact that, as the East Tennessee and Cumberland colleges were nominally under State support, they received little from private donation. This source of income, often most valua¬ ble even at present for the State universities of the country, was monopolized by the multiplication of denominational academies and so-called colleges, of which, as already shown, in 1840, there were a considerable number. Without discussing the question at issue between the advocates of the State and the “Christian” or denom¬ inational college and academy, one may say that the multiplication of the latter, until a recent date, has prevented the concentration of educational funds in a leading university similar to Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton, and the University of Virginia in the original States. This has especially been felt as a great hindrance to the cause of a genuine type of academical and collegiate education in those common¬ wealths. The reckless assumption of the highest names, college and university, by academical schools, even by the institutions for colored youth, up to the present time has confused the public mind and rendered any positive concentration of effort on the highest and broadest provision for university and college training almost an impossibility. The great recent wealth of the old Middle and Western 544 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. States has, in a measure, prevented the worst effects of this policy. But in the South, crushed and overwhelmed by the outcome of the civil war, these institutions of the secondary and higher learning found it necessary to adjust themselves to the needs of all classes of students, and only by the slow and painful efforts of its fore¬ most educators has it been aide to rise above this grievous disability. In Tennessee and Kentucky and other States it was truly said: “Of the making of colleges there is no end. Every cross-roads hamlet has, not its academy or high school, but its college.” In 1840 the name of the institution was changed from “The East Tennessee Col¬ lege” to “The East Tennessee University.” During the period now briefly recorded the presidency of the East Tennessee College was held in succession by Rev. David A. Sherman, who remained in office till 1825, and the Rev. Charles Coffin, D. D., as his successor, who resigned in 1832. He was succeeded by James H. Piper, who resigned after one year, and his place was taken by Dr. Joseph Estabrook, All these gentlemen, save Piper, were natives of New England and graduates of Harvard, Yale, and Dartmouth colleges, as the first president of Blount College was of New England descent. At this time there appeared, first as tutor and afterwards as pro¬ fessor, one of the most eminent of the future publicists of Tennessee — Horace May¬ nard. His connection as professor in the college terminated in 1843, and he became especially known to the country by his heroic espousal of the Union cause during the civil war. The administration of President Estabrook continued until 1850. Dur¬ ing this period the university saw better days. From the sale of a portion of the college lands several new buildings were erected at a cost of $21,000; literary societies were established and a university magazine published. Regular college classes were formed in 1837, and the first action under the new arrangement was taken in 1837-38. In 1846-47 there were 169 students, and the reputation of the institution had long since extended to the far-off States of the Northwest. Hon. W. B. Reese succeeded President Estabrook, but resigned in three years. His successor was Rev. George Cook, a native of New Hampshire, and a graduate of Dartmouth College. He had been for several years the principal of the Knoxville Female Academy. The university then fell into one of its periodical fits of depres¬ sion, succeeding the favorable prospects of the former ten years. The city of Knox¬ ville was visited by the cholera, and President Cook was charged with hostility to the institution of slavery. The university did not open in 1854 until the spring term. After several unsuccessful attempts to establish a medical and an agricultural depart¬ ment and to consolidate the university with other schools, President Cook resigned in 1857. The university was now suspended for a year, unable to secure a president. In 1858 Rev. IV. D. Carnes, a minister of the Christian Church, was elected, having come up to this honor from his graduation and service since 1842 in different subordinate positions. Tuition was placed at $25 in the college and $20 in the preparatory departments for five months, and the president received from the endowment fund $400 and each of the faculty $250, increased by student fees. A medical department was established, on paper, with five professors, but did not go into practical operation for lack of funds. A similar attempt to establish a military department was made in 1859. In 1860 President Carnes resigned and was succeeded by Rev. J. J. Ridley. H is administration opened with favorable promise of success. The sons of clergymen of all denominations were educated free of tuition. The military department, which had now been successfully established, especially became popular. The number of students was doubled. But when the deluge of civil war came rolling down the valley of East Tennessee the president resigned, the college work was suspended, and, until 1865, the build¬ ings were used, in succession, as barracks and hospitals for the Confederate and Union forces. The Congress of the United States afterwards appropriated $15,000 COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 54& as compensation for this usage. With this untimely close we leave the University of Tennessee, to be welcomed again in the day of its resurrection, at the close of the civil war. THE UNIVERSITY OF NASHVILLE. Like the University of Tennessee, at Knoxville, the University of Nashville dates' from the earliest period of Southwestern colonial settlement. In 1785 Davidson Academy was founded at Nashville. The State of North Carolina endowed it with 240 acres of land. The Rev. Thomas B. Craighead was elected president, and the- school was taught by him for twenty years in his own church building. The tuition- fee was $25 per annum. The institution was as unpartisan in politics and as unsec¬ tarian in religion as was possible and remain in accordance with the spirit of the* times. Nashville was then a village of 400 people, with no probability of becoming the capital of the future State. Like the corresponding school, Blount College, its- board of trustees contained a fair proportion of the foremost men of the Territory^ among whom was young Andrew Jackson. In 1807 Davidson Academy had grown to Cumberland College. The chief reason for this was the hope of support from the new public-land fund granted by Congress^ Already the college was to receive one-half of the 100,000 acres, valued at $2 per acre, given by Congress fora college in the eastern and western sections of the State- Up to this date the only building was a brick structure, not finished until 1808, cost¬ ing $12,240. The new college was launched under the presidency of Rev. James Priestley, with himself and the Rev. William Hume as professors and George Martin as tutor in the preparatory department. This arrangement held on for eight yearsr to 1816, when the college was- suspended, and on its reorganization Dr. Priestley- continued at its head until his death, in 1821. Up to 1816 the institution had graduated nineteen students. William Hume was one of that considerable class of foreign-born and educated schoolmen who were- oftenest found in the colleges of the South, from their earliest years to the period of the civil war. His broad mantle has fallen on a succession of his descendants, and his family is still represented among the educators of the South. The reason given for the collapse in 1816 was lack of funds. The institution wasr involved in the mazes of the great land controversy already noted. Its State patri¬ mony of 240 acres had soon depreciated, as lands could only be sold in Tennessee at a very moderate price. During the period from 1821 to 1824 the search for a new" president went on. Dr. Philip Lindsley, a native of New Jersey and a graduate of Princeton, already noted as a successful teacher, on a third invitation accepted the- position, and came to Nashville in 1824. He was then 38 years old, for all intents- and purposes in the flower of his great ability and high expectations, and numerous' regrets followed him from one of the old Central States to his new home in the Southwest. For the ensuing twenty-five years, till 1859, the history of Cumberland College, or" the University of Nashville, as renamed in 1826, was bound up witfh the educational career of its great president, Philip Lindsley. It is noted that the original presi¬ dents and professors of this college were generally drawn from the Presbyterian min¬ istry and the Middle States of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, as the corresponding officials of the University of Tennessee, at Knoxville, were nearly all from New Eng¬ land. But both these institutions wTere established, from the first, on a nonsectarian- religious basis, like Transylvania University, in Kentucky. But in this original diversity of their educational status may be traced some important results to the- future of Tennessee. Dr. Lindsley was a powerful and consistent advocate of universal education, as far as it could be advocated in a slave State and confined to the white population. But he held with enthusiastic and even obstinate pertinacity to the idea that the university was the center and soul of all successful education, and an effective secondary and common school were its logical results. The New Eng- ed 1900 - 35 546 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. land idea, though outwardly at that period accepting the same statement, placed a much greater emphasis on the people’s common school as the true foundation of all that could be built above and upon it. As the years went on this divergence was more noted, and the State University of Tennessee, at Knoxville, after the close of the civil war, became a celebrated headquarters of the movement for the establish¬ ment of the ■ graded common school in Southern villages and cities. Perhaps the most brilliant group of superintendents of the graded schools of the Southern Atlantic and Southwestern States dates from this university, several of the most distinguished being natives of Tennessee and graduates of this school. The character and career of Philip Lindslev has already been treated in one of the previous essays on the common schools of the South. We have already shown with what a broad apprehension and catholic, even prophetic spirit, he entered on the great work of building up, under the most adverse conditions, in the village capital of a new Southwestern State, a rival to the leading universities of the New England and central Commonwealths. That he failed to achieve his splendid idea, and, indeed, never gathered more than 150 students, taught in a few extemporized buildings by a poorly paid faculty, and finally left his work in the hands of his son in 1850, quite worn-out and almost despairing of present success, has been already shown. The fact was that from 1825 to 1850 the State of Tennessee was in no condition even to comprehend the plans, much less pay for and support by educational college material such an establishment as hovered before the exalted vision of the enthusi¬ astic and consecrated president of Nashville University. One decided hindrance was the lack of an effective common-school system or, at least, a group of preparatory schools to furnish the class of students required for such institutions. Another was the educational crudeness of society in the Southwest. These States for many years were so involved in the struggle to wrest the soil under their feet from the stubborn savages, who contested every mile of territory to the bitter end of barbarism; so embarrassed by the institution of slavery, which divided the agricultural, practically the only social, order into the two classes of the great and the comparatively uninflu- ential landowners; so hampered by the widespread illiteracy of a great number of the white people, and so held in the grip of an ironbound theological and ecclesiastical domination, which has always been at once the strength and the weakness of American Protestantism, that the splendid appeals of Lindsley and the undeniable merits of his powerful school were rather felt in a slow and gradual educational uplift of the country than in the graduates of the university. In 1824, on the accession of Presi¬ dent Lindsley, there was not a college within 200 miles of Nashville. In 1850, when he left the city, there were 30 so-called “colleges” within 200 and 9 within 50 miles of the capital of Tennessee. The story of the university during the quarter of a century of the presidency of Dr. Lindsley has been told. The addresses and plans of the president seem at first to have startled the almost sluggish educational spirit of the State. But this growing influence woke up a denominational zeal which, subsequently, filled the land with rival schools. It can not be denied, also, that the severely classical type of schools like the University of Tennessee cooperated with the prejudice excited by the great conflict over the school lands to drive away the majority of college students. The denominational schools, on the contrary, were nearer the hearts of the people, not involved in the public contention, and probably, with their less thorough curriculum and larger liberty of study, more popular with the mass of their constituents. Philip Lindsley, although in many respects highly conservative in his educational ideas and projects, for twenty-five years appeared before the people of western Tennessee as a visionary and a radical. But his board of trustees included many of the most influ¬ ential public men of the State, and from its 1,000 students, the entire number from 1825 to 1850, came twenty-eight members of the Congress of the United States and a corresponding number of eminent men in all professions. Sixteen professors were COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 547 employed, at different times, in the department of instruction. A medical depart¬ ment was inaugurated in 1850, which has grown into the present celebrated schools of medicine of Nashville. A military department was also added, by consolidation with a school already established, with buildings in the city, which for a time increased the number of students, especially on the approach of the civil war. In 1850 the university was believed to be on the gain, its possessions increasing from $116,000 to $140,000, to a considerable extent due to the operations in its real estate. The original situation of the institution had been changed and new buildings were in the course of erection, though not according to the large plans of the presi¬ dent. His idea of manual training as a proper department of university life was also a half century in advance of the time and place, and came to nothing. The decline of the school was precipitated by the breaking out of the cholera in Nashville in 1848-49, which almost depopulated the city of its students. In 1850 President Lindsley resigned and left Nashville for a professorship in the Presbyterian Theological School in New Albany, Ind. He died in Nashville, on a visit as delegate attending the Gen¬ eral Assembly of that church, in 1855. The career of Dr. Lindsley was, beyond question, the greatest personal educated influence in Tennessee during the quarter of a century of its continuance. His uni¬ versity was the broadest in its scope and the most thorough and progressive in its methods of instruction of any similar institution in the Southwest. Dr. Lindsley was a teacher of rare personal character and power, and 'the class of students capable of appreciating his superiority were his admirers to the verge of worship. There was no man in the South from 1825 to 1850 whose words reached so far and resounded with such potent effect upon the cause of universal education. In this respect he was well mated with the great educational leaders of the revival epoch, from 1830 to 1860 — with Mann, Barnard, and their noble following in the central and Western States, which built up the present organization of the American common school; but, unlike the majority of these great men, Dr. Lindsley seems to have always viewed education from the university point of observation, and to have had wavering and somewhat unformed ideas of the place and functions of a system of popular education. Indeed, at one time he appears to have advised the suspension of the common schools and to have seriously considered the possibility of home and family education among a people too little interested in education itself to support even the country district school of seventy years ago; but his name is still a power through the entire region so long aroused by his appeals and instructed by his ideas, and the name University of Nashville, now best known through its most active department, the Peabody Normal College, perhaps more nearly than any institution of learning in the South¬ west, is the response to the prophetic faith of its great president in its day of beginning. It is not in the purpose of this essay to trace the rapid growth of the private, col¬ legiate, and denominational academies and colleges that during this period limited the growth of the two State universities of Tennessee and largely explained the slow progress of the public common school. These numerous and often excellent schools account for the notable public and professional eminence in the class then in almost supreme control of public affairs. But their lack of suitable arrangement for good elementary instruction was seen in the growth of an illiteracy that at one time left Tennessee far down on the rounds of the educational ladder, and still keeps a con¬ siderable portion of the State in this respect in a condition satisfactory to no true friend of universal education. THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF TENNESSEE. In the year 1806, ten years after the admission of Tennessee as the sixteenth State of the Union, the Congress of the United States extended to the new Commonwealth the same bounty as had been secured for the rising States of the Southwest, in the generous appropriation of public lands for education. Not only was the ample 548 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. domain of 100,000 acres given for the establishment of an academy in each county and a like amount for a college in each section of the State, but the needs of the children were also abundantly recognized in the following provision: “And the State of Tennessee shall moreover, in issuing grants and perfecting titles, locate 640 acres to every six miles square in the territory hereby ceded, where existing claims will allow the same, which shall be appropriated for the use of schools for the instruction of children forever.” But it is one thing to draw up a public document and another thing to enforce its purport in the midst of an army of clamorous claimants ready to talk, vote, and, if need be, to “ride roughshod” over all laws and ordinances that conflict with what they honestly believe to be a substantial right to the contrary. Herein is the original and valid explanation of the fact that until the close of the civil war the history of the common school in Tennessee is virtually the history of an interminable conflict of the State with the population of the large district of the Commonwealth covered by this original cession of school lands. It was not so much a resistance to the educa¬ tion of the children by these people as a conflict of.interests, whether it were worth the while to turn themselves “out of house and home” by abandoning their farms, gained and tilled by the most extreme labor and held in constant peril of life, for the remote prospect of schools for their children. In this long-drawn contest the majority of the people were so exasperated at what they regarded the injustice and inhumanity of their legislature *that in the end the name of public school, academy, and college was like the flag of a common enemy flaunted in their faces. Doubt¬ less the legislature could have done complete justice to both parties in this contro¬ versy by voting compensation for the lands which were already covered by valid claims. But all good things in a new republic are not born in the same year. While the early New England settlers at once acted on the radical democratic idea that the State is bound, at least, to aid substantially in the education of the children, there was no such general conviction of public obligation in the States of the South as was maintained for a lifetime by the great champion of American democracy, Thomas Jefferson, and rejected by Virginia as late as 1820, and never sincerely acted upon, even by that Commonwealth, until 1870, five years after the fall of Richmond and the close of the war of the sections. We have already set forth the other practical hindrances to the early action of Tennessee on the matter of supreme concern to every new American State, the train¬ ing of the children and youth for American citizenship. They were the comparatively sparse population of all the Southern States, almost like a colony in a wilderness; the loose survey and allotment of the empire of wild lands that held out an invita¬ tion to all mankind to “come and take without money and without price;” the radical weakness of local government in commonwealths ruled so fully by the public opinion of a superior class, responsible for the condition of industry, church, school, society, and politics; the severe spirit of social exclusion which separated the children of the dependent from the dominant class by barriers almost as high and strong as the old-world distinctions of race and caste; the violence of sectarian religious part¬ nership that for two full centuries virtually placed the education of the children of sixteen States in the hands of the clergy and zealous laity of the different Christian sects. All these influences, strong everywhere, were especially powerful in States like Kentucky and Tennessee, settled by an energetic, ambitious, proud, and sensitive people, ever ready to assert what they believed their just individual rights, and easily provoked to reckless and violent outbreaks in what was regarded the interest of the people versus legislature and even law and order itself. So it is neither just nor necessary to assert that the early people of Tennessee were an ignorant and illiterate class, in the modern educational sense of that term, because they so long failed to get on the ground what all men must admit to be the most effective and democratic agency for training their children up to good citizenship of State and COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 549 nation. Even among the thousands of white people who figure in the census tables as unable to read and write would be found many who, in more than one direction, had been educated by the stern teacher, necessity, into the manhood and woman¬ hood which are the best assurance of republican society. The life lived in the mak¬ ing of such a Commonwealth as the present State of Tennessee was itself a university, even with books and schools left out. A people that cleared the boundless wilder¬ ness of savages, now occupied by half a dozen of the United States, brought it into a condition fit for occupation by civilized men, governed commonwealths, built cities, and crowded their great rivers with commerce, then hurled back the flower of the English armies, the veterans of Wellington, and later, even under the terrible temp¬ tation of secession, gave to the cause of the Union a larger contingent of patriotic sol¬ diery than Washington ever commanded, can be trusted, in due time, to take up the cause of the full and free education of its younger generation, as the State of Tennes¬ see has already done. The city of Nashville may still boast that it is, in some ways, the educational center of the Southwest, and the larger cities and villages of the State can show a record of recent public-school life of which no American community need be ashamed. In the present essay it will only be necessary to indicate the planting and growth of the common-school idea in Tennessee during the years of the great American educational revival, from 1830 to 1860. Much of this would be included in the his¬ tory of its leading public-school educator. The career of President Philip Lindsley and his son cover the entire space from 1824 to the close of the civil war. Other names might be mentioned, less prominent, but still cherished in their respective localities. We have already shown how the policy of the university at Knoxville, through a series of able educators from New England, gave to this institution a decided leaning toward popular education, which was manifested by the remarkable group of its graduates during the final movement for the establishment of a com¬ mon-school system through the Southern States. The history of education in Tennessee would be like the play of Hamlet without the Prince of Denmark were the names of Samuel Doak and the group of Presby¬ terian clergymen that appeared in the earliest years of the Territorial life of the State left out. Doak came of North Irish ancestors, who successively lived in Pennsylvania and Virginia, on their way to the new world beyond the mountains. Pie was schooled for two years at Princeton College, which he entered at the age of 24, in 1773. For two years he did service as tutor in Hampden-Sidney, the Presby¬ terian college of Virginia, where he studied theology and was licensed, and for a time preached in Virginia. He appeared in Washington County, Tenm, wdiere he occupied a farm, and built the first church and schoolhouse in the State — the school- house declared “the first literary institution that was established in the great valley of the Mississippi;” although in this claim it is probable that the existence of Catholic mission schools and churches, previous to that date, is overlooked. He fought in the war of the Revolution, and was enlisted in the attempt to set up the new state of Frankland in the far-off wilderness of what was then western North Carolina. His associates — Houston, Balch, Garrick, and Craighead — were also a fine representation of that division of the army of the Lord, which regarded the school- house the twin sister of the “church house,” and looked upon ignorance as the chief of staff of Satan in the enslavement of mankind. Indeed, Craighead, the first president of Blount Academy, was so pronounced in his advocacy that he wras in perpetual hot water with the denominational authorities in the town, and for a time, suspended from the ministry. But he never was suspected of heresy in the broader communion of the ministry of education, and finally compelled the church in Tennessee to come to his educational views, in 1829. The first school in Tennessee wTas founded by Samuel Doak and chartered by the legislature of North Carolina; first as Martin and afterwards as Washington Acad- 550 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. emy, at Salem, in 1795. Doak held the presidency of the school until 1816, resign¬ ing in favor of his son. In religious faith he was a cast-iron Presbyterian, of the enduring Scotch and Scotch-Irish type. He believed with all his heart and soul and might in the power of knowledge to lift up the souls of men and, with the com¬ plete dedication of his powerful manhood, labored to direct the popular mind of the new Territory to the cause of education. His college still remains, a useful school of the academical-college type, and the spirit of its founder still inspires the people of the beautiful region now known as East Tennessee. Although the new. State was given a royal portion of public-school lands by the act of Congress in 1806, they never turned out a very profitable estate. To a people who regarded 50 cents per acre an extreme price for the best wild land and $1 unbearable, the sum of $2, fixed by the act of cession as the value of the school lands, was regarded a positive “imposition.” The great war of the land “ sections” made it a practical impossibility to realize from this source. This war continued through an entire generation and, through its clouds and storms, looms up the possibility, only to disappear, of any permanent educational policy in the State. But, as in the old-time rhymed contest of “the upper and the lower mill,” that “fell out for want of water” and “ went to law — that is, to war — resolved to give no quarter;” the con¬ flict ending, as told in the record: One lawyer took the upper mill, The lower mill the other. So, when this notable conflict came to a truce, the original purpose of the grant, “the education of the children forever,” while appearing in the original deed of cession, was left as dry and parched as the rival mill ponds in the dry time of a Southern summer drought. Indeed, it was not till 1830, almost twenty-five years after the cession by Congress, that the legislature of Tennessee heeded the perpetual reminder of its governors, who, through the entire history of the common school in the State, enforced the claims of popular education and its imperative necessity for the life of the Common¬ wealth. In this year, 1830, an attempt was made, that the county court, established by a statute of 1829, should lay out school districts and estimate their population. A body of five trustees was to be elected, and the chairman of these bodies was to name school commissioners for the county. The revised constitution of the State, in 1835, certainly ties up the school fund as fully as the fundamental law can do it. The constitution of Tennessee — March 5, 6, 1835. Article XI. Sec. 10. Knowledge, learning, and virtue being essential to the preservation of republican institutions, and the diffusion of the opportunities and advantages of edu¬ cation throughout the different portions of the State being highly conducive to the promotion of this end, it shall be the duty of the general assembly, in all future periods of this government, to cherish literature and science. And the fund called “the common-school fund,” and all the lands and proceeds thereof, dividends, stocks, and other property of every description whatever, heretofore by law appropriated by the general assembly of this State for the use of common schools, and all such as shall hereafter be appropriated, shall remain a perpetual fund, the principal of which shall never be diminished by legislative appropriation, and the interest thereof shall be inviolably appropriated to the support and encouragement of common schools throughout the State, and for the equal benefit of all the people thereof; and no law shall be made authorizing said fund, or any part thereof, to be diverted to any other use than the support and encouragement of common schools; and it shall be the duty of the general assembly to appoint a board of commissioners, for such term of time as they may think proper, who shall have the general superintendence of said fund, and who shall make a report of the condition of the same, from time to time, under such rules, regulations, and restrictions as may be required by law: Provided, That if at any time hereafter a division of the public lands of the United States, or any of the money arising from the sale of such lands, shall be made among the indi- COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 551 vidual States, the part of such lands or money coming to this State shall be devoted to the purposes of education and internal improvement, and shall never be applied to any other purpose. Sec. 11. The above provisions shall not be construed to prevent the legislature from carrying into effect any laws that have been passed in favor of the colleges, universities, or academies, or from authorizing heirs or distributees to receive and enjoy escheated property, under such rules and regulations as from time to time may be prescribed by law. But a report of the joint committee of the legislature, in 1837, in which appears the name of Washington Barrow as chairman from the house of representatives, shows that no satisfactory condition of educational affairs had yet been arrived at. The committee say: The subject of education has never yet received in Tennessee that attention which it so richly merits. Appropriation after appropriation, it is true, has been made to the support of common schools; but the system adopted under the name has hereto¬ fore proved imperfect and by no means equal to the expectation of those who first established it. While this has been the case with the common-school system, a prejudice has prevailed against the higher institutions of learning, academies and col¬ leges, neither of which has consequently ever received much from the munificence of the State. This report is written in the broadest spirit of educational policy and urges the establishment of a complete system of education, including the common, academical, and collegiate departments, under public supervision, and supported by the income of the State school fund. It is stated that the school fund, proper, with the addition of the surplus revenue, will amount to nearly $2,500,000. Of this, the amount of $2,000,000 should be appropriated to common schools. One hundred thousand dol¬ lars could then be realized, which would be ample to found a system — “a partner¬ ship between State munificence and individual enterprise and liberality.” The report does not favor entirely free instruction. The system of New York is favor¬ ably mentioned as a model for the State of Tennessee. A fund of $50,000 had been secured for the academies, which the committee proposes to increase by $600,000 from the surplus revenue, from the $650,000 invested hoping to realize $40,000 annual interest. This would give $550 to each of the seventy-two- counties of the State as a bonus to an academy; “sufficient to support a first-rate teacher,” on condition that the county would erect and furnish buildings, etc. These schools should be acces¬ sible to both sexes, “in separate apartments,” the tuition to be free to those unable to pay, on condition that the recipients should teach in the common schools and thus supply a greatly needed want. The colleges should be endowed by the remain¬ der of the income of the surplus revenue — $300,000; $100,000 to Knoxville, $100,000 to Nashville, and a third $100,000 to a new college in the western part of the State. Thirty poor young men should be educated free, on condition of becoming teachers. The committee believe that this arrangement will end the bitter controversy over the disposal of the school lands. The enthusiastic chairman of the committee indulges in a golden dream of the spectacle of 3 colleges, 70 academies, and a system of com¬ mon schools, “shedding their united light and heat into every corner of the State.” The law of 1838, passed in response to this able and earnest plea for the children, complied with the previous request for a State superintendent of instruction and enlisted the services of a variety of State and local officials. But the efficiencyjof the system was concentrated on the five school commissioners who were to be elected once in two years by popular vote in each school district. To this body was given a weight of official duty that was in itself a strong argument for the reluctance to accept the office that soon developed itself. This board was required “to take a cen¬ sus of the scholastic population every year; to provide and locate schoolliouses, with the care of the same; to engage, pay, examine, and if necessary, dismiss teachers; to visit and inspect the schools at least once a month; to inspect the teacher’s registers, and fix the tuition by a rate bill; and to make a report every year to the clerk of the 552 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. county court, including a great variety and amount of information respecting the state of the schools, and in case of failure in discharging certain of these duties considerable penalties are attached.” All this service required the attention of more than one man for a county, and was to be rendered to the State as a labor of love. There were 71 counties in the State, containing 987 civil districts, each of which was recog¬ nized as a school district. In 911 of these districts commissioners were elected. In 76 none were elected, or those that were chosen refused to serve. Here was a fatal defect in the organization of the common school. No public interest could survive the imposition of an army of public officials so numerous, so inexperienced, and under such constant temptation to neglect or abuse their official duties. The county commissioner was the next step in this elaborate scheme. He was compelled, with a small compensation and under severe penalties, to become a sort of city superintendent, in his oversight of the performance of his army of crude subordinates. To the county treasurer was given the duty of disbursing the State funds, with a commission of 1 per cent for his services. The system was booked for its beginning in January, 1838, but the State superintendent, Robert McEwen, in his report of October 8, 1839, declares that at the beginning of the year he had no suffi¬ cient information to justify the distribution of the funds, and the new districting was not made until July 1. On the last day of June, 1838, it was established that the school population of the State amounted to 185,432 between the ages of 6 and 16. The superintendent announces that “ already a very considerable number of schools have been established and under highly flattering auspices,” and that a good educa¬ tional spirit prevails among the people. But no system of common schools on paper, however elaborate, could safely be cast forth into such a howling wilderness of financial confusion as greeted the appearance of the first public school of Tennessee. One of the frequent cyclones that work a periodical financial destruction on so many new American Commonwealths burst upon Tennessee the very year of the inauguration of the school system. The school funds of all descriptions from lands and surplus revenue were involved in this calamity. The State Planter’s Bank, which was the depository of these funds, fell into general disrepute. During this period of an inflated and unreliable paper currency, the superintendent exercised his own personal judgment by loaning large sums of the public school funds to personal friends. The failure of these creditors to come to time plunged the funds of the public schools in a slough of despond. “The super¬ intendent was prosecuted and a receiver appointed, but nothing practically effected.” Under these conditions the excellent suggestions of other portions of his report of 1839 failed of any appreciable effect in building for the children and the rescue of the children’s patrimony. In 1839 a committee of seven appointed by the legislature to examine the accounts of State Superintendent McEwen, made a report concerning the transactions of that official from the year of his first election in 1836. It appeared that, in the exercise of what he claimed to have been a necessity forced upon him by the financial col¬ lapse of 1837, he had been accustomed from the first to retain in his own hands and loan to private parties large amounts of the school funds. Of the morality of these transactions the committee does not speak, but the outcome of this four years’ busi¬ ness was an indebtedness of the superintendent to the State of $121,169, of which $11,728.61 was for interest unaccounted for. All this, the committee assert, was in flat disobedience of the law made for the investment of all moneys received in certain banks of the State. The committee adds a statement of the school fund. One mil¬ lion three hundred and thirty-two thousand nine hundred and fifty-six dollars and thirty cents is pronounced “good,” and $66,844.68 “doubtful”; total $1,399,800.98. The report closes with these expressive words: “The legislature of our State has been long and persistently engaged in the difficult business of administering a valuable fund for the purpose of education. But, in spite of all these efforts, it has been time after COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 553 time plundered by a thousand hands. If we desire to preserve and cultivate the ample fund we now have, we should place such restraints upon those through whose hands it must pass that they will not waste it with impunity. It is a duty we owe ourselves, our children, and the Commonwealth to preserve it unimpaired.” A subsequent investigation by a committee of live, involving several members of the former board, revealed an even more serious condition of affairs. According to this, the superintendent of public instruction was a general operator in a variety of “wild cat” schemes, such as banks, insolvent from the beginning; loans to partners in mercantile houses; land companies in Texas and Alabama, with a constant repu¬ tation for “note shaving,” converting depreciated into more or less reliable funds, all in direct disobedience of the requirements of his office. The report of State Superintendent R. P. Currin, in October, 1841, with the excep¬ tion of half a page, is entirely confined to the results of these investigations. The financial affairs of the department of education had been placed in the hands of a receiver, who, in the first six months of his administration, had collected $17,000 of the $121,000 in the hands of the late superintendent. An appeal to a higher court on the whole matter was then impending. The new superintendent divides the school funds into two classes: ( 1 ) “ Many notes and evidences of debt in the hands of county agents.” (2) “Judgments in favor of the old State Bank of Tennessee.” The latter, amounting to $77,372.58, seem to have been placed, by common consent, on the wrong side of the public ledger. Of the former debts due for land grants, there was found the large sum of $127,387.18. But the view in this direction resem¬ bled the prospect of a mirage on a Western prairie. It was doubtless true, as the superintendent declares at the close of his report, that “popular education is rapidly rising in popular favor, and it is tested that this form will be universal and final in a consensus of substantial benefits.” But it must be confessed that the prospects of a common-school department six months in office were somewhat dubious that had nothing more hopeful to report than that the constant effort to arrest the “ thousand plundering hands” stretched forth toward the school funds accounts for “ the fail¬ ure to present to any considerable extent their plans for the improvement of the common school, whatever the engagements of the office and the performance of its ordinary duties might be expected to suggest,” There had been distributed through the State, on January, 1841, the sum of $120,449.99. A revision of the school laws in 1840 tied up the public-school funds with new regulations and reduced the num¬ ber of commissioners in each district to three. The school population of the State in 1841 was estimated at 186,097, and the amount distributed was $120,452.06 — 64}£ cents to each child; an increase in the number of children of 6,000, and of five- sixteenths of a cent to each pupil. From the year 1840 to the breaking out of the civil war, in 1861, the history of the common schools of Tennessee is largely a record of numerous legislative provisions for the preservation and issue of the State school funds, with small regard to that supervision of public instruction without which the most generous expenditure would only amount to throwing money into a bottomless pit of confused and incom¬ petent administration. The office of State superintendent was abolished in 1843, and the enormous burden of the oversight of the education of the white school popula¬ tion from 6 to 21 cast on the already sufficiently weighted shoulders of the State treasurer, with no additional salary for that official and no special bond required for the protection of the schools. The result was, as described by Gen. John Eaton, first State superintendent of public instruction in Tennessee, after the close of the civil war, in 1869: “The provisions of the former school code related only to schools for vffiites, and made the treasurer of the State superintendent of public instruction. There had been no superintendent of the State schools under the new law — 1867; therefore I turned to the State treasurer for reports, but found none, neither any records, save a bundle of old letters. Seeking of leading men, 554 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. prominent in State affairs in the past, I failed to find any one who could tell me, in detail, exactly how the former system operated in its various provisions, from district commissioners to State treasurer. It was apparent that there had been no report exacted from each official to the State of the discharge of his responsibilities. The scholastic population was reported to the State, and the State fund for distribu¬ tion was apportioned and paid out to the trustees of the counties. The State did not know, and could not tell, whether a dollar was expended as the law required — whether it was used for public or private purposes, or a child taught, or not. The provisions of the code appear to have been a dead letter in all respects during the war, after the reorganization of the State government, till the passage of the new law. Under this statute, nothing was done save some collections of portions of the school tax for the entire year previous to my appointment as superintendent, in October, 1867. Seeking information as I could, I met exceedingly diverse expressions of opinion. The revenue officers of the State assured me that they had no money in the treasury; that there liaving.been no schools in operation to call for the money, it had been, in the State’s distress, used, like other revenue, to liquidate the indebtedness of the State.” The State system was to be rebuilt, like a ship upon a sea, still rolling and surging under the influence of the recent storm. During the year 1867-68, in a table of edu¬ cational statistics in the United States, prepared by Hon. Z. F. Smith, State superin¬ tendent of Kentucky, the State of Tennessee does not appear. So completely had the organization for popular education existing up to 1860-61 been swept away by the ravages of the great war that, in the words of Superintendent Eaton, “Educa¬ tional facts in regard to Tennessee, at that date, were not considered worthy of notice.” When we turn to such records of the operations of the public-school system of the Commonwealth from 1840 to 1860, we are at no loss to understand the fact and to locate the responsibility for such an utter wreck of the school system that had been in operation in its own irresponsible way for a period of nearly thirty years. It was not true that the people of Tennessee from the beginning were unfriendly to, for in many cases they were eager for, the education of their children and youth. The original settlers of East Tennessee, as we have seen, proceeded at once to build the schoolhouse, while they were compelled to till the earth and worship God with their loaded muskets at hand to defend themselves and their families from the hostile sav¬ ages. And although, according to Governor A. V. Brown, it required two entire generations to bring the new lands to a state of cultivation to insure comfort and the rude plenty of the time to the people, yet the College of East Tennessee was gradu¬ ating well-taught pupils, and other colleges and academies were improving in their course of studies and method of instruction. The early settlement of Nashville, we have already seen, was commemorated by the establishment of the Davidson Acad¬ emy, and right there was enacted one of the noblest experiments in university life on record in the history of the Southwest. Tennessee was largely settled by a class of well-to-do planters, who were not wanting in their appreciation of educational facilities for their children. But a strange fatality seemed to hang over the new State for several generations after its settlement, in the lack of cooperation in public affairs, which took the form of an apparent suspension of the public educational interest. This was doubtless somewhat owing to the phys¬ ical separation of the great territory practically into three commonwealths, each sepa¬ rated from the other by highlands that almost defied population, and of course were unfavorable to unity of interest among the occupants of the different sections. So these three divisions, eastern, middle, and western Tennessee, early contracted a bad habit of working at cross purposes in public affairs. The management of the public school lands from the first was without proper system, and between the people of the rival sections, the previous claims of settlers, and a lack of combination among the friends of popular education, the public-school fund was in a state of siege for sixty COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 555 years, to be finally captured and carried into a captivity from which it was only released by the reviving sense of educational obligation among the people at the close of the civil war. But with the best intentions there could have been little satisfactory schooling with the singular complications in the official management of the schools. Every distribution of the public-school funds during all these years was compelled to run the gauntlet of ten different officials before it reached the district schoolhouse. When it left the hands of the treasurer of the State it virtually disappeared from the view" of the Common wealth. If is not necessary to infer that it was fraudulently appro¬ priated. But there was a score of ways by which it could be “ plundered by a thou¬ sand hands ” on its journey to the children. The different officials seem to have had no power to enforce obedience to such laws as there were for the protection of the school moneys. There was practically no way to find out whether the commissioners who stood nearest the children were competent and faithful; whether the teachers taught or only “ kept .school.” The attendance, the course of study, the grading of scholars — all the conditions of a successful administration of a system of public instruc¬ tion — were wanting. It is not to be wondered at that the more enlightened portion of the people, who most felt the need of education for their families, were repelled by the vain showT that such an arrangement must be, and built up the colleges, acade¬ mies, and private schools in which they could have some prospect of reasonable training for the young. The records of the legislative enactments from 1840 to 1860 show" a constant succession of newdy chartered private and denominational schools, until it wToulcl seem that in every considerable neighborhood the district common school must have been under the -shadow of a powerful prejudice among the w"ell-to- do class, and in many ways regarded as an inferior place of instruction. This record of legislation continued from 1840 to 1846. In 1840 the general school law" of 1833 was revised, with important additions and supplements. In 1839 the State Bank of Tennessee was made- the custodian of the school funds and the sur¬ plus revenue of the State—a portion of which was included in the school fund — and all debts due from the local school authorities to the. State treasurer were called for. In 1840-41 attention was called to the first requirement: to issue the summons for the election of school commissioners, and other matters provided for in their administra¬ tion. In 1843-44 the powers and duties of school commissioners were enlarged. Several new provisions for the management of school lands wrere made in 1845-46. Meanwhile the office of State superintendent of instruction had been abolished and his duties thrown on the shoulders of the State treasurer, who, at best, could only keep wTatch for the outgoings from the State treasury, but had no time to overlook the greater interests of education. In 1848 the president and directors of the State Bank of Tennessee, established to protect the interest of internal improvements and public education, were made a board of commissioners for the charge and distribution of the State school funds, now" amounting to 11,500,000. Several banks and insurance com¬ panies wrere compelled to pay a certain per cent on their capital as a condition of their charter, to enhance the school fund. In 1 841 one-half the surplus revenue fund of the State had been added to the school fund. In 1845, by legislative act, the State w"as divided into school districts, each of which wTas authorized to lay a school tax by a vote of the people. In 1853 a tax of 25 cents on all polls and cents on each $100 of taxable property wras levied for the schools. The county judges, by a two- thirds vote, could impose a county school tax, or, in defect of the count, a majority could call for a popular vote on this proposition, and the secretary of state wras ordered to pay to each an amount equal to what it raised itself. But in 1847 Governor Neil S. Brown speaks of previous efforts at education in this discouraging way: “The effort for popular education has slumbered and lingered and pined, and exists now rather as a memento of the past than as a living system for practical government and experience.” In 1848 the city of Nashville reorganized its system of common schools, EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. 556 which has done much to give to that beautiful and progressive city its present high reputation as a leading educational center of the Southwest. Indeed, the statute books of Tennessee during this period fairly bristle with laws passed in favor of an effective system of public education; and from 1839 to the breaking out of the civil war the treasurer of the State made an annual distribution of funds, ranging from $103,759.46 in 1839 to as low as $70,154.29 in 1840; $90,350.47 in 1850, but in 1843, the amount rising to $163,174.32; in 1847, $191,241.84; in 1855, $159,262.83; in 1856, $178,533; in 1857, $199,328.29; in 1858, $240,586. But there went along with this a discouraging column, representing the amount of funds remaining in the hands of the authorities of the counties, ranging from $11,792 in 1839 to $57,000, $65,000, $90,000, $86,000, $139,000 in 1846, an average of more than $50,000 annually of the children’s money unaccounted for in the treasury. In the two years, 1854—55, the State paid $316,359 for common schools, colleges, and the State library, besides $106,000 for its new charitable public institutions. By act of 1850 the State paid $18,000 annually to the county academies, each county receiving its grant with regard to population. The distribution for these schools had risen from $17,000 in 1839 to $28,560 in 1842 and $23,000 in 1848, there¬ after to be limited to $18,000. The school fund invested in several banks and boards of control, etc., was transferred to the State Bank of Tennessee, as before stated. By 1855 the affairs of this bank were in a condition that demanded investigation. The committee reported that the school funds would have been better invested in State bonds at 6 per cent than in the stock of any corporation offering 2 or 3 per cent more, and especially in one which was subject, from its organization, to all the cas¬ ualties arising from the change in its officials every four years, as the one or the other political party prevailed in an election, and to the carelessness, negligence, and fraud of those controlling it. In 1848 it was found that, according to the examiner’s report, the bank admitted a “suspended debt” of $735,581, of which $388,985 was declared hopelessly bad, and had debts to be paid out of the future profits of the institution amounting to $211,433. The debts were due from the nine branches and numerous irresponsible individuals and corporations that had gathered, like a flock of buzzards that hover above a graveyard. The legislature, moved by a culpable carelessness in a season of panic, had chartered a great number of new banks, all of which at once fell off to 2 or 3 per cent, and were practically floundering in a hopeless slough of speculation outside their own proper business. The majority of the legislative committee united in a recommendation to suspend the Bank of Tennessee, or give it a power of controlling the actions of its nine subordinates which had wrought so much of the mischief, This idea, however, was not complied with. The bank went to wreck with. the con¬ solidated school fund during the civil war, and was Anally wound up in the reorgan¬ ization of the State government after the occupation of Nashville by the Union armies. But enough has been said to expose the imperfect management of the people’s school in Tennessee during this period of twenty years. A school system, like “a government of the people, for the people, by the people,” is doubtless the highest ' achievement of the past, provided the people know what they want and elect to the post of administration men honest, competent, and patriotic. But a government of the people, displayed in a system of popular education without the support of ener¬ getic and intelligent supervision, is only an educational quicksand that will swallow up the grandest endowment and cause the efforts of a generation to go for naught. The beginnings of a genuine common-school system in Tennessee were only laid when Supt. John Eaton, afterward the eminent United States Commissioner of Education, who built up this Bureau from a little group of clerks in one room to one of the most effective departments of education in any land, faced the boundless difficulties of his position of first superintendent of public instruction under the reorganized State COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 557 government by the appointment of county superintendents and corresponding officials in neighborhoods in November, 1867. Meanwhile there were not wanting indications that the people of Tennessee were not to be discouraged by the ill success of their public-school system, but were looking elsewhere for relief. It has already been shown to what an extent the better-off class, aided by the church anti, college, labored to supply their own educational wants by the establishment of great numbers of academies, numerous “colleges,” and pri¬ vate schools of every sort. Indeed, the majority of these ‘ ‘ colleges ’ ’ and ‘ ‘ academies ’ ’ contained a preparatory and elementary department, and were open to all who came. Many of the families of the humbler station, unable to pay tuition fees, were more ready to receive aid from friends and neighbors to educate their children in this way than by the more public method of a sort of proclamation of poverty in the common schools. An important agency of popular enlightenment during these years was offered in the county agricultural fair. These gatherings were attended by the foremost public men of the State. Besides the usual goings on of this style of gathering, the admitted influ¬ ence on the farming and mechanical industries of the State, and the direction of efforts for revealing the vast natural resources of the Commonwealth, there was a notable feature included in the printed addresses on topics relating to the general uplift of society. In one of these, Governor A. V. Brown, as early as 1851, put forth an ideal of agricultural and mechanical training prophetic of the condition of the admirable organization of these departments in the present University of Tennessee, at Knox¬ ville, under the administration of President Dabney. Dr. Boner, in 1855, prepared an elaborate programme of the grading and arrangement of studies in an institution of this sort. It was by the timely aid of the United States land grant for this purpose, in 1862, that the University of Tennessee, with several other important State univer¬ sities and colleges of the South, were able to resume operations. Forty-two of these agricultural fairs were chartered in as many counties of the State by 1859-60, and the addresses, often of great importance, by the most distinguished public and profes¬ sional men, were published in the annual State reports. In this way large numbers of people who had not enjoyed early opportunities of schooling, while listening to addresses of a superior character calling attention to a broader view of social, indus¬ trial, and public life than the ordinary political speech of the day, were receiving an education by the “natural method” of contact with superior minds. Indeed, in all our investigations of educational affairs in the State during the years before 1860, we are constantly brought in view of the great amount of valuable instruc¬ tion open to all the people, through the popular speaking and preaching of all kinds by which the South has always been distinguished. Leaving out the somewhat exaggerated local estimate of the favorite preachers and public men of the time, as “orators,” there was a great amount of sound, instructive, and thoroughly practical public speaking always at the demand of every class. In fact, the slave population, especially in its most intelligent portion, profited by this, as by the conversation and their general intercouse with the superior people, especially the women of the white race, to such an extent that the country and the world were astonished at the number of well-informed colored men who stepped forth into leadership of their people on the emancipation at the close of the civil war. THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF NASHVILLE, TENN. The present public-school system of Nashville, Tenn., dates from a remarkable address delivered before the municipal authorities and people of the city, on June 7, 1848, by J. FI. Ingraham, esq., on “Public schools and the importance of establishing them in this city.” In this address Mr. Ingraham stated that there were in Nashville 2, 015 children between the ages of 5 and 21; that there was in the city but one free school, carried on at the expense of $600 a year received from the State 558 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. fund, with an attendance ranging from 20 to 70 pupils. The nickname, “Poor School,” had made it an object of aversion, even for the poorer class. The lecturer claimed that the 1,400 similar public schools of the State, supported at an annual expense of §118,000, were under the same imputation. There were also in the city 36 private schools, altogether containing 1,005 scholars. Regarding the number of available school children in the place as 1,500, and deducting 115 of the pupils out of the 1,005, there remained 890 Nashville children actually at school. This left 610 children who were without the means of education, nearly one-third of the entire number in a city of this size. Practically, 1,000 children and more in Nashville, in 1848, were living without the means of education. In contrast to this, the eloquent speaker presented the condition of affairs in the city of New Orleans, La., where in 1842 the public-school system was inaugurated, with 26 schools and an attendance in 1848 of 2,600 pupils, under 57 teachers, nearly half of them young women, at an expense of $36,000 annually. The instruction was gratuitous and without charge for books and stationery. As a result of this move¬ ment, a public school library of 8,000 volumes had been established. But the most effective example was the city of Natchez, Miss., whose schools have been referred to in the portions of this essay devoted to that State. In 1845 nearly one-half of the white children in Natchez were living without schools, either through the whole or a greater portion of the year. A gentleman of that city, on his retire¬ ment from business, offered to the city a large mercantile building that could be easily converted into a public school house on condition that his gift should be duplicated by an equal sum from the public treasury. His offer was accepted, and the Natchez Insti¬ tute, a public school, was established in 1845, under the superintendence of teachers sent from the city of Boston, Mass. The building was divided into eleven school rooms, and a public hall and separate playgrounds for children of both sexes were arranged. The school was graded into primary, grammar, and secondary depart¬ ments for boys and girls, and the city government took the new system under its complete charge. On the 4th July, 1845, the city honored itself by the inauguration of its new system of public instruction. The schools were supported by a local tax on all taxable property and free to all the white children of Natchez. It opened with 70 pupils, but within a year the attendance reached to 500. The attendance increased so rapidly that the board was obliged to raise the age of admission to 6. In 1848 there were 575 pupils and SO were graduated. Twelve young men had been sent to college. Numbers had been established in business and 13 girl graduates had already entered the university of matrimony. A board of 7 visitors attended to the oversight of the schools. Of 900 different pupils in two and a half years but 5 had died, and the personal appearance of the school children in morals and manners, both in public and private, had been wonderfully improved. Every Friday evening the new hall was open to the parents and friends for an entertainment by the children, and the schools united in a beautiful rural gathering on May Day, one of the first occasions when all white children of every class and condition were gathered together, the entire town looking on with pleasure and pride. A course of popular lectures had been established, delivered in the hall, in which the prominent men of all professions and trades addressed the people, with debates and essays interspersed. Previous to this a tornado had laid one-half the city in ruins, and there appeared to be danger of a decline in the industries of the place. The establishment of the schools, as in all similar cases, was a signal for the turning of the tide of affairs. Good people from the whole region roundabout flocked to the city for the enjoyment of its educational facilities. The planter, from his “river-bottom” plantation; the laborer, from the country; the professional man, the mechanic — all came. The city increased steadily in population; real estate appreciated 50 per cent in value; indeed, the rise in real estate alone far more than compensated for the cost of maintaining the schools. A most effective portion of the argument was a statement of the comparative cost COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 559 of education by the private and public system. In New Orleans the annual cost of schooling 2, 600 pupils was $36,500. But Nashville was already paying for 890 pupils, in 36 private schools, $29,533. At this rate New Orleans would have been paying $87,278 for her 2,600 scholars, her gain by the public-school system being $50,778. Natchez paid $7,000 a year for 570 children; if educated, as in Nashville, by private schools, the cost of the same number would have been $21,128, saving $14,128 by the change. Every scholar in the New Orleans schools cost the city $14.03, a saving of $19.22 from the private-school method. Each pupil in Natchez cost the public $12.30, a saving of $20.95. Nashville was then paying $33.25 per capita in private schools, and could support public education for $11.30, a difference of $21.95 for each pupil, the sum of $16,935 being sufficient for all, instead of $50,000, as paid at present. When to this was added the fact that the public-school system in all ways, save the indul¬ gence of social pride, was superior to the present, the argument was closed. A library of 12,000 volumes was established by the Natchez Library Institution, and a cabinet of natural history was donated by Congress. The schools soon outgrew their accom¬ modations and, at the end of the first year, the board called for additional arrange¬ ments. Other considerations were brought in to enforce the conclusion concerning the superiority of the common school. The publication of this able and practical address, which was ordered by the city authorities, was the signal for a strong move¬ ment among the people of Nashville. The labors of President Lindsley, although not so pronounced in this direction as in the higher education, found here perhaps their widest and most important local fruition. The plans of a school system, an extract from a report of the State superintendent of public instruction, with extracts from an address of Hon. J. S. B. Thatcher, were published. In addition there was pub¬ lished a statistical survey of the condition of the common-school funds, showing their amount as $1,346,068.15, with an annual income for distribution of $117,395, which, divided among the 272,245 children and youth of school age, gave a fraction under 42 cents to each. This valuable document was closed by the publication of a school programme adopted by the Institute of Natchez and adapted to the condition of the proposed system of Nashville. There was also printed an eloquent address delivered at Natchez by Hon. J. S. B. Thatcher, which deserves a place in any collection of the literature of the Southern common school before 1860, and which would be one of the most valuable additions to this department of American literature. The publication of this manual of universal education in due time bore fruit. In the spring of 1850 Alfred Hume, escp, a teacher of a classical school in Nashville, was commissioned by the city government to visit the public schools of various cities of the Union. In the following August Mr. Hume rendered an elaborate report, of which 2,000 copies were printed. This report has been called the begin¬ ning of the public schools of the city. In 1853 the first school building was erected and named for Mr. Hume. The first board of education was elected, consisting of seven gentlemen, Mr. Hume being a member. The president, F. B. Fogg, esq., presided over the board for eight years. The Hume Building was erected on land donated to the city, and subsequently the Howard Building was placed on a lot donated by Mr. IT. Howard and wife. In 1855 the schools opened under the superintendence of Mr. J. F. Pearl. The first published report of this official, dated August 29, 1857, paints a glowing picture of the beginning of free education in the city. According to this report, there were then in Nashville not less than 3,000 white children and youth between the ages of 6 and 18. Of these, some 500 were found in the private schools of the city. Of the remaining 2,500, 1,202 were cared for in the public schools. There seems to have been an unusual amount of friction at the beginning of the system, in bringing an unruly portion of the children into due subordination. In 1857, the third year of the schools, 1,961 certificates of admission were issued, 1,026 for boys and 935 for girls; of which 759 did not represent pupils remaining in the schools, 149 were 560 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. “suspended for irregularity in attendance,” 19 for failure in their studies and insub¬ ordination. The remainder fell out into service, work, etc. The superintendent congratulates the people on the success of the school government in dealing with bad boys and insubordination in girls; also on the fact that, during the school months, requests are frequently made by employers to learn the record of pupils, and numbers of the boys stepped from the schoolroom into good positions in many occupations. A high school for boys and girls had been established during the year 1857, by which the gap between the elementary schools and the university had been closed. By the present of a valuable lot, the city had been enabled to build a commercial schoolhouse, but the rush upon the schools had overflowed the limit. Seven hun¬ dred children and youths were still in no school and 100 were out for lack of accom¬ modations. But, on the whole, the experiment was a gratifying success. The superintendent showed his capacity in his earnest movement for a State normal school, and his estimate of the proper qualifications of a teacher. The number of pupils in attendance was 1,263, of whom 382 were in the primary, 340 in the interme¬ diate, 133 in the grammar, and the remainder in the high school. There were 25 teach¬ ers, with an average number of 63 pupils in charge of each. The system was under the control of a board of education of seven members and a secretary appointed by the city government. The course of study appears in all respects to have been similar in its requirements to that of other cities of the same size through the country. The high-school course had a sensible arrangement for a classical and an English depart¬ ment, thus avoiding the severe classicism which still closes the doors of the people’s high school in so many of our Southern cities to all save pupils who are prepared to face a three or four years’ course of Latin. In 1858 Superintendent Pearl congratulates the people of Nashville on “the pleas¬ ing evidence that your schools are growing in influence and establishing character for themselves, thereby gaining the applause of the community. The difficulties that appeared at the beginning are gradually yielding to regular discipline and improved teaching. Attendance is more regular — indeed, the attendance is only lim¬ ited by the accommodations — an important section of the city still being greatly in need of a new school building. The average whole number is increased by 43 and the average daily attendance by 39, for the year 1857.” The fact that one girl was dismissed from the school for “ obstinacy” had found its compensation in the pleas¬ ing fact that the highest prize for excellence in scholarship was captured by a girl. In 1861 the revised school code raised the number of the board to eight. The board of education was required to furnish an estimate of the probable expense of the public-school system at the beginning of every year, and a tax sufficient to cover the expense was levied on the people, the entire school management being under the exclusive control of the board of education. In 1860 the president of the board of education was able to report that the long- desired Howard school building had been erected at a cost of $16,000, on a site donated by Mr. Howard in 1839 to the city for public purposes. The entire expense of the city schools, besides the cost of this building, was $28,133.71. The superin¬ tendent included the fifth and sixth years of the publioschool system in the report rendered October 1, 1860. In 1860 the attendance had increased to 1,423, with an average daily attendance of 1,224, an increase in one year of 201. Of these, the average death rate was little more than one-half of one per cent. Thirty-one teachers were employed, and the National Spelling Book of Parker and Watson was substituted for the ancient 4 ‘ Blue Back ’ ’ of Noah Webster. The superintendent again cr 11s atten¬ tion to the difficulty of finding teachers competent to handle the elementary grades according to the natural methods of instruction, and quotes the practice of the schools of St. Louis, where the primary teachers are selected with great care and paid equal salaries with those of the upper grades. The necessity for crowding the school build¬ ings was overcome in the new Howard schoolhouse, built on a site valued at $10,000, presented by Mr. and Mrs. P. H. Howard. The superintendent urges the necessity COMMON SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH, 1830-1860. 561 of a separate building for the high school and the normal-school department for the training of teachers. The high school contained 115 students, with an average attend¬ ance of 102. Three boys had been sent to Yale College, Connecticut, from this school in the fourth year of its existence. This report concludes the history of the public-school system of Nashville previous to the sudden closing in the midst of the session of 1861, by the transfer of the seat of war to Tennessee, only to be reopened in 1866. There is no published report, save a printed course of study in 1869, until the year 1870. At this period begins the administration of that admirable educator, Supt. S. T. Caldwell, under whose able and vigorous direction for more than ten years the public schools of Nashville became probably the best in the Southern States, and with fair comparison among the best in the country. That the system had taken deep root in the public confi¬ dence is shown by the fact that, in 1870, only five years from the close of the civil war, the school attendance reached 2,000 white and 500 colored children, with a corps of 80 teachers, supported at the expense of $92,000. THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF MEMPHIS. The city of Memphis also had established a system of city public schools as early as 1852 in three departments, primary, intermediate, and grammar, with a board of visitors and a code of regulations that suggests the presence of the educational spirit. In 1856 we find on the board of seven members the name of Leon Trousdale, after¬ wards the noted State superintendent of public instruction for Tennessee. Mr. L. Pope was superintendent. The grammar department included high-school studies, the classics, French, etc. The act of incorporation for the schools, passed by the legislature in 1858, provided that the system should be under the exclusive control of a board of visitors, one elected from each ward of the city, the board competent to elect its own officers and chartered with the power of control. The schools were free to white children and youth of the city, although a fee might be imposed for instruction in branches higher than usually taught in the public schools of cities. The board of visitors was empowered to make an approximate estimate of the expense of the schools, and the city government might lay a tax on the people not to exceed $15 for each white person between the ages of 6 and 16. The board of visitors was authorized to expend $75,000, and by permission of the city government to raise the money for the cost of suitable school buildings. From a report for the years 1864-65, it appears that while the public schools of Nashville were closed during the entire period of the civil war the Memphis schools were kept open. • In 1861-62 there were 17 with only 1,500 pupils and in 1864-65 27 schools with 2,400 in attendance. The city did not own one public schoolhouse at this date and the schools were housed in rented buildings. The committee congratulated themselves and the city on the fact that amid all the fierce excitements of the civil war “the schools are as little affected by party spirit, whether in religion or politics, as any public schools of America.” The cost of the system was $45,473.88, with an average daily attendance of 1,028, costing about $4.35 per capita. Among the teachers we recognize the name of Miss Jennie M. Higbee as principal of the high school, who, after her retirement from the public service, for many years remained at the head of one of the most important female colleges of the South in Memphis. With this record, manifestly imperfect and somewhat fragmentary from the lacit of so much valuable material in the form of reports, statistics, and the educational documents now supplied by every State of the Union, we leave the deeply interest¬ ing subject of public education in the State of Tennessee. Its subsequent develop¬ ment proceeded under the more favorable conditions which have lifted this Com¬ monwealth, so richly endowed by nature, so favored by its central situation in the Union and the vigor and intelligence of its population, to an educational achieve¬ ment that makes the State of Tennessee, perhaps, chief among the sixteen States once known as the South. ed 1900 - 36 CHAPTER VIII PAPERS READ AT THE CHICAGO MEETING OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE, 1900. Contents.— (1) Status of education at the close of the century, by Nicholas Murray Butler. (2) The trail of the city superintendent, by Aaron Gove. (3) Obligations and opportunities of scholarship, by Edwin E. Alderman. (4) Alcohol physiology and superintendence, by W. 0. Atwater. STATUS OF EDUCATION AT THE CLOSE OF THE CENTURY.1 By Nicholas Murray Butler, Professor of Philosophy and Education, Columbia University. Imagination and feeling increasingly bear the brunt of shaping human opinion and human conduct. Intelligence does its organizing work and then disappears below the surface. Much of life goes on without its active cooperation, just as many of our mental reactions, first organized in the brain, come to be carried on through the spinal cord alone. When we stop to think, we realize that a century is of human making, a purely arbitrary division of time. Century might have been the name given to a longer or a shorter period — twenty years or two hundred — without doing violence to anything save present associations. The limits of a century are wholly imaginary. The skies do not change when a century is ushered in, or the thunders roll when it passes out. A century begins and ends as noiselessly and as unperceived as any moment which glides from the future into the past. Imagination, however, gives to the century an objective reality, and feeling welds our thoughts to it. The arbitrary period of time which it covers, and the events which happen in that period, come to have for us a relatioji of cause and effect or of reciprocal dependence. We can not rid ourselves of that feeling. Fancy, if you can, Attila charging upon the Western Empire in a century called the fifteenth instead of the fifth, or Louis XVI losing his head in the eighth century instead of the eighteenth, or Columbus discov¬ ering America in the twentieth! We do well to resign ourselves to the spell of these mental creations, and to learn, as Macaulay somewhere said, to know our centuries. But who can know the nineteenth century? Development so rapid, changes so startling, inventions so undreamed of, crowd each other in a whirl of confusing images when we try to picture this century and to note its salient facts. It is the century of Napoleon and of Lincoln, of Hegel and of Darwin, of Goethe and of Kipling, of Bessemer and of Rockefeller. More leaders of enterprise and more captains of industry have appeared during this one hundred years than in all previous recorded history. The average of human intelligence and of human efficiency has been raised to a point — in the United States, certainly — which a few hundred years ago would have entailed noto¬ riety and, perhaps, distinction. Prosperity and querulousness, desire and happiness, have all multiplied together. How can all this be interpreted? 1 Reprinted from the Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence, N. E. A., at Chicago, February 27-March 1, 1900. 563 564 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The wisest answer seems to me to be this: The nineteenth century is preemi¬ nently the period of individual liberty — political, religious, intellectual, industrial; and its manifold triumphs and achievements are due to the large opportunities which have been granted to individual initiative, and to individual expression. The great¬ ness, the shortcomings, and the contradictions of the nineteenth century are alike due to this. It must be borne in mind that mankind discovered the significance of the indi¬ vidual rather late, and that, when discovered, this significance was variously inter¬ preted. Man’s early institutions and his law, based as they were on kinship, took the family, bound together by tie of blood, as the unit. The individual was of very secondary importance. The horde, the tribe, the State were successive aggrega¬ tions of families, or, perhaps better, a larger family. The interest, the ambition, the vengeance of the group or community controlled each individual’s acts, and in large measure, his opinions and his thoughts. Under such circumstances education could only be tribal or ethnic in its aims and in its forms. It sought to reproduce a type, not to develop a capacity. The journey during the history of civilization from this point of view to one from which the individual is himself of importance is a long and arduous one. Of repre¬ sentative ancient thinkers, the Sophists, the Cynics, and the Stoics alone championed the cause of the individual as such, and their appreciation of the real meaning of individualism was most imperfect. The Sophist hope, that a man could spin a web of successful and useful existence out of the shadowy contents of his own perceptions, was dashed once and for all by Socrates. The Cynic revolt against social order and convention is typified by Diogenes with lantern and with tub. The Stoic outlook was a broader one, but it in turn was shut in by the massive height of an omnipresent, overruling law, before which man could only seek virtue through stern resignation. The clue suggested by the master mind of Aristotle, by which the essential nature and the limitations of individualism might be made known, was not fully followed up for centuries. Yet from the fifth century before Christ, onward, philosophy was increas¬ ingly becoming not only the science of human conduct, but the art of human living; and individualism was necessarily the gainer. How shall a man live to attain wis¬ dom and virtue? was the question which the Greek and Roman moralist pressed home upon each individual listener with tremendous force. Then Christianity came, with its teaching of the equality of every human soul before the judgment seat of God. Here, at last, individualism seemed to have found a secure foundation. The Sermon on the Mount was its charter and its moral guide. A man’s salvation depended upon himself alone. Speedily, however, a reaction set in, and the old habit of setting hard and fast limits for the individual asserted itself. Christianity grew rapidly into an elaborate system of doctrine to be held in its entirety semper, ubique, ab omnibus. On the other hand, the Roman jurists were elaborating a system of personal rights, which was destined to afford individualism a new foothold and to exercise a profound influence upon European society. Superficially, then, individ¬ ualism was checked by a body of doctrine, uniformly prescribed, which guided faith and practice; under the surface, rights and opportunities for the individual continued to develop slowly. Education took on the form of the superficial appearance of uniformity, and for centuries the Western World continued steadily to uncoil itself in constantly widening circles, but still in circles. At length the inner contradiction between the two great elements of mediaeval civilization asserted itself and the crash came. With the mocking jests of Rabelais, the caustic wit of Montaigne, the mascu¬ line fervor of Luther, pent-up individualism hurled itself against the bars which con¬ fined it. It broke through, now here and now there, and rushed headlessly hither and yon, searching for escape. It tried mysticism in religion as a relief from the clanking chains of dogma, and absolutism in politics as a protection from its nearest foes. Meanwhile, the crushing force of ancient tradition asserted itself with dogged determination. But it was too late; the long-checked desire for a freedom which EDUCATION AT THE CLOSE OF THE CENTURY. 565 was too often interpreted as anarchy, and for a liberty which in its newness appeared to mean license, could not be controlled. In its name the persistent Anglo-Saxon challenged the house of Stuart, and after two centuries worked himself substantially free from the old forms of bondage. The more passionate and quick-moving Celt had to wait longer, but he acted more quickly. In the dramatic horrors and sublim¬ ities of the French Revolution he gained his immediate end at the risk of losing every precious possession of the race. The smoke of the French Revolution hung over Europe when the nineteenth cen¬ tury opened. As it gradually cleared away it became obvious that the successful struggle of individualism for recognition was almost over, but that the results were to be worked out by argument, not by anarchy. The century soon to close records what happened. Education, as a matter of course, has always borne the impress of the civilization whose product it was. From the fourteenth century to the nineteenth, the demand of individualism for representation in the schools has been heard, now earnest and reasonable, now passionate and incoherent. Politics and religion so far overshadowed education in importance that it was a long time before there was any widespread recognition of the close relation in which education stood to them. On this matter the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries brought great light, and there was new hope for the schools. False and partial as we must hold much of the French and English philosophy of the eighteenth century to be, it is nevertheless to be credited with having convinced the world that a fundamental principle bound together rational progress in politics, in religion, and in education. To this conviction the nineteenth century has clung most tenaciously. The result has been an unexampled and dazzling expansion of educational endeavor and accomplishment. When the century opened Rousseau had been dead nearly twenty-three years. Pestalozzi had just left Stanz for Burgdorf, and at the age of 55 was crying ecstatically: “The child is right; he will not have anything come between nature and himself.” Froebel, an introspective youth of 19, was . at Jena, at that moment the very center of the productive activity of German thought. Reinhold had been expounding the new gospel according to Kant there, and Fichte had only recently been expelled while trying to interpret it. Then and there Froebel, as he himself said, began to know the names of Goethe and Schiller and Wieland. Hegel, too, was at Jena. His Lehrjahre were behind him, and at 30 years of age he was nearly ready to measure his strength with the masters. The lecture programmes of the Uni¬ versity of Jena, as has been said, at that time fairly “dripped” philosophy. Her- bart, who had been one of Fichte’s pupils at Jena a few years earlier, was still, at 24, studying and giving private instruction. These five men — Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Hegel, and Herbart — were to give to nineteenth-century education most of its philosophical foundation and not a few of its methods. From them have come the main influences Avhich have shaped education for a hundred years. Each one of the five pleaded in his way for the value of the individual. Rousseau, with no institutional sense and no insight into the meaning of history, exclaimed “0 man, concentrate thine existence within thyself, and thou wilt no longer be mis¬ erable! Thy liberty, thy power extend only as far as thy natural forces, and no farther. All the rest is but slavery, illusion, prestige.” Pestalozzi, whose intellect never quite caught up with his emotions, was really neglecting the individual by his method of trying to care for him. Froebel and Hegel saw far deeper. They knew the meaning of institutions, of thought relations, of development, both inner and outer. They taught the individual as a Gliedganzes, a whole and yet a part of a larger whole, and so gave us our truest view of individualism in education. Herbart’ s individualism was hard and mechanical, though his doctrine of apperception gave promise of something better and more vital. These men, then, projected individualism into contemporary educational theory. They had hosts of disciples in many lands, and the movement grew apace. It 566 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. needed, however, the touch of practice to make it genuinely real. This came after 1848, the line which divides the century into two parts — the earlier part dominated by thought, with spirits like Goethe, Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Emerson as its exponents; the latter dominated by action, with Lincoln, Gladstone, and Bismarck as exemplars. In 1848 the individual gained the foothold which he had struggled for, but lost, in the haste of 1789. The pressure from practical life followed. The old educational material and the traditional educational methods were attacked with greater frequency and with greater vigor, as not adapted to modern needs. The ancient languages and the civil¬ izations they embalmed were denounced as fetishes. The world’s philosophy was nonsense; its art was archaic; its literature pedantic and overlaid with form. Straightway altars were erected to new and unfamiliar gods; before all to that prod¬ uct of the human understanding called science, which Mr. Herbert Spencer, with a humor quite unconscious, defined as partially unified knowledge. The new spirit exulted in its freedom. It accomplished much; it ignored much. In a thousand ways it impressed itself on life, on literature, and on art. Education was shaken to its foundations. Nothing was sacred. No subject of study, no method of teaching was immune. Old institutions of learning were too slow to move and to adapt them¬ selves to these conditions. New ones were invented, created, set in motion. Wealth, public and private, poured out like water to make possible and to sustain these new types of school. The seven liberal arts faded into insignificance beside the endless list of subjects now found to be worthy of study. This great, world-wide movement justified itself for the time by its results. Com¬ merce, industry, and invention multiplied apace. The forces of nature were com¬ manded through being obeyed. Education had become democratic, and was ready to offer training in preparation for any calling. The traditional list of learned pro¬ fessions was increased by architecture, engineering, and a dozen more. Early and complete adaptation of the individual to his appropriate career was hailed as the new educational ideal before which all else must give way. In consequence, the hasty conclusion was drawn that not only methods of procedure in education, but the sole principles upon which to proceed, could be learned by the study of the infant mind and the infant body. Upon this as a basis a superstructure of educational theory and practice was erected, which would have delighted the heart of that arch Philistine, Rousseau. All that had been was wasteful, misleading, wrong, not on its merits, but simply because it had been. The progress of the race in civilization was explained as having taken place in spite of men’s ideals, not because of them; and it was therefore rejected as a source of inspiration and of information. Individualism had not only won a great victory, but apparently its opponents were annihilated. This new philosophy, however, had not established itself without a protest, and as this type of individualism became more and more extreme in its claims, the pro¬ test grew louder and more earnest. Could the crowded centuries of the human past teach us nothing? Were the art of Phidias and of Raphael, the verse of Homer and of Dante, the philosophy of Plato and of Kant, the institutions of the Roman law and of constitutional government all to depend for their educational meaning and value upon the carefully noted actions and preferences of the unformed infant in its cradle? The humor of the situation revealed itself, and the reaction set in. Individualism had gone too far. In the effort of forming its fullest flower it had torn itself up by the roots. History did mean something after all; and environment was discovered to be a thing of three dimensions, not of two only. Reflection suc¬ ceeded to controversy. Meanwhile the new sciences of nature had themselves been studying embryology and heredity. These words took on new meanings. The individual was seen to be a product as well as a producer. Product of what? Of all that man had thought and done, and of his own infinitesimal self. But if this were true, then what of education? Obviously, the defenders of the new must shift their EDUCATION AT THE CLOSE OF THE CENTURY. 5G7 ground and retreat from the untenable position of Rousseau to the impregnable fortress, Gliedganzes, of Froebel, of Hegel, and of all philosophical teachers of evolution. This change has been made, and as the century closes the soundest edu¬ cational philosophy the world over teaches that the individual alone is nothing, but that the individual as a member of a society and of a race is everything. Selfhood, which can only be attained by entering into the life history and the experience of the race, is now put in the high place which was about to be rashly filled by selfish¬ ness. True individualism, which would enrich the life of each with the possessions of all, is well-nigh supreme, and sham individualism, which would set every man’s hand against his fellow, is disposed of, let us hope forever. Education rests securely upon the continuous history of man's civilization, and looks to the nature of each individual for guidance in the best methods of conducting him to his inheritance, but not for knowledge of what that inheritance is. Every conception of this nineteenth century, educational as well as other, has been cross fertilized by the doctrine of evolution. In whichever direction we turn we meet that doctrine or some one of its manifold implications. We have incor¬ porated it into educational theory and have thereby shed a flood of light upon problems hitherto dark. Evolution has assisted mightily in that interpretation of individualism which I have just defended. It has bound the universe together by homogeneous law, and the relations of each to all, both physical and social, have become far clearer and more definite. But much remains to be done in applying the teachings of evolution in actual plans and methods of instruction. The application is going on, however, all around us and without cessation, and is the cause of not a little of the existing educational inquiry and unrest. Our schools have shed one shell and the other is not yet grown. Illustrations of this will be found in the teaching of mathematics, of language, of history, and of the natural sciences. We halt often between the logical and the psychological order, failing to appreciate that evolution gives a place to each. The logical order is the order of proof, of demonstration; the psychological order is the order of discovery, of learning. Children do not learn logically; they come later to see logical relations in what they have learned. The well-equipped teacher knows both logic and psychology. He is prepared to guide the pupil in his natural course of learning, and also to point out to him the structure of relationship of what he has learned. Text-book writers the world over have been slow to see this distinction; but, with only few exceptions, the best American text¬ books, which control so powerfully all school processes, are in advance of those most in use in Europe. The logical order is so simple, so coherent, and so attractive that it seems a pity to surrender it for the less trim and less precise order of development; but this will have to be done if teaching efficiency according to evolution is to be had. The course of evolution in the race and in the individual furnishes us also with the clew to the natural order and the real relationships of studies. It warns us against the artificial, the bizarre, and points us to the fundamental and the real. Only educational scholarship can protect the schools against educational dilettantism. Two lines are needed to determine the position of a point. The two principles of evolution and of an individualism, viewed in the light of the history of civilization, seem to me to determine the status of education at the close of the century. The working of these principles is exemplified in practice in a thousand ways. They lie behind and determine every effort for improvement and for progress. The diverse types of school, higher and lower, with their widely different special ends and yet with a common fund of basic knowledge which they all impart, reveal a purpose to cultivate and to adapt the special powers and talents of the individual, while holding him in touch with the life and the interests of his kind. The existence of the wonder-working elective system in secondary schools and colleges, together with the limitations put upon it, is due to a real as opposed to a sham individualism. The marked emphasis now laid upon the social aspect of education, in Europe as well 5(38 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. as in the United States, and also upon the school as a social institution and a social center, is additional evidence of the dominance of the individualism of Froebel rather than that of Rousseau. The demands for the establishment of a proper system of secondary education in England, for the making over of the secondary- school systems of France and of Germany, for the closer articulation of lower schools and higher schools, of schools and colleges, in the United States, for making elemen¬ tary school instruction as little wasteful and as full of content as possible, for bringing forward studies which give adequate scope for expression in various forms, and the demand that the community shall relate itself to its educational system simply and effectively — all these are based, consciously or unconsciously, upon the desire to apply the teachings of evolution and to progress toward the ideal of a perfected individualism. Education, so conceived and so shaped, has made an irresistible appeal to every civilized nation. During the century education has definitely become a state func¬ tion, not as a dole, but as a duty. Consequently, the public expenditure for educa¬ tion has become enormous. In the United States it amounts annually to $200,000,000 for the common schools alone, or $2.67 per capita of population. This sum is about one-tenth of the total wealth of Indiana or of Michigan, as determined by the census of 1890. In Great Britain and Ireland the total public expenditure on account of education is over $88,000,000, or $2.20 per capita. In France it is about $58,000,000, or $1.60 per capita. In the German Empire it is over $108,000,000, or more than $2 per capita. These four great nations, therefore, the leaders of the world’s civilization at this time, with a total population of nearly 210,000,000, are spending annually for education a sum considerably greater than $450,000,000. The annual expenditure of the United States for common schools is quite equal to the sum total of the expenditures of Great Britain, France, and Germany combined upon their powerful navies. It is nearly four-fifths of the total annual expenditure of the armed camps of France and Germany upon their huge armies. It is a sum greater by many millions than the net ordinary expenditures of the United States Government in 1880. This expenditure for common schools has nearly trebled since 1870, and during that period has grown from $1.75 to $2.67 per capita of population and from $15.20 to $18.86 for each pupil enrolled. These imposing and suggestive statistics mark, in the most objective fashion possi¬ ble, the distance we have traveled from the beginning of the century, when there was literally no such thing in existence anywhere in the civilized world as a state system of education. But pride of achievement should yield to a feeling of responsibility for the future. In the light of the nineteenth century no man dare prophesy what the twentieth century will bring forth. We only know that a democracy shielded by insight into the past and armed with trained minds, disciplined wills, and a scien¬ tific method is as ready as man’s imperfect wisdom can make it for whatever may come in the future. Daniel Webster, in his oration at the laying of the cornerstone of the Bunker Hill Monument, exulted honestly in the conviction that the example of our country was full of benefit to human freedom and to human happiness everywhere. “We can win no laurels in a war for independence,” he said. “Earlier and worthier hands have gathered them all. Nor are there places for us by the side of Solon, and Alfred, and other founders of States. Our fathers have filled them. But there remains to us a great duty of defense and preservation; and there is opened to us, also, a noble pursuit, to which the spirit of the times strongly invites us. Our proper business is improvement.” This injunction, laid upon Americans by their great orator three- quarters of a century ago, has lost none of its force. It applies with peculiar direct¬ ness to teachers and to teaching. The glory of founding educational systems can not be ours; but the effort for improvement, by building wise practice upon sound the¬ ory, is within the reach of each one of us. EDUCATION AT THE CLOSE OF THE CENTURY. 569 DISCUSSION. President Charles W. Ei.iot, Harvard University. — Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen: The scholarly address to which we have just listened has described so clearly and comprehensively the educational progress of this century that I need say nothing about the philosophical and biographical aspects of the subject. It only remains for me, in the few minutes during which I can occupy your attention, to supplement in some particulars, as best one may in extemporaneous speech, Dr. But¬ ler’s admirable paper. I will touch on three or four of the leading features of educa¬ tional progress during the last half of this century. As Dr. Butler has already said, it is during the last half of the century — since 1848 — that the chief progress in educa¬ tion has taken place. The first great movement of reform was the introduction of freedom in choice of studies — first in universities or colleges, and later in schools. Like most other large educational movements, this change proceeded from new conditions entirely outside of the proper realm of education. It proceeded from the wonderful development of new knowledges which took place during the first half of the century, accompanied by the discovery of new principles and methods of scientific investigation. These new knowledges and new methods of inquiry commanded public attention, and cre¬ ated an imperative demand that youth should be instructed in them. The managers of education positively have had no option with regard to the introduction of some sort of elective system. They have been compelled to introduce it. A limited elect¬ ive system was first introduced into Harvard College in 1826 during the administra¬ tion of President Josiah Quincy, a layman who came late to an educational post, having previously been a member of Congress and mayor of Boston. Llis two suc¬ cessors in the presidency did not agree with him as to the importance of an election of studies; so they tried to extinguish the system in Harvard College. The second of these two presidents put on record in his own reports his failure completely to extinguish the system, and gave the true reason for the failure — namely, the incom¬ ing of such a number of new sciences and of new philosophical and practical intellec¬ tual interests that it was impossible to restrict the programme of studies in the college to the old seven or eight so-called liberal arts. Thus then the great change wrought in the second half of our century in public education was forced on college adminis¬ trations from without. They had no choice; they must give to the student freedom in choice of study; and they must so specialize the teaching that the professor should have freedom to develop throughout all his career the teaching of a single topic. Let me attempt to give you an idea of what has been going on since 1870 in this one institution in regard to the teaching of a single subject — political economy. A few days ago there died in Cambridge, in his seventieth year, Prof. Charles Franklin Dunbar, wLio, having previously been a man of business and the editor of an influ¬ ential paper in Boston, vras made in 1871 professor of political economy — an immensely important subject, which at that time had no teacher exclusively devoted to it in Harvard University. It merely received a scanty portion of the attention of a pro¬ fessor of “natural religion, moral philosophy, and civil polity.” In his first year of service Professor Dunbar gave instruction in one course prescribed by juniors, and in that same year he offered one elective course to seniors. Such was the modest begin¬ ning of the university’s department of political economy. When he died there were in Harvard University three full professors of political economy, one assistant pro¬ fessor, and six instructors. There "was no prescribed course, but a large number of optional courses; and any youth who wanted to study political economy with thor¬ oughness could begin that study as a freshman, and continue it for four years, that is, through his whole college course; and then he might devote two or three years’ time to it in the graduate school. One thoughtful, resolute, clear-headed, just man developed this important department of instruction in one American college, in a little less than thirty years, through freedom for student and teacher alike. Many persons have a very inadequate conception of the meaning of election of studies. They think of it chiefly as a questionable liberty for a thoughtless student. It is really the sole means of developing t horough, far-reaching university instruction in any subject, or in all subjects, and therefore is an indispensable means of pro¬ moting and stimulating American scholarship. It is as essential to the production of great teachers and great authors as it is to the training of well-equipped students. 1 pass on to the next fundamental change in American education, a change which is pure, far-reaching gain, and which has been wrought out better in America than in any other country. I refer to the change in school discipline. Again, this is a change brought about not exclusively by professional teachers, but by social forces working through all the community, but especially developed in schools and colleges. Nowadays we realize that the fundamental object in all education is to develop self- control and the power to give an intense mental attention; and we realize that self- 570 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. control is not to be cultivated in children under the arbitrary pressure of another’s will. As a boy I went to what was considered the best public school in Boston — one famous throughout the country — the Boston Latin School; but I have to testify that the chief disciplinary motive to which I felt myself subjected during my boyhood in that school was fear — fear of the rough tongue of the teacher, fear of the harsh con¬ struction put on the childish motive and' the childish conduct, and fear of physical pain as an inducement to an unnatural quietness and to mental application. That is a true picture of school discipline before the middle of this century all over the world, the school world, for thousands of years; but here in about the middle of this very century came a great change. It came partly through the church. Fear began to cease to be the prime religious motive. Men began to find out that systematic theology is an exclusively human science. They began to see that it was a marvel¬ ously presumptuous thing in one man, though he were a St. Augustine, a Calvin, or a Dr. Hodge, to undertake to state in the forms of human logic Cod’s scheme for the salvation of men, and to describe the nature and the results of God’s justice. Men began to emancipate themselves from the terrors of systematic theology. Then, too, we began to learn all over this country that government should not really be what for thousands of years government had been — the work of one arbitrary will, or of a few arbitrary wills — but rather that it should be government by the people for the people. We all began to think that the right conception of government for the citizen might teach us something concerning the government of a child. It occurred to us that if self-government was the whole object of political freedom, then self- control might be the legitimate primary object of a child’s development. Again, home discipline began to change for the better. Family government became gentler; and all these changes in society helped wonderfully to the beneficent change in the school. There has not been a more blessed change in the world than this change in home and school discipline from fear to love, from driving to leading. Wonderful has been the fruit of this change on the temper of our people and the happiness of our homes. I pass on to another immense change, brought about quite outside the schools and colleges, which has nevertheless affected profoundly the public provision of sys¬ tematic instruction. During the last fifty years, on account of industrial changes, the population in our own country, and in most of the civilized countries of the world, lias been rushing into cities and large towns. This rush into urban life has had a very ill effect on schools. It has tended to make schools large machines, and of course it has deprived the children of the natural out-of-door sports of country life. The grading of classes in a large school had to lie inflexible, and the product had to be uniform, like that of a flour mill. That meant that the quick children were held back and the slow were driven forward, to the great disadvantage of both sorts. It meant marking time. It meant also bad air, bad light, and crowded rooms, with fifty or seventy pupils to a teacher. These are impossible conditions for good teach¬ ing. The condensation of population introduced new risks of health ; so that what was the normal rural death rate rose in all large cities and towns to an unnatural height. The children suffered most from these increasing risks. Gradually, but chiefly within the last twenty years, we began to escape from some of these evils. AY e gave greater attention to good air, proper heat, and proper light; we gave greater flexibility to programmes and options among studies. In short, we attended to the conditions under which the children and the teachers worked, and tried to make them wholesome. But more than that it has been absolutely necessary to do. When a child grows up in the countrjq it gets a natural training in accurate observation. It wants to find a four-leaf clover; it runs to see where the green snake went to; it tracks the woodchuck to its hole and gets it out; it learns the songs of the birds, and knows when the smelts run up the brooks and when the twilight is just right for finding the partridges. In short, the country child gets naturally a broad training in observation. It also has on the farm an admirable training in manual labor. From an early age it can actually contribute to the care of animals, the successful conduct of the household, and the general welfare of the family. In the city all this natural training is lacking, and substitutes for it have to be artificially provided. This necessity has brought into our schools nature study and manual training, to teach the child to use its eyes and its hands, and to develop its senses and its muscu¬ lar powers; and these new beneficent agencies in education, already well in play, are in the near future to go far beyond any stage at present reached. We do not yet see how to replace in urban education the training which the farmer’s boy or the sea- coast boy gets from his habitual contest with the adverse forces of nature. The Gotts Island boy, on the coast of Maine, goes out with his father in the early winter morn¬ ing in a half-open sailboat to visit their lobster traps and bring home the entrapped lobsters. They start with a gentle breeze and a quiet sea, though the temperature is low. The boy knows just how to steer the boat 5 or 6 miles to sea, where the traps THE TRAIL OF THE CITY SUPERINTENDENT. 571 are sunk on some rocky spot which the lobsters love. The father is busy pulling the traps. The boy watches the weather, and suddenly he says, “Father, there is a northwester coming. See the clouds driving this way over the hills.” The boy knows just as well as the father what that means. It means a fearful beat to wind¬ ward to get home, facing a savage wind and a falling temperature, the spray dashing over the vessel and freezing to the sails and ropes and loading down the bow with ice. It means a life-and-death struggle for hours, the question being, Shall we get into harbor or not before we sink? Now, that is a magnificent training for a boy, and the sheltered city offers nothing like it. The adverse forces of nature, if not so formidable that men can not cope with them, are strenuous teachers; but in modern cities we hardly know that the wind blows, or that the flood is coming, or that* bitter cold is imperiling all animal life. Lastly — for my time has almost expired — a new motive is presented in our day to the teacher, the parent, and the children; the motive of joy through achievement. The great joy in life for us all, after the domestic affections, is doing something and doing it well, getting ay here we want to get, and bringing others where they would like to be. Give every child, we say, the joy of achievement. Do not set it to do what you know it can not do well. Set it to do what you think it can do well, and show it how. That is just what goes on in a happy kindergarten, or in a successful university conference or seminary. This is the new and happy aim in modern educa¬ tion — joy and gladness in achievement. I need not say that freedom is necessary to this joy. Schools used to set children doing things they could not do well. That, fellow-teachers, is the unpardonable sin in educational administration. It is not for the happiness of the children only that this new motive — to increase joy — has come to bless us. It brings new happiness to the teacher also. It is means of happiness for everybody throughout life. As a result of the advent of this new policy we are learning not to use with children a motive that will not work when the children are grown up. To be sure, we must admit that this doctrine condemns almost all the school discipline of the past and much of the family discipline; but the future will not mind that if it finds the new doctrine beneficent. Ladies and gentlemen, I do not know a more sacred occupation than the function of a superintendent of schools in the United States. The more I see of the kind of work a good superintendent does, the more I am impressed with its beneficent character. Let me urge you to mix freedom with all your policies and efforts. It seems to me that nobody’s name lives in this world— to be blessed — that has not associated his life work with some kind of human emancipation, physical, mental, or moral. Dr. Butler very justly named Rousseau as a great contributor to educational progress. The main work of that man’s life tended and still tends toward human liberty, and that one fact has almost sanctified an execrable wretch. Do you remember what Rousseau did with five of his wife’s babies, one after the other, in spite of her prayers and tears? He put every one of them in succession into the public creche, knowing that in the then condition of foundling hospitals that desti¬ nation meant all but certain death. Yet we sit here and listen to the praise of that mean and cruel creature. How shall we account for these two judgments of one man, both just? We can only say that he tied the main work of his intellectual life to the great doctrine of human liberty. Verily, to have served liberty will cover a multitude of sins. May you serve freedom and humanity in all your labors, and then have no sins to cover! THE TRAIL OF THE CITY SUPERINTENDENT.1 * By Aaron Gove, Superintendent of Schools, District No. 1, Denver, Colo. To follow' the trail of the city superintendent of schools tramping backward is not difficult, but the traces are faint when one reaches the beginning, sixty years ago. A little path has its origin about 1839 at Providence, R. I., upon which traveled Nathan Bishop. Another path that helped to mark the road more plainly started with Prof. S. S. Greene, at Springfield, Mass., in 1810. Later, in 1847, the main trail is joined by one from Columbus, Ohio, where Dr. A. D. Lord was made the first city superin¬ tendent of schools in that State. The same year Rickoff, at Portsmouth, and Leg¬ gett, at Akron, joined the party. 1Pveprinted from the Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence, N. E. A., at Chicago, February 27-March 1, 1900. 572 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. As the school committee — the name of the body elected to take the direct over¬ sight of common schools in New England — was changed in character, because the people seemed to demand business men as well as ministers for counsel and direc¬ tion, the duties of the committee became quite too heavy for active business men to perform; besides, the fact that amateurs, chronic reformers, and men of leisure lacked efficiency was apparent then as now. Out of this came the demand for expert supervisors. The duties of the office were evidently dimly defined in the minds of the people of the time, but the main thought obtained, viz, that able men, willing to give coun¬ sel and exercise veto power upon proposed measures, would accept such responsi¬ bility and serve on directory boards only when the execution could be placed in an office created for that purpose. Once established, the office of the city superintend¬ ent became helpful, and very soon necessary. The trail of the superintendent, formed by the little paths in New England and Ohio flowing into one, as the brooks join to make the main stream, has become broad and solid, but not straight. Windings, curves, crooked places, right angles, and numerous turnings back upon itself are seen in looking over the road traveled. The embryo germ-thought planted in the heads and hearts of Greene, Philbrick, Wells, Mann, Kickoff, Stephenson, Jones, Hager, and Newell has led these men through devious ways, against tremendous obstacles, and over the trail, by the sacri¬ fice of almost infinite trial with vigorous opposition, in contest and in conflict to the end. One and another languished, fell, died, and are buried by the side of the road. Each traveled his own gait, with rations and blanket only, never knowing, although caring much, where each year’s tramping would end. The deaths of great men in national and political history are commemorated by song, story, and memorial days. Only in secluded family circles, and midst the personal friends, are the works and lives of heroic schoolmasters recorded and remembered. The trail of the city superintendent has been followed persistently during the sixty years by very few pilgrims; of the hundreds that have struck it, most have left it for another prospect. The roil of names is short. Various callings have contributed to the gang on the trail; commercial, mercantile, professional, and industrial vocations each have sent representatives to join the tramping throng. The causes for striking the trail and the reasons for leaving it are well in sight. Inadequate preparation has been potent in forcing desertion. Neither scholarship nor executive ability alone has been found ample for permanent occupation. The requisite power and wisdom of the city superintendent is identical with that of the competent man in industrial, commercial, or diplomatic life, with that common necessary attribute in each and all— adequate special preparation. A college senior is poor material for an executive of schools as well as for industrial or mercantile establishments. Men in middle age, of ability to measure themselves, enter with hesitation and lack of confidence upon an undertaking with which they have not in early manhood been familiar. Superintendents of schools are not born, but made, made exactly as are men in other lines of life, by training, discipline, and experience. Schools of philosophy and pedagogy can not be seen along the earlier trail. Their establishment and conduct is one of the later improvements upon which we congratu¬ late ourselves. The chairs of pedagogy which the colleges have hastened to endow are occupied by such talent as has never before entered the work of training teachers. The value of the product can scarcely be overrated, and yet we are compelled to rec¬ ognize that some material is sent to that factory out of which supervisors can never be made. More than experimentation in a pedagogical college is required. One of our eminent philosophers, Professor James, has written: “A knowledge of such psy¬ chology as this can no more make a good teacher than a knowledge of the laws of THE TRAIL OF THE CITY SUPERINTENDENT. 573 perspective can make a landscape painter of effective skill.” It is an added truth to that other one so hesitatingly learned, that graduation from a normal school is no earnest of a teacher. Among the 625 city superintendents to-day on the trail, from cities of eight thou¬ sand or more people, are men and women of all ages and colors, and of such varied antecedents as to preclude a reference to them as a profession. The practices, expenditures, customs, and environments of the respective cities that they represent compel as varied and various administrations. But the trail has become broad, even if crooked. Its side lines are becoming more and more evident. The Bureau of Education, embarrassed by its limited appropri¬ ation and its humble official position as an adjunct of the Department of the Interior, has been, through its reports, one great factor in unifying the differences in the work of city superintendents. The hindrances imposed upon the Bureau have been over¬ come to almost a superhuman extent by the one and, as I believe, the only man competent for this great work. When the work of Commissioner Harris shall be comprehended in all its fullness, we shall wonder that we lived during his time without a complete realization of the power of this great man. A second factor, great in another way, has been and is the department of super¬ intendence of the National Educational Association. The annual three days’ meet¬ ing, if, according to its traditions, it can be held to business, not picnicking, will accomplish the unifying of the methods and procedure of city superintendents. The trail is to become less and less crooked, the pilgrims are to tramp more regularly, and the forward movement is to be more even. Looking backward, the halts and windings have been many, and while the intense, over-ardent reformers have for a day threatened an upset, this department has contributed largely to prevent serious overthrows. From the writing school in the forenoon and the reading school of the afternoon in old Boston, with its imported Lancastrian system, has come what we have in this the sixtieth year. We have fought, bled, and died with the no-recess plan; the formal teaching of moral science in all grades; grammatical diagramming; the monitorial system; departmental instruction (which has lately been lifted from the grave and its ghost rehabilitated); teaching patriotism perfunctorily; self-government (also recently resurrected); concert recitation, and teaching geography by singing (how the latter raged like a roaring whirlwind, while from hundreds of schoolrooms came the dog¬ gerel song!); counting in penmanship; individual instruction (which has ever been the chief work of the competent teacher) ; counting one for a comma, two for a semi¬ colon, three for a colon, four for a period, etc. In teaching reading, the battle has been on with the Pollard system, the phonetic system, and large editions of books printed for a great city with Leigh’s phonetic type; script before print; the word, sentence, leaflet, and analytic method (the latter taking about six weeks for each page of the reading book) . . In arithmetic we have passed through the Grtibe method; the ratio method by chart (introduced and discarded by Pestalozzi in the last century); the ratio method by scales of weight and yardsticks; a later ratio method by blocks; the lightning method by Webb, and others. In music we have had the tonic sol-fa method, involving a changed system of writing music; and we have lately introduced the “primary trot,” being a mechan¬ ical running by primary pupils about the schoolroom; and also object teaching. May I indulge in a digression here to call attention to that incomparable report to the National Educational Association, read at Harrisburg in 1865? We are fond of our modern committees of five, of ten, of fifteen, because the character of the mem¬ bership makes their reports so valuable. Let me read the names of that committee of seven, whose report, drawn up by S. S. Greene, together with the remarks of 574 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Principal E. A. Sheldon (he who was the apostle of object teaching), puts into the shadow much of the nature-study and field-work instruction of to-day. They were: Barnas Sears, S. S. Greene, Josiah L. Pickard, J. D. Philbrick, David N. Camp, Richard Edwards, Calvin S. Pennell. We have had Mr. Charles F. Adams with his Quincy discovery. Some of us were active in those days. And when that old hero, Daniel Hager, wrote to me that he would go from Salem to Quincy and write me all about it, I waited for the report of his visit. Like all of our correspondence, this was helpful and comforting to an ambitious superintendent. He said: “I found nothing new, but I found new com¬ binations, and a genius for work and enthusiasm in the superintendent that was helpful and inspiring.” He urged me to go and see, even if I was 2,000 miles away. This conclusion, given at that time by Mr. Hager, has been verified in the years that have followed. From these innovations and out of these proposals we have, to some extent, accepted the amendments; in some cases we have taken nearly the whole, finding it good; in others, but a little, ever trying and sifting, holding to that which has been practically demonstrated as of value. A large part, as you and I know, has been discarded as the vagaries of overzealous but misguided and imprudent but persistent innovators. These people aie good to have about us, and may be encouraged to spend their energies like the inventor in material things who seeks for perpetual motion. Another class, however, outside of school circles are to be condemned and cast out — the icon¬ oclasts, who never plan a proposal for aught new, or for a substitute, but who, through the press, platform, and pulpit are everlastingly tearing down and demolishing and condemning. The activity of the present is unprecedented. Experiments are proposed, and that superintendent who hesitates in entering upon them is temporarily lost. One of the most pronounced of these experimental movements is the attempt to construct laws that relieve people and boards of education of not only execution, of school laws, but of framing them. In haste to eliminate evils attending school supervision consequent upon interference from incompetent councils, measures are urged placing much power in the office of the superintendent, with few limitations. In reaching for the desirable, as is the custom of Americans, we are overreaching. It is not likely that any American community will, for a long time, submit to the administration of any public office with limitations such as are repmgnant to their antecedents and training. The personal-liberty idea and the government-by-the- people idea are a part of the unwritten as well as the written constitution of Amer¬ icans. Even though government by the whole people has never been found expe¬ dient and has never been the practice, fortunately for our country the minority of the people have ever governed, and for safety must ever govern. A minority of the 75,000,000 make and enforce the laws for the majority. It is unnecessary to decide whether or not the schools of a city can lie most suc¬ cessfully conducted by one man or by a group of men; the former method is impos¬ sible, and must continue to be so until the sentiments of the people become less democratic. Were an elected board of experts within reach, the outcome would have good promise. But a board of educational experts in America at present, if called together, would sit in discussion seventy-seven years and then adjourn dis¬ agreeing. There is no authority for us. Each man is bound to trek upon his own domain. The reports of the Bureau do not assume to be authoritative, but to give information only. Hall, Parker, Butler, Soldan, Maxwell, Sabin, and the rest, however much they may deserve it, wear no judicial ermine. We listen to the theories of the doc¬ tors, and are compelled to discard very many of them as impracticable or extrav¬ agant. The superintendent who accepts too soon the results of an experiment trifles with the children’s greatest interests and wrongs the people whom he serves. THE TRAIL OF THE CITY SUPERINTENDENT. 575 The appearance and active participation of scores of young men — some of them brilliant, some scholars, some callow, but all honest — add to the educational ranks such vigor and forcefulness as were never before known. The list of names now in the pedagogical field comprises a kind of men of power and thought that never before looked toward the school and the training of children. This promises an outcome for the product of the elementary schools far better than the country has hitherto known. Because professors of pedagogy are made in a year, out of all sorts of material, by some institutions, and turned loose to prey upon us and preach inchoate doctrines, is no cause' for anxiety. If some of them do become earnest over ado¬ lescence and the bacteria found under pupils’ finger nails, and the curves of the lines of fatigue, and danger from common drinking cups, and common property in pencils and books, they are sure either to learn as they follow the trail, or, what sometimes is better, fall out. Such conditions are a part of all advance movements. ******* Without question the greatest problem to-day is how best to administer the public- school interests of a city. The same problem in a field but little different confronts the student of municipal government. The method of the constitution and the selection of a school-governing authority appear as the initial proposition. Shall the people elect, and hove — at large or by wards? Shall the directory, as in municipal governments, be changed all at one time? Shall the board be appointed by the executive of the city, as in Neve York and Chicago, or by the courts, as in Phila¬ delphia, or elected by the people, as in Boston and St. Louis? Shall the board be subservient in financial conduct "to the municipal government, as in Boston, or inde¬ pendent of the city officials, as in St, Louis and many smaller Western cities? The history of the last two years or more leaves no doubt of the interest and even anxiety of the American community as to the direction of public schools. From our great metropolis down through the secondary/ cities is found an agitation, an unrest, as to the conduct of this quasi-public corporation. Chicago, Detroit, and Indianapolis had their “innings” before their respective legislatures last year with different results. New York had set the pace the preceding winter, with a result that is believed to be an advance in efficiency. The legislatures at Lansing and at Spring- field looked with disfavor upon carefully prepared bills for the schools of their chief cities. The press tells us that divided counsel among the promoters was the chief cause of defeat; and yet we can scarcely say that defeat was not for the ultimate good. A prominent and, as before mentioned, objectionable feature of this proposed legislation was the increased and quite unlimited power for the superintendent. This latter was too radical a measure to be readily accepted. The Indianapolis law deserves more than passing notice; first, because it was con¬ ceived and prepared by eminent and experienced schoolmen; second, because, led in a way not to arouse opposition by a united body of schoolmaster and superintendent promoters, the legislature passed and the governor signed the most remarkable school bill yet recorded. So quietly has this been done, and so promptly and quietly has the new regime been initiated, that little public notice outside Indiana seems to have been given to it. At present it promises far better school administration than has yet obtained in the country, and yet, as “the proof of the pudding is in the eating,” we must wait and see. It is certain that Indianapolis has improved on Cleveland, the pioneer in special school laws for cities. After some study and review of the three bills for- Detroit, for Chicago, and for Indianapolis, one is compelled to believe that the bill for Indianapolis is the best, and the outcome, so far, is a verification of that belief. The whole matter is an evidence of great activity throughout the country in the determination of the people to place the control and government of schools as far as possible beyond the reach of the baneful practices of the municipal governments of 576 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. America. Earnest men, enthusiastic to right a wrong, usually go too far and ask too much. One feature usually presented — absolute government by one man — must be a mistake when carried to its ultimate extent. It is unlikely that any one man is competent to direct, control, and be the complete manager of a city school system. However great his ability, accurate his judgment, quick his apprehension, long his experience, and extensive his general scholarship he is still one, and only one; the wisdom of the one needs to be supplemented by the counsel of others. On the other hand, it must be conceded that a material difference lies between the practical administration of the affairs of a public and of a private corporation. In the case of the latter, often immense financial considerations, the manipulation of vast machinery, the necessity of effective and prompt action — sometimes approaching the heroic, as in great labor strikes — demand eminent organizing and executive power; while the accountability of the superintendent, as well as his responsibility, is always to a small, intelligent, and interested directory; one constituted only for the single object of financial gain, totally free from political or social issues. Inter¬ ference by individual stockholders is not tolerated. The efficiency of the adminis¬ tration depends upon the superintendent himself, under such limitations as his board prescribes. Prompt action is always not only possible but obligatory. His forces are all concentrated upon the matter in hand ; episodes, side issues, the press, the public, and the owners are impotent to dissipate his powers or hamper his plans. But the school superintendent who, with competent counsel added to his own expert ability, constructs a course of study, condemns the work of a poor teacher, objects to the engagement of inferior talent, frowns upon the purchase of unnecessary apparatus, or, what is even more threatening, recommends the substitution of a bet¬ ter text-book for a poor one, understands full well that, however unanimous may be the support of his board, many taxpayers, as well as mercantile and commercial inter¬ ests, are sure to take a hand either to forward or prevent the execution of whatever plans he may devise. The inevitable letter to the press, over the anonymous signa¬ ture of “ Taxpayer,” is a reminder that the people propose to allow their representa¬ tives on the school board to act their will only when it coincides with that of the individual opinion— a condition, of course, over which the superintendent of pHvate corporations has never to worry. And so one has a right to assume that, in addition to the power and skill of the superintendent of great industries, the superintendent of schools needs another qual¬ ification — that of mollifying and educating a great and not always prudent or well- informed constituency. The title of the office, “superintendent of schools,” is no misnomer, but it is sub¬ mitted that the term “ assistant superintendent of schools ” does not sufficiently indi¬ cate the duties of that office, and is an unfortunate designation. Our Canadian neighbors have a better name, “ inspector.” An assistant superintendent of schools is not needed in any administration; one superintendent is enough, and all that can perform the proper duties of the place. The office needs assistants who inspect; in fact, that is what assistant superintendents now do, or ought to do. I know there is n t much in a name, but I would establish a superintendent with a corps of inspectors whose reports would be the basis for changes, appointments, and conduct of the entire system — men appointed for expert ability along different lines, who would do their work along that line, whose office would be in dignity second to none, and whose counsel would be the controlling counsel, while the super- intendent would do the directing and executing. The trail of the city superintendent of schools has been narrow and crooked. To-day it is wide, and is to be fairly straight, so that the recruits need have little doubt by day or by night as to where the trail lies. The throng on the trail will stay there, and wild-eyed reformers with their, to them original, discoveries, although resurrected from the lest century, will fail to decoy OBLIGATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF SCHOLARSHIP. 577 the prudent superintendent. Sticking- to what one knows, avoiding experiment, and the chasing of brightly colored will-o’-the-wisps, will make those who stick to the trail carry themselves well to the end, and the monument shall be erected in sight of all who pass thereafter. OBLIGATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF SCHOLARSHIP.1 By President Edwin A. Alderman. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. I believe I am speaking to you, ladies and gentlemen, at the moment of the broadest national feeling in the life of the later Republic, and hence I have hesitated in the choice of my theme, “The obligations and opportunities of scholarship in the Southern States,” lest I seem to modify the operation of so beautiful and universal a force as scholarship by any sort of restricted geographical label. The land where his fathers lived, idealized by wToe and fortitude, and stern adherence to a theory and an idea, is forever dear to the man of the South, and no less to the boy of the South reaching up into manhood; but the great Republic, whose firm foundations his forefathers helped to lay so deep and strong, is very dear to him, too. Its flag, wher¬ ever it may be carried, is the symbol to him of the best that he can hope or dream, and prophecies of his undivided country’s destiny stir his blood and sing in his brain. The very tragedy of the career of the southern portion of our Union justifies my theme and gives to that section a certain distinctiveness, which it can not quickly change, if it would, in its tendencies and in its duties and needs. That tragedy is bound up in the one stupendous error of slavery for which all sections of the Republic are equally to blame. I shall hot retail in any detail this story so often told in assem¬ blies of this nature, but it seems worth while to say this much: By slavery the South was foreordained to spend sixty wonderful years in a period of hurtful stillness and isolation, wherein was developed a rural, patriarchal society with all its virtues and all its defects. It doomed us to a shameful period of chaos and submersion, wherein every atom of our boasted racial strain was put to the test. It hung in the balance the mighty issue whether a section of the English branch of the white race should preserve its standards, its homes, its governmental consciousness, what was good and lovely in its past, or whether, like the less virile races, it should descend to an inferior type. The men of the South, born between 1835 and 1850, as they entered upon maturity and manhood, inherited a fearsome legacy of defeat in war, of polit¬ ical and social and industrial anarchy, of poverty, and of the prejudice of the world. The older men of that group retained, perforce, the habit of mind and the hindering traditions of the patriarchal order. The younger ones lacked education and mental training, save such as could be obtained in the trenches and upon the battlefields, and they lacked, too, the buoyancy of unbeaten youth, and yet there rested upon them the task of maintaining their racial integrity, of establishing new institutions, and of finding such a clewT to changed economic systems as would enable them to create wealth enough to educate their own children and the children of their slaves. These men were not fit, nor were the times fit, for calm, philosophic thought or academic view points. The times were rude and unquiet, and afforded small opportunity for any self-development except development of fitness to survive, to endure, and to perfect. It may be said with truth, therefore, that the last thirty years have been a period of crudity, of sternness, and some violence, in Southern life, and of much misunderstanding of Southern men by their fellow-countrymen. At the sacrifice of their own highest ideals of growth Southern white men have given 1 Reprinted from the Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence, N. E. A., at Chicago, February 27-March 1, 1900. ed 1900 - 37 578 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. themselves up to the doing of two vital things — the assertion of their right, as proud men acquainted with suffering, to control and direct the course of affairs in the life of their localities, and the creation of wealth and material resources. They have done these two things so well that those of us horn since 1861 find ourselves living with some peace of mind in a new world of friendly feeling, of waning intolerance, of increasing wealth in urban life, of industrial power, and educational desire. It may he doubted whether any generation of Americans, save the men who made the Con¬ stitution and the pioneers who built the great West, deserve so well of their posterity as these bearers of war’s burdens. It is a poor American who is not proud of them, and it is a pale, spiritless Southern man who does not render to them the tribute of his gratitude and his love. It is settled, I believe, that this white man, who has shown himself so full of courage and force, shall rule in the South, because he i3 fittest to rule. There is a race problem, but it is largely a problem of how the white race shall use its power, in justice, in kindness, and constructive good will, to the white man and to the black man alike. It i3 tolerably certain, too, that the South shall grow in wealth. The very frenzy of work and accumulation has gotten into its blood. Its citizens have relearned the hang of industrial success which slavery and its consequences robbed their fathers of when the century was young. They have taken to heart the lesson that civilization can express itself in terms of dollars and cents as well as in terms of theories and enthusiasms. When the idea became clear to them that cotton from the looms was worth three times the value of cotton in the fields, they began the establishment of technical schools and the building all along their limits, from the banks of the Roanoke to southern Alabama, 500 cotton mills with 5,000,000 spindles and 1,000,000 looms, and they have just begun. Sleepy little Southern towns that once dozed under the sun and boiled over in hot talk of State’s rights and strict construction of the Constitution are now black and busy and happy, sending to the ends of the earth salable things made of iron and steel and cotton and wood. There is some loss of picturesqueness, perhaps, but cer¬ tain gain of power. It is as if a man had swapped a hobby horse for a steam engine. But some fundamental things have not been settled. It has not been settled what sort of intellectual and moral civilization shall be the final outcome of all this revo¬ lution and new birth. It has not been settled how just our modes of government are to be, whether our highest selves are to be realized in our institutions or our life properly adjusted to the larger life of the world. It has not been fully settled whether we shall start right or wrong in the modern world. That supreme result is for the men and women who have been born since the civil war, and for their chil¬ dren, to achieve. After isolation, war, submersion, awakening, the South is really beginning its probation as a member of the modern world in the twentieth century. Its chief problem is the chief problem of every society passing from simpler social forms into the third and highest stage of society, namely, the realization of its high¬ est self in life and law, not by personal courage or raw individualism, not by patient endurance of disaster, but by intelligent activity, by civic unity, by public spirit, and community effort. Noble and impressive beginnings have been made in the direc¬ tion of this self-realization. A system of public schools for black and white has been established in all the States and is being improved under stupendous difficul¬ ties, not the least of which is a periodic demand by overborne, exasperated men that each race shall support its own schools by its own taxation. But this will never be done. Justice is against it. Self-interest is against it. The black, ugly fact that ignorance is a remedy for nothing and a peril to everything quickly crushes out whatever life there is in the idea, for its triumph would mean the existence of a per¬ manent body of death, and improvement is slow and pitiful enough at the best. The principle of local taxation for other purposes than jails and bridges has been written in the statute books.. An attempt is being made to coordinate justly the secondary, technical, and higher education. A movement for public roads and pub- OBLIGATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF SCHOLARSHIP. 579 lie libraries is going forward. The revision of constitutions, the creation of wise systems of public taxation, and the improvement and uplifting of rural life are engaging the attention of the thoughtful. These movements as yet are chaotic or atomistic, characterized by lack of harmony and symmetry and oneness of purpose, and needing to be correlated and fused and welded into one effective agent of social amelioration. The traditions and powers of the old life will not bring these things to pass. There is needed a new social spirit, a new type of man, with a new equip¬ ment of power to inform and influence and guide this spirit. Here, then, is a newr intellectual and moral world about to Ire born. There sur¬ rounds it the dignity of a sad and historic past, and there stretches before it an unim- agined future, thrilling with impulses of growth. Though hard pressed by new ideas aloose in the world flowing out of its urban growth, this land is still a land of con¬ servatism in religion, in culture, and in politics. If one wants to And out what the old stock thought and what they liked, one must still journey southward. Even Senator Hoar found it necessary to flee from Boston to Charleston of all places to get some comfort in his desire to quench our new, fierce thirst for islands. Yet con¬ servatism can not hush its cry for men to guide it wisely, out of sensitive social self- consciousness, into the broad current of the world’s thought, to build its institutions, to remodel its constitutions, to shape its policies, to settle nobly grave questions of suffrage and of race. I do not believe there has been so inspiring a call to youth and strength since Stein and Fichte lifted Germany from under the hoof-prints of Napo¬ leon’s army and led her happy and prosperous into the family of nations. The nation has cause to be thankful for one thing. The raw material of citizenship for this upbuilding exists in the South, whether it shall be sought for in the old family stocks, sobered and broadened by poverty and fortitude, or whether it shall issue from the ranks of the plain people, who fought our battles for us, who inherit the English temperament, who may not be able to read, but who are able to remember that their fathers earned liberty as a reward of sacrifice behind the cotton bales at New Orleans, on the fiery crest of Kings Mountain, or in the swift and fateful marches along the valleys of the Han. It has been my trade in life, and it still is, to -work with the Southern boy. I have some right, therefore, to judge him and to weigh him. He would perhaps have slight patience with any effort of mine to set him up as a wholly different type from the vigorous American boy elsewhere, and to hedge him around with any barrier of sectionalism; and I do not wish to do that. He is an American boy. Yet great his¬ toric social forces have been at play upon the Southern boy, as they were at play upon his fathers, and we are to examine the result. He is frank, sunny, and cour¬ ageous still, though hardships and struggles have added to him a certain toughness of temper and fineness of spirit. Life has generally widened out to him through sac¬ rifice. He has had from his youth the tutelage of self-denial and renunciation. He may be at college, tasting the sweet waters and breathing the clearer air, but he knows that far away in the humble home the father and mother are taking counsel in the still hours of the night how they may scrimp here and save there and work a little harder and rest- a little less, and so pay out gladly their life and their strength for his sake; and life looks grander to him by reason of it, and duty seems easier to him and opportunity sweeter and kindlier. The ethical and the ideal appeal very strongly to the boy of the South. Not because he is any better than his neighbors, but because economic conditions have developed that side of him. He has left off certain vices of his grandfathers, and lie is clearly their superior in intellectual curiosity and thoughtfulness about the com¬ mon good and the needs of the average citizen. Enthusiasms are very likely to possess him, and ideas and principles attract him more potently than machinery or organi¬ zation. There is a tribal primitive individualism in his blood which is to him both a blessing and a curse. It has been a blessing at times, causing him to take things 580 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. in his own hands to preserve his own liberty and the dignity of his person at any cost. Sometimes it has been a curse, shading off into lawlessness, tending to paralyze concerted effort and to leave communities disunited and torn by religious and party differences, and thus unable to achieve high public ends. At the bottom the South¬ ern young man is a political animal, in Aristotle’s good sense of the word — impulsive, upright, and patriotic. No weary cynicism or passion for wealth and sports as yet bounds his horizon. Iiis highest idea of great service and great achievement is serv¬ ice to the state, and molding society in social and political forms. This fine impulse for public service goes to seed sometimes, and we have the fran¬ tic, callow voice shouting panaceas and nostrums, and here and there the malign fig¬ ure of the demagogue creeping about, causing simple men to lend an ear to political and economic sophisms. But the average Southern boy, like the average American boy, has brains, and honesty, and faith, and enthusiasm. His trouble is a sort of dazed timidity. He seems to lack what his fathers had excess of— singleness of pur¬ pose and grim earnestness. I believe this will come, for it is in his blood, when his ideals harden into certainty, when he feels more at home in American life, when he learns the trick of concerted action, and when the society immediately about him becomes more critical of itself and tolerant of all shades of thought and opinion. In the past the South has been charged with setting too much store by wise leaders and neglecting to provide for wise followers. A militant order, with its base resting on slaves and its summit bright with masterful, lovable men, like the Athenian city- state, had very little trouble about its leadership. Men heard the organ voice of Calhoun and heeded it as the men of the tribe heed the strong man, as the Floren¬ tines followed the Medici, or as the Irish rallied about O’Connell or Parnell. Jeffer¬ son Davis, Judah P. Benjamin, Alexander Stephens, Robert Toombs, Henry A. Wise, and W. A. Graham spoke, and their States or parties recognized their primacy and massed behind them like men at arms on a field of battle. But the old type of leader has gone by forever, like a lost type in nature, and the leader-ridden South of the past is leaderless now. I hear no commanding voice in the political life of the Southern States. In the field in which for seventy-five years she was preeminent the South is now defective. Her public men are rarely scholars. There are no Madisons and Clays and Calhouns and Lamars. There are some nota¬ ble names in business, and Lanier and Page and Harris and James Lane Allen and Woodrow Wilson are worthy names in any literature. There are clever men every¬ where, but no commanding men. There are reasons for this, and perhaps it is not to be deplored. The coming leader has a harder task than the leader of the olden time, and there must needs be time for him to grow. He can no longer incarnate the dumb, dull aspirations of the people and be a glorified figure to them as Clay and Jackson were. The age of personal loyalty has been succeeded by an age of personal distrust. The mass has been broken up into common, hard-headed, acute, power-loving men armed with the weapons of democracy. These men are going to rule whether they are fit for it or not, and the problem is to make them fit — or better, perhaps, their children fit, for the grown-up folks are past saving — by putting them into a school of ideals, where they shall get uplift of thought, and where the taste¬ lessness and mediocrity and unthinking activity that beset democracies shall be rooted out. The most pervasive school of ideals to which most of the young men in my land have been going for generations is the school of politics, and it has been a dull and sordid school, having for its curriculum a weary trivium of negro, tariff, and cur¬ rency, and not the highest phase of any one of them. It is just here that the presence of the negro has worked the saddest harm to us. There is a deep feeling that intel¬ ligence, character, and wealth must be the real majority, whatever the sum of votes may add up. Political self-preservation, as they see it, has forced ardent, high- spirited young men, able and eager to understand great questions, to stand at the ballot box and beat back a black tide of ignorance, and thus behold without a blush OBLIGATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF SCHOLARSHIP. 581 the sacred conception of suffrage violated, public service cheapened, and, too often, the mere manipulator rewarded. Any force that can change this is a good force. I believe that this school has suspended and another and better one has been founded in which there is a new motive concerning itself about things near at home, and yet conscious of the unity and majesty of American life, a fresher and more inspiring motive which will make for the end of this reign of dullness and danger to character. It is a common, pat thing to say to Southern young men: “Quit talking about the South; keep out of politics, and go to work.” Two-thirds of this advice is very healthy, but the other third is fretful and superficial. To keep out of politics in a republic is to keep out of life, and to keep out of politics in the South is to miss opportunities that come only in splendid creative epochs of national history. For educated men such a course is to demonstrate afresh that mincing, dainty cowardice of scholarship, in the presence of great, rude, human forces, which makes Erasmus seem small to us beside Luther and sets the towering genius of Goethe below the radiant young poet Korner, singing his defiant songs to the bright face of freedom. Politics exists in my thoughts as a form of applied patriotism, seeking, by pleading with the public conscience and by education of the public mind, to bring about good government, to establish schools, to build roads, to spread culture abroad and to make it dynamic, and to win liberty such as free men are fit to have. And let us define patriotism, for in my thought it needs some redefinition, having become a somewhat slippery and elusive term, high and holy thing though it be. There is the unthink¬ ing, alcoholic patriotism that shouts: “My country, may she always be right! But right or wrong, my country!” There is the ancestral patriotism that worships the genius loci and the fathers. Its devotees can not forget their grandfathers. They have the disease of atavism, and enwrapped in the graveclothes of their forebears they sit deathly still in the busy world and fancy that virtue issues from their gar¬ ments to the afflicted passers-by. There is the thrifty patriotism that shouts for party and party leaders and votes the ticket. There is the noble rage that inspired Southern boys to climb the slopes of Gettysburg, and that inspired Northern boys to turn their breasts into a stone wall to meet the onset, and that inspired the sons of both, with reunited love and common purpose, to charge together through the hot grass and under the brazen sun about Santiago. And finally there is the patriotism of common sense, which is the very religion of citizenship. This patriotism is a compound of scholarship, of social sympathy, of right reason, trying to teach democ¬ racy, “that glorious optimism,” how to use its rude devices so that it may justify its right to exist as the ultimate form of government. There are many very unlovely manifestations of this patriotism in the shape of heated, willful men in primaries and at the ballot box, but the thing itself is an academy, a battle ground of ideas which should strive to emancipate tens of thousands of white men in the South and in the North and West from petty local views, from selfishness, from the tyranny of hard creeds, from the philosophy of carelessness and wasteful laissez-faire, from false indi¬ vidualism, and teach them largeness of view and the necessity of community effort for community good. Much has been said from a thousand platforms in this country about the scholar in politics, and he hag for some decades been the stock figure for academic eloquence. And perhaps not enough has been said about the power of culture and the passion for knowing, to regenerate the individual man by lighting up his mind and disciplining his willfulness, by giving him the fine true sense for beauty and manners and order and reason, and by endowing him, to use Mr. Lowell’s noble phrase, “with that good taste which is the conscience of the mind and that conscience which is the good taste of the soul.” But the impulse to cry out for scholars and seers to enter into the hurly-burly of life is a just one. The individual is so micro¬ scopic and self-government so begirt with the perils of unintelligent strength and vulgar force that there must needs be great movements flowing about guided by the scholar’s purpose to be of service to great masses. The theme may be trite enough, 582 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. but instinct and reason call for the reality. And the reality is the man who sees things as they are, and hates violence; who has no fear of oppression, because he is strong; who can not be deceived, because he has been trained and knows truth from mania and the fates of nations and the experiences of cities and men; who can not be terrorized, because he is not afraid; who can not be starved, because his hands have skill and his brains have cunning. This real sort of scholar is needed to aid in the transformation of unthinking, careless white men, without tastes or wants or desires, into men with ideals; men who can see the relation of law to society, and what it means to defy law, even to protect innocence; men who can see the beauty and interest of life; men who have some civic sympathy, love their towns, villages, front yards, highways, parks, schools, and libraries, and, thus proceeding upward, grow' into a grander conception of th<5 perils and privileges of the heritage left them by the Lord God, now' grown so swiftly into an empire, vaster than the empire of Trajan or Justinian. Men of philanthropic impulses are easily moved to helpfulness by the spectacle of the black race striving to fit itself for republican citizenship unwisely thrust upon it. They are not so easily moved by the spectacle of the white race striving to fit itself for the noble discharge of an unparalleled sociological duty. And yet that is the pivot of the whole question. The education of one untaught white man to the point where it is clear to him that knowledge and not prejudice must guide his conduct, and that for the honor of his name and. country and his pos¬ terity lie must deal with these people in justice and kindness and Christian fore¬ thought, is worth more to the black man himself than the education of ten of his own race. I Irelieve that any Southern university is doing more to lift up the colored race, through the broad-minded men it is training and sending into life, than nine- tenths of the schools for higher education of the negro, and if these universities had the means to set in operation academic forces to study and investigate and digest the great problem, instead of thrashing out old straw, their pow'er would be increased tenfold. It is wise and just to help the black man, but it w'ould be equally wise and just to recognize that the white man ife the dominant force, and that he will act in the light of his knowledge and training. The white man has shown himself to pos¬ sess courage and fidelity and self-respect and pride. He needs help in the right way, though he is too proud generally to say so. Save among the most ignorant there is no truculence, no passion, but a high desire to do right. Impotency, the frightful difficulties of the situation, and the sheeplike solidarity of the negro him¬ self sometimes beget exasperation. It is substantial, brotherly help that w'e need, my brethren; not the altruism of the remote, nor the scorn of the doctrinaire, nor the cock-sure criticism of the unaffected. I believe that it should be a high and precious privilege for ail Americans to help their Southern countryman work out his problem of orderly, law-abiding social life, and to help him as brothers in loyal affection. In speaking thus strongly I do not forget that a black man, Booker Washington, has seized the essentials of the negro question more perfectly perhaps than any Southern man of either race, and has pressed his views before the country with a mingling of diplomacy, sympathy, and patriotic scholarship altogether admirable. What I mean is that even Booker Washington, w'itk his undoubted gifts and with the wealth that is coming to him, will become simply a racial phenomenon, without lasting effect upon the great question, if he has not the intelligent sympathy and cooperation of the white men about him. It is a singular and startling thing that no Southern college attempts the study of social phenomena in any adequate or organized way. Departments of social science, in the modern sense of the w'ord, do not exist among them. They have widened out from the traditional circle of the liberal arts into the study of agriculture, mechanics, textiles, but they have not approached the confused, unrelated human forces about them in a scientific fashion. Their students approach these subjects in OBLIGATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF SCHOLARSHIP. 583 the spirit of the empiric, the dilettante, or the politician. They do not bring to the consideration of such questions the trained habit of mind, the trained orderliness of thought that is needed for their mastery. This is largely due to poverty of equipment. I have sometimes thought that the National Government, which once thought it wise to help its citizens to a better understanding of their industrial life through the land-grant colleges, might find it equally wise to help them in the same way to an understanding of social problems, whose righteous adjustment means so much to the peace, honor, and prosperity of our whole people. What is to be the general type of man, may I ask, who is to come out of Southern life able to lead her new forces resolutely and to find the key to the broader life? First of all, he should be an educated man. We have done with the sneer at book learning and the apotheosis of the self-made man. The old leaders were learned men and masterful men, persuasive in speech and swift in action. Their distin¬ guishing traits were strength of will and serenity and confidence of mind and spirit and perfect equipment for their peculiar work. Their times demanded fire and strength. They supplied the demand and to spare. The special demand for this era is knowledge and sound basis of action. We as yet have it not. We need to know about things before we settle them, instead of settling them first and learning about them afterwards. There must come into the thought of the humblest man among us that instinctive Scottish feeling of loyalty and reverence for knowledge as the power alone fit to deal with questions of public welfare that marks off so sharply the man whose mind is set upon the building up of his institu¬ tions in righteousness and wisdom, whose strength is upon the power of conduct, from the man who is desirous of working his own will and obtaining the reward of his own smartness. Evidences that this attitude is coming about come often to my knowledge. Mature men come up to college, spending all their little store to sit with boys to get some little learning. Three-fourths of a whole body of five hun¬ dred students are in college as a result of money earned or borrowed. One-fourth are earning their way through college by every form of daily labor, from cutting wood to cutting hair; sensitiveness, sentiment, pride, gentle breeding, everything swallowed up in the overmastering desire for the blessed light! The universities and colleges in the South which hear this cry of need and must minister to it are not strong in equipment or endowment. It is a struggle for them to exist. The sum of all their endowments does not equal the endowment of any one of a half dozen North¬ ern and Eastern institutions, and too often as a stunting inheritance from the grinding days of want the people have gotten used to their poverty in matters relating to higher education. What strength they have is internal — the strength of disinterest¬ edness, of moral energy, of faith in the belief that they are the symbols of the benign force that shall workout the good life of their land. "What strength they need to accomplish this end is the strength of endowment, of apparatus, of ample and even magnificent surroundings, that they may arise so sharply and clearly out of low levels that they may set new standards and establish new conceptions of college life. I once stood upon the deck of a great ship whose prow was slipping gently through the waters of the Bosphorus to the Black Sea. As we passed the spot where Robert College stands upon its rocky hill the boys waved flags and sheets and handkerchiefs in salute to the starry flag floating at the masthead. The brave pioneer college moved the imagination strongly, standing there stout and strong upon its hill, while all around it soared the minarets and towers of a stubborn and unyielding faith, and all about it heaved the tides of the yellow people of the unchanging East. The place seemed to my fancy at once a fortress and a dynamo, holding tight and fast to the things that are good, but sending out to the dim, toiling thousands in the shadows at its base the vital currents of light and life. The curving shores of Constantinople faded from my view, and I saw my home land, teeming, too, with tumultuous, untrained youth, but of a different breed and duty, and every college a Robert Col- 584 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. lege, charged with power and desire to fit them to guide their people into the larger circle of American life, and American hope, and American destiny. The mere industrial man, masterful and creative as he is, can not do this supreme service for us. He dazzles us now because he represents the great thought that civi¬ lization can not reach its true development in poverty, but he is too much in the grasp of the theory that it is a higher and holier duty for the prosperous man to grow ever more prosperous than it is for him to pester himself about broader and purer social conditions. The mere orator will not do with his silver tongue. There was a time when every little village had its silver-tongued orator, who wielded his scepter from the hustings or the court-house, but his voice will not carry far into the metallic clink and roar of the times. The breezy, aggressive, accumulative imi¬ tator will not stand the test. There may be something parochial, but there is also something fine and impressive in the almost Hebraic feeling of the people of the Southern States that their section has something high and precious and distinctive in manhood and leadership to contribute to American civilization. It can not be mere boasting, so runs their dream, that it is the logical right of their land to bring forth out of her travail and agony something fair and good of her own likeness and pattern — the old refined gold, which disaster and defeat could not tarnish, beaten by fiercer, freer, civic forces into finer and subtler form. The spirit of his fathers, brave and steadfast men, who held firm and did not compromise, ought to be in him, and shall be in him. Sordidness and commercialism will not wholly submerge him and wear away his fineness. He will love honor more than life, and loyalty more than gold. A worldly, modern, clear-eyed man breathing the breath of freedom, he will reach men’s hearts and he will control men’s wills, not by machinery, but by the strength of integrity and sincerity and through faith in his words. And so, when the age of moral warfare shall succeed to the age of passionate gain getting; when blind social forces have wrought some tangle of inequality and injustice, of hatred and suspicion; when calculation and combination can only weave the web more fiercely; when the whole people in some hour of national peril shall seek for the man of heart and faith, who will not falter nor fail, in the sweet justice of God, they shall turn hither for succor as they once turned to a simple Virginia planter to free them from a stupid king and a stubborn Parliament across the seas. ALCOHOL PHYSIOLOGY AND SUPERINTENDENCE.1 By Prof. W. O. Atwater, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. In discussing the topic assigned me on your programme, I understand it to be your wish that I consider especially what should be taught in our schools about alcohol in its physiological relations. Allow me a word at the outset regarding the more general scope of instruction in physiology. In planning a course of study in this, as in any other subject, careful consideration must be given to the several parts, in order that the whole may be well considered and well balanced. One thing I wish to urge is that we should tell our pupils more about the economy of food and nutrition, and since physiology already takes all the space there is for it in the curriculum, I would suggest that some things now found in a good many of the text-books be omitted to make room for what might be taught about the demands of our bodies for nourishment and how to supply them to the best advan¬ tage of health and purse. This would make a more substantial foundation for the 1 Reprinted from the Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence, N. E. A., at Chicago, February 27-March 1, 1900. The next following chapter of this Report (Chapter IX) contains a paper treating the question of temperance instruction from a European standpoint. ALCOHOL PHYSIOLOGY AND SUPERINTENDENCE. 585 special instruction about alcohol in itself. To make room for this in the already crowded curriculum, I would suggest that some minor and more technical parts now taught might be omitted. In illustration of what might be taught about the laws of nutrition, let me call your attention to the leaflets which you will find on the seats you are occupying. These have been furnished by the United States Department of Agriculture, through the kindness of Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, and Dr. A. C. True, director of the office of experiment stations. They will give you a hint of the pur¬ pose, plans, and some of the actual results of a series of investigations which are being carried on in different parts of the United States under the authority of Con¬ gress for the purpose of learning more about the economy of food. Let me also call your attention to these specimens, which are duplicates of those in the food collec¬ tion of the United States National Museum. They illustrate the chemical compo¬ sition of the human body and of the foods which nourish it. From the leaflets you may infer that already a large amount of information has been obtained regarding the chemical composition, digestibility, and nutritive values of our food materials, the ways in which they nourish the body, the dietary habits of people of different classes and regions, the more common errors in our food economy, and the ways in which we may select, prepare, and use our foods so as to make our diet less costly, more palatable, and more healthful. The museum specimens suggest one of the ways in which some of these facts may be explained and thus made most useful. The leaflets 'and specimens indicate some of the many ways in which our Govern¬ ment, in response to a public demand, a demand which comes especially from teachers, economists, and philanthropists, is gathering and disseminating knowledge of those things which require the most exact research for their discovery, and which, clearly discerned and rightly taught, take hold on life, form the most useful part of education, and can become sources of the truest inspiration. When vre consider that “half the struggle for life is a struggle for food;” that “half or more than half the earnings of the wage-earner is spent for the nourish¬ ment of himself and family;” that not only a man’s power to work, but also his health, are largely affected by his food; that some of our most skilled hygienists are telling us that a large part of the disease which embitters life and hastens death is due to avoidable errors in diet; that more harm comes to the health of the commu¬ nity from erroneous habits of eating than from the habitual use of alcoholic drink; that economists, philanthropists, and divines are urging more and more earnestly the need of attention to such subjects, are we not justified in asking if a little more room can not be found for it in the school curriculum? THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF ALCOHOL. I now come to the main division of my subject — the physiological action of alcohol, and what is and should be taught regarding it. The laws of nearly all our States, I believe, require that the curricula of our public schools shall include phj'siology, with special reference to the action of alcoholic beverages. Such legislation would be impossible without a public sentiment back of it. Whether or not this legislation has assumed the most rational form, or whether the people at large understand exactly its purpose and to what degree the hopes of its promoters are being fulfilled, it is not my desire to discuss. The facts I desire to urge are two: First, it is the lav/, and, as such, our duty as teachers is to obey it as long as it stays on the statute books; second, there is a wide difference between the teaching of this subject in many schools and in many text-books on the one hand, and the teaching in the colleges, universities, and medical schools, and by the lead¬ ing physiologists of the world, on the other. It is this most unfortunate disparity which I ask especially to consider. If the one body of doctrine is correct, and the other to a greater or less extent incorrect, as I personally believe it is, you, as teachers. 586 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. as schools superintendents, as the leaders in our education, are interested to know it. Here, as I understand it, is the reason for the title which your secretary has given to my subject, “Alcohol Physiology and Superintendence.” If the alcohol physiology now being taught in our public schools as a branch of science is scientifically correct, then it can not be pedagogically or ethically wrong, and there is little reason for my discussing the subject to-day. But if it does not tally with the most reliable conclusions from scientific observation and experiment; if what is taught as truth is half-truth or partial untruth; if doubtful theories are set forth as settled facts; if a rule of conduct is based upon an unsound theory; if the attempt is made to improve the morals of the men of the future by a wrong teaching of the boys of to-day — that educational policy is pedagogically and ethically wrong and ought to be altered. OPINIONS OF LEADING AUTHORITIES. The physiological action of alcohol is very complex, and the views of physiologists generally regarding the different details are naturally divergent. Let us take, for instance, the much discussed question as to whether alcohol is food or poison. First of all we must have a clear understanding of what we are talking about. A given substance taken into the body may act in a variety of ways. Meat — beefsteak, for instance — which is universally called a food, supplies the body with material to build up its tissues, repair its waste, and furnish it with energy in the form of heat to keep it warm, and muscular power for work. It also has an action upon the nerv¬ ous system which is not yet fully explained, but may perhaps be called stimulative. Taken in excess it may be injurious; its action is then pathological. Being thus injurious, it might under these circumstances be called poisonous. Arsenic is some¬ times taken as a medicine, and as such is believed to be useful, though we do not know exactly how or why it is so. But arsenic has no value whatever as nutriment, and therefore can not be called in any sense a food. In more than minute doses it is deleterious or fatal. It is a true poison. There are certain vegetable products which, fed to animals, supply nourishment, but at the same time are injurious, so that they can not be used for food. Chemists have analyzed some such substances, and found ingredients which are nutritious and others which are injurious. That is to say, some substances are clearly foods, some are clearly poisons, some act in both ways. How, then, shall we class alcohol? What I shall attempt to show you is that the results of the most valuable scientific research and the opinions of the leading physiologists of the world unite in saying that it may be either food or poison, or both, according to circumstances. Alcohol is not like the meat or the seed, a complex material made up of different ingredients. It is a simple chemical substance. Nevertheless it has very different actions. A chemist can analyze the seed and separate the parts which are nutritious from those which are poisonous. But he can not do this with alcohol. When the physiologist experiments upon its action he has to take it as a whole. This compli¬ cates the experimenting and makes the interpretation of the results difficult. When we come to consider the dietetic use of alcohol, however, we must take into account, not only its direct value for nutriment, but also its indirect action — as, for instance, its effect upon digestion. So likewise, when we consider its pathological effect, we must take into account its indirect action upon the nervous system. Indeed, if we are going to study the subject at all thoroughly, we must recognize many sub¬ divisions. Since we can not go into the details here, let me briefly summarize what appear to be the views of leading physiologists of the world. What do the authorities say in answer to the question: Is alcohol food? Of course, the answer depends first of all upon the definition of “food.” But people may prop¬ erly differ as to the definition, and it is not worth while to quibble about what may ALCOHOL PHYSIOLOGY AND SUPERINTENDENCE. 587 be left to the dictionaries. Let us then go back of this and ask: What do the special¬ ists say as to its nutritive effect? If we study the views held by the physiologists and pharmacologists in this country and in Europe who are regarded by their fellow-specialists as best qualified to speak with authority, we may perhaps divide them in three groups. At one extreme would be a small group who take grounds, more or less strongly, against any dietetic use or value of alcohol; but even this group would generally admit, I think, the absence of proof that alcohol does not supply the body with nutriment. There is a second group who are inclined to favor the moderate dietetic use of alcohol, tending to class it with nonproteid food materials, like sugar, starch, and fat, but still main¬ taining that its classification as a food is not clearly established. And where they are inclined to question its value for directly supplying the body with nourishment, they maintain that it may be valuable as an aid to digestion and otherwise, and find in this another reason for using it as part of the diet. A third group, whether they advocate or oppose its use, regard the evidence as sufficient to pronounce alcohol, in moderate quantities, a food in the sense that it may serve for nutriment, and many urge that there are circumstances in which its nutritive value is very important. Whether alcohol is or is not a poison is likewise a question of definition. Here again wise men may disagree; but back of this lies the important question: Is it injurious? That alcohol may be injurious, that in large enough doses it is unquestionably a poison, and that in smaller quantities, taken habitually, it may be extremely harm¬ ful, there is no shadow of doubt. On this point there is no disagreement of authori¬ ties. But whether, or under what circumstances, it is injurious when taken in moderate quantities is a very different matter; and here opinions disagree. The opinion of Professor Pick, that alcohol in small amounts should be called poison, has been often quoted, and is, I believe, made the principal basis of the state¬ ment in many of our school text-books that alcohol is called a poison by the highest scientific authorities. But, Professor Fick defines “poison” in a way which, be it right or wrong, gives to the word a meaning quite different from that in which it is popularly used. He is one of the group of physiologists who practically deny any food value to alcohol. So far as I am aware, however, their number is small. I have looked into many of the standard treatises upon the subject, and have con¬ versed with many eminent physiologists, pharmacologists, and chemists about it. In so doing I have constantly seen and heard alcohol referred to in small quantities as food and in very large quantities as poison. But I have rarely seen or heard alco¬ hol in small quantities called a poison, in the ordinary sense of the word, by any specialist who is generally regarded as an authority. Indeed, as I write this, I do not recall a single instance, but I should not feel warranted in saying that there are no such instances, because there are things which one might forget, and, further¬ more, there may be many which I have not happened to see. I have no doubt but that, if I had been looking especially for evidence on this side of the question, I might have found a good deal more than what I have just said implies. If, then, we leave out of account the question of scientific definition of the terms “ food ” and “ poison,” and take the words in the meanings in which they are com¬ monly used, I think vre may properly say that alcohol is both food and poison. Only, if wre speak of it as food, we must be careful to bear in mind that it is not and can not be a food in the same sense in which bread and meat are foods. Food per¬ forms two great functions. One is to build body tissue and keep it in repair; the other is to yield energy in the form of heat to keep the body warm and muscular or other energy for its work. To bring this out more clearly, let me remind you that our foods contain different classes of nutritive materials or nutrients. One of these classes includes the nitrog¬ enous substances, protein compounds or proteids, as chemists call them. The 588 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. myosin which is the basis of lean meat, the albumen or white of egg, the casein which makes the curd of milk, the gluten of wheat, are familiar examples of proteid compounds. They are transformed into blood, muscle, bone, and brain. They are the true tissue formers of the body, the materials which serve for building the bodily machine and keeping it in repair. They also serve the body for fuel, but their use in this respect is limited. The fats, like fat of meat, the butter fat of milk, and the oil of cotton or of olive, make a second, and the carbohydrates, which include the starches and the sugars, a third class of nutrients of food. The fats and carbo¬ hydrates lack the chemical element nitrogen which is characteristic of the protein compounds, but they contain large proportions of carbon and are sometimes called the carbonaceous nutrients. By their oxidation, i. e., burning, in the body they yield its principal supply of energy. Bread, meat, milk, and the like contain both the nitrogenous and the carbonaceous materials. Meat lacks the carbohydrates; to make a well-rounded diet we use bread, potatoes, and other vegetable materials with the meat. Bread and milk may be called complete foods, as they contain all three of these classes, and with them the other ingredients necessary for nutrition. Such complete foods not only build the bodily machine and keep it in repair, but also supply it with fuel. While proteids serve for building tissue and have a limited value for fuel, we could not well live on proteids alone. They are not complete foods. Fats, starches, and sugars are not complete foods. They can not build tissue,; nevertheless, they make the larger part of our food, for the reason that our bodies need more material for fuel than they do for building and repair. Alcohol can not build tissue; it has no nitrogen. It can not be stored in the body for future use, as is the case with fats, nor can it be transformed into fat and thus stored in the body, as is the case with the sugars and starches. But it is oxidized in the body and does yield energy. In this respect it is analogous to the fats, sugars, and starches. Just how it compares in fuel value with the fats, sugars, and starches, or just how these latter compare with one another in fuel value, are questions as yet unanswered. Alcohol is, then, at best a partial food. To call it food, in the popular sense of the word, and without qualification, may produce a wrong impression. Further¬ more, its action upon the nerves and otherwise in the body is such that only very small quantities can be taken without serious derangement. When taken habitually in excess it is not only injurious to health but ruinous to character. And wdiile its nutritive action may be very important in some cases, especially with aged people or in certain forms of disease, people generally do not take it for the sake of its nutritive value at all. Taking the word “poison” in the sense in which it is commonly understood, namely, as applying to substances which are deadly in their effect, alcohol in small quantities can not in my judgment properly be called a poison, it may be injurious in one case and not in another. Just where to draw the line between the quantity which may serve only as food and that which acts as poison is impossible. The amount that can be taken without injurious effect differs with different people. And even though there are conditions in which it is not injurious and is even useful, yet there is the danger that it may lead to excess, a danger, which, as teachers of youth, we must not, we dare not, forget. This fact, coupled with the demoralization that comes with its habitual and excessive use, constitutes, in my judgment, the chief argument against its use. But 1 have started to give you the opinions of leading physiologists, and have indiscreetly gone out of the way to give you my own, and that, too, when I am only a physiological chemist. Let us go back to the authorities. At the meeting of the International Physiological Congress, held in Cambridge, England, in September, 1898, an effort was made to obtain an expression of opinion ALCOHOL PHYSIOLOGY AND SUPERINTENDENCE. 589 which might he taken as a consensus of leading physiologists regarding this especial subject. The occasion had brought together some of the best-known authorities from the different countries of Europe, America, and even Africa and Asia. The congress did not include a great many men, but it did include a number of great men. The following statement was drawn up by Prof. Michael Foster, of the Uni¬ versity of Cambridge, who was the president of the congress, and was printed and offered for signature: The physiological effects of alcohol, taken in a diluted form, in small doses, as indicated by the popular phrase “moderate use of alcohol,” in spite of the continued study of past years, have not as yet been clearly and completely made out. Very much remains to be done, but, thus far, the results of careful experiments show that alcohol, so taken, is oxidized within the body, and so supplies energy like common articles of food, and that it is physiologically incorrect to designate it as a poison, that is, a substance which can only do harm and never good to the body. Briefly, none of the exact results hitherto gained can be appealed to as contradicting, from a purely physiological point of view, the conclusions which some persons have drawn from their daily common experience that alcohol so used may be beneficial to their health. I was present at the meeting and conversed with a number of the gentlemen pres¬ ent regarding the statement. Only a very few, so far as I heard, had any hesitation with regard to it. I learned of two or three who were unwilling to sign it without slight change in the phraseology. I was told of one who said he believed it, but did not like to sign it, because it might be employed by liquor sellers as an encour¬ agement to their trade. There may have been a considerable number who disagreed with the statement in one way or another, but if the number had been at all large, I think I should have known it-. Certain it is that a very considerable number of the most celebrated men present expressed their decided approval in personal con¬ versation. I have here a list of 62 men who expressed their approval by their sig¬ natures. Nearly all are well-known investigators. Among them are professors, teachers, and heads of laboratories of a large number of the most noted universities and medical schools of the world. The list includes many of the most celebrated physiologists of our time. The following, also by Professor Foster, is interesting, not only as a concise sum¬ mary of what is definitely known about the physiological action of alcohol, but also as showing how much space should, in the judgment of one of the most reputable of modern physiologists, be devoted to the subject in an elementary text-book. It fills two of the 247 pages of the Elementary Physiology of Foster and Shore. Alcoholic beverages. — Ordinary alcohol is an organic compound of the composition (AH60. It occurs in the following proportions in the following beverages: Per cent. Beer (about) . 5 Light wines (claref, hock) (about) . 10-15 Strong wines (sherry, port) (about) . 20 Spirits (about) . 30-70 When alcohol is taken into the body most of it is oxidized and gives rise to energy. The amount of energy thus supplied, compared with that of the other parts of the food, is insignificant, and the effect of alcohol depends, not on the energy which it supplies, but on the influence it exerts on the changes going on in the several tissues. The value of the various articles of diet does not depend by any means solely on their ability to supply energy; we have seen, for instance, that salts, which supply no energy, are nevertheless of use in directing the changes going on in the body. In a somewhat similar way alcohol and other substances may influence and direct these changes. Whether that influence is beneficial or no will depend upon many circumstances, and certainly upon the quantity taken. We have many illustrations that a substance taken into the body in a certain quantity will produce one effect, and in another quantity it may be quite an opposite effect. There is no doubt that a certain quantity of alcohol is injurious and interferes with all the functions, and ultimately brings about various diseases, but it does not follow from this that in a smaller quantity it.may jnot.be harmless , or -even beneficial. 590 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Alcohol produces its most marked effects on the vascular and nervous systems. It leads to a dilatation of the small blood vessels of the skin, and so to a larger flow of blood to the surface of the body; this, while it produces a sensation of warmth, leads to an increased loss of heat by radiation and perspiration. If the amount of alcohol taken is excessive, the loss of heat will lead to a definite fall of temperature. Alcohol is then of no service as a preventive against cold. Alcohol makes the heart beat more quickly and makes it do more work in a given time. In some cases this may be beneficial, but generally it is a wasteful and useless expenditure of energy. Alcohol diminishes the power of doing prolonged muscular work, and large quantities lead to a great diminution in the force of muscular contractions. The effect of alcohol on digestion is very complex. When taken with food it leads to a diminution in the rate and completeness of digestion, if it is present in any but very small quantities. If some proteid (white of egg or fibrin) is put in a flask with some gastric juice, it is found that, if a very little alcohol (1 part to 500 of the mix¬ ture) be added, the digestion will go on a trifle more rapidly, but if the alcohol added much exceeds this amount, a well-marked retardation is produced. It does not fol¬ low that such a small amount of alcohol is useful in ordinary digestion, because when it is taken into the stomach we have to consider the influence it has on the secretion of gastric juice, on the movements of the stomach, and on absorption. A small quantity of alcohol appears, however, to encourage the secretion of gastric juice, but large quantities act injuriously on all the processes of digestion. A small amount of alcohol may promote the action of the central nervous system, and often appears to quicken the rapidity of thought and to excite the imagination, but more usually, and always when taken in any but small quantities, it diminishes the power of connected thought and judgment. It also diminishes the power of receiving sensory impressions, and, at the same time, 1) hints all the special senses. Since it reduces the sensibility to cold and fatigue, and allays mental pain and worry, it is often resorted to and then with great danger. The limit up to which any beneficial effects are produced by alcohol is soon reached, and beyond that it only does harm. This limit is not the same for all individuals; a quantity good for one may be injurious for another, and a large number of people find that strictly moderate quantities of alcoholic beverages do them no harm, while others find that similar amounts impede them in their daily work. The effect of alcoholic beverages does not depend solely on the ordinary alcohol in them, for other substances which they contain often have powerful actions in the body. The habitual use of such beverages to excess greatly shortens life by inducing diseases of many organs. In some cases of disease alcohol may be of great service, but in health it can not be considered a necessity, and is far more potent for evil than for good. From the evidence at hand regarding the use of alcohol, the following by Dr. E. A. Parkes, the eminent English hygienist, seems tome a fair and judicious statement of the facts, although I should be inclined to lay a little more stress upon the principle that, in health at any rate, it is superfluous or worse, and to insist more strongly upon the importance, in this country especially, of general abstinence from its use: The facts now stated make it difficult to avoid tiie conclusion that the dietetic value of alcohol has been much overrated. It does not appear to me possible at present to condemn alcohol altogether as an article of diet in health, or to prove that it is invariably hurtful, as some have attempted to do. It produces effects which are often useful in disease, and sometimes desirable in health; but in health it is certainly not a necessity, and many persons are much better without it. As now used by man¬ kind, it is infinitely more powerful for evil than for good; and though it can hardly be imagined that its dietetic use will cease in our time, yet a clearer view of its effects must surely lead to a lessening of the excessive use which now prevails. Reference has lately been made in the public prints to some experiments at Wes¬ leyan University which have had for their object the study of the nutritive action of alcohol. One does not like to say a great deal about his own work, and I should rather stop with the references to what other investigators have done and said; but in view of the misstatements and misunderstandings which have received currency regarding these inquiries and the conclusions we have derived from them, it is per¬ haps fitting that I should refer to them now, as I have been especially requested to do. The experiments in question have been undertaken on behalf of the committee of ALCOHOL PHYSIOLOGY AND SUPERINTENDENCE. 591 fifty for the investigation of the liquor problem. They are, however, carried out in connection with researches upon nutrition which are made under the auspices of the United States Department of Agriculture, and constitute part of the larger inquiry into the economy of food, of which I have already spoken. The experiments are made by the use of the respiration calorimeter, by means of which it is possible to measure the income and outgo of the body of a man, as expressed in terms of both matter and energy. The apparatus includes a chamber about 7 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 6$ feet high, in which the man stays for a number of days and nights. It is furnished with folding bed, table, and chair. For some of the experiments — those in which muscular work is to be done — there is provided a stationary bicycle, on which the man may ride the equivalent of a desired number of miles per day. Arrangements are provided for ventilation by a current of care¬ fully purified air. The temperature is kept constantly at a degree which is agreeable to the occupant. In this chamber he reads, writes, works, eats, drinks, and sleeps. So far from being uncomfortable, each of the four gentlemen who have been subjects of the experiments thus far has found himself very little discommoded in any way save for the monotony of confinement in so small a space. The period of each experiment generally varies from four to nine days, though in one case it reached twelve days. Even after this experience not one of the gentlemen has been in the least unwilling to repeat the trial. So far from finding difficulty in securing subjects, we have numerous volunteers, and are able to select men of special fitness for the purpose, as regards both bodily characteristics and, when desired, scientific training. The general plan of the experiments consists in giving the man a diet adapted to the purposes of the experiment, and measuring, weighing, and analyzing, not only the food and drink, but also the products, solid, liquid, and gaseous, given off from the body. This involves, with the rest, the measurement of the air the man breathes and its analysis, both before it enters and after it leaves the chamber, in order to determine the products of respiration. Not only the chemical elements and com¬ pounds, but also the energy of the income and outgo, are measured. The body receives energy in the food, in which it is latent, or so-called potential energy. A small part of the energy leaves the body in the unoxidized excretions, in which it is still latent, but the larger quantity is given off in the heat emitted from the body, and in the external muscular work performed. Especial arrangements are provided for measuring this energy, and since that given off from the body is mostly in the form of heat, the apparatus is practically a calorimeter. It is because the apparatus enables us to determine both the respiration products and the heat that we call it a a respiration calorimeter. One of the most interesting results of the experiments of this kind conducted at Wesleyan University is the close agreement of the income and outgo of energy. They thus indicate what in fact has been generally believed, though the belief has lacked definite experimental proof, that the human body, like any other machine — a steam engine or an electrical dynamo, for instance — obeys the law of the conserva¬ tion of energy. By giving men under experiment different kinds and amounts of food, and varying their activity from actual rest to light or severe muscular or mental work, it is pos¬ sible to learn how the body uses its food, what materials are needed for its support, and how different food materials compare in nutritive value. The special object of the experiments with alcohol was to study its nutritive effect as compared with that of the fuel ingredients, fat, sugar, and starch — carbonaceous compounds, let us call them — of ordinary food. In most of the experiments pure (ethyl) alcohol was used, though in some the alcohol was given in the form of whisky or brandy. It was administered with water or coffee, and taken with an ordinary diet of meat, bread, butter, milk, sugar, and the like. The amount of alcohol per day has been equal to about 2-| ounces of absolute alcohol — about as much as would 592 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 1)0 contained in three average glasses of whisky, or in a bottle of claret or Rhine wine. This is generally divided in six doses, three with meals and three between meals, the object being to avoid any marked influence of the alcohol upon the nerves, and thus to test its action as food under normal bodily conditions. Com¬ parative tests were made by use of rations with and without alcohol. The ration without alcohol consisted in each case of ordinary food materials supplying the nutritive ingredients in amounts more or less nearly sufficient to meet the wants of the body. In the corresponding ration with alcohol, parts of the sugar, starch, and fat of the food, the carbonaceous ingredients which supply the body with fuel for warmth and work, were taken out, enough to be equivalent in potential energy to the ounces of alcohol, and the latter was used in their place. In the experiments in which the man did not work this alcohol made about one-fifth of the total fuel material in the diet. In the experiments with hard muscular work, in which more food was used, the alcohol furnished about one-seventh of the fuel supply. Ten experiments in which alcohol was used are now completed and ready for publica¬ tion. These are compared with a somewhat larger number of experiments similar in the main, except that they were without alcohol. The results may be briefly stated as follows: First, extremely little of the alcohol was given off from the body unconsumed; indeed, it was oxidized, i. e., burned as completely as bread, meat, or any other food. Second, in the oxidation all of the potential energy of the alcohol was trans¬ formed into heat or muscular power. In other words, the body transformed the energy of the alcohol as it did that of sugar, starch, and other ordinary food mate¬ rials. Third, taking the experiments together, the body held its own just as well with the rations consisting partly of alcohol as it did with the others. This was the case whether the men were at rest or at work, and whether the rations were or were not adequate to the needs of their bodies for nourishment. In other words, so far as the figures for income and outgo of chemical elements and compounds in these experiments show, the alcohol protected the nitrogen and carbon, the pro- teids and fats, of the body from consumption as effectually as the carbonaceous nutrients which it replaced. There were, indeed, variations in the figures from day to day and from experiment to experiment, as must be expected in this kind of physiological inquiry. In some cases, judging by the figures as they stand, the alcohol appeared to be less, in others it appeared to be more, efficient than the sugar, starch, and fat in protecting either the nitrogen or the carbon of the body from consumption. In certain ingredients there were large losses, in others there were gains of either nitrogen or carbon or both. But these gains were in general about as large and frequent with the rations without alcohol as with the corresponding rations with alcohol. Taking the experiments altogether we should not, in my judgment, be warranted in saying that the results established any difference between the two kinds of rations in this respect. I am very far, however, from regarding the results of these experiments as final. Take, for instance, the question of the relative fuel values of the carbonaceous nutrients, fat, sugar, and starch, on the one hand, and alcohol on the other. These experiments, which are more detailed than any others of the sort of which I have been able to find descriptions, imply, as far as they go, that corresponding, or to use a chemical term, isodynamic, amounts have equal values as fuel. To put it in another way, one ounce of alcohol when burned with oxygen in an apparatus for the pur¬ pose, such as we use in the chemical laboratory, will yield about the same amount of heat as, say, three-fourths of an ounce of fat or an ounce and three-quarters of either sugar or starch. But whether the body gets the same benefit from the ounce of alcohol as from the three-quarters of an ounce of fat or the ounce and three- quarters of starch or sugar is another matter. The body uses the sugar, starch, and fat for a variety of purposes. It may be that the isodynamic amounts of these car- ALCOHOL PHYSIOLOGY AND SUPERINTENDENCE. 593 bonaceous nutrients have equal values for some of these purposes and unequal values for others, the value depending upon the kind of service. So, likewise, it may be that the value of alcohol as fuel depends upon the kind of work it is to do. For aught we know to-day there may be forms of service as fuel which it can not render or can render only under certain conditions.' Exact answers to these ques¬ tions will require a large amount ot patient and costly research. As may be seen, these experiments had to do simply with the nutritive action of alcohol. They have very little bearing upon its indirect action, nor do they indicate what are its effects when taken habitually for months or years. In certain deliberative bodies — in Congress, for instance — personal explanations are sometimes in order. I hope it may not seem unfitting if I venture to say here that some of the statements which purport to have gone out from Middletown regard¬ ing these experiments are entirely wrong. Thus it has been said that we are study¬ ing the effects of alcohol as brain-food, and for that purpose have been feeding men upon a diet consisting chiefly of alcohol. These reports are entirely without founda¬ tion. No such experiments have ever been made or even planned in our laboratory or under my direction. For that matter, I can not see how any physiological chemist could think of alcohol as a material especially fitted to supply nourishment for brain work. I can see how it might sometimes stimulate the action of the brain in certain ways. Indeed, workers in that field, I believe, have tried to explain its action in this as in the opposite direction, but that is a subject for the physiological psycholo¬ gist, and not the chemist, to investigate and pronounce upon. An account of these experiments was given at the International Physiological Con¬ gress in the summer of 1898 referred to, and also at the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Boston the same year. Last June a similar account was given at the meeting of a scientific club in Middletown, Conn., where the experiments were made. Some days in advance of the meeting newspapers in different parts of the country contained announcements purporting to represent what I was going to say. Neither my associates nor myself authorized them or have any knowledge as to how they originated. They contained statements to the effect that the experiments showed that alcohol is a useful food, and that 2 ounces per day made a desirable part of the diet. Some of these totally unauthorized and unwarranted statements, I regret to say, have been utilized by venders of alcoholic beverages as recommendations of their products. How far the views of leading physiologists and the results of scientific research, as I have thus tried to epitomize them, differ from the teaching of the so-called “author¬ ized” text-books used in our schools you who are so familiar with the books and schools are well able to judge. I will, however, later on give you some illustrations of the teaching to which I object. WHAT SHOULD AND SHOULD NOT BE TAUGHT ABOUT THIS SUBJECT IN THE SCHOOLS. Meanwhile, permit me to state some of the things which, as it seems to me, ought and ought not to be taught in the public schools. In so doing I do not attempt to cover the whole ground or enter into the physiological details, but simply indicate what, in my personal view, should be said or not said about some of the more impor¬ tant phases of the subject. WHAT WE SHOULD NOT TEACH ABOUT ALCOHOL, 1. We should not teach that it is a food, in the sense in which that word is ordi¬ narily used. If we are going to discuss its physiological action at all, we can not well ignore its nutritive value, but we should at the same time emphasize its limitations. When we speak of it as food or nutriment, we should explain to what extent and in what ways it can and can not nourish the body. So, likewise, if we speak of it3 ed 1900 - 38 594 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900. effect upon digestion, we should not say simply that it is an aid or that it is a hin¬ drance, but that it may be one or the other, or both, according to circumstances. 2. We should not teach that it is a poison, in the sense in which that' word is ordi¬ narily used. We may say, and with truth, that alcohol in large quantities is poison¬ ous, that in large enough doses it is fatal, and that smaller quantities taken day after day will ruin body and mind. But it is wrong to teach our boys that alcohol in small quantities, or in dilute forms in which it occurs in such beverages as wine and beer, is a poison in the ordinary sense of the word. In all that we say on this point we must bear in mind that the intelligent boy knows well, and as a man he will know better, that people have always been accustomed to moderate drinking, as it is commonly called, and yet live in excellent health to good old age. If we tell him that alcohol in small quantities is poisonous in the sense in which he understands the word, he will see that we are exaggerating, that we are teaching for effect, and he will instinctively rebel against the teaching. We may say, and say truthfully, that the moderate use of alcohol is fraught with danger. But the cases where the occasional glass leads to marked excess are the exceptions. If we present them to the thoughtful boy as the rule, he will detect the fallacy and distrust the whole doctrine. We may be right in saying that alcohol often does harm to health when people do not realize it, that it prepares the system for inroads of disease, that there is a grada¬ tion of injury from forms scarcely perceptible to the utter ruin of body and soul. But to present the “horrible examples” as a common result of drinking is illogical in itself, contrary to right temperance doctrine, and hence injurious to the children whom we teach. For that matter I believe that the picturing of the frightful results of vice to young and innocent children is more harmful than useful. 3. We ought not to teach that alcohol in small quantities is harmless. Still more should we avoid saying that it is commonly beneficial. Some of us as individuals may believe that its use in small quantities is generally desirable, but there is nothing in either the facts of common experience or in the results of scientific inquiry to justify the inference as a general principle. Doubtless many people, especially those in advanced age, or suffering under certain forms of disease, are benefited by alcoholic beverages in moderate amounts. Here it may have a decided medicinal value, and my own belief coincides with that of a great body of physiologists in ascribing to it under some such circumstances an extremely important food value, although the exact ways in which it is useful are not yet demonstrated. But I can see no justification for the claim that moderate drinking is generally useful, and there is no denying the terrible fact that it is often harmful, not only in itself, but because of the excess to which it so often leads. 4. We ought not to teach that alcohol in small quantities is always or necessarily harmful. Some of us as individuals may believe this. Honestly believing that theory we may he justified in arguing for it. But we are not justified in teaching it dogmatically, and in my judgment it is positively wrong to make such a dogma a part of the instruction which is presented to our youth as authoritative, he it in the school, the Sunday school, or the pulpit. It is wrong for two reasons: First, because it presents an unproven theory as an attested fact, and, second, because it leads the trusting child to believe what the thoughtful, and at times skeptical, boy or girl, and the intelligent man or woman, may afterward iearn to he wrong. 5. Still worse is it to take the theory that the use of alcohol in small quantities is always or necessarily injurious, and set it up as demonstrated by scientific observa¬ tion and experiment. This is positive untruth. If we tell it to children, they will believe it until they learn better. They may possibly remain in ignorance of the error until they are grown, or indeed all their lives; but sooner or later many of them will find that they were deceived. It may be in the high school, it may be in the college or medical school, it may be from general reading or conversation; but ALCOHOL PHYSIOLOGY AND SUPERINTENDENCE. 595 when the deception is found out a reaction comes. The good we tried to do is undone. The certain injury is far greater than the hoped for good. 6. To take the theory that alcohol is in no sense a food, but always a poison, that it is never useful, but always harmful, and allege that it is supported by the great bulk of scientific authority, is falsehood. We may look over the literature of the subject and cull out statements which can be used to support it. We may even find writers of more or less repute who attempt to defend it in the light of scientific experiment. In this way we may accumulate statements which the unsuspecting reader may be led to regard as proving that the scientific authority is on this side of the discussion. We may unconsciously go farther and persuade ourselves that there is scientific ground for adopting such theories, so often and so truly is “ the wish the father to the thought.” In our great anxiety to find every means to work against the evil wrought by alcohol we may gradually come to feel ourselves justified in presenting all the arguments we can against it and in ignoring ail we can on the other side. But this- does not turn theory into fact or falsehood or misrepresentation into truth. The following quotations are from so-called “approved” text-books of physiology commonly used in our schools: Nature apparently makes no effort to appropriate it [alcohol]. It courses every¬ where through the circulation, and into the great organs, with all its properties unmodified. Alcohol, then, is not, like bread or beef, taken hold of, broken up by the mysterious process of digestion, and used by the body. “It can not, therefore, be regarded as an aliment.” 1 Alcohol is universally ranked among poisons by physiologists, chemists, physicians, toxicologists, and all who have experimented, studied, and written upon the subject, and whb, therefore, best understand it.2 Alcohol is not a food or drink. Medical writers, without exception, class alcohol as a poison.3 It must be remembered that in whatever quantity, or wherever alcohol is found, its nature is the same. It is not only a poison, but a narcotic poison.4 These statements are misrepresentations. They belong to a kind of doctrine which pervades many of the “approved” text-books and much of the common temperance instruction. They are none the less false or wrong, either scientifically or morally, because the object is to educate our youth away from evil; the misstatements are none the less reprehensible because they occur in school books which have the official indorsement of a great temperance organization, whose membership includes thousands and other thousands of the noblest, the most conscientious, the worthiest of the women of the world. Nor does it help the matter that such statements are repeated and such theories are promulgated with the sanction, and are enforced by the authority, of the church, in the teachings of the Sunday school, and from the sacred desk. Do not misunderstand me. I am not imputing wrong motives, I bring no railing accusation, I charge no one with intended wrong. I only ask that the men and women who do these things — many of them are my acquaintances, some are my warm personal friends, their standing in the community is so high that no arrow of aspersion can reach them, their characters are so pure that no stain can tarnish them, their names are in my memory and their faces in my vision, as I write this — I ask that they consider the facts as I am sure they have not considered them, that they look into the evidence as I am sure they have not looked into it, and that they remember in their attitude toward these questions the principle I have read in their own writings and heard from their own lips — the foundation of morality is the truth. 1 Steele, Hygienic Physiology, pp. 178, 179. 2 Quoted from Youmans in Blaisdell’s, No. 2, p. 232. 3 Eclectic, No. 3, p. 57. 4 Authorized Series, No. 3, p. 58, 596 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. WHAT WE SHOULD TEACH ABOUT ALCOHOL. 1. It is, under some circumstances, a valuable nutriment in the sense that it can yield energy to the body, but not in the sense that it can build tissue. It is, under other circumstances, a poison in the sense that it is injurious to health. When taken in large enough quantities and for long enough time it is destructive to life. It is some¬ times very useful and sometimes very harmful, but the harm that comes from drink¬ ing, in many communities, vastly exceeds the good. While we can not deny to alcohol a nutritive value, that value is very limited. In yielding energy to the body it resembles sugar, starch, and fat, though just how and to what extent it resembles them experimental inquiry has not yet told us. It differs from them in that it does not require digestion, and is hence believed to be more easily and immediately available to the body. It is not stored in the body for future use like the nutrients of ordinary food material. The quantity that may be advan¬ tageously used is small. If large amounts are taken, its influence upon the nerves and brain are such as to counteract its nutritive effect, and it becomes injurious in various ways. And, finally, there are many people who begin by moderate use and are led to disastrous excess. Alcohol may be useful to one man and harmful to another. One may take con¬ siderable without apparent harm, while another may be injured by very little. One may use it habitually without injury, while another may not. In sickness it may be a priceless boon. But it may likewise be the cause of physical, mental, and moral ruin. 2. The boy or the man, as long as he is in good health and does not need alcohol for medicine, is in general better off without it, 3. While some can drink a little without danger of drinking to great excess, others can not. The safest way is to keep out of danger. 4. There are business considerations also as well as those of health that strongly favor temperance. The boy who wants to make his way on a railroad or in a large business establishment has a better chance to get employment and to work up into a profitable position if he is an abstainer than if he is a drinker. Already many such establishments refuse to employ men who drink, and there is reason to expect that more will do so. 5. Temperance is always advisable. This we may emphasize most strongly. But whether or not we shall teach the necessity or even the advisability of abstinence is another matter. About this the best men differ. Two who disagree may be equally honest. Each has the right to express his own convictions and may often feel it his duty to do so. But it is neither just nor wise to teach our youth that the doctrine of total abstinence rests upon undisputed principles of either physiology or morals. It seems to me that the question whether a man should be a total abstainer depends on two considerations. The first is one of policy. Will drinking injure him? If so, he had better abstain; if not, he may drink. But he must be sure of his ground before he begins, and he had better wait until he reaches maturity and understands himself and the subject well before he takes the risk. The other con¬ sideration is an ethical one. Remembering that he does not live for himself alone, what will be the effect of his example and what is his duty? The rule of conduct in this respect is a matter for him to decide. You and I may have the right to advise him, but the decision is between himself and his own conscience. 6. An ambitious and right-minded boy wants to be an influential and useful man. I think he should be taught that it would be better for the community at large if there were less drinking; that the community is influenced by the examples of strong and good men; and that his own personal influence will be better if it is on the side of temperance. 7. Great as is the danger of alcohol to purse and health, the moral injury is incom- ALCOHOL PHYSIOLOGY AND SUPERINTENDENCE. 597 parably worse. Its most terrible effect is its demoralization of character. However much good men may do in helping others to save their money and promote their health, a still greater service to their fellow-men is that which helps them to a higher plane of moral living. And here is the strongest argument of ail in favor of that self-abnegation which leads us to do those things, and those things only, which will best enable us to render that service to our day and generation. In that way we do our noblest duty to our fellow-men and to our God. All this we may, and I believe we should, teach in the schools. ERRORS IN THE CURRENT TEMPERANCE TEACHING — ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS. The misstatements in the text-books of the type referred to above are of various kinds. Sometimes the error consists in stating doubtful theories as attested facts; in other cases, the principles laid down are partly true and partly false; in still others, the statements are squarely opposed to all of the results of the latest and most accurate scientific research. The statements are enforced by quotations, of which some are by real authorities, but are too often put in such ways as to misrepre¬ sent their actual teachings; while others are from men who do not stand for the best research and the highest scholarship, but are quoted as the most reliable authorities. I do not mean that the approved text-books are all wrong. A great deal of what they say is entirely true. In the parts not bearing upon the action of alcohol there is often little to criticise and much to commend. The trouble is this admixture of error. In one respect they are all alike. The impression which they give the pupil is that science teaches that alcohol, even in moderate quantities, is always harmful and never useful. This is untrue. The object is to oppose an enormous evil, to teach our youth to resist that evil. The purpose is most worthy; the trouble is in the method. The evil being clearly defined, a doctrine is formed to meet it, and evidence is sought to sustain the doc¬ trine. Whatever can be found in its favor is exaggerated. Whatever opposes it is ignored or denied. It gradually ceases to be the propagandism of the few and becomes the creed of the many. It is the old story of human dogma, repeated over and over again in politics, in theology, and in morals. And here, as in many other cases, the worthiness of the cause and the earnestness of the advocates are such as often to “deceive the very elect.” Indeed, the very best people often become the most sincere and devoted advocates of the doctrine. In this case the scientific expert is not deceived. But the statements are put in such persuasive ways and sustained by such seeming force of scientific authority that the unsuspecting pupil, and, indeed, the teacher who implicitly trusts the text-books, is led to believe that they represent the real teaching of the best physiological science. I was once talking about this subject with a teacher, and reminded her of Lincoln’s saying: “You can fool all the people some of the time, and some of the people all the time, but you can’t fool all the people all the time.” She replied: “But can’t we fool the boys until their characters are formed?” Now, I think that lady was perfectly sincere; I am equally sure that she was wrong. You can not build character on falsehood. A well-known philanthropist in New York City tells this story: “I happened to be in a school down on the east side when a class of boys from, tenement families were reciting in physiology. The teacher asked: ‘ What is beer? ’ The answer came in chorus: ‘ Beer is poison.’ Now, those little chaps knew that that was a lie. Their fathers and mothers drank beer every day.” Such children were not fooled by any such teaching. But even if they are deceived for a time, it will not last, nor can you get around the difficulty by falling back on definitions. Tell a boy a thing is poison, and he will suppose that you mean by poison what he means by it, and what people 598 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. generally mean by it. He lias not access to the particular dictionary or scientific treatise which has a definition that may be stretched to fit your meaning. You may persuade him for a time that it is a poison in the popular sense of the word, but when he grows up he will learn that he was mistaught; indeed, he may do so before he is grown up. The scholar in the higher classes shares the present tendency to skepticism; when he finds that he was deceived, he does not mince matters; he reasons with himself: “That teacher and the text-book lied. If they would lie in one case, they would in another, and I am not going to believe anything they told me.” Even if lie does not go so far as this, even if his faith is not lost, but is only shaken, the harm is done; the effect is to undo much of the good that the teaching is intended to do. Furthermore, and what is still worse, the result must be to impress upon the pupil, and by the most effective agency, that of example — the example of the school, the Sunday school, and even the pulpit — the idea that deception is allowable in a good cause, that the end justifies the means. This is undermining the very foundations of morality. One of the most honored members of your association remarked to me yesterday in speaking of this subject: “Teach a boy of 10 that a lie is the truth, and at 20 he is in danger of believing the truth is a lie.” This evil, so intrenched behind the earnest aspirations of our community, and so fortified by legislation, is the one against which I protest and which I urge you, as leaders in education, to unite in your endeavors to oppose. Perhaps I ought to speak more considerately of things so dear to thousands of the best, the most earnest, the most devoted people, those to whom temperance means so much, who would shrink with horror from intentional deceit, and in the fiber of whose noblest thought this doctrine is so interwoven. We meet here a very peculiar difficulty. The object of this teaching is a noble one. When we criticise the method we are in danger of seeming to oppose the pur¬ pose, and yet the improvement in method is necessary for the attainment of that purpose. It seems to me that one of the great obstacles in the way of the true temper¬ ance reform is found in this very exaggeration which makes so large a part of the means used to promote that reform. It is building on sand. The place to build is on the rock of attested truth. You see, then, that I am not trying to set up a dogma in opposition to “scientific temperance instruction. ” I earnestly approve of the purpose, but object to part of the method. I protest against the dogmatic teaching of scientific theories which still lack demonstrative, proof. More than that, I protest against the teaching of what science shows to be positively erroneous. And I also ask that the teaching of science in our schools shall keep pace with the progress of research. But what are we to do about it? I hesitate to make positive suggestions to those who have much more experience than I, and on whom rests so much of grave responsibility for deciding what instruction our youth shall receive. I venture, however, these considerations: The success of such instruction depends very largely upon its spirit. If it is bcised upon the real desire for truth, if disputed principles are referred to as ques¬ tions rather than demonstrated facts, if no more is claimed than is proven, and if under these restrictions the evils of alcohol are clearly set forth, and especially if the teacher speaks with the power of accurate knowledge and profound convic¬ tion, the instruction can not fail to be incalculably useful. Still more effective will it be, in my judgment, if less stress is laid upon the mate¬ rial — i. e., the physiological and economic — side of the question and more upon its moral aspects. Our people are keenly alive to ethical ideas; and youth is a time when thought is fresh, the aspiration is for the ideal, and mind and heart are open to the truest ethical impulses. Let me emphasize most strongly the moral aspects of this question. Temperance ALCOHOL PHYSIOLOGY ANI) SUPERINTENDENCE; 599 reform is moral reform. I can not see how a thoughtful mail, earnestly desirous of rendering his best service to the community, can fail to lie interested in that reform. The harm which alcohol does to health, the economic injury it brings to the indi¬ vidual and to the community, are terrible enough, but it seems to me that the supreme evil which comes from its misuse is its effect upon character, its power of demoralization, the moral ruin which it brings. No exaggeration is needed to paint this picture in the most terrible colors. As one who has been interested in temperance reform from childhood, I have come to believe that we have been depending too much upon the economic and physiological argument. Statistics of the nation’s liquor bill do not appeal very strongly to the ordinary man; still less does the average boy care for them. The men who know most about the physiological effects of alcohol are specialists in physiology and hygiene. I know scores of these men. Total abstainers among them are exceptions; I was about to say rare exceptions. If they are not per¬ suaded by the facts they know so well in theory and in practice, what can we expect from teaching the average boy or girl a little of the theory? The supreme object of education is the formation of character. Character is shaped by education, but its basis is morality. Again I say, Temperance reform is moral reform. The mind and heart of youth are most strongly influenced by moral thoughts, by ethical ideals. There you can keep within the truth and there make the strongest appeals. One essential for the success of true temperance reform is that what is taught as science shall he placed upon the basis of demonstrated fact. This means a change of base on the part of a great body of our most earnest temperance reformers, but that change is necessary. We wish to help the drunkard to reform; but is it necessary to tell him that no man can touch alcohol without danger? To build up the public sentiment upon which the reform of the future must depend, we wish our children to understand about alcohol and its terrible effects; but when we teach them in the name of sci¬ ence, shall we not teach them the simple facts which science attests, and which they can hereafter believe, rather than exaggerated theories, whose errors, when they learn them, will tend to undo the good we strive to do? In short, is not tem¬ perance advisable even in the teaching of temperance doctrine? In the great effort to make men better there is one. thing that we must always seek, one thing we need never fear — the truth. DISCUSSION. Mrs. Mary H. Hunt, national superintendent of scientific temperance instruction of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union. — The study of hygiene, with physi¬ ology enough to make the hygiene intelligible, has been introduced into the public schools of this country. It is difficult to understand why anyone should oppose it. True, this study has been made compulsory for all pupils in all schools, and it includes the nature of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics, but our boys and girls must live in their bodies as long as they stay in this world, and they need to be taught how to take such care of them that these bodies will be strong, beautiful servants of the mind, instead of the mind becoming the servant of weak bodies and debasing appetites. There are no dangers in the ambushed paths of life which the children of this land need more to be warned against than those attending the use of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics. The representatives of 73,000,000 of the American people, in Con¬ gress and State legislatures assembled, realizing this, have enacted these temperance physiology laws because they believe that individual and public good demand it, and we should be able to count upon the cooperation of all good men and women as executors of these laws. We are asked to discuss this morning the paper of Professor Atwater. He would have us teach that alcohol has a food value and is not a poison. If that be true, then we should so teach. At this point let me say that there is no aspersion cast upon those who have been instrumental in securing the study in our schools that is more absolutely unjust than the accusation that for effect we want untruth about alcohol EDUCATION REFORT, 1899-1900. 600 taught. We are not so idiotic. The man who makes this accusation, if he is candid, thereby shows that he does not understand his times. The educated women of to-day are keeping step with their brothers in knowledge. They have been to college. As students and investigators they know almost as much as you gentlemen. Almost, I say, lest you should deem it disrespectful if full equality in attainment should be claimed. Professor Atwater quoted a woman as asking, “Wouldn’t it be right in teaching a boy against alcohol to deceive him until his character is formed?” That woman and her question must have emanated from the brain fog of some opposer to scientific temperance education who was trying to find out for himself whether three glasses of whisky or a bottle of Rhine wine is isodynamic with cer¬ tain amounts of sugar, fat, and starch. She does not belong in our ranks. The advocates of scientific temperance education in our public schools know that their cause has nothing to fear from the truth. They also know that — Truth alone is strong, And, albeit she wander outcast now, I see around her throng Troops of beautiful, tall angels, to enshield her from all wrong. “The truth shall make you free” is no vain promise. If teaching the children of this country that alcohol has a food value is teaching them truth, then it will eventu¬ ate in good to the individual, the home, society, and citizenship. If the crime, misery, poverty, and madness that have heretofore resulted from the use of alcohol as a beverage are only myths, then let them give place to this old new story of alcohol a food. But, Mr. Chairman, we can accept nothing but positive proof at this point; the issue is too great. Assumption and assertion amount to nothing; juggling with definitions to worse than nothing:. “Anything that nourishes the body without injuring it” is what the people under¬ stand by a food. It is a good, honest definition, accepted by sincere men, both in and out of scientific ranks. Is alcohol a food and shall we so teach the children? is the question before us. Professor Atwater, as I understand it, bases his claim of food value' in alcohol on his experiments made at Middletown, Conn. The story of these experiments was first given to the public on the 13th of last June. The thoughtful people of this country were startled to receive newspaper reports of his claim that he had proved that alcohol, when taken in the amount usually found in three glasses of whisky or one bottle of Rhine wine per day, is as much food as sugar, fat, and starch, and that therefore the pulpit, platform, Sunday school, and public school are in error in teaching that alcohol is a poison and not a food. These and similar declarations, always accom¬ panied with attacks on scientific temperance teaching, appeared and reappeared with variations in the newspapers of the land of well-nigh five months before a scrap of other evidence was given the public in proof of these remarkable statements which are at variance with some of the best and latest utterances of modern science. Not until the 6th of last November was Professor Atwater’s Bulletin No. 69, con¬ taining his first official report of these much-vaunted experiments, given to the public. Accompanying this bulletin his Circular No. 357 was sent to the press of the country for publication. The last sentence of this circular says: “The bulletin is very tech¬ nical and not for general distribution. ’ ’ With all due respect to the culture of Middle- town, happily there are in the United States, outside of that city, some other people able to understand technicalities and therefore to study this bulletin with its tables. Its accompanying Circular No. 357 contains the deductions drawn from the experi¬ ments described in the bulletin. These deductions are exactly what I understood Professor Atwater to state from this platform yesterday, viz: 1. In the case of the roan experimented upon the alcohol was almost completely oxidized in the body. 2. The potential energy of the alcohol burned was transformed into heat or muscular energy. 3. The alcohol protected the material of the body from consumption just as effectively as corre¬ sponding amounts of sugar, starch, and fats. In the first place, it is a fact that other well-known and violent poisons, as muscarine, morphia, etc., are also oxidized in the body, liberating heat and energy, but their bad effects show that such oxidation proves nothing in their favor; neither does it in the case of alcohol. It would be ridiculous to call morphia or muscarine foods because when taken they are oxidized in the body. It is equally so to make a like claim for alcohol. It is the sum total of the effects of a substance that must be considered in deciding whether it is a food or a poison. To state the fact that alcohol liberates in the body heat and energy, and to say in that connection no more of its heat and energy producing power, is to state half- truths. An increased number of heat units are evolved by alcohol, but at the same time it so paralyzes the nerves in the walls of the blood vessels that an unnatural amount of blood rushing to the surface is cooled, and more heat is radiated from the ALCOHOL PHYSIOLOGY AND SUPERINTENDENCE. 601 body of the drinker than the alcohol liberates. These easily demonstrated facts leave alcohol no place whatever as a fuel food. The energy that the oxidation of alcohol in the body liberates is of brief duration, and is under such poor nerve control that working ability as a whole is so much impaired by alcohol that business to-day demands total abstinence of its employees. Therefore both science and experience deny to alcohol any food value as a supporter of energy. On page 73 of the bulletin is Table No. 7, where are recorded the effects day by day as the man in the calorimeter took alcohol for six successive days. If the material of the body had been protected during that time, as Professor Atwater states in his third deduction, there should have been a plus sign before the column of nitrogen, show¬ ing that the man did not lose protein, but we find the contrary, showing that the man lost the most valuable of all body material each day he took the alcohol. Turn to the other table, No. 10, and we find there was a slight gain in protein for one day only, but a decline the other days. These tables were submitted to experts in four of our great medical colleges, quite as well qualified to do original work as our friends at Middletown. I read here from the report of Prof. C. A. Herter, who is not simply a chemist, but a physician and professor of pathological chemistry in Bellevue Hos¬ pital Medical School, New York City: One fails to find any support for the view that alcohol protected the material of the body like sugar, fats, or starch, in the report of Professor Atwater, according to his own figures. Those in experiment No. 7, where 417 grams of protein were given in four days, show that there was a loss of nitrogen equivalent to 48.2 grams of protein. In the other alcoholic experiment, No. 10, there is a similar, though somewhat smaller, loss of nitrogen. One is, therefore, compelled to admit that these experi¬ ments do not support the third conclusion of Professor Atwater. Please remember that it is on that third conclusion that Professor Atwater’s argu¬ ment mainly rests that alcohol acts as a food. This view of Professor Herter is supported by Prof. Seneca Egbert, M. D., profes¬ sor of physiology in one of the great medical colleges in Philadelphia, and also by Prof. Frank Woodbury, M. I)., a well-known writer on therapeutics, who is connected with another medical college of Philadelphia. This pamphlet which I hold in my hand, entitled “An Appeal to Truth,” contains like testimony from Winfield S. Hall, M. D., a professor of physiology in one of the medical colleges in this city, Chicago. You will recall that the ten experiments described in Bulletin 69 are Professor Atwater’s only published data upon which rests his claim of a food value for alcohol. In only two of these experiments was the man given alcohol, and in both of these he lost most valuable body material; therefore, Mr. Chairman and friends, inasmuch as this testimony is not contradicted by the experience of centuries, we can not con¬ scientiously recommend that the children of this country be taught that alcohol is a food. Honest opposition to temperance teaching is based on misapprehension. Critics have widely published the false charge that our requirements are ridiculous or unpedagogical. These absurdities are what you are opposed to and not our true position. For instance, it was said on this platform yesterday that we claim that “alcohol in the smallest quantity always does harm.” I challenge anyone to find such a statement in any of the indorsed physiologies. What we do say is that because alcohol is a narcotic a Utile has the power to create an uncontrollable and destructive appetite for more, and, therefore, a little is always dangerous. No one can deny that statement. It is a,s undeniable as the lav/ of gravitation, and nobody has ever brought a scrap of proof that controverts it. Two facts — first, that alcohol is a narcotic, and, second, that it has, like other narcotics, a cumulative attraction for itself — are the fundamental scientific reasons for total abstinence. I thank God and take courage for the Republic as I remember the millions of children in our land who are 'being taught these reasons. And now with regard to that English assertion about alcohol not being a poison, quoted here yesterday, and said to have been signed by certain physiologists. To the best of my recollection it was that, £ £ when taken in quantities and ways that cause no injurious effect, alcohol can not be called a poison.” There is probably not a brain worker in this presence who has not had strychnine prescribed for him by the doctor. If it acted upon you as it does upon me, you took it “ in quantities and ways that cause no injurious effects.” But you would not, therefore, say that strychnine is not a poison. It is special pleading to attempt such a claim in the case of alcohol. Out of the thirty indorsed text-books on temperance physiology in our list there are three, written some sixteen years ago, that make statements which can be dis¬ torted. Please note I say can be distorted into meaning that alcohol is not oxidized in the system. Two of those books are being revised; the third is practically out of use. Of the other indorsed books which Professor Atwater attacked it can in all truthfulness be said that they are as accurate in statement and pedagogical in con- 602 EDUCATION EE POET, 1899-1900. struction as are any other school text-books now in use. They have been again and again submitted to the best scientific authorities with the request that any inaccura¬ cies be pointed out, and every suggestion that truth warrants has been and ever will be incorporated in them. In closing, please allow me to say you have criticised our methods in securing the legislation that makes this study compulsory. They have been to carry the case to the final tribunal, the source of power under our Government, the people. The people have instructed their lawmakers to pass these laws. You think we should have withdrawn our endeavors when we saw that any schoolmen objected. We would gladly have done so if you could have assured us that the temptations our children will meet in life will be so withdrawn as to leave no call for this warning education. You complain of our persistence. There is nothing more persistent than mother love when the child is in peril. As to the personal allusions, I will only say that I have long since ceased trying to defend in y co workers and myself in this cause. Whoever attempts to advocate an unwelcome truth that rebukes a popular evil will find he is treading the paths martyrs have trod. Such a one will be battle-scarred. I make no apology in this presence for having been somewhat instrumental in placing 16,000,000 of our school children under temperance education laws. No one could do that without meeting opposition of the kind that will turn and strike back. To this I make no reply, but a nation saved from the thralldom of strong drink through its schools and school children will be abundant reward. CHAPTER IX. THE ROLE OF THE SCHOOL-TEACHER IN THE STRUG¬ GLE AGAINST ALCOHOLISM/ By A. Sluys, Director of the Brussels (Belgium) Normal School. I. * * * The school-teacher has, as a matter of course, an important role to play in the conflict with alcoholism. He is charged with the instruction and education of children from 6 to 12 or 14 years of age. He meets again in the adult classes cer¬ tain of these former pupils of his, also others who have not been able to attend at all the elementary schools. He may make known to all these the injurious effects of alcohol; he may urge them not to give themselves up to the vice. But it must not be kept from view that the elementary school can not accomplish everything; that its role and its field of action are necessarily limited; and that, on leaving school, the young man is thrown among social surroundings where he is often subject to promptings directly the opposite of those he received at school. A socialist news¬ paper, the Vooruit, recently gave an account of the detestable customs prevalent in the workshops, where the apprentices are systematically demoralized by the work¬ men. The article is worthy of being quoted in full for the light it throws upon cer¬ tain aspects of the problem of alcoholism : The fatherly counsel of the schoolmaster gives place to the curt and sometimes brutal commands of the employer. The frail limbs of the scholar of yesterday are weighed down under the burdens imposed upon him. How often his heart must swell, the poor urchin, when, going to the mill at 6 in the morning, his coffee pail under his arm, he thinks of his playmates who, happier than he, can live the joyous life of the schoolboy in vacation! The grown-up workmen all know by experience how we would have liked, in the first days of our apprenticeship, to fling away our tools and resume our bocks. The transition from one way of life to the other is indisputably too abrupt and too brutal. The half-time system, the half day of study succeeding to the half day of work, has been extolled. This system is excellent, but it exists neither in practice nor in law, and the children of poor people continue to pass from five hours of lessons to ten and eleven hours of work. The great question is to ascertain in what degree the workmen, leaving the employ¬ ers out of consideration, can aid in rendering the lot of the apprentices more tolerable, and in diminishing the effects of the transition. The workmen of themselves can effect much, and yet, let us bear witness to it with regret, too often their efforts are directed much more to doing harm than good. 1 A report to the Sixth International Congress against the Abuse of Alcoholic Drinks, held at Brus¬ sels. Translated from a reprint made (1899) with the j>ermission of the author by the committee on antialcoholic instruction of the Canton of Neuehatel, Switzerland. The chapter of this Pveport immediately preceding (Chapter VIII) contains an address by Professor Atwater on the teaching of alcohol physiology in the public schools. 603 604 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-1900. The new apprentice serves too often as the butt of the older workmen; he is a laughingstock for them; they make fun of him, his trousers are too short, his hair badly combed, etc. Absurd tasks are imposed upon the youth in order to make him ridiculous. There are even those who go so far as to treat him brutally and strike him, under the pretext of frolicking with him. Ill-advised jesters nail his slices of bread and butter to his bench, or slip between them a thin leaflet of wood in order to augment his dinner bill of fare. Have we not seen some of them who led these youths into drinking gin and chewing tobacco, or who indulged in filthy talk in their presence? These imbfeciles succeed in eradicating in a few weeks what required years of effort on the part of the schoolmaster to implant. It is simply criminal. The worst of the matter is that the apprentices are so treated under the pretext of rendering them more intelligent and completing their education. We have heard more than once old workmen say, “People did the same with us, therefore — ’ ’ The excuse is a line one, and the retaliation noble indeed! It is a smart thing to pay back upon the children the brutalities of which one has been the victim him¬ self. The result is not slow in appearing. After a few weeks of practical jokes and persecutions the young apprentice makes it a point of honor to signalize the change that has been working in him; he swears like an old salt, indulges in broad talk to the women, smokes like a Turk, learns to exact “ pourboires, ” is initiated into artful dodges (“ trues”), and sometimes drinks alcohol like a lord. The delicacy of feeling of the scholar has vanished; he has become of more rough exterior, the evening school is deserted, the way to the industrial school forgotten, but, after the example of the great folks, he raises pigeons for the coming match, reckons up the chances of the favorite horse winning, etc. The work of the school then suffers a serious check through the demoralizing agency of the workshops, the factories, the mills. Other untoward influences con¬ spire to the same end. How many parents addicted to drunkenness carry their lack of conscience so far as to subject to the influence of alcohol ( “ alcooliser ” ) their children of the tenderest age ! We felt constrained to point out these drawbacks before undertaking to answer the question relative to the role of the school-teacher in the fight against alcoholism. It must not be imagined that the school «an do everything in the matter of moral education. It is only one factor working in conjunction with a great number of others, such as heredity, the family, the workshop, the office, the social surround¬ ings. The school-teacher can not realize through his own efforts the ideal which ho has in view; his agency is too often neutralized by surrounding influences beyond his power to modify. Appeal must be made to school-teachers to contend against alcoholism, for they should cooperate in the moral education of the children whom it is their business to fit for life; but it must be borne in mind that the school is not the only educative medium, that the impossible must not be expected of it, nor a regenerative influence attributed to it which it does not possess. Let us add that the struggle against alcohol in the domain of the school is especially difficult and delicate, and that it demands of teachers special knowledge and abundance of tact. II. — Abnormally alcoholic children. There exists a class of children who have suffered in a greater or less degree alco¬ holic degeneration. In our country [i. e., Belgium] these unfortunates, if they do not happen to be altogether idiots, are sent to the ordinary schools and mingle with the normal pupils. They are in general distinguishable by certain characteristics; the majority are impulsive, irritable, undisciplined, uneducable, bad, dangerous even. The ordinary disciplinary agencies have no hold upon them. Far from improving in the class room, they grow worse as they grow older; to the ancestral influence which weighs heavy upon them is added that of the family surroundings, which per¬ verts them still further; their alcoholized parents furnish them with only wretched ANTI ALCOHOLIC INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS. G05 examples; often beaten, almost always poorly fed, these children revolt and become vagabonds. There are some of them who do not lack intelligence, who learn easily, and become good pupils in so far as the school instruction properly so called is con¬ cerned; but from the moral point of view they are thoroughly bad, and they have unfortunately often a baneful influence upon their fellow pupils, whom they entice and corrupt. Others are mostly wanting in intelligence, have dull minds, unreliable memories, and drag along in the lower grades; at the most they exhibit a certain aptitude for branches of a mechanical character, as writing, drawing from a copy, reading; but when they have learned to read, 'to draw, to write, they do it without intelligence, after the manner of a reflex action and not thoughtfully. These abnor¬ mal are almost always vicious. They have an unfortunate propensity for liquor, tobacco, vagabondage; they try their hand at divers trades, and as the}' have no per¬ severance, no moral energy, but depraved tastes, they do not succeed in any kind of apprenticeship, but become bad workmen, idle and unfaithful employees, give occa¬ sion to their employers to discharge them, and finally bring up in the police court. It is in great part from among these bad characters that the always increasing youthful criminal population is recruited. All children who present themselves at the public schools are admitted, and none are examined from a psycho-physiological point of view. The depraved, the vicious, are intermingled with natures free from any hereditary taint. A pedagogical system adapted to normal pupils is applied indifferently to all. Under these conditions the educative work of the teacher is secretly undermined by the neutralizing influence of the bad elements, which exercise upon the others an unobserved pernicious influence. We have been able to establish the fact, during a career extending over more than thirty years, that the ordinary school education, while good for the normal pupils, is ineffective for the abnormal, for the alcoholic degenerates. These are a pest in the schools; their example is pernicious; they can corrupt the best of their fellow pupils, and by constantly inciting to disorder they cause the teachers to lose valuable time. Calls to order, admonitions, warnings, counsel, encouragement, all the disciplinary agencies which are operative with normal pupils have no effect upon the abnormal, who are a plague spot in the class and often do irreparable injury. In order to organize scientifically the schools, a rigorous selection would have to be made among the pupils, the abnormal separated from the normal and placed in special institutions where they would be subject to an educative regime adapted to their nature. A certain number might in this way be redeemed and the contagion of vice among the normal pupils avoided. Rigorous measures have been taken, at least in the great centers of population, to keep out of school pupils having infec¬ tious diseases, such as smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, typhus fever, diphtheria, etc., and with good reason ; but it should not be lost from view that moral maladies are just as contagious as physical ones. One unbalanced and vicious child in a class room is enough to cause grave disorders. A close examination of the antecedents of young persons who fall into vicious ways, especially of those who are sent to charity schools (ecoles de bienfaisance), and of those who are going to bring up in the police court or court of assizes, would demonstrate that the major part of the contingent of unruly and criminal children is made up of the sons and daughters of alcoholized parents, debauchees, profligates, criminals, and that a certain number also are the victims of suspicious associates. We have been able to observe more than one case of the latter kind. Moreover, who has not heard of children brought up in respectable families, who have had only good examples before their eyes, and who for all that have fallen into disorder and vice as the result of frequenting certain kinds of company. The ordinary teacher does not possess the proper means for improving abnormal pupils. If there are in his class children vicious through alcoholic degeneration or as the result of badly directed previous education, his educative influence may be 606 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. greatly lessened or altogether nullified. The best schools under the existing system of organization may send out criminals and blockheads without our being able to place the responsibility on either the teacher, the programmes, or the methods. The educational systems with a religions basis are no more free from this result than the unsectarian or rationalistic, since the cause of these pathological and moral aberra¬ tions is not a pedagogic one. One of the most urgent reforms, then, would be to institute everywhere a medical examination, to the end that the tares might be sep¬ arated from the good grain — that is, the vicious children from those who are neither tainted nor corrupted. To attain this end a twofold supervision must be exercised — that of the teacher and that of the physician. The former would report to the latter the incorrigible, bad, vicious pupils, upon whom the ordinary agencies exercise no ameliorating influence; the latter would examine them from an anthropological and physiological point of view. As a result of this twofold examination, the condition of these pupils would- be ascertained, and those requiring a reformatory educational regime would be placed in institutions especially adapted to them. So long as this course is not adopted the public school can not he accused, as it has been recently by some either through ignorance or design, of having been lacking in the matter of moral education and of furnishing to society a portion of its juvenile delinquents. The public school can not be held responsible for the existing and future morality of its pupils. It has no effect upon physiological and psychical heredity, and it receives indifferently as pupils good natures and perverse natures. It submits all children without distinction to the same regime of instruction and education; it itself feels the influence of the family surroundings [of its pupils], which may be good, indifferent, or had. Moreover, after the pupil quits school at the age of 12 or 14 years, he is modified more or less by the associations of the workshop and by his social surroundings, where the process of his evolution is continued without interruption. The influence of the teacher can not in any case he the preponderating one, and it is a piece of good luck when it is not strongly antagonized by the other educative influences. Heredity, to be sure, is not inevitable nor unavoidable. As Dr. Laclame well says, “degeneracy in all its different phases may be combated by social or individual measures, preservative or even curative, which will lessen or entirely neutralize its effects.” But the measures must be actually applied all the same, and this can not be done by the elementary teacher. Our conclusion is then as follows: If it is desired that moral education in general, and antialcoholic education in particular, should succeed in the schools, the pupils must undergo a rigorous selection; the abnormal, unbalanced, degenerate, incorri¬ gible, etc., pupils must be removed from the ordinary schools, kindergartens, primary schools, etc., and placed in institutions especially organized for them. The city of Brussels has already made a start in this direction. It has recently established a special school for dullards, among whom are found victims of alcoholism of parents. The system should be extended so as to embrace all classes of abnormals. In Sweden there are schools for incorrigibles who can not he retained in the ordinary schools. In Belgium charity [bientaisance] schools receive children who require special care. But the separation of alcoholic and other degenerates from normal children has not yet been effected in the public and private schools, and it is for this that we insist upon the necessity of studying the question, to which attention has already been called in the congress of criminal anthropology. III. — Methods of rnn Antialcoholic School Propaganda. In the first place, the teacher should enlighten his pupils as to the physiological effects of the use and the abuse of alcoholic liquors. In point of fact, the majority of drinkers are biased in favor of alcohol; they attribute astonishing properties to it; it is warming, they say, and they drink when it is cold and damp; alcohol is the water ANTIALCOHOLIC INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS. 607 of life (eau cle vie), the liquid of fire which imparts energy, and they drink before going to work in order to increase their strength; they drink also during and after work in order to get renewed vigor and resist fatigue. Alcohol inspires cheerfulness and joy fulness, as they pretend, and they drink when they are sad or are crossed. But they drink also to celebrate the joyous occurrences of life. They attribute to alcohol the property of curing all sorts of diseases and indispositions; it drives away stomach aches and headaches; it protects from cholera, from typhus fever, from all epidemics; it is the universal panacea. Certain women of the common class, country nurses, drink during the nursing period under the pretext that it makes the milk richer (plus fort) and gives vigor to the nursling; and they congratulate themselves upon this system, which plunges the little ones into a stupefying sleep, and if they die in convulsions the occurrence is attributed, not to the alcohol, but rather to bad luck or to some imaginary cause. Drinkers, then, ignore the injurious effects of alcohol, and discover in it salutary properties which it does not possess. Everything conspires to keep them in this ignorance and this fatal error. In 200,000 drinking shops in Belgium are sold alcoholic liquors, many of which are of doubtful origin. The poison is displayed everywhere in the most inviting ways ; the glass maker’s art produces vessels of the most varied forms and colors for containing it, and for giving it a seductive aspect; artists design beautiful colored posters, which are displayed on the walls of cities and villages, hotels and wine shops, and which commend this or that alcoholic liquor, pointing out its extraordi¬ nary aperient, stomachic, and curative properties; and in this field all parties are patriotically united, for there are numerous monasteries which put on the market alcoholic liquors which are extolled in resounding and suggestive advertisements. The cafes, the wine shops, the taverns take on an attractive and artistic aspect, often of unheard-of richness; the walls are covered with frescos that glorify beer, wine, alcohol, and tobacco; singers are installed, orchestras, piano and guitar players, etc., and if the music they make is rarely of an elevated character, it none the less furnishes a powerful attraction, fascination even. Everything conspires, then, in actual society to keep people imbued with this notion that alcoholic liquors are endowed with wonderful virtues. In the majority of families, among the middle class as well as among the workingmen, no occasion of festivity is permitted to pass without bottles of liquor on the table; large bumpers of alcohol are drunk to the health of newly married couples, or of new-born infants, or of persons celebrating their jubilee; at a funeral repast people drink to assuage their grief at the death of a relative or friend. The children are present at these feasts, and the adults make them swallow several gulps of the delicious liquor. Sundays and holidays the parents take the children to walk, in the course of which several glasses of beer are drunk “en famille,” and in addition a few swallows of gin, anisette, punch, or elixir. At the season of the “kermesses” and “ ducasses” 1 the libations take on colossal proportions; the schools are closed. Are the children not to take partin the alcoholic festivities of the adults ! And everywhere the small glasses of gin and brandy alternate with the mugs of beer, without cease, day and night. The Flemish kermesses as depicted by Teniers are reproduced yearly in all the villages and in those quarters of cities where the more common people dwell. They have withstood the edicts of Charles V and the ordinances of Joseph II. A public official in the Walloon country, who had solicited us for a lecture against alcoholism, wrote to us: “The date you mention will not do; it is the first day of the ducasse; for three weeks all the village — men, women, and children — will be unable to hear any lecture whatever; all will be drunk every day; the ‘ pequet ’ will flow to 1 Kermesses are, in the Low Countries, parish fairs, held annually and celebrated with processions, dances, masquerades, etc. Ducasses are patron saints’ festivals in Belgium and the north of France,— Translator. 608 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. the brim in all the wine shops of the locality, and it is the same at every ducasse m the whole arrondissement, in the whole province.” Let us add, in the whole country. Saturdays and Sundays, often also Mondays, many workmen squander in lap-rooms the available part of their wages, and for a long time it is not beer they have preferred but gin. Country workmen do the same. The dwellings of manual laborers are in general small, gloomy, and dismal; the furniture is insufficient; not the least comfort is found there; the children are often dirty and ill clothed; the wife, who is ignorant of the principles of hygiene and domestic economy, does not know how to manage the housekeeping or provide appropriate food for the family. The economical education of women has been everywhere lamentably neglected; she has been taught rules of syntax she will never have use for, and historical dates and occurrences without educational value, but she has been left in ignorance of maternal pedagogy, hygiene, and domes¬ tic economy; she has never been prepared for her essential mission, the management of a home. Many of them are obliged to work in the shops, and when they marry they .have not the slightest notion of the duties, so difficult and so delicate, of a family mother. So the workman is little disposed to return to his dwelling, where nothing attracts him, and he proceeds to make a sot of himself at the wine shop. The common people are driven into alcoholism, (1) by their ignorance; they think that strong liquors are beneficial to the health, and do not know that they are injuri¬ ous; (2) by the fact that their houses are badly kept, that no comfort is found there; (3) by their incapacity to make proper use of their leisure time. Laborers who have toiled long hours in the fields, shops, mills, factories, mines, or quarries, have abso¬ lute need of recreation; now, how may they spend their leisure time when they'are poor, ignorant, and the family hearth offers no attraction? It is to the wine shop that the man of the people goes to meet again his comrades; there he finds recrea¬ tion, chats, discusses, plays at cards, bowls, skittles, archery; or perhaps he is a member of a brass band or choral society, and practices for the next festival. The wine shop answers, in our day and in the present state of our morals, to a need of human nature; it is the medium, in lack of a more appropriate one, where the masses go to satisfy instincts which are universal, the instinct of social companionship, the need of recreation. The working class may not be blamed if the pleasures of the wine shop are not more elevated; they have been kept until to-day in a very great relative ignorance, they have not received sufficient education; at 10 or 12 years of age the majority of the children of manual laborers must quit the school for the work¬ shop, where the prolonged and excessively specialized labor is unfavorable both to their physical development and their intellectual and moral improvement. These then are the three great causes of alcoholism in our country. There are others, such as alcoholic heredity, of which we have already spoken, whose victims require special treatment. We do not mention insufficiency of wages, for it has been proven that increase of wages is not always accompanied by decrease of alcoholism. We do not think that workmen drink solely because they are insufficiently nourished; it has been during periods of great economic prosperity that the consumption of alcohol has increased the most. Increase of salaries, which is on other accounts highly desirable, can not of itself solve the problem of alcoholism. The solution is of an educative and moral character, and at the same time of an economic. How shall the teacher go to work to check the evil? It must be attacked on the three sides we have pointed out. In the first place, as to ignorance, and prepossession in favor of alcohol; this is the easiest part of his task. Lie will make known to his pupils the physiological effects of alcohol; he will endeavor to combat the popular prepossessions, and will point out the deplorable results of alcoholism for the individual, for the family, and for society. ANTIALCOHOLIC INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS. 609* Shall he give this instruction after the didactic method, that is to say, through the medium of lessons at stated times, according to a given programme, or shall he rest satisfied with merely occasional remarks? We think it fitting for him to make use of both methods. Occasional lessons may indeed be useful and efficacious to a certain degree, but they are insufficient; they permit important facts to slip from the memory too easily; they are desultory and disconnected; have no unity. Direct teaching according to an established programme does not have these defects,, and if the teacher can make skillful use of the procedures of modern pedagogy they are of uncommon efficacy. For the upper classes of elementary and intermediate- schools at least, as well as for adult classes, we think an antialcoholic propaganda programme should be drawn up comprising the following topics: 1. Alcohol, its origin; its properties; its uses. 2. Alcoholic liquors; their manufacture; their adulterations. 3. The physiological effects of alcohol; the diseases of the drinker of it. 4. The influence of alcohol upon the nervous system, and especially upon the brain. 5. The demoralization produced by alcohol. 6. Alcoholic heredity. 7. How people alcoholize themselves; how they are cured of alcoholism. 8. Statement of the income and expenses (budget) of the temperate and the intem¬ perate man. 9. What the Belgian people lose through alcoholism; direct and indirect losses. 10. The fight against alcoholism is a duty. This programme may be lengthened or shortened, and carried out with more or less detail, according to the degree of advancement of the pupils. The essential point is not to overload their memories with scientific terms borrowed from chemis¬ try, physiology, and pathology, but to enlighten them by means of facts tersely put, so as to implant in them firm antialcoholic convictions. If, on the one hand, the teacher must shun all pedantic and repelling phraseology, on the other he must keep aloof from all puerile sentimentalism; children and young people are fond of neither the one nor the other. In antialcoholic teaching, the intuitive method must be employed in order to obtain results. Recourse should be had particularly to pictures and dia¬ grams, to permit the truths to be firmly grasped. We have been able to substan¬ tiate, on the one hand, the radical inefficacy of formal antialcoholic lectures, and, on the other hand, the considerable influence exercised upon children and the common people by short lessons illustrated by well-executed pictures and diagrams. To cite an apt example: Since 1875 we have taken regularly our pupils, large and small, to the museums of art; now we have always observed that De Groux’s beautiful painting, The Drunkard, made a vivid impression upon them. The distressing scene which the great artist has depicted with so much truthfulness moves them deeply; they see there, as in real life, the sad consequences of alcoholism, and they never forget the sight, which has so elevating and so wholesome an influence. A few words of explanation, a few questions deftly put, are all a teacher possessing tact needs in order to draw from the painting the best of antialcoholic lessons. These are the kinds of scenes that should be reproduced by engraving, by chromolithography, so that the schools and antialcoholic propaganda societies may be supplied with them. The Patriotic League displays at the Universal Exposition a series of paintings, which, without possessing the artistic value of the work of De Groux, are nevertheless almost all pitched in the right key. It must not be forgotten that every picture shown to the children or to working people should fulfill two essential conditions: (1) The subject must be simple and true to life, and devoid of intentional exag¬ geration. (2) It should be artistically reproduced. Coarsely designed engravings, which offend or deprave the esthetic sense, should be banished from the schools; just as little are wanted those exaggerations or those ED 1900 - 39 610 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1800. caricatures which present the victims of alcohol under a grotesque or ridiculous aspect; these unfortunates should be represented to the pupils as diseased persons to be restored to health, not as wretches to be made fun of. We should combat that popular sentiment which makes of the drunkard an object of derision and jest. The painting of Pe Groux strikes the right note. It excites pity at the lot cf the drunk¬ ard who, returning to his wretched dwelling, finds his wife dead of misery and her children in a mournful desolation. Too complicated symbolical pictures, which it is impossible to make understood without long explanations, should also be excluded. We would not have it under¬ stood, however, that we reject all symbolism. On the contrary, we are of the opinion that certain compositions are very suggestive, of which may be taken as a type the beautiful painting of Michel, showing the demon of alcohol followed by Madness, Crime, and Suicide. It is a work to be reproduced and distributed among the schools. Besides the distressing scenes which alcoholic mania presents to us, alas! in such great numbers, it seems to us advantageous to exhibit others of a humorous character. The English are particularly successful with these. We remember the effect pro¬ duced in a class room one day by an exhibition of lantern slides from an English collection. One of them was a diptych: To the right, a pretty house with a garden; the happy mother and children spring forth to meet the father returning from work; to the left, an intemperate and idle workman comes to a stand before a pile of hogs¬ heads which represents what he has drunk in twenty years; he has nothing left, his pockets are empty, his clothing in rags, his health mined. The other workman, who has abstained from drink, has saved enough to insure himself a modest com¬ petence. A skillful teacher can draw an excellent lesson from a slide of this character. The League against Alcoholism would do an eminently useful service in recom¬ mending for the use of the school and the popular propaganda a good selection of pic¬ tures and slides, presenting the alcoholic question under its manifold aspects, physiological, pathological, economical, etc. There should be a series of chromo¬ lithographs to exhibit in the sessions of the class, and a series of slides for lectures with lantern projections. These series should Ire accompanied by a book with explanations (“guide”), which would enable the teacher to give rigorously accurate lessons without being obliged himself to make toilsome researches in books and in a multitude of documents often difficult to procure. In point of fact, the teacher has already many absorbing occupations, and additional labor can hardly be required of him. His work must therefore be facilitated. He may incorporate the antialcoholic lessons in the general programme as object lessons, or make them the subject of exercises in declamation or themes for composition. But he must have a reliable “guide” and appropriate apparatus. As there are a great number of communes and schools too poor to be able to buy this apparatus, consisting of wall pictures, a magic lantern and slides, and an explanatory catalogue, the League with the aid of the Government, or the Government aided and advised by the League, could organize a system of loan collections. The apparatus would be placed gratis at the disposition of teachers for their antialcoholic lessons and lectures. It might even be very advisable, at the start, to organize a body of lecturers, who would visit the schools to give the first lessons and instruct the teachers in the methodical use of prints and lantern view's. The parents of the pupils might be invited to these sessions wherever the accommodations permitted. TV e have, in fact, often had the opportunity of observing that both parents and children follow with the greatest interest simple, clear, and familiar lessons, practically illustrated by means of pictures, prints, and especially lantern views. Statistical data, which are very useful for making known the extent of the evils caused by alcohol, produce no effect when they appear as numerical abstractions. ANTI ALCOHOLIC INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS. 611 They become expressive and particularly suggestive when transformed into colored diagrams. To the series of pictures and lantern slides the League should add a series of diagrams showing the parallel movement of alcoholism, criminality, mental aliena¬ tion, mendicity, vagabondage, etc., and others showing the comparative mortality of drinkers and abstainers. The data for making such a series are not lacking; recourse need only to be had to the documents, so numerous and so interesting, brought to notice by the League. To the end that these three series — the wall pictures, the lantern slides, and the graphic diagrams — may be well adapted to elementary and intermediate instruction, as well as to the popular propaganda, it would seem advisable to refer their selection to the judgment of a commission in which the pedagogical element would be espe¬ cially represented. The pictures selected could, moreover, be published in various forms. They might serve to adorn the covers of note and text books; reproduced in miniature with explanatory remarks, they might be distributed among the pupils as rewards of merit; a pamphlet might be made of them and sold very cheaply. This teaching is to make its way everywhere. If these pictures and pamphlets are distributed among the pupils of the schools after having been explained in the class room, they will certainly reach in the end the family hearth, where they will instill correct ideas and afford good counsel, to the comprehension of which, moreover, the children will naturally contribute. Let the school thus become the center from which truth emanates; let its influence not be confined exclusively to the pupils who attend it, but let it extend abroad, even to their homes; let the knowledge that it implants and the counsel that it gives not remain in a form purely oral and transitory — verba volant — but let them become living and lasting through the picture and the written comment, so as to serve as well for the education of the parents as for that of the children. The teacher has other means at his disposal to attain his end. Besides direct anti- alcoholic instruction he may have recourse to indirect. Several branches of the pro¬ gramme are well adapted to giving this instruction, especially reading, writing, composition, arithmetic, object lessons, geography, history, etc. The primary read¬ ers should contain a certain number of lessons designed to make known the grievous consequences of alcoholism. Several essays have been made in this direction, and the practice should be encouraged. A considerable number of antialcoholic maxims, terse and intelligible, have also been compiled, which might very advantageously be commented upon and then set as penmanship copies. Geography and history les¬ sons furnish at times good opportunities; thus when the teacher is treating of the arctic regions he may say that formerly mariners who went thither took spirits along with them under the belief that alcohol is heating, but that it has been proven since that sailors who abstain withstand low temperatures best. He may recall the cir¬ cumstance that Nansen attributes to total abstinence from alcoholic liquor the resist¬ ance displayed by himself and his men during his expeditions to Greenland. In like manner, when speaking of the tropical regions, he may remark that explorers and the military no longer make use of spirituous liquors there, because it has come to be recognized that they are extremely hurtful in those latitudes. Geography lessons need not be limited to catalogues of names; as each country comes up for considera¬ tion the teacher may make known the measures taken there against alcoholism and their degree of efficacy; Sweden, and above all, Norway, will afford him ground for suggestive remarks in this particular. In the history course, he may show that among the causes of the defeat of the Gauls by Cresar must be mentioned the habits of intemperance and gambling to which their leading men were addicted; speaking of recruiting mercenary troops, he may point out the role that artful sergeants have made alcohol play in blunting the will of men of the lower class upon whom they had fixed their choice; he may relate that at the time of the terrible retreat from Russia it was the abstinent soldiers who’ best resisted cold and fatigue; many other 612 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. historic occurrences may be made to furnish an antialcoholic argument. It is not necessary to observe that numerous arithmetical problems may be formulated so as to inculcate an antialcoholic lesson, or furnish an illustration for a lesson previously given. All these indirect means are useful, all cooperate in enlightening the mind and eradicating prepossessions favorable to alcohol; all furnish the pupils with rational motives for abstention, and dispose them to withstand the evil suggestions which await them out of school. But in this work the teacher will encounter serious obsta¬ cles, which he can surmount only by proceeding with tact and circumspection. In severely condemning alcoholism and intemperance does he not run the risk of destroying the respect certain children owe their parents? There are in his class the sons and daughters of saloon keepers, of moderate drinkers, of confirmed drunkards. AY hat will the first think of the business, the others of the habits of their fathers? On the one hand the teacher says to them, honor thy father and thy mother; conse¬ quently he can not act out of harmony with this precept in portraying, as do certain fanatical and ill-advised propagandists, the wine shop as a den of iniquity, the keepers of wine shops as licensed poisoners, and drunkards as contemptible objects. Such exaggerations do more harm than good to the antialcoholic cause. The teacher should proceed with more tact and judgment. The wine shop is not essentially bad. In our country especially, since the organization of the first guilds, it has been a place of meeting made necessary by circumstances and by the climate, and it has served greatly in developing altruistic sentiments, in creating a medium where, after the labors of the day, people could assemble for recreation, for the exchange of ideas, and for the discussion of common interests. It is only the abuse of alcoholic liquors which is bad and which is to be contested. It is the role of the teacher to set forth the evils caused by this abuse, but he must not through an untimely zeal bring into disrepute a class of his fellow-citizens among whom there are as many respectable persons as in any other class. He should also be careful not to speak of the drunkard with contempt; it would be unjust and indiscreet. Let him represent him as a sick person to be cured, not as a culprit to be condemned. Let him tell his pupils that it is cowardly to hoot at and torment those who are in a state of intoxication; they are suffering from the effects of poison and need to be taken care of in order to escape from the dangers that threaten them. The drunkard’s son can take in such a lesson without danger of losing the respect he owes his father; on the contrary, he will feel pity for him. It is to be noted that in taking such a course the teacher is on the right road, for the passion for drink must certainly be considered a pathological manifestation. IV. — Education of women. We have pointed out that one of the causes of alcoholism is the ignorance of everything that relates to housekeeping on the part of a great number of women of the working class. There is as much occasion for the antialcoholic propaganda in girls’ schools as in those for boys. The family mothers of the future are not adequately prepared for their essential duties in the elementary and intermediate schools as they exist to-day. The school programme contains too many matters of secondary or even altogether questionable utility, and it does not provide for the real necessities of education. The formula, “Education for real life,” is often heard, but it is not applied, or only poorly applied. It is of the highest social importance to lop off from the programme those portions without practical utility, such as a host of dates and historical facts, definitions, grammatical rules and exceptions, which burden to no purpose the memory of young girls, and are of no service in their general education, and replace them by simple and plain instruction in domestic economy and maternal pedagogy. The school day should be divided into two equal parts, one devoted to general studies according to a programme that sacrifices nothing to ANTI ALCOHOLIC INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS. 613 useless knowledge, to matters inapplicable to real life, the other reserved exclusively for theoretical and practical knowledge indispensable to mothers of families and housekeepers. The programme of an elementary school for girls should be made up essentially of hygiene, maternal pedagogy, the elements of domestic economy, the art of managing a household intelligently and economically, of preparing simple and nourishing food, of doing the marketing, of keeping in order and mending the clothing, in a word, of all that a mother of a family ought to know in order to render the home comfortable, to make of it a medium of education and recreation. Move¬ ments have already been made in this direction. The city of Brussels sends to the “ecole menagere et professionnelle” the pupils of its girls’ schools in order to be instructed in domestic occupations. The reform we recommend will necessarily be favorable from an antialcoholic point of view. The improvement of the family surroundings will undoubtedly have the effect of attaching the husband more strongly to his home, and of diverting him from that excessive indulgence in alcohol to which he is too often impelled by the little gratification he finds in an ill-kept household. We only point out this reform, whose importance will not escape the notice of the Congress. Y. — Esthetic education. We have also said that the lack of esthetic education is a cause of alcoholism. The every-day people have need of relaxation and recreation after their toilsome daily labor. If they live amid surroundings where nothing has been provided to develop in them the esthetic sentiment, -the taste for art, they will give themselves up to coarse pleasures, and alcoholic potations will have an irresistible attraction for them. All that the common school does to cause that flower of civilization, which art really is, to bloom in the hearts of the children, serves with good effect the antialcoholic cause. That is why drawing, music, elocution, dancing (this latter in connection with the gymnastic exercises) should be included in the programme of the common schools. To these add excursions into the fields for the enjoyment of the beautiful scenery of nature and visits to monumental structures and museums of art. All this contributes to enlighten and elevate the heart, to develop the taste for things really superior and beautiful; all this prevents from falling into habits of a lower order. Wherever teachers exert themselves in the esthetic culture of the pupils intrusted to their care they indirectly promote the antialcoholic propaganda by teaching them how to occupy the leisure hours of existence agreeably and morally. If they get up or manage associations, brass bands, singing clubs, dramatic societies; if they organ¬ ize or assist in organizing savings banks, mutual-aid societies, clubs for travel either at home or in foreign parts, they contribute effectively toward ameliorating the conditions of existence on the part of the common people. The number of teach¬ ers who have devoted their leisure time to activities of this character is already con¬ siderable. They would be more numerous still if they received from the public authorities that encouragement which is too often lacking and which is at times even replaced by an unjustifiable opposition. YI. — School temperance societies. We will close this report by saying a few words on school temperance societies. W e are of the opinion that they are not to be encouraged. They are based upon a false conception of the nature of children. They are bound to fail, precisely as the school battalions have failed. The school should enlighten the children as to the manifold and disastrous consequences of alcoholism, and we have pointed out the principal means for attaining this end; but we think the teacher ought not to induce his pupils to promise to absolutely abstain from all alcoholic drink during a certain number of years. The child ought not to bind himself by such a promise, which 614 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. he will always make complaisantly at the suggestion of the teacher. If the latter has given antialcoholic instruction that is really effective, his pupils, when they have quit school to enter the workshop or engage in some other employment, will be armed against the temptations which will assail them; it is not the promise made at a given moment, nor the diploma given to them upon such an occasion, nor the little banner won by the school temperance society, that will prevent them from drinking alcohol. Let us inform the pupils by means of earnest and continued instruction; let us not burden them down by employing factitious agencies; let us not expose them to breaking a promise given at an age when they knew not what they did, and in circumstances where they could not act freely. Education is too serious a thing that recourse should be had to means which, for all they are of American origin, are none the less in conflict with a healthy pedagogy. The money spent in pro¬ viding school temperance societies with registers, diplomas, and banners, would be much more usefully employed in the purchase of the apparatus necessary to give some wholesome and useful lessons on alcohol by means of pictures and lantern views. If the attempt has been made, through very questionable statistics withal, to establish the fact that there has been a decrease of alcoholism proportional to the increase of the members of school temperance societies, still the a priori inference may be drawn that it is not to the existence of these societies that the decrease in the consumption of alcohol is due; for in order for it to be so, it would have to be conceded that, in Limburg, for example, it was formerly the children and youth who constituted the bulk of the army of alcohol drinkers. If there are any countries where the struggle against alcoholism has been carried on energetically and has produced superb results, those countries are Norway and Sweden. Now these results have not been brought about, in however small a degree, by “bands of hope” after the American fashion, nor by school temperance societies of the Limburg type.1 At the School Congress of Gothenburg the majority after a thorough examination pronounced against the formation of these societies; a con¬ siderable number of the members, both totad abstainers and “moderates,” declared strongly against this system, as being antipedagogic and immoral; they also think that a promise should not be exacted from children which binds them for the future, and of which they can not graspjthe import. Numerous Limburg teachers whom we have consulted have confirmed us in our views. They recognize that antialcoholic instruction, whether indirect, didactic, or occasional in connection with other branches, well given, may have useful results, but they add that school temperance societies have no real efficacy; that they cause a loss of valuable time and a waste of money. 1 Statistics of the consumption of fermented and distilled liquors in England, Scotland, and Ireland prove the inefficacy of “bands of hope” alone in destroying a deep-rooted vice. At the Brussels congress (1897) it was asserted that these pupils’ temperance societies had already caused a decrease in the consumption of alcohol. Now the official statistics, as summed up by the “Revue encyclope- dique du XIX siecle,” show that this consumption considerably increased during the last fiscal year. In England there were expended for drink 55 millions of francs more than the preceding year, and 40. G millions more than the average of the last twenty-five years. The total expense the last fiscal year Avas 3,8G2 millions of francs for a population of 40 million persons. This amounts to 97 francs per inhabitant, of Avhich 60 Avas for beer, 10 for Avine, and 27 for spirituous liquors. * * * To overcome alcoholism there is needed the moralizing influence of the family, the school, and society, the latter acting energetically and perseveringly through the medium of prohibitive laws, as in Norway.— A. S. CHAPTER X. THE READJUSTMENT OF THE COLLEGIATE TO THE PROFESSIONAL COURSE. Read as the Annual Address before the Section of Legal Education of the American Bar Association, August 17, 1898, by Simeon E. Baldwin, LL. D., Chairman of the Section, Associate Judge of the Supreme Court of Errors of Connecticut, and Professor of Constitutional Law in Yale University.1 There are four stages to a complete education. The first is open and free by law to every child, in all governments of modern form. It is pursued through the common schools, and stops when enough lias been taught to raise him above the condition of illiteracy. To this primary education may generally be added, in whole or part at public expense, a secondary education which shall fit th„e student to enter upon the highest intellectual tasks that the acquisition of learning can involve. The third stage — that of the higher education — is reached at the door of the uni¬ versity; the university, I mean, as distinguished from the college. Here, either by the aid of the State or of charitable endowments, all branches of human learning are taught by men who have dedicated their lives to following them to the end, and to pushing that end farther and farther into the realm of the unknown. Here each newcomer can select his field, and study in view of the special work for which he wishes to be prepared. A few years, generally not more than three, are thus passed, and then a man goes forth to his life work, but as a learner still. He has yet to get from the world at large that rounding off of all his acquirements, that ability to turn them to account; that sense of proportion; that appreciation of the relations of things; that faculty, in a wrord, of drawing from knowledge power, which only practical experience can give, and by which practical experience makes the fourth stage of education the best of all. It is a stage on which one must not enter too late. Irrespective of the social and economic reasons for every man’s engaging early in whatever is to be the business of his life, he will do it best when he has not overmuch to unlearn first. There is a certain period after which mere study, unaccompanied by the putting forth of pro¬ ductive energy in contact with the world, makes a man a pedant, turns learning to vanity, and contracts the very soul. Our American system of legal education contemplates the fulfilment of three at least of the stages which have been mentioned. For the other, that of the uni¬ versity, or its equivalent in this regard, the law school, studies in a lawyer’s office may be substituted, though not, in the opinion which has been pronounced by this association, without serious loss. The limits of primary education are the same for all. The lessons of the world, when the bar is once entered, are to be mastered by each for himself, and in such 1 Printed in the Yale Law Journal by permission of the AmericairBar Association. 615 616 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. period of time as each may need. It is the relation between secondary and uni¬ versity or professional education, alone, that is subject to variation by rule. The conditions which should, and which eventually must, determine this relation have been essentially changed in the United States since the civil war. The progress of the various sciences has compelled the prolongation of every course of professional study. The leading medical, engineering, and mining schools now require four years of attendance; the leading law schools and divinity schools, three. For this there are two reasons. There is more that must be taught, and whatever is taught is taught better. Instruction is given on more scientific methods. Its scope has been widened. Its aims are higher. In the profession of the law, the multiplication of reports has been at once a cause and an effect of the development of the science of jurisprudence. These press upon the American student with a crushing weight. Citizen of a country in which there are nearly fifty different separate sovereignties, each with its law-making power, and its law-construing power, he must be trained as never legal scholar was before to the use of libraries; to the balancing and comparison of judicial decisions; to the rapid glance that commands the situation, the sound choice between conflicting authori¬ ties; and above ail, to the power to penetrate through the mazes of case law to those principles which they often illustrate and often obscure. Concerning the value of cases as a means of legal education, we may not all agree. As to the method of their use, there are those who prefer to ask the student to trace through them for himself, in long succession, the history of legal rules; and others who would rather turn his attention to those which best state what those rules now are. But that their increasing number, in connection with the general advance in commerce and manufacture, has involved fundamental changes in the previous sys¬ tem of law-school instruction, is a proposition from which none will dissent. The business interests with which the bar must deal have been doubled in magnitude and in variety during the last half of the century now nearing its close, and with them has been doubled the complexity of our social life. Meanwhile a marked change has been wrought in our system of secondary educa¬ tion. We have never, in America, separated this sharply from the work of the university. Until recently, we could not; and we have not yet put our new oppor¬ tunities to use. Secondary education in this country began with the foundation of Harvard College. That was patterned after one of those then and still characteristic of the English university — the framework that of a great boarding school for half-grown boys. The first president of Harvard was a young graduate of Cambridge University, where he belonged to Magdalen College. The course of study there is one of three years of three terms each; students being classed as freshmen, junior sophist ers, and senior sophisters. Harvard adopted the same plan and the same class names. Fifteen years later her course was lengthened to four years, and the word “sophimore” (which had been a term of student slang at Cambridge) added to the English language as descriptive of college students in their second year. Yale did the same thing, making her course one of three years until 1710, but styling the middle year students sophomores, instead of junior sophisters.1 After 1710, the regular course was lengthened to four years; but, to quote from the college laws — 2 “for y° special encouragement of students in their Diligence it is ordered that if a student at ye end of three years Continuance in ye school shall in his probation rnanni- fest expertness in Reading ye Hebrew into Greek and into latin and Grammattically Resolving yc said languages and in answering such questions in their systems of logick and in y° principles of naturall phylosophy and metaphisicks as ye Rector or any of 1 1 Dexter’s Yale Biographies and Annals, 18. - Ibid, 350. COLLEGIATE AND PROFESSIONAL COURSES. 617 ye trustees present att yc said probation shall see Cause to propose to him, and be approved by ye trustees att Commencement may Receive a Diaploma for his first Degree.” In the next revision of the college statutes, this provision for the better scholars was struck out, and has never reappeared. From the early part of the eighteenth century to the early part of the nineteenth there was, I believe, no American college which did not map out its course of instruction into four set years for four set classes. Then came Jefferson’s great experiment in Virginia. ITe sought to refashion our whole collegiate system, and bring it into the lines of the Continental instead of the English university. From that day to this the University of Virginia has granted her honors to those who deserved them by their attainments, not by the length of their residence at Charlottesville.1 The French degree of bachelor of letters is given to those who successfully complete the studies in a certain number of her twelve schools of arts and science; the English degree of bachelor of arts to those who to this add proficiency in certain other schools. Not over three years need be thus occupied by a diligent and capable student. Those who come to the work with insufficient preparation, or pay more attention to the social than to the intellectual life of the place, may take as many as they please. Nor is a diploma held up as the great object and end to be attained. A large proportion of the students in the col¬ legiate department receive none. Their attention is directed to getting an education rather than to getting a label to certify that they have got it. In 1842, President Wayland, of Brown University, startled the slumbering circles of academic learning at the North by the publication of a book announcing his adhesion to the Virginia plan. His views encountered strong opposition, but at last, in 1850, they were put to the test of actual trial, under his own supervision, and the degree of bachelor of arts offered to all who should show themselves proficient in nine courses, each running through a year. It was thought that three such courses could be taken in one year, but those who preferred were to be allowed to make the nine extend over four years, unless the faculty thought it, in any particular case, a waste of time. The immediate result was that while the number of students in the college had decreased largely during the fifteen years preceding, running down from 195 in 1835 to 150 in 1849, it rose to 195 again in 1851, and to 283 in 1854. The retirement of Dr. Wayland from the presidency in 1855 was soon followed by a return to the old system of a four years’ course, largely of prescribed studies. The experience of Brown, however, was complicated by its perhaps premature demand for the extension of freedom of election between studies, and by the absence there of anything in the nature of professional or university schools. The latter fact may also serve in part to account for another of the positions taken by President Wayland in 1842, that the standard of admission to our colleges was too low. The age gen¬ erally recpiired for admission was then 14. Pie proposed to keep the boys two or three years longer at the academy, and to introduce them when they came to college to studies of a wider range and higher character.2 Plere his influence proved more lasting. During the last half century the required age for a freshman has been generally raised to 15, and in the older and larger colleges the average age in fact is now 18 or 19. The courses of study have also been uni¬ versally multiplied and enlarged. Harvard was the leader in this change. In 1877 President Eliot stated officially that her examinations had then become such as to require from applicants for admission to her academic department a full year of previous study, beyond the period demanded by those established -in any other American college.3 Side by side with these changes, and others of hardly less moment in our collegiate 1 William and Mary College also gives the B. A. degree after three years study, if proficiency i3 shown in a certain number of studies. The College Booh, p. 60. 2 Wayland on the Collegiate System of the United States, 107. 3 The College Book, 15. 618 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900. system, lias come a development of the professional school into something essentially and radically different from what it was at the beginning of the century, or when Wayland wrote. A new thing has, indeed, been evolved — the American university. The college, with its plan of secondary education, is a part of it; but it is being steadily relegated to a more and more subordinate position. Its leading teachers find their most con¬ genial work in fields where they can go hand in hand with the advanced student, as common learners from the same sources. The graduate schools in philosophy and the arts are overshadowing those of the undergraduate years. The professional schools are often found to be calling more out of a man, and making more out of a man, than his college instruction ever could or did. But all this new university education takes time; and time out of the best years of active life is something to be dealt out with a sparing hand. The American college — forerunner and father of the American university — dates from a period when professional schools were practically unknown in English speak¬ ing lands. Its aim, we must always recollect, was to give that “liberal education” which frees and leads forth the mind from the narrow circles of local environment; but not to furnish it with technical knowledge of any particular art. It took the boy of 14 and returned him to his parents at 18, to begin the serious work of life under other auspices. He had been taught by this time about as much as the collegian of the present generation has learned at the end of his sophomore year; less of physics but more of grammar; studying as a freshman and sophomore much that the modern student has acquired at school. Next might come two or three years of quiet reading in a country study or office, and then by 21 he was ready to enter one of the learned professions. A couple of centuries have revolutionized for us almost everything else in educa¬ tion but the length of the college course. It was four years in the seventeenth cen¬ tury, and it is four years still, on the verge of the twentieth. Not because it now takes four years to teach what was then taught. Half of that has been relegated to the preparatory school, and the other half by the aid of better text-books and methods can be far more quickly learned. It is because every student is now taken, in a super¬ ficial way, over the whole field of human knowledge, and each is invited to make himself closely acquainted with some particular division of it. For the tritium and quadrivium we have tried so substitute a rapid view of the omne scibile. We try to make our young men universal scholars before they can begin to be professional scholars. We try to make them specialists in some science before they are taught to be specialists in any art. The result is that in our larger colleges and universities the average age of the freshman is what, in the days of our great-grandfathers, was the average age of their graduates; and both in the larger and the smaller it is greater by two full years than it was even half a century ago.1 The young man enters college at 19, and leaves it at 23, to commence perhaps a course of professional study, demanding three or four years more. Any system of education which requires twenty-six years of the ordinary man as a preparation for one of the ordinary professions is radically wrong. Life is not long enough to justify such an expenditure of time. The world is not rich enough to pay what it costs. We may even say that the world is too wise not to know that, after a certain point has been attained, its own rough lessons are worth more than anything that can be got from books and lectures. At 23 a man ought to be among the bread-winners. At 26 he should be, not enter¬ ing a profession, but reaping its rewards from an assured position in the community. Which part of its training shall the American university be ready to abridge to reach this end? The tendency has been to scant the professional courses. Few can give four years to the college and then three or four more to the superior schools to 1 President Charles Kendall Adams, in Johnson’s Cyclopedia (1S93), title “ Colleges.” COLLEGIATE AND PROFESSIONAL COURSES. 619 which it leads the way. It requires more means, more patience, and more time than the ordinary man has to bestow. The new catechism of the American university conies very close to teaching that the chief end of life is to get an education. It might not be so far wrong if it declared that the chief end of life was to use an education. Education leads forth the mind to an acquaintance with three kinds of things: Acts, facts, and the relations of these to each other. It is these relations which it is most difficult to master. To know them and to use that knowledge with effect is the life work of the professional man. He must address himself to his task when young enough to give three full years at least to the close study of his chosen art before he begins to essay its practice. It is the inability of the college graduate to do this, in ordinary cases, which keeps so many of them out of the professional schools and — what is worse — which keeps so many professional students either from entering on or from completing a collegiate course. Andrew Carnegie said some years ago: “ The total absence of the college graduate in every department of affairs should, be deeply weighed. I have inquired and searched everywhere in all quarters, but find scarcely a trace of him.” This would have less even of the semblance of truth if the college graduate were, as he ought to be, inm into the world one year earlier. Three years is all that has for centuries been required in either of the great English universities (which are really only clusters of colleges) for the bachelor’s degree.1 2 It is the limit of the German university for the doctorate. It is enough, preceded by the American high school, to give our boys as much of a general edu¬ cation as is good for most of them. There is a certain top-heaviness that is apt to amuse the world in the average senior when he gives his views on topics of political economy or social science, ot the philosophy of history. He knows the latest words of the best men, but it is seldom that he has got hold of the relations of things to which they must be adjusted. He is wise overmuch. He has lived too long in an ideal world, and as part of a facti¬ tious community, detached from the actualities of everyday life. To these his pro¬ fessional studies will bring him back. Their commingling of science and art, theory and practice, is what he often needs to restore his life to a just equilibrium. To such a man — neither the first nor the lowest scholar in his class — it would be a positive gain to cut off the fourth year from his college course if by this he were to gain another year in the professional school. There his speculations are always being corrected by application to concrete things, and everything is tested by con¬ stant contact with the common facts of daily experience. His business now is to learn for the .sake of what he learns:; and twenty years of learning for the sake of discipline should be enough to teach him how to begin work in earnest. It has been our American system to fix the age below which a boy can not enter college; and to take no thought as to the best age for him to leave it. Might it not be wiser to begin at the other end and ask first, what is the best age for the young man to stop learning and begin earning? I venture to say that he should stop mak¬ ing it his main business to learn by three and twenty. That he should spend three years in professional study, if he is to enter a profession, is now generally agreed. He should leave college then by 20, a nor would most parents wish him to enter it before 17. A three years’ course for all would make this possible. So would a four years’ course of which the last offered such opportunities for the prosecution of pro¬ fessional studies as would be equal to those afforded in a professional school. In a university where this could be accomplished there would be no break in the con¬ tinuity of that social life which gives to college days so great a charm. Instead of 1 Under Queen Elizabeth the course was one of four years. Malden on the Origin of Universities., 124. 2 This was the age when the course of instruction was completed in the public academies, corre¬ sponding to our colleges, under the Roman Empire. — Newman’s Historical Sketches, III, 101. 620 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. pursuing other elective courses, seniors proposing to follow the law could devote themselves to political science, general jurisprudence, and constitutional history; those looking to divinity could give their time to moral philosophy, psychology, Hebrew and Hebrew literature; those contemplating the practice of medicine could take up chemistry, biology, and botany. A year thus spent might either be the basis, as in the case of the “ Law and history tripos” at Cambridge University, of an election between taking a bachelor’s degree in arts or in the special profession to be entered upon; or it might be allowed to abridge the term of professional study to two years. This last method is, no doubt, more easily adjustable to existing conditions than to cut down the ordinary college course, for all, from four years to three. It reaches substantially the same result as respects those entering the “learned” professions, and has been virtually adopted for them at Yale and Columbia. But it still leaves the college graduate, who pro¬ poses to engage in a business career, to enter it a }7ear too late. It is hard for a boy of 20 to descend from the altitude of senior year to the drudgery of a petty clerkship, or the dirt of a machine shop; but it is far harder to a man of 22. So far as concerns those whose purpose it is to devote their lives to abstract studies, or to teaching, the abridgment of the undergraduate course would simply mean bet¬ ter opportunities for a graduate course. Few young men with these aims now deem their education completed until it has led up to the degree of master of arts or doctor of philosophy, and they would get it at about the same age, under either system. A third expedient is to allow those who can to complete the number of courses required for the bachelor’s degree in three years, and then give them leave of absence during senior year, so that they can devote it entirely to work in a professional school. This has for some years been the Harvard plan. Of these three methods of reducing the term of university residence, the first, it seems to me, is the wisest as well as the simplest. Professional instruction is best given by those who belong to the profession in question; and they also can best arrange its proper order. If a law student forms his first conceptions of law by studying general jurisprudence, constitutional history, and political science under the lead of collegiate teachers, he is in great danger of feeling later that he began at the wrong end. Theoretically, to introduce him to his profession from its scientific side seems natural and right. Practically, most law schools have found it a blunder, even for the brighter men. The multiplication table comes before the calculus. The third plan benefits only a few, and those the ones who would succeed under any system of instruction. The real question is what to do for the average man, and how to save a year more of life in the world for him. The three years’ college course and the four years’ college course have both been on trial at Yale, side by side, for more than forty years. “ Yale College ” proper has required four years of residence as the condition of a degree in arts. The Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University has given that of bachelor of philosophy after three years. For entrance to either, the student must have a fair acquaintance with the Latin language, and the absence of instruction in Greek is almost the only thing that makes the degree in philosophy mean less than that in arts. The graduate of the Sheffield Scientific School is younger by one or two years than the graduate of “Yale College” proper; but his training fits him better to enter a medical school; nearly as well to enter a law school; and far better to begin a course of instruction in engineering or any of the applications of the physical sciences to the industrial arts. The number of those who are graduated from any such institutions is but an imper¬ fect indication of how they are regarded by those having sons to educate; but it is on the whole as satisfactory as anything in the line of statistics can furnish. COLLEGIATE AND PROFESSIONAL COURSES. 621 The Sheffield Scientific School sent out its first graduates in 1852, and the whole number to the close of the year 1857 numbered less than 50. From that time on the comparative figures for this branch of Yale and for the original academic college are as follows: Bachelors of arts. Bachelors of philos¬ ophy. Bachelors of arts. Bachelors of philos¬ ophy. 1858-1867 . 1,051 89 1878-1887 . 1,343 482 1368-1877 . 1,142 351 1SS8-1897 . 1,970 1,144 In other words (using round numbers) , the three years’ course attracted but one- eleventh as many as the four years’ course for the first ten years; nearly a third as many in the. next decade; more than a third as many in that following, and consid¬ erably more than half in that which closed in 1897. This steady and rapid march of the scientific school toward a position of equality in numbers is not, I think, attributable to any superiority in the quality or method of instruction. It certainly is not due to any greater attractiveness in the social life of the students, though it has been accompanied by a growing and deepening senti¬ ment of loyalty and love toward “Shelf.,” for it is an institution with no college dormitories, no college campus, and few independent traditions and usages of its own. The reason lies on the surface. Three years of work is all that is demanded as the condition of a degree. We Americans spend time and money freely where we believe it to be necessary; grudgingly when it seems called for by tradition rather than by reason. We have begun to see that the American university is doing something that no European university has ever done. It is furnishing both secondary and professional education. It is instructing both boys and men. We have drifted into this position insensibly almost, and, I can not but think, without fully appreciating all the dangers which it risks, all the results which it entails. To make secondary education worthy of a place in a university scheme, we have advanced it beyond its proper limits. We require of all our college students in their fourth year, and often in their third, the pursuit of branches of knowledge, or the adoption of lines of research, which the experience of the world hitherto has reserved for the few who are seeking the highest degrees in the republic of letters. Hence it is, and for these purposes, that we have trenched on the years of life which that same experience has set apart for other work. Practically, we have added or sought to add half the German university course to all the English university course and part of that of the public schools which precede it; and called this a college education. Eton, Harrow, Winchester, and Rugby are more like the German gymnasium than the American high school. We take our boys over a wider range of subjects, but do not push them as far on any given line. Freshmen year in college must be added, and perhaps part of sophomore year, to put them where the English or German is when he enters the university. In theory and aim the English and Continental universities originally were not dissimilar? xlll were alike planned to teach those who had already received a good secondary education whatever men might desire to learn, as a preparation for the work of life. One might thus study to be a scholar, a lawyer, a divine, a physician, or a man of affairs. Each was free to choose according to his needs. The peculiar centralizing tendencies in English life, the nature of their aristocracy, and the remoteness of Oxford and Cambridge from the capital and metropolis of the Kingdom, soon confined university education there within narrower limits. While 622 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. they professed to teach the omne sc i bile, the professional “schools” until recent days were never anything but names. The three years which were spent at the university enlarged the horizon of the English country gentleman, but may be said to have disciplined the mind without informing it. Practically it was deemed unworthy of a seat of learning to undertake to give men any direct instruction in the art of earning their daily bread. This was to be picked up afterwards, as best might be, in attendance at the inns of court, or at the expense of patients or parishioners. The practice of medicine was for centuries regarded as something pertaining to the clergy. Those who pursued it were, generally monks, and were obliged always to have a license from the bishop of the diocese. With the Reformation came the establishment of a college of physicians and surgeons, but it was founded at London, and although its first president, Linacre, had been an Oxford professor, it had no connection with university life. To learn the science of law or of medicine, the student must leave the university and go to London. The science of theology, it was unnecessary to acquire in order to become a parish priest. Whoever could procure the presentation to a benefice, if not of scandalous life, was reasonably sure of approval by the bishop. Under such conditions the English universities became, and have to this day remained, places for acquiring a liberal education of a general character, but not for pursuing professional studies. Erom their graduates came the founders of the earlier American colleges, and these, as has been said, were naturally modeled, as far as might be, upon a similar plan. A hundred years later the professional school began to take shape here, and to appear as a graft upon the college stock. At Philadelphia the first American medical school was thus set up in 1761, in connection with the college founded by Franklin, and after its incorporation with the University of Pennsylvania, the earli¬ est course of university law lectures in the United States was delivered there by James Wilson in 1790. At Harvard, Columbia, and Yale similar establishments slowly followed, and during the last quarter of a century they have been multiplied over the country with marvelous rapidity. Particularly is it true of the law school. Of such institutions, as a distinct and complete department of a college or university, the first came into existence at Harvard in 1817 and the second at Yale in 1824. In 1897 there were 78 American law schools scattered over 32 States, with over 10,000 students in attendance. At a steadily increasing number of them, a course of study is required covering three academic years; and at a few graduates may receive advanced instruction for a period of one or two years more, and the degree is awarded of doctor of laws or doctor of civil law. The further study of philosophy and the arts by college graduates has also, during the last half century, been promoted at many of our universities, and there is no sci¬ ence in which a doctorate can not now be sought, as an evidence of successful appli¬ cation. To pave the way for graduate instruction of this nature, undergraduate instruction has naturally been made more extensive, and so more protracted. It would seem to be the birthright of our age not to increase but to cut down the ancient term of a collegiate education. Carlyle once said that what brought univer¬ sities into existence was the want of books.1 In those days men who would learn a science of whatever kind must do it by listening to the spoken word, and make their own books by laboriously writing out what fell from the lips of the master. A year might then be taken to gain what the art of printing soon made it possible to acquire in a month. The German professors still seem to ignore the existence of the text-book. They are generally content to teach the ordinary student by the lifeless and time- wasting method of reading or rather dictating a written lecture; and would be startled should one of them interpose a question, however apt. The American teacher who, so far 1 History of Literature, 106. COLLEGIATE AND PROFESSIONAL COURSES. 623 as lie can venture, makes a seminar of every class has no such excuse for multiplying his hours of instruction. He is glad that he can refer to works in which what he might otherwise have said has been better said; and that by reading them first his pupils can best come to deal with the questions which lie may bring to their particu¬ lar attention, and make the main subject of his own remarks. It is, I believe, largely this difference in method between the German and the American and French universities (for the French professor talks to his class instead of reading to them) that has excluded the baccalaureate degree from German use. The certificate granted at the close of the gymnasium or real-school course is not a diploma. Such honors are reserved to crown the higher education alone. The French have dealt more wisely with this question. The bachelor of letters, under their system of public education, receives his degree at substantially the same stage of progress reached by the German student when he leaves the gymnasium. Two years more at the university is required by the ordinary man to fit him to apply for the admission to the ranks of the licentiates. He is then qualified to receive the doctorate in letters as soon as he is able to present a proper thesis, and defend it upon a day set for its public discussion. This he may prepare wherever and when¬ ever it suits his convenience. He may continue his residence and studies at the university if he chooses, or he may pursue them in any other place where business or convenience may call him. His university course, so far as residence and exam¬ inations, need not extend a day beyond two years.1 The same period of residence was fixed in 1897 for those desiring the degree of doctor of the University of Paris. There must be some point of life at which, to the average youth, the transition can best be made from the first to the second stage of secondary education — from its simpler to its severer studies. The age at which one could first gain admission to our American college was for more than two centuries 14. During the last quarter of a century it has by some of them been raised to 15. But the great majority delay their entrance until they are two, three, or four years older. The result is that they learn at school much of what they could better learn at college. Nature herself has indicated to us the period when the higher stage of secondary education can be best begun. It is that which follows close upon the age of puberty. The youth can then acquire, in one year, more than two could have imparted to him at an earlier age. The world is unfolded to him from a new point of view. This is the time when he should be under the best masters and furnished with the best opportunities to seize every familiar truth in its new dress and know it for what it is. It is during these bright days that he should enter on his college life, and, with a mind moving from a new center of being, form those views of things by which his future course will be directed. To linger at school, surrounded by the associations and the associates of childhood, when one is able to begin the work of a man, is a waste of energy. It is not merely procrastination, but repression. The greatest lessons man has to learn are not those of grammar and mathematics, of modern or of ancient science, except as these all help to make him know himself and his relations to the whole order of the universe. An eastern fable tells us that when man was created Satan appeared before the Lord and besought that he might be permitted to endow this new being with four things. The archangel Michael preferred a like request. Each was told to prepare his list in secret, and submit it for approval. The dewil’s was read first. It con¬ tained four words: ‘ ‘ Women, wine, work, death. ’ ’ The archangel’s was then opened. It was the same. This is the list which the boy first begins to understand as he feels himself expand¬ ing into the man. The college is the place to read it in; not, indeed, to read it through; but to read into it and between its lines, the lessons of the interdependence of humanity; of discrimination in choice; of moderation in enjoyment; of regard Tin. Hist. Review, 111,422. 624 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900. for others’ rights; of patient continuance in well-doing; of the oneness of time and eternity. The college receives a youth into a new home in a larger family. It is right in saying that it will admit freshmen at 15. It is wrong in discouraging their coming until a much later age, as it practically does by demanding a preliminary education covering so wide a field. At 16 or 17 the average hoy ought to he ready for the average college. Every unnecessary year at the preparatory school means an unneces¬ sary year in the college course, and may mean the loss of a necessary year in a professional course. For our own profession, we know that three years of study is a practical necessity for the ordinary man. Three years were given, and required by the courts, more generally in the eighteenth century than they have been, until recent years, in the nineteenth. There was time for it, when the college sent out its graduates at 18 or 19. Nor was the legal education of those days less fitted than that of this to produce great men. It was simpler, but its roots ran deep. There was, indeed, no wilder¬ ness of case law through which the student must be led. Of American reports in 1798, but five volumes1 had been published. Of English, since the close of the Year Books, there had been between 200 and 300; but probably not half of these had ever crossed the Atlantic and hardly 30 were in what might be called familiar use. On the other hand, the young lawyer was expected to know something of the gen¬ eral principles of public law, and to approach jurisprudence in a spirit of scientific inquiry. He was taught general views rather than particular rules. He was encour¬ aged to strike out boldly and reason for himself; to make precedents rather than to follow them. Judicial decisions, in fact, were forgotten almost as soon as they were pronounced. They were like verdicts. The cause was determined; and, after a few years, only the parties recollected the event. Kent became chancellor of New York in 1814. He had had two predecessors, but during his term of office of nine years, not one of their decisions was ever cited before him as an authority.2 The tendency of legal education to-day, if I am not mistaken, is more and more in the direction of enforcing principles and developing the power of applying them. It is our misfortune that we must also dwell so long on the study of the law reports. The time may be well spent where the case shows how the science of jurisprudence may be and has been extended at a single effort by strength of argument and dis¬ crimination in judgment. It is to be grudgingly accorded to the mere search for precedent as precedent, or the minute hunt of the antiquary for the random word hastily dropped by some judge of other days, on which abler successors have built up some now acknowledged rule of decision. W1 len Kent read law in a country office, Grotius and Puffendorf were among the authors most consulted, and Hale’s 1 1 i story of the Common Law, Blackst one’s Com¬ mentaries, and Hume’s History of England he made each the subject of an abridg¬ ment.3 It is the indefatigable scholar only of whom such things can be expected; but the ordinary man can and must be taught something of public law and constitu¬ tional development. The very fact that most of our American law schools are departments of universities demands this of them. If they belong to a family of scholars, they must do no dis¬ credit to their position. The professional school was but slowly welcomed in aca¬ demic circles. No degrees in the faculty of law were conferred at Yale until nearly twenty years after the organization of her law school; none in divinity until her theological department had been in successful operation for more than forty. Not until last year did Andover Theological Seminary receive the power to grant degrees 1 1 and 2 Dallas; Kirby; i Root; N. Chipman. 2 Memoir and Letters of James Kent, p. 157. 3 Ibid., p. 19. COLLEGIATE AND PROFESSIONAL COURSES. 625 to its graduates, though it had been a pioneer in theological instruction, and con¬ spicuous in that field throughout the country for three-quarters of a century. No American divinity school, I believe, has yet conferred the doctor’s degree in course, though last year 'the purpose to offer it was announced by one. There lias been a certain feeling among academic scholars that to study a profes¬ sion was only learning a trade. This sentiment is rapidly disappearing. As the scientific side of the professional course receives greater attention, it is seen to justify itself by the discipline it gives not less than by the knowledge it imparts. In earlier ages the professional school was an acknowledged seat of learning. The first great university in history, that of Bologna, was but a cluster of professional schools, led and dominated by that of law. They were known as “scholse majores,” in distinction from the “schoke minores,” in which were taught simply the seven liberal arts. Each body of students, associated in the same line of inquiry, was styled a “universitas,” and much resembled the “collegium” or “ uiiiversitas ” of Roman society composed of fellow- workers engaged in the same pursuit and incorpo¬ rated for the advancement of their common welfare. Modern education began when Irnerius, about the opening of the twelfth century, commenced his lectures on the “corpus juris” at Bologna. At Montpellier there arose two schools, in the same cen¬ tury, one of medicine and one of civil and canon law, out of which in the next a university was organized under a papal charter. The unsystematic texture of the common law was less friendly to its pursuit as a scholastic exercise. The absence of English law schools in modern times left America no guide in this direction. What she has done she has done for herself, slowly, painfully, with hesitating and uncertain step. Let us frankly confess that during the middle half of this century it was but a cheap education that was offered by the American law school. Harvard, in 1829, sought to raise its standard by requiring five years of study for the bachelor’s degree from all who were not graduates of colleges, and three from those who were; but, after a vain struggle of ten years against the tide, the period was reduced to eighteen months. There were no examinations for entrance, and none for graduation. A nominal course of two years was generally announced, but the studies were commonly so arranged that while the incoming class of every alternate year could follow them in due order from the beginning to the end, the next succeeding class began them in the middle, entering at first on those properly belonging to the second year. Injdie days of this ill-ordered scheme of instruction it is no wonder that a legal education was deemed, in academic circles, to be something totally apart from a lib¬ eral education. But we of the American bar have a right to insist now that altered conditions shall be recognized and the collegiate system readjusted to meet them. It must be fitted to its environment — the schools to which it sends as well as to the schools from which it draws. It must seek this for its own sake. It has been the common belief that the num¬ ber of Americans receiving a collegiate education has steadily decreased when com¬ pared to the growth of population.1 Recent statistics compiled by the Commissioner of Education of the United States disprove this. But they also show that profes¬ sional and graduate students have multiplied much more rapidly than college stu¬ dents. Of the latter there are now twice as many to each million of our population as in 1872, but of the former there are nearly three times as many.2 The country has grown immeasurably in riches since 1872. The losses of the civil war have been repaired. There has been expansion of industrial activity in every direction. Why do so many of our young men pass by the college and flock to professional schools? 1 Bush’s History of Higher Education in Massachusetts, p. 19. 2 See paper of Hon. William T. Harris, LL. D., on the “Relations of the higher education to the community at large,” in Journal of American Social Science Association for 1898. ed 1900 - 40 626 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, It is less lx?cause they have not the means than because they have not the time which the college demands. W e who are interested in advancing the standard of the professions must seek this readjustment no less for their sake. Less than 20 per cent of otir American law students are college graduates. They come to their work unaided by the strenuous discipline and academic spirit which are the peculiar fruit of college life. A reduction of the college course to three years would give its benefits to many of these men, and particularly to those who need it most, I mean the youngest. Why is this change not made? Tradition is one of the strongest forces in any system of society which has a long history behind it. Such a tradition has deeply affected the American theory of lib¬ eral education. It is that the only liberal education is a general education — an edu¬ cation in universals, with no special purpose in view — and that this can not be given to any one in less than four years’ time. Voltaire, in referring to the great work which had been wrought in the world by Montesquieu’s Esprit des Lois, said that Man had lost his title deeds, and Montes¬ quieu had found and restored them. Would that some such epoch-making book might come with the coming century, to recover for American youth their long-lost title to be educated for a purpose, to be educated while they are in youth, and as they enter on manhood to enter also on its individual responsibilities, each in his individ¬ ual career. The corporations which control our colleges are naturally and properly bodies of slow movement. They are commonly dominated by the president, and he by the policy of his predecessors. Jeremy Bentham said that he did not like boards; they always made fences. Behind their shelter, a blind adherence to traditional policy intrenches itself unseen. It is generally fortified by the sentiment of the older mem¬ bers of the faculty of the institution. Their motto is apt to be “Quieta non movere.” Such is the case with regard to the four years’ course. The college, indeed, is essentially a stationary body. The fundamental instruction of youth in every age is much the same. Let me quote from one who has contrasted with that keen faculty of discrimination of which he was so great a master the inher¬ ent characteristics of college and university. Cardinal Newman once wrote: The university is for theology, law, and medicine, for natural history, for physical science, and for the sciences generally, and their promulgation; the college is for the formation of character, intellectual and moral, for the cultivation of the mind, for the improvement of the individual, for the study of literature, for the classics, and those rudimental sciences which strengthen and sharpen the intellect. The univer¬ sity being the element of advance, will fail in making good its ground as it goes; the college from its conservative tendencies will be sure to go back because it does not go forward.1 Nor is the general current of academic opinion controlled alone by a disrelish for innovations. To surrender senior year, or to turn it into something very different, seems, and perhaps is, a lowering of college aims. These have come to be, in the minds of many of their teachers, to produce great scholars, to develop the best minds to the highest point. They take little satisfaction in the moderate improvement of which the average man or the dull student is susceptible. It is hardly thought worth while to encourage him to come to college at all. “ There are many,” said a professor of this way of thinking, in one of our largest universities not long since, at a gathering of instructors at which the subject was under discussion, “ who enter col¬ lege that are unfitted by nature to appreciate what it gives. I would not make a col¬ lege education so cheap that everybody could have it. I would not give a $10,000 education to a $500 man. ” 1 Historical Sketches, III, p. 228. COLLEGIATE AND PROFESSIONAL COURSES. 627 There is again, naturally and necessarily, a strong vested interest opposed to any change, to be found in the men whose places a change would endanger. A three years’ college course requires only three-fourths as many teachers as a four years’ course. To cut off the superfluous studies means to cut off a corresponding number of superfluous professors or to transfer them to graduate classes. In colleges which form parts of universities such a transfer could be readily effected; but as graduate students in philosophy and the arts are comparatively few, there would be a serious difficulty in meeting the cost of instruction. Inevitably such a change of system would bring distress to many homes. There would be a weeding out of the least successful; often, too, a lopping off of the most scholarly in the college faculty. Old men who had spent their lives in the service of an institution with which their very being had become identified would be turned adrift, or relegated to distasteful work of elementary instruction. It is probable, however, that under the system of a three years’ course the num¬ ber of students would be considerably increased, so that its worst consequence to the faculty would be to confine them to a narrower round of intellectual exercise. Many a young man would be willing to face the shorter struggle with poverty whom the added burden of a fourth year, which his instinct tells him is unnecessary, now betel’s. The necessity of the readjustment, which has been the subject of this address, has been for fifteen years strongly urged by President Eliot, of Harvard. The average age of graduation from Harvard College had risen by 1883 to 22 years and 7 months.1 The professional schools of the university were contemplating a prolongation of their courses of study, and the president in his annual report to the corporation indicated his opinion that the college must meet them halfway. In 1886 the medical and law faculties joined in the recommendation that under certain conditions the first year’s study in each of these schools might be pursued by a college senior as an equivalent for such branches of collegiate instruction as he might be otherwise required to elect. The corporation referred the matter to the college faculty for their opinion, and four years later that body, not without strong opposition from a large minority, replied that the courses required as a condition of the degree of bachelor of arts might safely be reduced to sixteen. Over fourteen of these are commonly completed by the close of junior year. Four more had been previously prescribed for senior year, and the proposed retrenchment would have cut away half of these, and so put it in the power of the better men to fit themselves within three years for their final examinations. The corporation agreed to this proposal, but it was defeated the next year by the failure of the board of overseers to concur. The consideration of this problem lias been complicated at Harvard, and is more or less affected everywhere by the gradual extension in recent years of the elective system. If the college student is to study only what he prefers, he ought to be of an age to choose wisely. It would be by no means an unmixed evil if there were a cer¬ tain retrogression toward the older methods of the fixed curriculum. They came, no doubt, from the day when the college was considered as a higher kind of boarding school, under the personal care of a master, with a common table and general dormi¬ tory, and where the pupils were under a strict police supervision and forced even to religious worship by compulsion, but is not the modern American college still con¬ ducted on the foundation principle of the academic family, with its daily watch and ward? Do not its first two years still everywhere belong to those who have not yet attained full manhood? If at 21 he can pick his way intelligently, does it follow that he can at 19? The State does not think so, and we of the bar or bench know that the law of infancy needs no justification. 1 Harvard Graduates’ Magazine, I, 53. 628 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. At the risk of wearying your patience, let me restate the whole problem and the possible modes of its solution. Within the past quarter of a century the professional course in the United States has been lengthened by a full year. It was a necessary extension, which must and will be retained. Within the same period the preparatory school has been forced by additions to the requirements for admission to college to add at least a year to its course of study; thus giving its boys most or all of what they formerly received as college freshmen. Meanwhile the four years’ term for the college course remains unabridged, and the senior class receives instruction mainly in branches formerly taught to resident graduates. The result is that the average man is nearer 23 than 22 when he receives his bach¬ elor’s degree in arts from our oldest universities. Can it be that the American people will endure the postponement for their sons of the definite work of life, which follows if they can not so much as enter on the prac¬ tice of a profession before the age of 25 or 26? I believe that public sentiment justifies and will soon insist on a reduction either of the time now asked from the average student for the college course or of that demanded by the preparatory school. Each of these institutions has been pushed into a position which does not belong to it. The preparatory school should not be occupying the place formerly accorded to freshman year at college. The college senior should not be occupying the place formerly accorded to the resident graduate. To restore each to its old position would probably be the best solution of the prob¬ lem. It would serve also to relieve our system of public education from an unneces¬ sary strain. Is it wise, the taxpayer and the sociologist may agree in asking, to offer at the high school the first quarter of a collegiate education to those who for the most part will go no farther? Will it make the boy a better clerk or tradesman, mechanic or farmer — more contented with his life and more able to make the most of it? Or may he find in aspirations awakened only to be unsatisfied, in questions suggested without an answer, and doubts raised which only a fuller training can lay to rest, that ‘;a little learning is a dangerous thing? ” But there are great difficulties in the way of any reduction of the high-school course. It is impossible unless the college yields something, and the college is more likely to yield at the end than at the beginning of its term of study. It can, with no serious break or surrender of ground, dedicate senior year to grad¬ uate work. It can allow its seniors to elect the first-year’s studies at a law school in lieu of those of a more strictly academic character. It can, in effect, or it can in form reduce its required years of residence from four to three. It is done already in our leading institutions, by such means of indirection as granting leave of absence to meritorious students for senior year, or allowing them to take the degrees of B.A. and M. A. at the same commencement, or counting their college instruction in law, history, logic, and political science, as equivalent to the first year in a law school or as justifying permission to complete, if they can, the three-years’ law course in two years’ time. But these devices are for the benefit of the man of exceptional ability. The w 'el- fare of the average man is far more important. The brilliant scholar might wait till 26 or 27 before beginning his professional career, with some hope of bounding at once into a practice that would be the just reward of superior talents. It is the ordi¬ nary man whom waiting kills. It is the ordinary man for whose benefit systems of education should be framed. It is his plea that I have sought to put before you to-day. CHAPTER XL THE JUSTIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL.1 By H. H. Morgan, Principal. I. — To THOSE WHO HOLD FREE PUBLIC EDUCATION TO BE AN UNJUSTIFIABLE BURDEN UPON THE STATE. What, then, is the object of education? Undoubtedly the full, complete, and har¬ monious development of every human faculty. This statement is general, but evi¬ dently covers all partial definitions; it furnishes the only valid test of views in regard to general or what is called public education, where the limit is in extent and not in kind, and it shows the fallacy of* those who, for the purposes of general education, instead of for the ends of special education, insist upon more or less than the common interests require. To create or to perpetuate caste among the people, whether the caste be of workingmen or of the professions, is, upon the theory and practice of the United States, contrary to the public good. We therefore leave all special training to the benevolence and influence of the private individual. Education does not seek the futile end of equality in wealth, station, or influence; it does not expect, by some subtle process, to change the laws of life. It leads man to recognize (not create) the conditions under which he lives, and by an intelligent recognition move freely and with certainty where now he stumbles blindly; as an animal, he shall know the laws and conditions of his being, so that by compliance with these he shall be free from pain and sickness, and shall be the master and not the slave of his body; as a mem¬ ber of the family or society, he shall comprehend those obligations which form the foundation of his privileges, and consequently move in harmony with the law of the family and of the community. Education, then, is the normal, and therefore har¬ monious development of all human faculties; the harmony is to be tested as all pro¬ portions are tried, by ratio; and that development is harmonious in which “any phase of ability is but a phase of general ability.” A man, then, is completely edu¬ cated when he naturally and readily discharges all of his functions as a human being; an individual is fully educated when he lias reached the limit of skill possible to him as an individual; and a man is properly educated in proportion as his instruction leads him toward the full possession of his faculties. What concern, then, has the state in the education of the individual? The answer to this question will vary in form with our conceptions of the state, but however various the forms, the answers must show a substantial agreement. The state is only an abstract term for the common interests, whether these be cen¬ tered in one sovereign or be distributed throughout the countless individuals who furnish these common interests. Under a patriarchal form of government, the head of the family becomes an epitome of humanity and looks after every interest of all; under a monarch, the relation is substantially the same; but in a republic, the state 1 Reprinted from the St. Louis School Report for 1876-77. 629 630 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. is limited to the care of such interests as by the consent of the citizens who collec¬ tively form the state are committed to the care of its officers. Rational free will is the basis of American institutions; the citizens, taken collectively, are the sovereign power, and a sovereign can know no compulsion; one of the functions of the state is, therefore, to see that every citizen has open to him the means of ascertaining and of discharging his obligations to his sovereign, and then to exact a rigid accountability; it is to manage all those interests which belong to the community as a community, and whose management can not be trusted to the uncertainties of individual effort. The American state has an interest in education, because the results of education are essential to the continuance and perpetuity of the state — a necessity perceived even by those governments which disregard the wishes of the governed, but a neces¬ sity which can not for a moment be overlooked in a country which in its govern¬ ment aims to reflect the will of its citizens. The real American state is, then, the will of the whole body of citizens as dis¬ tinguished from the wishes of any individual, or of any class of individuals; and it is this common will which finds expression in our laws when these are not merely legislative enactments. For the common good, and as an expression of the common will, it deals with education as at once the right and the necessity of every citizen; it seeks to develop the individual so that he shall be educated as a citizen, and hence contribute most to the common good. The limits of this education are found in the will of the citizens; if these be possessed of the intelligence of the founders of the New England colonies, they will see the supreme interest of education and will limit its extent only by their ability to provide it, and they, like the Pilgrim Fathers, will, by early laying a gen¬ erous foundation, cause their posterity to wield the influence of the land in which they live; will cause their States to rival Massachusetts in the ability and character of the men and women who determine the standing and influence of the community. If, on the contrary, the citizens narrow public interest to the possession of certain offices and insignia of government, they will cause their community to be noted for ignorance and unthrift, and in spite of any natural advantages will fail to realize their best interests in any direction. The limit to public education is found in the means and the will of the community which affords it. If the community regards education as a disagreeable but neces¬ sary charity, the extent of the education will not be great, and its results will not have high value. If the community looks upon education as a right, but a right to be allowed only within the narrowest limits, its value as an instrumentality in the solution of social problems will be correspondingly small. If the community pro¬ poses to do the best by itself, it will place as large a limit as it may in justice to its other interests, and will debate the quality and fitness of the education and not its amount — it will feel that every dollar spent for education is more than a dollar gained to the one who spends it, both in the decreased need for the expenses for other com¬ mon interests, and in the increased value of every educated citizen. In this country the probable limit, for local communities at least, is the high school, and no com¬ munity which can afford it deprives itself of this auxiliary to the district school. The question of a high school may be considered by three classes of citizens. (1) Those who are indifferent to education in itself, and consent to public education only because it is a sociological need. (2) Those who believe in education by itself, but who look upon public education as a gift and not as a right. (3) Those who believe in education as a right as well as a political necessity. To the first class (those who regard only the political need) , the defense of a high school must rest upon the superior economy of a system of schools which includes a high school. It can be shown that equal efficiency can be secured with less expense by this organization than by a system of schools which omits this auxiliary. A high school will in this light become an economical device. Its claims will THE JUSTIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 631 readily be acknowledged by all who can understand that it is always cheap to spend $100 in one direction if by so doing one can save an otherwise necessary outgo of $150. The method of substantiating such a statement is twofold: first, to show that from the nature of the case the claim is valid; second, by showing that in act¬ ual working the mismanagement of the unskillful does not vitiate this claim. From the nature of the case, we all know that the modern discovery called the division of labor has decreased the expense while increasing the efficiency of the work to be done; we all know that the extent to which this division is to go is determined solely by the amount of work to be done and the superior economy of distributing the labor. In a large dry goods business it is found by experience, as well as by calculation, that the work can be handled most efficiently and at the least expense by employing relatively few superior men who shall be able to use to advantage cheaper labor. If the bookkeeping should require the constant services of five men, whose average salary was $1,500, that the work would be more efficiently and more cheaply done by employing one superior man at a salary of $2,500, and by allowing him four ordinary clerks at salaries of $1,000. The whole order of business depends upon the axiom that a good head can use many hands more deftly and with less expense than many hands can work without a head. In all well organized busi¬ ness, therefore, the party most directly interested has merely to see to it that his subdivisions are not excessive, and that in each department the head and the hands are to justify their existence by turning out the best results at the least expense. Upon this principle rests the various grades among school officers. First, the superintendent — the head of the whole organization; second, the principals of the various grades; third, the teachers other than principals. Upon this idea, known by experience to be a sound one, rests the grading in schools. As a matter of econ¬ omy, as well as of efficiency, it is found expedient to classify the work to be done. Hence, in the public schools, where the number of pupils is so large as to justify classification, the authorities begin by creating the primary grade, and in the least advanced communities extend this grading through what would be the sixth or sev¬ enth grade of the St. Louis district schools. The limit is determined by the num¬ ber of scholars, and this in turn by the size and progressiveness of the community. Whether the various grades are collected in one building, or whether, as in our own city, we have two or more classes of sc.hoolhouses, is to be determined solely by the question of convenience and economy. In a small town, whose population justifies only a public school, instead of public schools, the small number of pupils may com¬ pel one man to be superintendent, principal of the high school, principal of the normal school, principal of the grammar school, and teacher in each of the grades below the highest. Still, even in this case, a modicum of the full school work is to be done as rvell as the circumstances will admit. The same thing is true of our private schools, in which the number of pupils is so small that, at their best estate, the classes are put under different teachers in the different grades, but range from the primary scholar to the college student. The application to our subject then lies here: Is there a sufficiency of high-school work to justify the existence of such a grade? The answer lies in the statistics annually presented through the reports of the board of public schools. But the objector may say, “ I do not question the existence of a sufficient number to justify the existence of the grade, but I do not see why the work should Ije done at all.'' This objection might be urged alike by those who consider public educa¬ tion merely as a political need, and by those who regard public education as a gift. It will thus be necessary to reply to the objection here, and to refer to the reply when considering the views of the second class. The answer to those who doubt the necessity of the work, must be a presentation of this necessity. This necessity, briefly stated, is that a high school exerts upon the grammar school a leverage which could not be obtained so economically by any 632 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. other instrumentality, and which without the grammar schools therefore becomes a less defensible expense. It will be admitted that in proportion as the grammar schools do efficiently whatever work the community thinks proper to have them attempt, that they have their validity, and hence, that in so far as they are inefficient, no matter how small their cost, they must become an extravagance, inasmuch as extravagance is waste and not necessary expenditure. The question then turns upon the same argument of increasing the efficiency (not the variety) of the work, while decreasing the total expense. The argument must be as before, that the leverage gained by a high school grade is necessary for the load to be lifted and not for the employment of the lever; that the grammar school demands a high school, and not that a high school requires the grammar school; that the grammar schools determine the necessity for a high school, and not that a high school needs the grammar school; that a high school exists for the grammar schools, and not that the grammar schools exist for a high school. This leverage can be shown in several ways: First, it is evident that, for a large number of schools, it is cheaper and more wise to recognize the business truth of the division of labor, and to employ as few as possible of the highest grade. To illus¬ trate, it is cheaper and more effective to have one principal and many assistants, than to have several principals; it is cheaper and more effective to have relatively few ‘ ‘ first grade ” schools, and to let the increase be in the “lower grades” of the system. All this is readily recognized in the grades below that of a high school, and no one has been found to object to a classification which is its own defense. But the same principle applies to a high-school grade which enables one to employ less expensive aid than if the amount of money expended upon the high-school grade was distributed throughout the other grades, for without a principal in the grammar schools, his special abilities must be procured at greater expense through the grades now under his charge; without a superintendent, the work must be done at a larger expense by the principals, and without a high school the work in which cooperation is now possible, must be done at a greater expense and less efficiently by the rest of the organization. As a matter of practical experience, it has been found in communities that the work was improved in quality, and that it cost less with a high-school course than without it, despite the fact that misconception of the true office and relation of a high school have in many cases led to a mismanagement which prevents our seeing the results in their clearest light. II. — To THOSE WHO BELIEVE IN EDUCATION AS A GIFT AND NOT AS A RIGHT. To these what has been said to the objectors of the first class applies in so far as the gift is made reluctantly. But the gift basis is untenable by any who study those peculiarities of the United States to which we owe any advantages that we have as distinguished from the peoples of other countries as favorably situated with refer¬ ence to natural resources. The cardinal doctrine of the United States is the recog¬ nition of all taken together as the people; the abrogation of the laws of primogeniture, the destruction of all castes except such as naturally arise socially. As a State, we know no rich, no poor; no cultivated, no coarse; no white, no black; no native-born, no foreign-born; no strong, no weak; we know only citizens — good citizens who sup¬ port the public weal, bad citizens who seek their personal advantage at public expense. As a State, we expect every man to know and perform his civil obligations, and refuse to accept ignorance as an excuse. As a State, we hold that all citizens are entitled to a voice, and that this united opinion shall stand as the will of the State in opposition to the opinions of any class. As a State, we hold that these citizens, who are the true people, shall determine what they consider the common interests, and shall have these administered by the State which is intrusted with these common interests. As a State, we have decided that the common interests demand the free development of THE JUSTIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 633 each citizen, and that each one shall contend against his individual disadvantages, but that he shall have no artificial burden of civil disabilities. Be he who he may, he must contend against the greed, selfishness, envy, and prejudices of his fellow- men; but he shall receive from the community only encouragement to better his cir¬ cumstances emd elevate his character. If he meet with the highest success he shall find no barriers in society, but after he has accomplished the arduous task of raising himself from a rail-splitter to the Presidential chair, he shall be received for what he is and not for what he was. The hundred years through which we as a country have lived will satisfy any earnest and honest inquirer that, despite the forebodings which always accompany any change; despite the doubts which seem to oppress many as to the future of our country; despite the disadvantages of the prejudices which enfeebled the efforts even of those who have wrought all that has been accomplished, we have every evidence that the path selected leads to the goal which we would obtain. We are of those who feel satisfied that our wealthy, or prominent, or useful citizens are such only in virtue of the free activity which our State not only permits but encourages. W e see clearly, that but for this freedom of development, and but for the wider intelligence which is due to the attempt to exact from each citizen a clearer sense of his duties, responsibilities, and opportunities, a greater capacity for a seif- crealing activity — our prominent men would no w lack those qualities which make them prominent. We must see with equal clearness that but for the inducements for emigration, our ancestors would have remained in the place from which they came, and as their descendants would have lost our four or five generations of traceable ancestry, and have been occupied with the humble employments that marked our real forefathers. We must see that the advantages which we enjoy are due to the free activity which has arisen in all countries through commerce, and in our own, much more largely from its recognition as a cardinal truth. Hence, those who look upon public education as a gift from the rich to the poor forget that from which their wealth has sprung, as well as its only secure foundation. The increase of wealth in Missouri has accompanied the increase of intelligent activity; a period no longer than my own life has been long enough for the transformation of a town of from 34,140 inhabitants (with an aggregate of taxable wealth reported at $940,000) to one of the largest cities in the Union, with an aggregate of wealth reported to the assessor at $168,000,000. This wealth has arisen from the activity of those who in the beginning had no wealth. Any old St. Louisan knows the history of the fortunes possessed by “our oldest families.” It is the increase of an intelligent activity that has, within the last few years, inaugurated manufactures which represent $48,387,150 of capital and $158,761,013 of production. It is this same activity that has made St. Louis measur¬ ably desirable as a place of living and laboring to the many who have come hither from other places; and it is to the wants created by their coming that those who are to the manner born owe the increased valuation of their property, as well as an increase in the aggregate wealth of the community. But to secure any such results it is plainly and absolutely necessary that independence, self-help, and manhood should be developed at all costs. The development of these qualities is inconsistent with the idea of charity, and the condition of the South, of which I am a loyal son, proves, during its long history, the truth of my statement. III. - To THOSE WHO BELIEVE IX EDUCATION AS A RIGHT. In answer to those who look upon education as a mere sociological necessity, I have endeavored to show the superior economy of a graded system over an ungraded system, and the reasons why the grading should extend through a high-school course. To those who regard education as a gift, I have replied by endeavoring to expose the fallacy of such a belief, so that without any appeal to their generosity they should 634 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. pass over into the third class, and should gauge the limits of this education, not by their charitableness, but by the extent to which the right could be asserted. There remains then the consideration of the claims of a high school upon those who regard education as a civil right, but wish to have it properly related to other civil rights and to see its limits, as these are determined by the nature of the right, and not by partial and unintelligent legislation. To this class apply all the argu¬ ments already adduced in substantiating the claims of a high school upon the two classes already considered; but in addition there are other considerations which must be here represented: The political necessity — crime, caste, creative ability. The reciprocal duties of the citizen and the community. The sufficiency of the education as determined by these considerations. The ability and willingness of the community to see and to attain its own best ends. The progress of the city of St. Louis is indicated by the following statistics: Taxable property: 1864 . $70,000,000 1870 . . . 160, 000, 000 1877 . 168,000,000 Manufactures: 1860 . . . . . 12, 733, 948 1870 . . . 48, 387, 150 Products: 1860. . 27,610,070 1870 . 158,761,013 Increase, 29.6 per cent per annum. Population: 1844 . . . . 34, 140 1850 . . . . 74, 439 1860 . 160,773 1870 . 310,963 1S77 (probably) . 483,055 Rate in increase, 1870 to 1876, 12 per cent. The political necessity for public education arises not only from the inability of those of us who are poor; the community seeks through the instrumentality of educa¬ tion, not only to decrease crime, but also to abolish caste, by allowing the distinctions of society to determine themselves, and to call forth all the ability of our people, instead of being content with the efforts of those who, as individuals, find the stimulus and the means already provided for them. The political necessity takes no account of the humanitarian element, but considers solely the best and most economical admin¬ istration of the common interests intrusted to the charge of the State. It sees with increasing clearness that a State prospers in proportion to its creative ability, and not in proportion to its population, natural resources, or even the oriental luxury of its money kings. It sees that it is better for the common good that every citizen should have the comforts of life, and the intelligence to seek after these, than that some individual should control the revenues of a whole kingdom; it welcomes skilled laborers as immigrants, not because these can be serviceable to the merchant princes, but because as these laborers have advanced sufficiently far to be stimulated to seek higher prizes it is sure of renewed efforts to secure a more general and a greater pros¬ perity, not only in material resources but in that higher life which alone makes these resources valuable to any community. Hence, in the common interest, and not from humanitarian motives, the State throws such influence as the citizens endow it with towards the promotion of all that leads towards the ends for which alone it THE JUSTIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 635 exists. As a State it is satisfied that it is at once cheaper and more useful to discourage crime than to punish it; that it is vital that caste should be confined to society and excluded from public interests; that creative ability should be stimulated, and neither discouraged nor merely ignored. IV. — The reciprocal duty of the citizen and state. The State, as has been fully set forth, is not a crystallized and unchangeable some¬ what, but it is the reflection of the will of all the people who as citizens compose it. Hence the State, like the individuals who compose it, is progressive and must con¬ tinuously adapt itself to the varying needs of its citizens. We claim for our State governments this quality of perfect flexibility, and we feel its value when we contrast the results of our civil troubles with the far greater destruction which these work under the governments of Europe. Hence it is the business of each citizen to impress his views upon the public to which he belongs in order that the public opinion, as expressed by the State, shall more and more truly represent the best intelligence of the community. In this way the citizen and the State are engaged in a constant interchange, and while the functions of the State can never change, and while the field for the exercise of these functions will always be limited to the common inter¬ ests, yet the functions of the State will be more clearly defined for those who repre¬ sent the State, while, at the same time, the individual will be compelled to assume higher and higher responsibilities. Hence we are constantly engaged in committing to individual enterprise those interests which the community regards as individual, while as constantly we impose upon the State the charge of such common interests as we find injured by the ignorance, selfishness, or neglect of individuals. It is in this way that the individual returns a thousandfold the benefits received through the State by increasing the security and the welfare of the State through whose instrumentality he has prospered. This is the ground for the labors of all public-spirited men, whether they invent ironclads, build bridges, make jetties; whether they conduct foundries, and take a prominent part in every business enter¬ prise which requires ability and capital, and which is to inure to the benefit of them¬ selves and the community instead of themselves in distinction from the community ; or whether remote from these enterprises they lend ready sympathy and material aid to all that civilizes, beautifies, and strengthens the community in which they live. Fortunately for us the number of these valuable citizens is increasing, and, even where as individuals they enjoy no universal fame, they can see from day to day the results of their labors in the rapid improvement of the community where their lives are passed. But every one knows that unless he goes far enough to secure success his capital of time, labor, and money is wasted. Hence the consideration of the sufficiency of the education for the end proposed. Throughout this discussion we must, if we would reach any sound conclusions, carefully guard against confounding the question of a high school with any prescribed course of study; in considering the sufficiency of education, we must more particu¬ larly distinguish between an education in quality and our views as to the particular branches best calculated to insure this sufficiency. The sufficiency of education must be determined by the previous considerations of political necessity and reciprocity of duty between the citizen and the State, modified by the next and last, consideration — the ability of the community to attain what it may desire. A prevalent view is, that because in times past the “three R’s” constituted all elementary instruction therefore any education which occupied itself with these would be sufficient. To suppose this is, however, to close our eyes to the changes which have been wrought in the world, and to lose entirely the significance of such portions of our history as form the most constant theme of our conversation. The 636 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. increased material prosperity which has sprung from the free development of creative activity has changed the conditions of our life, and with the changed conditions has come a change in the needs of education as well as in all of the other institu¬ tions of society. Men see that in all true progress in manufacturing, the learned professions, and even theology, we need constant readjustment, but many seem to draw an arbitrary line separating education from these other interests. It must he remembered that as the individuals change, so do they modify all those institutions which are but the expressions of their will. Hence the reasonableness of an objec¬ tion against any education which, however suitable to times past, is out of relation with times present. Owing to the diffusion of intelligence, and more especially to its application to machinery, skill is now becoming as essential as knowledge was in the times of our fathers. Whether with Cardinal Wiseman we dream of converting the artist into an artisan, or desire with many to secure to our children the ability and desire of earning a living and of contributing to the increase of accumulated wealth, whether this be spiritual or material; or if we take the standpoint of the so-called workingman, and desire a fair day’s wages for a fair day’s work; or desire to reduce the number of “ clerks” (using the word technically, as it is employed by our discourses upon political economy); or desire to see each man reach his fullest development; in all these cases, and in ail others that may be stated, we are called upon to face the fact that times have changed and that we must change with them. The education which fifty years ago would have been generous no longer fits a man for the contests of life. The whole movement of physical science and the applied and mechanical sciences is toward a point at which the unskilled workman must disappear. We frequently meet the suggestion that prominent men of the past were provided with but a scanty education preparatory to a useful influential life, and we do not reflect, as we should, that prominence is merely relative. If these men so distinguished in our histories, as revered in our memories, could be fairly brought into relation with our own times they would possibly lose much of their preeminence. Within our own knowledge many men of prominence in the generations just back of us need perspective for the preservation of their traditional abilities. Therefore we must inquire in regard to the education which we furnish, as to its sufficiency for the objects which justify its mere existence. Those who regard education as a right will admit that the right is valueless unless sufficiently extensive to pay for its assertion. It is upon this idea that communities have proceeded, even if unconsciously, in demanding home education for home talent whenever it existed to an extent suf¬ ficient to justify its development. Hence, in public schools, regarded as the peo¬ ple’s schools (and carefully distinguishing the true people from the people of the demagogue, and with equal care from the people of the believer in political caste), it is reasonable, and indeed imperatively necessary, that a sufficiency of education should be furnished, notwithstanding the fact that many will, from the necessities of their individual life, be unable to avail themselves of these advantages. That the grammar-school course is under any circumstances insufficient to accomplish the only object of our supporting education at all, will be manifest whether we consider the needs of the many who do avail themselves of a more extended course, the preven¬ tion of caste by avoiding the exclusion of any but poor people, the want of intelli¬ gence and skill against which we are daily contending, and of which complaint is daily heard in every industry in the community; the narrowness and political imbe¬ cility of many so-called intelligent citizens; or the actual results of the products of public education before and since the extension of the course. It is materially of advantage to sustain any reasonable expense for the education of home talent at home. First, because even the money spent by the well-to-do is expended away from home. Second, because it is unprofitable to import workingmen so long as we have a sufficiently large population for which we must provide, and for which we can provide most economically and most satisfactorily, by transferring them from THE JUSTIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 637 the ranks of careless and incompetent citizens to the class of self-respecting men, capable and desirous of providing for themselves. In the second place a commu¬ nity gains more wealth in proportion to the number who are able and willing to labor for its acquisition. In the third place, a land is not prospered even materially by the neglect of those other human interests which, while perhaps no more necessary, are of no less importance. Many of those who read these words have spent years working for those changes which we see in the community, and while the return is great, in consideration of the workers, it is so small that to-day Missouri has neither the reputation nor influence which is exerted by the smaller, more intelligent com¬ munity of Massachusetts, which has had no larger opportunities. Can not, however, this work be done by private schools? Let the past history of Missouri reply, and while to-day there are among our private schools those which do honor to the cause of education, yet it could easily be shown that they owe much of their success to the competition excited by our public schools. The limit in our community seems to be the high school; partly, because we have not yet reached the point where the opportunities for a higher education are desired by the community; partly because a high school of the present day is about a fair equivalent for the district school course of twenty-five or fifty years ago; partly because we feel poorer than we are; and partly because the many have had the problem of public education presented in a form distorted by undue enthusiasm, by ignorant conservatism, or in combination with interests political or other which tend to prevent a fair consideration. Finally those who believe in education as a need, or as a civil right, and who may assent to all or many of the positions already stated, may inquire as to a limit of this education which shall prevent the error of extrava¬ gance while avoiding the stupidity and wrong of parsimony. This limit, stated in general terms, arises from the pecuniary means and political clearness of such a com¬ munity. But we must remember that our means have increased together with our needs, and that the disciplinary value of the schools assumes a vast significance in view of the immense population of our city — the consequent growth of social disparity in the community; that we must accept a rational tax in the same spirit that those who own no real property pay for the fire department, the making of streets, etc. V. — Syllabus of arguments in annual reports. For those who desire to pursue this subject further, and to avoid the necessity of repeating anything heretofore published in our annual reports, I add the following references to arguments and historical information in former reports: 1854. 1. Sustaining the reputation of the schools. 2. Infusing greater uniformity in the system and method of discipline and admin¬ istration. 3. Furnish an annual supply of teachers. 4. Pupils not to be put into the high schools while they can advantageously pursue their studies in the district schools. 1843. Establishment of a high school recommended. Committee: A. Renard, Edward Jones, B. B. Brown, and Elijah Hayden. 1853. High school lot purchased and a high school decided upon by the board of public schools. Opened in Benton school February, 1853 — removed to the high school building January, 1856. 638 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 1SG0. 1. Good English education. 2. Classical preparation for such as elect. 1864. « 1. Insufficiency of the course of education without high school. 2. Bringing together of the most advanced scholars. 8. Experience of other cities. EXPERIENCE OF ST. LOUIS. 1. Increasing favor. 2. .Healthful and stimulating influence upon district schools in inciting to industry and perseverence — each class gauges itself by the one above. (Pupils in highest classes formerly found to become indifferent as they approached “the completion of their education.” ) 3. Opportunities for the poor. 4. Dignifies, popularizes, and renders conspicuous and influential the district schools, and contributes in no small degree to make the reputation which St. Louis enjoys for educational advantages, and is the just pride of those citizens who estab¬ lished and have supported it. 1867. 1. Value not confined to its intrinsic merits, but it becomes the goal, etc. 2. Both indicates and encourages a high standard of education in the public mind. 3. Its graduates staunch friends of liberal culture and advanced learning. 1868. Admitting for argument that the office of public education is to furnish a course of instruction in the common branches, the high school is sufficiently defended by its influence upon the district schools, furnishing a standard by which are measured the results of their tuition. 1869. Unites the scattered schools into one organization— through one high school each school acts upon all the others. 1871. “ Our National idea of freedom is here to be realized only by means of productive industry. The creation of wealth is its immediate object. Hence the end and aim is first to secure the possibility of wealth to each and every individual in the nation. The directive power of the country is absorbed in subjugating nature. But for this purpose intelligent skill is demanded. Hence the laborer must be educated. Since there is to be, for all, the possibility of wealth, all must be educated. In this state¬ ment it seems that we have inverted means and end. For one would suppose that rational intelligence were of more importance than mere wealth. But in fact, people ask the practical question, ‘ What is the use of this or that branch of study?’ and not ‘what culture does it bring.’ On the other hand if we look on another side of the subject we see that there is a great positive value to the position taken, even though it is materialistic. It has been the tendency of industry in former ages and countries to degrade the laborer into a machine. It is clearly the tendency of our civilization to elevate the laborer to a directive power and to emancipate him from the drudgery of labor by the aid of invented machinery. Thus, formerly, the human laborer was rendered half -brute; now the rude powers of nature are utilized and ren¬ dered half-human. All this is possible only by means of education of human intelli¬ gence. Thus even in the grossest and most materialistic view of our civilization THE JUSTIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 639 there is- a deep rational purpose, and the selfishness of man builds wiser than it knows; it is overruled by a deeper wisdom. In defining the functions of education as it is made to exist by society in the form of public schools, its twofold character becomes obvious. If a man is to assume a position of higher directive power; if he is to live in a State where he governs him¬ self, and engage in some useful sphere of industry wherein he makes his brain save his hands, letting the rude forces of nature do the work he marks out for them, it is clear that above all things his education must be a training of the will. Is it not a notable fact that American public schools always lay more stress on discipline than on the speedy acquirement of knowledge? The utmost energy of the teacher is expended in securing from all his pupils the formation of correct habits. Industry, punctuality, regularity, respect for the rights of others — these are the cardinal virtues of the schoolroom, and are the foundation of its order. ‘Order is Heaven’s first law’ — this is the maxim of the schoolroom in America. The reason is plain — in our society and government we aim to place as few safeguards as possible around the individual from without, and therefore our system of education must make the character strong and self-determining from within. The individual who shall be called upon for directive power, must first learn self-direction. How can we trust the engineer on the train if he has not a thorough character for regularity and punc¬ tuality? Without these, a collision is inevitable. So it is with all direction of machines, and what labor is not performed by machines now? Industry, regularity and punctuality, are the indispensable culture for it. So in the higher realms of directive power; in the control of institutions and in civil governments, such self¬ culture, courtesy, and obedience to rule as the school engenders, is absolutely essen¬ tial to success. It may be obtained elsewhere and subsequently, but there is no place where it is so well learned as at school. The acquirement of knowledge is subsidiary to this discipline; at least such is the theory and practice of American schools. It is not strange to find the instruction degenerating into a mechanical routine under the too preponderant influence of the strict discipline. This evil gives us more trouble now than all others. Under the strict tension of the will, the mind is not so receptive of knowledge; it is always prone to become merely formal — a parrot repetition. But the rational purpose of the great stress laid upon discipline in our schools is obvious. Under a monarchical form of government, where external limits are everywhere found for the individual in society; where he is not to be called upon for independent self-direction, it is naturally to be expected that less stress is laid upon discipline in the schoolroom; it follows accordingly that the acquirement of knowledge proceeds there in a more genial and natural manner.” — Report for 1870-71. 1&73. #• “The publication in the appendix of the catalogue of pupils who have attended the high school since its foundation affords an excellent opportunity for the verifi¬ cation of the statement, often made, to the effect that the high school returns to the community, in the shape of valuable, educated, directive power, far more than an equivalent of its cost.” — J. Cheever, 1872-73. “ The same zeal which has challenged the methods and subjects of the common schools, has with still more emphasis challenged the higher education in our colleges and universities.” “ The discussion widens its scope and extends to many other phases not originally called into question, not only the proper course of study for the public schools, but their right to exist on appropriations from the public treasury. Especially with reference to the public high school, the discussion is a warm one. Teachers and directors of public-school systems, have become suddenly aware that there may be an ‘irrepressible conflict’ between the system of public and that of private instruc- 640 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. tion. It is somewhat startling to learn that there are two systems firmly estab¬ lished in our land confronting each other with radically different theories as to a proper course of study. Such hostility could not but develop sooner or later into an open contest. Now that the general attention is directed to education as an element of national and social strength we can no longer avoid a discussion of these differences and of the theories on which they are based. The peaceful victory of industries at Paris, London, and Vienna, and the colossal victories of Prussian arms at Sadowa and Sedan, have aroused statesmen and political economists to the study of public education as essential to national strength in productive industry, and in the field of battle as well. What this education should be, how far it should be carried, whether compulsory or not, whether there should be a different course of education adapted to the supposed destinies of the pupils — these and other kindred questions must be discussed in the light of fundamental principles. On the one hand it is contended, in the interest of productive industry, that the public schools, being for the masses who are destined to fill the ranks of common laborers, should give a semitechnical education and avoid the purely disciplinary studies. The latter should be reserved for private academies and preparatory schools founded by private enter¬ prise and open to such of the community as can afford to patronize them. The higher education in this country conducted in its colleges and universities should, according to this view, have no organic relation whatever to the public-school system, but only to the system of preparatory schools and academies supported by private wealth. That the effect of such a state of affairs is to injure the cause of education in general, who can doubt, when he reflects that such isolation must have the effect of arraying the supporters of the public schools, and those who have received the primary education given in them, against the supporter of higher edu¬ cation and against the class who have received it. For it will result that those who receive a higher education will have been, during their whole course, in a system of schools founded on a basis different from the public schools, having a different course of study and supported in a radically different manner. That the graduates of higher institutions should, under these circumstances, be in sympathy with public-school education is impossible. The public schools would necessarily be the schools of a caste — of the proletariat — the class whose chief organ is the hand, and wdiose brains are educated solely to serve the hand better. The very persons themselves are called ‘hands’ appropriately. In this country, with its boundless possibilities, living as we do largely upon our hopes, conscious of a rapid development in the past, and of great prospects in the future, with a national history whose biographical side is the stor}^ of ‘self-made men,’ aspiration is the leading characteristic of the people, and the poorest immigrant here soon kindles with its impulse, and while he endeavors by thrift to accumulate a fortune, he prepares for its perpetuity by educating his chil¬ dren. There is nothing more favorable in the character of the foreigner newly arrived on our shores than this, that he is everywhere eager to avail himself of the school privileges. To the self-respect born of aspiration, what greater shock can be offered than the establishment of caste schools? Public schools founded especially for the industrial class, to the end that its children being born from ‘hands’ shall be ‘hands’ still and shall not mingle with the children of the wealthy, or with those of the liberally educated. Such discrimination leads the laborer to refuse all school education unless he can afford to pay for it in the private school, to the complete degradation of the public schools. On the one hand, those who have received higher education have been nurtured in an atmosphere of contempt for the free schools of the laboring classes; on the other hand, the laboring classes themselves despise the symbol of their inferiority and the institution designed to make their inferiority hereditary. “In all times nations have recognized the necessity of educating their directive intelli¬ gence. Those who are to rule are carefully educated for this purpose. Public money 641 THE JUSTIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. has never been grudged for the education of the governing classes. So soon as a State- has found that its national strength depended on the education of a special class,, that class has at once been provided for. The immense sums recently expended in the various countries of Europe for industrial education, show that statesmanship has at last found out that political prosperity depends upon the prosperity of the civil community. In our comparatively new experiment of ‘a government of the people, by the people, and for the people,’ to educate the ruling class means to edu¬ cate all the people.” — From Report for 1872-73. “The high school is, in conjunction with other institutions of higher learning, sup¬ posed theoretically to educate directive intelligence for the community at large. That the youth of our city have a right to this education, when with it they can rise to positions of responsibility and honor, as well or better than the people born and edu¬ cated abroad, whom we must import and retain at large salaries, in case of a deficient native supply, is the conviction of a majority of our people.” “The large number of classes required for the occupations of the boys seems to indi¬ cate the superiority of a general education over a course of study limited to the branches required in a few special trades or employments.”- — From Report for 1872-73. 1874. Change of life (caused by machinery, etc.,) has compelled a broader education. VI. — Various objections answered. I. What was intended by the laws under which the common schools were founded. Answer. — It is within the knowledge of everyone that laws change with our sense of need, and that we should not in education, any more than in any other interest,, bind ourselves to never mean more or less than our ancestors. II. Excessive rivalry between communities, bringing with it extravagant manage¬ ment. Ansicer. — To correct the management by cutting off the extravagance and not by crippling the organization. III. The great expenseattending the high-school system. Answer. — This expense in St. Louis is actually quite small when the number in high-school studies is considered. IV. The few are prepared for college at the expense of the many. Answer. — Were this true the few might repay the many, but any examination of the facts would show that only a small per cent of the boys go to college; that this objection ignores the girls, and that an examination of a catalogue, presented in the annual report of 187-1, would satisfy anyone that the objection was imaginary. V. That these are schools for the rich paid for by the poor. VI. That these are schools for the poor paid for by the rich. Answer. — This, again, is a question of fact to be determined by an examination of the annual registers. Any fair dealing with this question will discover that the great majority of pupils represent the children of widows (not rich widows), moderately successful working¬ men, clerks whose families are too large to admit of proper education under any other circumstances, and, in brief, of people in very moderate circumstances; while, on the other hand, the remainder represent the children of those who might pay for tuition, but who do pay in taxes, so far as the community pays, and who do not believe in separating, by education, their children from the great mass of people in humbler circumstances. Those who believe in a social aristocracy would not demean them¬ selves by allowing their children to mix with the mass which forms the true wealth of the people; those who are so poor that they can not spare the aid of their children and can not avail themselves of the privileges of a good English education, on the other hand, are not much weighed upon by exorbitant taxes. A third class not found ED 1900 - 41 642 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ill public schools comprises those children who for any reason need special courses of study, and who therefore necessarily seek private schools, for it must be remembered that in St. Louis, at least, the public schools have always been the people’s in the only reasonable use of the word people. VII. The State ought to put each one in possession of the keys of knowledge; but why should the State tax the Commonwealth to make some men doctors, preachers, etc.? Answer. — (1) What are the keys of knowledge? Does one become an intelligent voter by learning to write his name, or do we find that this preparation is no longer sufficient? (2) If the three R’s are still the keys of knowledge, is their use learned as inexpensively or as effectively without a high school? (3) Is it of no political consequence that the socially successful should not be allowed to dispose of the lives and interests of the less successful? (4) Is it of no consequence that our view should be something more than the selfish or ignorant presentations frequently made by those from whose social position we might expect better things? (5) Does the Common¬ wealth through a high school make doctors, etc., or does any regard for its history tell a different story? VIII. “ The Workingmen’s Catechism.” — Are you in favor of a more liberal edu¬ cation in the district schools, inasmuch as so small a percentage enters the high school? Answer. No, for precisely the reason stated, as it would increase the expense and diminish the returns. IX. The poorer classes (laborers, draymen, etc.), not using the high school to so large an extent as they do the district schools, they should be relieved of the expense. Answer. (1) They are relieved of the expense in the same proportion as they relieve themselves of their privileges. (2) The laborers, etc., are not all poor, nor do they constitute the poorer class; clerks, small merchants, steamboat men, teachers, doctors, and ministers also have a reasonable portion of poverty, and their intellec¬ tual needs are entitled to some consideration. (3) The argument against caste bears strongly against the creation of a laboring class instead of a class that labors, and those who see the best interests alike of the laborer and of the community are con¬ stantly trying to teach all to labor and thus to secure that freedom of movement without which no laborer would be rich — without which the rich would monopolize wealth, and the poor be condemned to eternal poverty — without which the poorer classes would constantly be recruited from those who were crowded out from the class of the rich. X. Objections to the studies pursued. Objection not affecting the organization, and to be discussed as a separate issue. XI. Exceeds the rational limit of State education because it is not a necessity. Answer. Its necessity to the organization for cheapness and efficiency; to the community for community uses. XII. Creates distaste for hard work. Answer. Contradicted by the facts in the case. XIII. Common schools. Poor schools and the high school is an extravagance. 1. Who are the poor that will accept them in this light? 2. State the actual cost. XIV. Incapacitate them from learning a trade. Answer. (1) Make a distinction between everybody going to the high school and relatively few going there. (2) Remember that disinclination and incapacity for trades did not begin or increase with higher education. (3) Bear in mind that there exist those who with no less aforethought do not consider their opening to lie in a trade. (4) Note the trade unions and strikes, not because from the insufficiency of tiie supply the few secure a monopoly, but because the trades are as much overdone as the professions. CHAPTER XII. FREE HIGH SCHOOLS FOR RURAL PUPILS. By Henry R. Corbett, Professor in the University of Chicago. Huxley’s famous ideal of the free school system, a ladder from gutter to university, has come near to realization in most of our American States. The free school’s tri¬ umph over the fee school is all hut universal; and. we tell with just pride how even the child of poverty can make his way to the highest places in scholarship. But one part of the ladder still remains defective, and for rural communities absent altogether. The American free school system offers to practically all the people everywhere free instruction for children in the elementary grades. If the people are fortunate enough to live in cities or villages, their children have also free instruction in the secondary grades, since in all sections of the country free high schools are maintained in and for the cities. But the free school opportunities of the country boy and girl have generally come to an abrupt end with the elementary course. True, the State universities have offered them college instruction if they could somehow climb over the gap between the grammar school and the college. One by one the remaining imperfections in our free school system come up for consideration and remedy. In their turn, vTe Americans attack our public problems in what seems to us the order of their importance and need. To some of us this question of secondary education for rural pupils has seemed to wait beyond its right¬ ful time. But its hour has struck at last, and it is safe to say that few questions of educational administration have been receiving more general attention than this one, within the last few years. This attention has, however, been given with but little ostentation; and it will not be strange if some should express surprise to hear it ranked among the prominent educational problems of the day. Each State seems to have attacked the problem in its own way and with little regard to what other States were doing. The movement has received its impetus less from the great educators of the nation than from the teachers and people of the several States. Thus, almost unknown to each other, impelled by inward conditions rather than by theories impressed from without, a dozen States have been seeking some way to fill in for their rural pupils the high-school rounds of the free-school ladder. Eleven years ago, in the council of the National Educational Association, there was presented and discussed a valuable report upon the opportunities of the rural popu¬ lation for higher education. The report bore most directly, of course, upon college preparation, and took the form of an argument for county high schools. A great deal of valuable information was collected bearing upon the conditions at that time 1 Under this heading, Professor Corbett published in the School Keview (Chicago) of April and May, 1S00, a series of articles Which deserve general attention. They are here reproduced with minor changes and a few omissions. 643 644 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. in the different States. That inquiry and report no doubt had, its influence in bringing about the present remarkable interest in the problem before us. The time has certainly come for a thorough study of the present status of this movement. The editor of the School Review has invited the writer to undertake on behalf of this journal an investigation of the conditions prevailing in the different States in reference to this matter at the close of the century. To this inquiry the present article may be considered a prefatory statement. A brief preliminary survey of the subject at this time will no doubt interest many readers, and perhaps facilitate their cooperation in the fuller investigation contemplated. Quite various are the plans adopted or advocated in different States. I shall under¬ take to describe briefly the more important and typical. 1. Union high schools, maintained jointly by neighboring rural districts, often with transportation of pupils at public cost. The districts thus uniting for liigh-school purposes may be eitner a group of country districts only, or a village district with sev¬ eral adjacent country districts. A number of States have laws authorizing such union high schools, and localities adopting them have been greatly benefited; but the total territory thus organized is so small a part of such States as to make this plan alone seem inadequate to meet the great general demand for free rural secondary education. There seems to be no reason, however, why this plan should not be authorized and encouraged by every State for localities which prefer it. 2. Township and high schools. — States in which the township is the unit for taxation and school purposes are gradually adopting laws permitting townships to establish high schools at convenient central locations. This plan is essentially a form of the preceding, and the remarks made in that connection apply here. An interesting variation of this plan contemplates the sale of all the school sites and houses in the township and the establishment of a central graded school, including a high school, with provision for the transportation of pupils at public expense. An admirable investigation and report on the transportation of rural pupils at public expense has recently been made by Prof. A. A. Upham, of the State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis. It has been printed as a bulletin of information by the State superintendent of Wisconsin, from whom it can no doubt be obtained. Professor Upliam’s summary is as follows: From the reports, both printed and written, I gather the following summary of advantages accruing from the plan of transportation of rural school children at public expense: 1. The health of the children is better, the children being less exposed to stormy weather, and avoiding sitting in damp clothing. 2. Attendance is from 50 to 150 per cent greater, more regular, and of longer con¬ tinuance, and there is neither tardiness nor truancy. 3. Fewer teachers are required, so better teachers may be secured and better wages paid. 4. Pupils work in graded schools and both teachers and pupils are under systematic and closer supervision. 5. Pupils are in better schoolhouses, where there is better heating, lighting, and ventilation, and more appliances of all kinds. 6. Better opportunity is afforded for special work in music, drawing, etc. 7. Cost in nearly all cases is reduced. Under this is included cost and maintenance of school buildings, apparatus, furniture, and tuition. 8. School year is often much longer. 9. Pupils are benefited by widened circle of acquaintance and the culture resulting therefrom. 10. The whole community is drawn together. 11. Public barges used for children in the daytime may be used to transport their parents to public gatherings in the evenings, to lecture courses, etc. 12. Transportation makes possible the distribution of mail throughout the whole township daily. 13. Finally, by transportation the farm again, as of old, becomes the ideal place in which to bring up children, enabling them to secure the advantages of centers of FREE HIGH SCHOOLS FOR RURAL PUPILS. 645 population and spend their evenings and holiday time in the country in contact with nature and plenty of work, instead of idly loafing about town. We are in the midst of an industrial revolution. The principle of concentration has touched our farming, our manufacturing, our mining, and our commerce. There are those who greatly fear the outcome. There were those who prophesied disaster and even the destruction of society on the introduction of labor-saving machinery. We have adjusted ourselves to the new conditions thus introduced. Most of us believe that we shall again adjust ourselves to the new industrial conditions. The changes in industrial and social conditions make necessary similar changes in educational affairs. The watchword of to-day is concentration, the dominant force is centripetal. Not only for the saving of expense but for the better quality of the work must we bring our pupils together. 3. County high schools. — In most of the Central and Western States the county is the chief corporate unit of local government and taxation. Several of these States have provided by law for high schools under county support and control. Much has been said in favor of this plan. Reference lias already been made to the argument made in its favor at the Nashville meeting of the National Educational Association. There seems to be good reason why every State should authorize such schools for counties where the problem can be solved best in this way. But so far, notwith¬ standing favorable legislation in a number States, it appears that very few schools are actually in successful operation; and in a State which relies upon this method alone generations will probably pass before any general extension of free liigh-school privileges to the country pupils will be realized. The chief difficulties in getting such schools started seem to ’be: (а) Rivalry of cities or towns for location; each opposing the plan if the probable location would be at a rival town. (б) The appearance of duplicating expensive plants at the same location — the city where the school is located already having, as a rule, a good high school of its own. (c) Inaccessibility from remote parts of the county. (d) The additional difficulty, which results from those already mentioned, as well as from other causes, of securing a vote for the establishment of the county high school and for the special taxation required. 4. State aid for ' city high schools, approved by State educational authorities upon condition of providing free tuition. This plan has solved the problem for many parts of Minnesota, and proves very acceptable there, where such city high schools in all parts of the State are thus open to all comers. This method tends to unify the high- school system, bringing these schools partly under State control and securing a closer articulation with the institutions of higher education. It has lately been adopted in Pennsylvania and other States, and is certain to be an important factor in working out the problem under discussion. 5. Free attendance of country 'pupils at existing public high schools, under legislation providing for the approval of such schools and compensation for the districts main¬ taining them. This plan lias been repeatedly suggested and discussed. It has been in operation for some years in a very successful form in Nebraska, where the law provides for tuition fees at a fixed rate, to be paid by the county in which the pupil resides. The Nebraska law encountered technical constitutional difficulties at first, but was reenacted immediately by the legislature without material alteration. It may still be found wreak in some technical points, since the lawmakers are blazing a new path without precedents; but its popularity and success insure its continuance under substantially its present form. The law includes in substance the following provisions : (a) Free attendance of nonresident pupils at any approved high school in the same county, or in a different county if it be the nearest to the pupil’s place of resi¬ dence. (b) The State department of education determines annually what schools are prop- EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. erly equipped and subject to such attendance. This provision has enabled the State department to exercise a most helpful influence upon the equipment and manage¬ ment of the high schools. (c) Tuition fees at the fixed rate of S?3 per month are paid by the county in which the pupil resides. (d) Pupils must have the county superintendent’s certificate that they have com¬ pleted satisfactorily the course of study prescribed by the State department for the elementary grades. This clause has been found to supply an exceedingly valuable lever for grading and improving the country schools. Thus the law incidentally tones up the whole State system of education, preparing for higher education, regu¬ lating and strengthening the high schools, and stimulating the work in the rural schools. We have endeavored to outline the various plans which seem to promise solutions for our problem of free secondary instruction for rural pupils. Two or more of these may be, and frequently are, employed together in the same State. Indeed, no one method alone can be considered as fully sufficient, although some of the plans enu¬ merated have seemed, as for example in Minnesota and Nebraska, to provide almost immediately the means for free secondary instruction for any ambitious country pupil throughout an entire State. There seems to be no good reason why several of these plans should not be authorized by law in each State in order to secure a solu¬ tion best fitted to the needs of each locality, and yet offer immediate relief in some form for every ambitious and competent country student. That the movement is one of importance scarcely needs argument. Many who may become the choice spirits of the next generation are hidden away undeveloped among these country children. “What could not Massachusetts afford to pay,” remarked Dr. Harris, the United States Commissioner of Education, in a recent con¬ versation, “to bring a Daniel Webster out of rural obscurity?” The situation is of course modified somewhat by the low tuition rates charged in many sections in high schools, private normal schools, and the preparatory departments of colleges. But with equal truth it could be said that private enterprise would partly provide for elementary education also were there- no public provision. It may also be urged that the cost of tuition is small compared with that of board and other expenses which the pupils must bear. The answer is, first, the item of tuition will in many cases turn the scale in favor of high-school attendance; and, in the second place, a free school — not free food or clothing — is the American ideal. Here we draw the line between State and family functions. Certainly all arguments favorable to public high schools in cities would have equal force when applied to the extension of free high-school privileges to the country districts. In pedagogical literature and on the* programmes of educational meet ings the question under discussion has found small space, while among those persistent, united efforts of the friends of education which influence legislatures and produce forward move¬ ments it takes rank as one of the vital issues of the day. That it is so regarded is strikingly shown in the opinions quoted below from correspondents in the several States. It may be in order to remark here that we are not now discussing the high-school question in general. The battle for the free high school has been fought and won. In every city and village the children of rich and poor alike have free access through the high-school portal to the wider and higher mental life, with its better prepara¬ tion, not only for personal power, but also for social function, whether industrial, professional, or commercial. The people’s verdict has been given and we shall not reopen the argument. Our object is simply to point out this very evident corollary — that the country boy is as rightfully entitled as his city neighbor to all these free privileges; and that there are even some reasons for urging his claims with greater emphasis. Yet, strange to say, with few and recent exceptions our whole country FREE HIGH SCHOOLS FOE RURAL PUPILS. 647 population has remained without free-school privileges beyond the elementary course as provided in the ungraded rural schools. It is unnecessary to compare the importance of the high school with that of the college or the elementary school. There is no doubt that primary and higher edu¬ cation have received attention first in nearly all our States. As a matter of educa¬ tional history, the secondary school has grown up first in the shadow of the college, to supply preparation for college courses. “To fit for college ” was its original pur¬ pose. The primary school has always stood upon its own utility; so has the col¬ lege and the university. But it is only within recent years that the high school has been recognized as having within itself the reasons for its existence. Chief among these reasons, from the standpoint of society, is the discovery of genius. The great importance to the public of discovering those best fitted by nature to go on to higher attainments has been recognized ever since the days of Plato. Huxley declares that “If the nation could purchase potential Watt or Davy or Faraday at the cost of a hundred thousand pounds, he would be dirt cheap at the money in the narrowest economical sense of the word.” What arithmetic can compute the possible unknown loss to society through all the past by failure to discover and develop the latent possibilities of genius? There is every reason to suppose that many of these are to be found among the children reared in the more natural and normal conditions of rural life. From the standpoint of social utility a better case could probably be made out in favor of free high-school training for country pupils than for those in the city; but no such com¬ parison is necessary, for only equality is asked; and equal opportunity for secondary instruction, irrespective of place of residence, is something so just and so imperative that its claims can no longer be ignored anywhere. It may be urged, however, in this connection, that progress in school conditions is often best attained by concentrating the efforts of the friends of education on one thing at a time. In some of our States the rural higli-school question has not yet become prominent. The reason assigned may be a better one than simple neglect or indifference. It may be said that owing to sparse population or other natural causes the problems of the primary school are so difficult and so urgent as to require all the energy of educational workers and aril the resources of the people for their solution. But even in such conditions it ought not to be forgotten that one of the surest and quickest ways to strengthen the primary school is to provide at once the means by which every ambitious youth may secure the liigh-school training that will make him a good teacher or progressive citizen. The powerful reflex action of the second¬ ary upon the primary schools of the State makes it worthy of serious consideration whether the free high school is not one of the most effective ways to raise the stand¬ ard of the common school. In accordance with the announcement, information blanks were sent to a selected list of correspondents representing every State and Territory, and the Provinces of Canada. The list was made up chiefly of the following classes of persons: (1) State superintendents, secretaries or ministers of education of the several States, Terri¬ tories, and Provinces, (2) professors of pedagogy in colleges and universities, (3) persons known to be particularly interested in this investigation, (4) other promi¬ nent educators wherever needed to make several representatives at least from each State and Territory. Many of these names appear in connection with the personal opinions given under the headings of the several States in the synopsis farther on. The information blank was worded as follows, with space for replies: We solicit your assistance in completing the investigation described therein to the extent of filling out this blank, or dictating answers to the several inquiries by num¬ ber. The results of the investigation will be sent to all who answer this inquiry. 1. What is your personal impression as to the importance of the question before us? Is it desirable to bring free secondary instruction within the reach of country pupils? 648 EDUCATION REPOST, 1899*1900. 2. Do your State laws permit or require (state which) the formation of (a) Union high schools maintained by several adjacent districts? (6) Township high schools, (c) County high schools. ( d ) What are the prescribed conditions under which such schools can be organized? ( e ) What proportion of the entire rural population of your State is at present (or likely soon to be) under the operation of such free high schools? 3. («) Do your laws provide for State aid to city high schools that give free tuition to nonresident pupils? (6) If so, under what conditions? (c) Are the funds for such aid raised by State taxation? If not, how? (d) What limitations, if any, upon attendance at such schools? 4. (a) Do your laws make any other provision for free attendance of rural pupils at city high schools? (6) If so, is the provision uniform and mandatory throughout the State, applying to all pupils not otherwise entitled to free high-school instruction? (c) State the limitations and conditions, if any. 5. To what extent are country pupils making use of existing high schools by paying tuition? Are fees moderate? Give an estimated average. 6. Are there any other conditions in your State which affect the problem — parti¬ ally supplying or removing the need, aggravating, or emphasizing it? 7. Has any plan for providing free higli-school instruction for rural pupils been proposed for legislation or seriously discussed in your State? If so, give particulars, and the prospect for such legislation. 8. If you can conveniently give references to any publication or document in which this subject is discussed, for either your own or other States, please do so. Include any other source of information — names and addresses of persons interested, articles in periodicals, sections of the school laws, etc. 9. Any other suggestions or remarks. Address replies to the editor of the School Review, the University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. The results of our investigation of this subject have been most gratifying. Inter¬ esting and instructive facts have been collected beyond our expectations, both in quantity and in importance. We had already discovered, from various sources of information, that several States were moving in this matter, but the fuller and more exact statements we have now secured give added proof of the widespread interest in our subject, and make very evident the timeliness and importance of the investi¬ gation. Before presenting a digest of the data obtained from the different States, a few general remarks and explanations may be of value. First, as to the answers given to “ Question 1,” requesting a statement of personal opinion as to the importance of the investigation and the desirableness of the move¬ ment. If any doubt existed as to such importance and desirability, it would cer¬ tainly be dissipated by the strong and emphatic expressions of our correspondents. It will be observed that, without a dissenting voice, they welcome the inquiry, and indorse the movement for equal high-school opportunities. It will be noted that many characterize this question as one of the most important — some deeming it abso¬ lutely preeminent — among those now before the educational public. These state¬ ments seem careful and deliberate; and such unanimity and emphasis on the part of prominent educators in all parts of the country is certainly most significant. Union high schools. — In general it may be said that union of districts for high-school purposes, which is permitted as a matter of local option in many States, has not been very extensively utilized. This by no means argues against the desirability of such permission, for if even a few localities are benefited by them the privilege should not be withheld. It simply shows that this measure alone is insufficient, and .‘must be supplemented by other and more adequate means. Town and township high schools. — Under this caption are to be described conditions in several States which have made admirable progress in the matter under considera¬ tion. The tendency in New England, following the lead of Massachusetts and Con¬ necticut, is to make every town responsible for the free high-school instruction of all its qualified students, both in city and country. It must, of course, be remembered in this connection that the New England town is a very different thing from the FREE HIGH SCHOOLS FOR RXJRAL PUPILS. 649 western township. The two correspond roughly in average extent of territory, but the New England town has many of the functions of the western county. Generally speaking, however, each town is a school unit, managing its schools as the voters may determine. In Massachusetts and Connecticut the whole population of the State, rural as well as urban, has access to free high-school tuition. This plan has the advantage of requiring the towns to do something while supplementing their efforts by State aid. Every town must either provide for the high-school instruction of all its qualified pupils or pay for their tuition in a nonlocal high school. The experi¬ ence of these New England States is exceedingly instructive, and should be noted very carefully by all students of the free high-school problem in other States. Indiana and Ohio are, perhaps, the most instructive types of the township method of handling the question before us. In both States the township is relied upon to provide high-school instruction for its qualified pupils. Both of these States have laws, very recently enacted, similar to the one in Massachusetts, making such provision compulsory throughout the State by requiring school corporations either to organize high schools or provide elsewhere for the free instruction of all qualified pupils. State aid for high schools. — The principle of State aid has practically solved the prob¬ lem for Minnesota, and has played a most useful part in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Washington, and other States. Details are given under the headings of these severed States below.1 County high schools. — The conditions described in Kansas, Iowa, and Maryland are interesting in this connection. Maryland has a unique system of county organization for all her school affairs. Iowa and Kansas have permitted and encouraged the establishment of county high schools for years, but, as will be seen from the state¬ ments below, a very small proportion of the rural population is living under the operation of such schools. Their establishment seems to be necessarily a matter of local option. We have already pointed out in the preliminary article the difficulty of securing a vote for such establishment on account of the rivalry of cities or towns for location, the duplication of expensive buildings and apparatus unless the city gives up its own high school, and the opposition of those who live in remote parts of the county nearer to other high schools. Use of existing high schools. — A careful study of all the conditions involved seems to me to make ijt very doubtful whether the creation of a new class of high schools is the best way to reach the country pupils.2 The present tendency everywhere is for these pupils to find their way into the city and village high schools. If their tuition in these schools could be provided at public expense so as to multiply, enlarge, and strengthen such schools, we should have immediately, in most States, the best solu¬ tion of the problem before us. The village high school needs the larger membership and the increased income from the attendance of the rural population. It has been often remarked, too, that country pupils are on the average somewhat more devoted to study than the city pupils, and hence improve the student spirit and esprit de corps of the school. They usually make more sacrifices to attend, come farther or perhaps board away 1 Closely related to the subject of State aid is that of State taxation for schools. There seems every reason to favor raising a much greater proportion of the school funds by general State tax. One prominent educator says, in speaking of the unequal burdens of our present local taxation: “We have no such a thing as a State system of education; but a local system under State control.” A large State fund, distributed according to attendance, would go far to solve the problem of free high-school instruction of country pupils. See the statement for the State of Washington farther on. 2 This does not refer, of course, to high schools of the same type as those in cities and villages, but established in rural centers with arrangements for transportation of pupils. This idea is full of hope and promise for the future in thousands of rural communities. For a fuller discussion of it see the preliminary article in the School Review for April. See also the footnote under the statement for Illinois farther on. Bulletin of Information No. 5, State Superintendent Harvey, Wisconsin, contains a very full and valuable discussion of this subj ect. 650 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. from home, and are generally less distracted by domestic and social interests. We see, therefore, that the high schools gain in income, attendance, and scholarship. All these reasons make it advantageous to the existing schools to furnish instruction for the rural pupils. It is better also for the rural people to obtain free high-school opportunities at these schools. Convenience is an important consideration. It is as natural for the village or city to be the high-school center as to be the trade center of the surround¬ ing country. As a rule the country people want the same kind of high schools as the people of the city. If the experiment is ever tried, it will probably be found that the separate schools of agriculture and housekeeping, established for country people only, will be but slightly patronized by the class for whom they are intended, while the greater number of bright, ambitious, country students will pass by the “ hay-seed ” schools to seek their training as they do now in the industrial, com¬ mercial, and literary courses of the city high schools. They know they are the peers of the city students, and they desire to demonstrate the fact. There is no divergence either of talent or of destiny that requires a separation of rural from city high-school students. I have heard it objected that the country people would under this arrangement have no part in the control and management of the high schools that train their children. I admit the force of the objection. In theory at least it seems at first glance a strong argument against the education of a part of the people in schools controlled by others. Several points can be made in reply to this objection. First, there is no reason to suppose that the schools would be managed better, or even differently, if the rural population participated, nor is it evident that their interest in such schools would be greater. Again, any well-devised plan will include State regulation and approval of the high schools, in which approval of course the country people will be represented, and by which their interests in secondary education will be better secured than by direct control. And, finally, whatever slight disadvantages remain will be far over¬ balanced by the advantages already stated. The legal problem,. — If, then, a plan can be devised by which the tuition of country pupils can be secured at public expense in high schools of the existing kind, we should have in most States the most prompt and effective solution of the problem under discussion. But just here comes in one of the most perplexing parts of the whole problem — how to provide in detail for such payment; how to determine the rate of compensation with promptness and equity; how to provide for its payment — whether by district, township, county, or State; how to arrange all this with justice to all and in accordance with constitutional limitations — here is the crux of the dis¬ cussion. It is evident from this that one of the most important phases of our subject is the matter of constitutional limitations. We must reach our end chiefly through legis¬ lation, and after running the gauntlet of the lawmakers our laws must still meet the irreversible judgment of the courts as to their constitutionality. Since the publica¬ tion of the preliminary article in the April number of the Review, the Nebraska law, which seemed so commendable and which promised so much, has been annulled by the supreme court of that State. The defect announced was a wholly unsuspected one, viz, the fixed rate of tuition. The law provides for the free attendance of any qualified pupil at some neighboring approved public high school, tuition at the fixed rate of 75 cents per week being paid by the county in which the pupil resides. The logic of the decision is that the actual cost will not be exactly the fixed amount, but will be a shade greater or less. If greater, the school will suffer injustice, and if less, the county will be the loser, and therefore injustice will be forced upon one or the other without consent, in violation of the constitutional safeguards. These safe¬ guards are the same in substance in Nebraska as in other States. If this judicial FREE HIGH SCHOOLS FOR RURAL PUPILS. 651 doctrine prevails, the recent law of Indiana, which is in the respect referred to identical with the Nebraska law, may also be annulled as soon as it comes before the supreme court.1 A most valuable supplement to the present discussion would be a thorough inves¬ tigation by competent legal talent of the constitutional and legal questions involved in the needed laws, and we shall hope to see such a contribution to the literature of the subject made at no distant date. Meanwhile, it is very certain that any proposed legislation in any State should receive, not only the attention of educators and phil¬ anthropists, but also critical analysis by the ablest jurists.2 We come now to the most important feature of this report, viz, the statement of conditions in the several States, as far as obtained from correspondents and from public documents. For convenience, we have given under the caption of the sev¬ eral States the expressions of personal opinion of our correspondents wherever such expressions were given. REPORT BY STATES. North Atlantic Division. MAINE. It is important and desirable. — W. W. Stetson, State superintendent. Very important. Seventy per cent of the leaders of all departments of life are country bred, and if the nation is to advance the early education of these leaders must be better. — W. J. Corthell, principal Gorham Normal School. A district, a union of districts, a town, or a union of towns may establish high schools and receive State aid. About half the rural population of the State has access to such schools. Most pupils who go away from home enter academies where fees are moderate — about $15 a year. NEW' HAMPSHIRE. Bills have been introduced in the last two legislatures requiring towns not main¬ taining high schools to pay tuition of their pupils in neighboring high schools. Both these bills were defeated, but a sentiment favorable to this idea is probably gaining ground. — State superintendent of public instruction. VERMONT. Emphatically, yes; it is both important and desirable. — Mason S. Stone, State superintendent. Most certainly. — Supt. John L. Alger, Bennington. No provision for union high schools, but town high schools are required in towns of 2,500 or more people. At present the school boards in towns with no high schoo1 may pay tuition of qualified students in other high schools. The law will probably soon be changed from may to shall, wdiich w'ill bring the entire State under the oper¬ ation of free high schools. Tuition fees probably average $24 per year. Efforts are being made to secure State reimbursement to weaker districts as nowr in Massachu¬ setts; also to develop a free transportation system. There are 26 incorporated (city or village) districts wdthin towns in Vermont. In such cases pupils of the town outside the incorporated district may attend the high school in the village or city at the expense of the town for tuition. MASSACHUSETTS. It is decidedly important. The discovery and development of superior ability wherever it exists is one of the important safeguards of a democratic society; but to 1 It is interesting- to note in this connection that the laws in the Province of Ontario, Canada, pro¬ vide for a ready and compulsory arbitration in the event of dissatisfaction or disagreement as to the rate to be paid by one corporation to another for the free instruction of nonresident pupils; Perhaps the defect alleged in the Nebraska decision can be remedied by applying this principle of arbi¬ tration. 2 See under “ Montana,” farther on. 652 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. secure this, secondary education should he within the reach of all — not merely of all in the cities. Moreover, free secondary education sufficiently broad and so flexibly administered as to meet the wants of all pupils, whether they intend ultimately to go to college, enter a profession, go into business, or remain on the farm, would undoubt¬ edly tend to check the migration of the best families from the country to the cities — a very desirable result, — Prof. Paul H. II anus, department of education and teach¬ ing, Harvard University. Very important and desirable. — Secretary F. A. Hill and Agent John T. Prince, of the State board of education. Union high schools are permitted, but none exist. Town high schools are permit¬ ted in ail towns and required if there were 500 families or householders in the town at the last preceding census. Such required schools shall have a course of four years and an annual term of forty weeks. A town may, if it chooses, meet only a portion of such requirements in its own high school; provided that it shall make adequate provision for meeting the rest of said requirements in the high school of another town or city. All towns not included above, and not maintaining such high schools, must pay for the tuition of their qualified students.1 I quote the following from a recent address by Frank A. Hill, secretary of the State board of education: In 1891 the State took a step which placed it, for the first®time, in advance of the founders. It ordered that free high-school tuition thereafter should be the legal right of every properly qualified child in the Commonwealth. Every town, without exception, must furnish it either in its own high school or in that of a neighbor. Other States have gone beyond Massachusetts in making the college or university a part of the public school system, but Massachusetts was the first State in the Union, if not the first in the world, to make it compulsory on all its towns to provide free high-school instruc¬ tion. Such compulsion bore with hardship, of course, on many small and feeble towns. Hence arose in 1895 the policy in such cases of State reimbursement of high-school tuition payments in towns whose valuation does not exceed $500,000. These amounts are paid from the State treasury to the town treasurer upon sworn statement, of town officials approved by the State board of education. During the year ending June, 1899, $9,436.67 was thus reimbursed by the State to 59 such towns for tuition fees of 298 pupils in 41 different high schools, at an average rate of $34.29 per pupil. Eates are fixed by the high schools furnishing the instruction. Thus far, in approving certificates for reim¬ bursement by the State, the question of the right of the State board of education to disapprove a rate has not been considered. Inasmuch as many high schools furnish tuition to towns that are not reim¬ bursed by the State, as well as to towns that are, it is important, for the sake of the former, at least, that rates should be moderate. It is quite possible for a rate to fall under the actual cost of a high school that must be maintained, and yet be pecuniarily profitable to it. In 1898 the legislature abolished the distinction, between first-grade high schools and second, the people having previously abolished it in most of the towns. The length of the high-school curriculum was for the first time fixed; there must be at least one course four years long. A town may maintain a high school for a part of the course (four years) if it will pay for the rest of the course elsewhere. This progressive legislation is, in itself, an expression of the people’s conviction of the value of the high school. It has placed the high school in the best legal position it has ever held. No State money for schools is raised by direct taxation, although some State money is expended for schools. Free transportation of pupils is authorized by lav/ and extensively practiced. Practically, a few towns, not many, find it difficult, from local conditions, to make high-school instruction convenient to their children. Mas¬ sachusetts seems to have come very close to an ideal solution of the problem: 95.68 per cent of the population have access to free high schools at home, the remainder have free access to these schools away from home. RHODE ISLAND. I believe in the idea very strongly. — Thomas B. Stockwell, State commissioner of public schools. At present about 30 per cent of the rural population have access to free high schools. The proportion will probably be much greater very soon. It is only two years since State aid has been given to high schools. Eastern portion of State sparsely peopled; only two or three villages large enough for high schools. To reach the country pupils will require a good deal of transportation. CONNECTICUT. All children residing in towns without a high school may attend free a nonlocal high school. This opens the high schools to all the children of the State. Any tov/n may establish and maintain a high school, whether primary schools are controlled by the town or by districts therein. The new law of 1897, as amended in 1899, provides that any town in which a high 1 It is to be remembered, of course, that the entire rural population of Massachusetts live in towns* The word, is used in a different sense in other parts of the country. FREE HIGH SCHOOLS FOR RURAL PUPILS. 653 school is not maintained shall pay tuition of qualified pupils in an approved high school of another town. Every town, whatever its valuation, shall receive from the State annually in July two-thirds of the amount thus expended. NEW YORK. I would enlarge the scope of the high school and make it absolutely free to all pupils, providing by State aid for advantages now secured only by payment of tuition. Every child should be educated free in the high school nearest to him. There should be no favoritism or distinction. — Charles R. Skinner, State superintendent. At present, although New York has, perhaps, the finest system of city and village high schools in the country, there is practically no provision for the free secondary instruction of rural pupils. NEW JERSEY. I regard it as of the utmost importance. I believe in equality of opportunity, and think our country youth are as rightfully entitled to high-school facilities as those of our cities and larger towns. — C. J. Baxter, State superintendent. A very vital question. It is most certainly a desirable thing to bring about. — L. Seeley, professor of pedagogy, State Normal School, Trenton. A union of adjacent districts for graded school and high school purposes is pro¬ vided for in a law just passed. Nothing done under it yet. Vote of the people of each district necessary. Nonresident children may attend a neighboring high school free, if the boards of the two districts agree upon the rate to be paid by the district sending the pupils. Nonresidents attend high schools to a considerable extent. Tuition fees average about $50 per annum. PENNSYLVANIA. It is very important. — N. C. Schaeffer, State superintendent. If secondary instruction can be made “practical,” it would be a crime to withhold it from the country pupils. — President Henry T. Spangler, Ursinus College. No provision for free attendance of country pupils. Laws permit high schools only in boroughs above a certain minimum population. By the new law of 1895 high schools receive State aid in the sum of $200 for each grade or year of high-school work — $800 if the school has a four-years’ course. It appears that this grant has not yet become operative, owing to lack of special appro¬ priation of funds to meet its provisions. The law seems to include no provision for free attendance of nonfesidents, as in Minnesota, and hence has no special signifi¬ cance in the present investigation. SouTn Atlantic Division. MARYLAND. Unquestionably — just as important as for city pupils. — E. B. Prettyman, State superintendent. Ares; it is desirable. — President E. E. Cates, Frederick College. In Maryland the county is the unit for all school purposes, all schools being con¬ trolled by county boards and supported by county taxation, the State funds being apportioned by counties on the basis of school population. This practically elimi¬ nates any serious “rural school problem.” All high schools are free to all in the county. Baltimore city is the sole exception, having its own school government and charging fees to nonresidents. The old State academies, supported in part by the State, charge moderate tuition fees to all alike. One or more election districts may build a high-school building and present it to the county board, which must then maintain a school therein. The system is not reported to work very well in some respects. Politics tends to dominate the schools, and the teaching force in many places is not of a high order. No system is free, however, from either of these evils, and the special problem of opportunity for rural pupils is solved by the county system. Except in one or two very mountainous counties practically all the country people of the State have easy access to free high -school instruction. 654 EDUCATION EE PORT, 1899-1900. WEST VIRGINIA. Yes; it is important and desirable. — State Supt. J. R. Trotter. Laws authorize the establishment of union and township high schools. Very few country people yet under their operation. Practically no provision for free high- scliooi instruction of rural pupils. Number attending city schools not very great. Average tuition fees about $1.50 per month. Pairal population scattered. GEORGIA. In Georgia, where no legal countenance is given to secondary education while the State provides both elementary and university education, the question is now of the greatest importance. — Supt. C. B. Gibson, Columbus. I indorse the project most heartily. The public high schools of the South consti¬ tute the weakest part of a system which is at best imperfect. — Prof. Nathan B. Young, department of pedagogy, Georgia State Industrial College. Laws do not authorize any public high schools, but by common consent they exist in cities and some counties, generally for white pupils only. About twelve counties have county high schools, including four counties which combine city and county in school affairs. Only a small fraction of the rural people thus provided for. Esti¬ mated average tuition charge for nonresidents about $40 per year. Some educators are urging county high schools with dormitories for cheap accommodations of poor students. FLORIDA. It is desirable to reach country pupils as far as possible with all grades of educar tion — the university when possible. — State Supt. William N. Sheats. Country high schools authorized. Less than 10 per cent of the rural population under such schools at present. Free transportation of pupils also authorized by law. South Central Division. TENNESSEE. Very necessary indeed. — President Charles W. Dabney, Knoxville. No provision. A few country pupils attend the city high schools.; more go to low- grade “ colleges.” Tuition rates are low. ALABAMA. Scarcely possible in the South where the population is so scattered. But it is desirable. What we need most is development of our grammar schools in the rural districts. — President James Iv. Powers, State University. I am of the opinion that the question is one of great importance. I think it is very desirable to bring free secondary education within the reach of country pupils. — State Supt. J. AY. Abercrombie. The lav/ permits township high schools when trustees think necessary. About 5 per cent of the townships have them. There are certain provisions for State aid to high schools. Could not get exact details. No effective provision for free secondary instruction of country pupils. Average fees for nonresident tuition about $1 per month. MISSISSIPPI. It should be the purpose of every State system of schools to give all children of the State the advantages of free tuition from the most elementary school to the univer¬ sity. — H. L. Whitfield,. State superintendent. It is desirable, but not to be expected in our thinly-settled State for years to come perhaps. — J. G. Deupbee, professor of pedgagogy, University of Mississippi. County high schools are permitted under special charter. There is one such school (for whites) at Fayette, Jefferson County, supported by a special county tax. Five to 10 per cent of the pupils in city high schools are from the country. Tuition fees average about $2.50 to $3 per month. FREE SIGH SCHOOLS FOR RURAL PUPILS. 655 City high schools may draw on the county for tuition of nonresident pupils during a part of the year, known as the “county term.” The great trouble is sparseness of population. The race issue is also a serious fea¬ ture. Whites pay fully 90 per cent of the school taxes, while negroes usually get equal advantages. The whites are not likely to assume still greater burdens. LOUISIANA. I consider free secondary instruction of the highest importance to country pupils and am aiming to put it within the reach of them. all. — State Supt. J. V. Calhoun. Township and parish (county) high schools may be established upon petition of parish board, sanctioned by State board of education. State apportionment and local funds used as parish boards judge best. Country pupils usually attend free in the same parish. When city high schools are supported entirely by corporate tax, tuition may be charged. i Average tuition fees charged, about $25 a year. There are high schools in each of the fifty-nine parishes (counties). About thirty of these schools are in excellent condition. ARKANSAS. A matter of paramount importance. No better means for strengthening our gov¬ ernmental fabric than to increase the opportunities for higher education in rural schools. — Josiah H. Shinn, State superintendent. One of the most important educational problems before us; perhaps the most important, as the questions of elementary and university education, at least in bold outline, have been solved. — Prof. J. H. Reynolds, education and history, Hendrix College, Conway. No provision except in town or city districts. Tuition moderate,, about $2 to $3 per month. Ninety per cent of the people live outside these districts. Various plans have been proposed; no immediate prospects for legislation, although sentiment is growing in its favor. OKLAHOMA. It is the most important problem in our educational affairs here. W e have a com¬ plete school system in which provision is made for all steps in the ‘ ‘ ladder ’ ’ except the secondary training of rural pupils. We expect to do something in our legislature the coming winter. I shall look with great interest for the results of your investiga¬ tion for the aid it will bring for us in formulating our laws. — David R. Boyd, Presi¬ dent University of Oklahoma, Norman. North Central Division. OHIO. I answer emphatically, it is very desirable. — 0. T. Corson, president National Educational Association. It is a most important subject. We have just reason to feel proud of our State in this matter. We have 57,000 youth in high schools. Absolutely all of our State is under free high schools. Our further aim is (1) State aid for high schools, (2) State inspection, (3) State gradation. On the whole I feel that we have, an enviable record in the growth of high schools, and the sentiment of the State is excellent. — Lewis D. Bonebraxe, State commissioner of common schools. My personal view is that this is the one “burning” question before the American educational public.- -Supt. C. L. Van Cleve, Troy, "Ohio. In April, 1900, the legislature passed a very important act, which requires townships and special districts either to organize high schools or pay tuition of all pupils who pass the high-school entrance examinations before the county board of examiners. Such payment of fees has been permitted for some years, but the new law makes it mandatory. The law permits and otherwise encourages (1) township, (2) village, (3) special, (4) city high schools, simply upon act of local boards of education. Tuition averages probably $2 per month for village high schools and $3.50 for city high schools. 656 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Ohio has* sixty-two degree-giving institutions, most of them giving preparatory work, and 818 high schools. The plan of consolidating all the schools of a rural township at the center, with free transportation of pupils, is in very satisfactory operation in a few townships. INDIANA. It is one of the most important questions commanding the attention of the educa¬ tional public. We are having a great deal of experience just now, and are convinced of the good results. — F. L. Jones, State superintendent. Any incorporated city or town, or any township, may establish a high school for its qualified pupils. The last legislature made mandatory provision for free high-scliool instruction of all qualified pupils. The tuition of nonresidents is paid by the school officials of the school corporation from which pupils come at the fixed rate of §3 per month. (See in this connection under Nebraska.) Laws provide that whenever suitable building and grounds for a county high school may be offered to the county from private donors, such property shall be accepted and a high school maintained by county tax. Apparently there are no important results of this law. ILLINOIS. It is just as desirable and important that country pupils have opportunities for free secondary instruction as that village and city pupils have them. Let the ques¬ tion be agitated till every pupil shall have such opportunities. — State Supt. Alfred Bayliss. Township high schools authorized. Only 16 townships out of 1,500 have them. About $90,000 is paid in the State annually for nonresident tuition, varying from 40 cents to $1 per week. An effort will be made at the next session of the legislature to authorize free trans¬ portation of pupils.1 MICHIGAN. It is the most important educational question before the Michigan people. — State Supt. J. E. Hammond. No provision for anything of the kind in the State laws. As in other States, many country pupils attend city and private schools and pay moderate fees. The educators of the State have made various efforts in this direction for years, but certain classes of politicians oppose it as a movement toward centralization. Senti¬ ment is probably developing slowly in favor of township high schools. WISCONSIN. Yes. It is, however, more important to arouse the rural population to a recogni¬ tion of the necessity for a better education of their children than the district schools now offer. It is also necessary to offer a kind of secondary instruction in many respects different from that now offered in secondary schools; a kind that will appeal to the farmers and command their support. — State Supt. L. I). Harvey. I think it is desirable, but am not sure that the creation of anew class of high schools for them is the best way to do it. In this State they find their way into the city high schools, and if the State paid their tuition, as it ought to do, would go in still greater numbers. I fear a separate kind of schools would result in small attend¬ ance, feeble schools, and disappointment. — Prof. M.V. O’Shea, department of peda¬ gogy, University of Wisconsin. I believe it is desirable to bring free secondary instruction within the reach of country pupils. I believe especially in the consolidation of rural districts and the transportation of pupils to central graded schools. — Prof. A. A. Upham, State Normal School, Whitewater. 1 Since the ahove was placed in type the following item appeared in the Chicago papers: “ County superintendents of schools in northern Illinois decided yesterday, at a meeting in this city, that they would at once begin work to secure a transportation system in country districts for high-school pupils. The ultimate aim, it was announced, was to secure the* establishment of high-school centers in farming sections and convey to and from them pupils living within a radius of 4 or 6 miles. The transporta¬ tion system, it was agreed, was the solution of the country high-school problem.” FREE HIGH SCHOOLS FOR RURAL PUPILS. 657 Two or more adjoining towns, or one or more towns and an incorporated village, contiguous territory, may unite to maintain a high school. Less than 1 per cent of the entire rural' population of the State is at present under such union high schools. State aid from the “general fund,” given to all approved high schools to an amount not exceeding one half the amount paid for salaries of teachers. No provision for free attendance of nonresident pupils, hut a large percentage of the students are nonresidents who pay tuition ranging from $15 to $25 per year. Two thousand five hundred such nonresidents attended in 1S99. Some counties have organized county training schools free to all qualified students who intend to teach. The State superintendent is urging provision for county schools of agriculture and domestic economy, including some of the usual high school studies. Consolidation of small districts with transportation of pupils is also being urged. (See extracts from a paper by Prof. A. A. Upham, of Whitewater, in the preliminary article of this discussion, April, 1900.) MINNESOTA. It is important and desirable; but subject-matter 'should be adapted to the demands of rural life. — D. L. Iviehle, professor of pedagogy, University of Minnesota. There are but few things in the educational line more desirable. The fact that most pupils have school before the eighth grade is completed is an argument for, not against. They need better teachers. It is good high schools and their graduates that make good primary schools. Their influence is everywhere felt. — Ex-State Supt. W. W. Pendergast, Hutchinson, Minn. All pupils in the State have free access to all the approved high schools. In recompense for such free admission the State gives each approved high school $800 annually. More than 100 high schools are thus offering free tuition to any qualified student living in the State. Funds for this State aid are raised by direct taxation upon the entire State. This plan has been so successful that the following statement of conditions for approval will be of interest: Conditions requisite to acceptance. (From the rules of the State high-school board.) The following requirements are in accord with the past experience of the board, and are made with a view to secure conditions which render efficient work practicable and give promise of perma¬ nence. The increase of State aid to $890 justifies great care in admitting schools to the list. 1. A comfortable building providing not less than four grade rooms below the high school, and high-school quarters consisting of at least a main room, a large recitation room, a laboratory, and an office. 2. A well-organized graded school, having not less than four distinct departments below the high school, and including not less than eight years of elementary and grammar-school instruction. 3. A well-chosen geographical library for the sixth and seventh grades. 4. An adequate library of American history for eighth-grade work. 5. Suitable wall maps, a globe, and an unabridged dictionary for each of the upper grades. 6. A liberal supply of reading material in sets for each grade. 7. A well-qualified superintendent, having general charge of grading, instruction, discipline, and of the care of the building. 8. A liberal schedule of salaries. It is not the policy of the high-school board to prescribe salaries, but in the light of experience the board expresses a "want of confidence in the ability of a school to earn the State grant of $800 without salaries liberal enough to secure the services of a competent superintendent and instructors of approved experience. Experience also demonstrates that towns having a population of less than 1,000 people and an assessed valuation of less than $200,000 are seldom justified in undertaking the expense of supporting a State high school. S. Scholarly classes, well started in at least the first two years of high-school work, with a good prospect of classes to follow in regular succession to maintain a full four years’ course. A single district or union of districts arranged by the county commissioners, not exceeding 6 miles square, may form an independent high-school district, upon vote of the people of such district. IOWA. It is very important that free secondary instruction be brought within the reach of country pupils. — Deputy State Supt. Ross. _ I am gratified to find you interested in these lines. Our American people must give more sincere and systematic attention to this problem. I commend your inves¬ tigation, and shall be anxious to hear the results. — President W. M. Beardshear, Iowa State College, Ames. The question is an important one. All the elements of a high-school training open new possibilities to the country pupil the same as to the city boy or girl. — Supt. H. B. Hayden, Council Bluffs. ed 1900 - 12 658 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. The laws authorize the establishment of (1) union, (2) township, and (3) county high schools, but as yet there are only five or six such schools, although there seems a greater tendency toward them just now. Some townships are agitating the question of selling existing rural school proper¬ ties and erecting a central graded and high school, with free transportation of pupils. A law to provide State aid for city high schools that offer free tuition to nonresi¬ dents passed the house last winter, but failed in the senate. Very many rural pupils attend on payment of tuition fees ($1.50 to $2 per month is an average). Probably one-third of the high-school graduates in many cities are from the country. M1SSOU-RI. A very important movement. — Ex State Supt. Kirk. Most desirable. How to accomplish it effectively is one of the most important of educational problems. State aid to city and village high schools that open their doors to all will bring surest and quickest relief . —President AV. S. Dearmont, Cape Girardeau State Normal School. Union high schools permitted, but so far but very few such unions (country dis¬ tricts adjoining town districts) have been formed, and few are likely to be until some greater inducement is offered by the State. Educators are urging legislation for State aid, based upon grade of school, local rate of taxation, and number of non¬ resident pupils admitted free. At present probably 5 per cent of the pupils in high schools are country pupils paying tuition, averaging perhaps $2 a month. SOUTH DAKOTA. Yes; it is important and desirable. — State Supt. E. E. Collins. Township districts may establish high schools, but there are none as yet. No pro¬ vision for free high-school instruction except in city districts. But few country pupils attend the high schools. Tuition fees moderate, averaging perhaps $1.25 per month. NEBRASKA. This State has twice (1895 and 1899) enacted a law providing for free attendance of all qualified pupils in the State at convenient approved public high schools; tuition at a fixed rate being paid by the county. Each of these laws has been pronounced unconstitutional by the supreme court. The defect pointed out in the law of 1835 was in the method of levying the special county tax — -the approved high-school districts being exempted, and the tax, therefore, not miiform throughout the county. This defect was remedied and the law promptly reenacted in substantially the same form in 1899 by the very next legislature — the adverse decision having been rendered just after the adjournment of the legislature of 1897. In April, 1900, the supreme court again annulled the law, this time on account of the fixed rate of tuition, which, according to the decision, must be unjust either to the county or to the district.1 The law was exceedingly popular and satisfactory both in the cities and in the country, and all classes share the disappointment of its failure in the courts. A somewhat full statement of its features was given in the preliminary article in the School Review for April. As matters now stand Nebraska has no provision what¬ ever for the free high-school instruction of her rural pupils. AV hat the next step will be is a question of great interest, not only to the people of the State, but to all who have noted Nebraska’s persistent efforts to solve the free high-school problem. Tuition fees charged by the high schools will average somewhat less than the rate fixed by the law — $3 per month. KANSAS. It is desirable and very important to the industrial and intellectual development of the whole people. — Prof. Arvin S. Olin (pedagogy), University of Kansas, Law¬ rence. Yerv important and desirable. — Prof. J. N. Wilkinson, State Normal School, Emporia. Country school children are as much entitled to free secondary instruction as city children. It is certainly desirable. — John MacDonald, editor AVestern School Journal. xSee the paragraph above, entitled “The Legal Problem. FE.EE high schools for rural pupils. 659 County high schools and union high schools authorized by law. There are no union schools and only one-fifteenth to one-tenth of the rural people are now under county schools, after fifteen years of the law. The chief difficulty is rivalry for loca¬ tion. * Any district may vote to pay tuition of its qualified pupils at city high schools. This latter provision is recent, and very little is now, or likely to be done under it. Tuition fees range from $2 to $4, and average less than $3 per month. Nearly every city school encourages the attendance of tuition pupils. In sparsely settled counties the county board may make special arrangements for liigh-school instruction at the county seat. Western Division. MONTANA. The question of free secondary education for children of rural districts is of the greatest importance. — President James Reid, Agricultural and Mechanical College, Bozeman. Free county high schools may be organized upon petition and vote. The law is very recent and little has been done as yet. Several city high schools have been merged into county high schools. Some doubt is expressed as to the validity of the law. Attorney-General Nolan of Montana writes as follows: “The high-school law, to say the least, is crude and indefinite in the extreme. It is problematical as to how it will be considered by the supreme court, and in what way steps can be taken so as to make possible the issuance of bonds.” Quite a number of nonresidents attend existing town high schools — probably 5 to 8 per cent of their entire attendance. Tuition fees average probably $3 a month. Rural districts are sparsely populated. The pressing need seems to be for better elementary and grammar schools. COLORADO. Of very great importance; most* desirable. — State Supt. Mrs. Helen L. Greenfell. I am decidedly in favor of the movement. There is quite a strong sentiment in favor of it in Colorado. — Prof. Arthur Allin, department of pedagogy, University of Colorado. The question is important and its solution desirable. — County Supt. F. D. Ball, Douglas county. A very recent law permits union and county high schools upon vote by people and location by a board afterwards. Nonresident tuition ranges from §2 to $8 per month — availed of to a considerable extent. Size of districts and counties very large. Trans¬ portation of pupils at public expense is much needed. ARIZONA. One of the most important questions before the school public to-day. — F. Yale Adams, professor of pedagogy, University of Arizona, Tucson. Any one, or several adjoining districts having 2,000 or more people, may establish a free high school. Grammar schools may teach high-scliool subjects. High schools often allow attendance of nonresidents, which increases the revenue, as territorial apportionment is based on attendance. Estimated that one-third of the population of the territory have access to free high-school instruction, and probably any student really desiring it can secure it. The university has preparatory department, and there are two territorial normal schools. UTAH. It is both important and desirable.— President J. T. Kingsbury, University of Utah. It is important and desirable; but free primary education should first be made efficient and within the reach of all. I would not expend money to give a few free secondary education until after all can be given a common-school education. — State Supt. John R. Park. Adjoining districts may unite to form a high-school district supported by special tax. No such union schools yet available for rural pupils; but the country people live mostly in villages, and as soon as able these establish a ninth grade looking to a high school in future. The State institutions of learning all have preparatory depart¬ ments. Some rural students attend city and private schools. Tuition averages about $40 per year. A county system of organization with county high schools is advocated by the State superintendent. (Report, 1896, pp. 20, 21.) 660 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. NEVADA. I think it is important. But the conditions are such here that it can not be done as in more populous States. — State Supt. Orvis Ring. Union and county high schools are authorized, but very little has been done. There are practically no country pupils in high schools. IDAHO. I think it an absolute necessity. — President Black, State Normal School, Albion. No provision whatever. Very few town or city high schools. Nonresident tuition fees moderate. WASHINGTON. I indorse everything claimed in the preliminary article (School Review for April). This university and the State Agricultural College are obliged to maintain preparatory departments, which I believe is an injury to the high schools of the State. — President Frank P. Graves, University of Washington, Seattle. I regard the inquiry as very important and timely. — State Supt. Frank J. Browne. The State school tax is one-lialf the entire school taxation. This is distributed on the basis of attendance; hence the schools are usually glad to get students. Qualified students are generally admitted free, or on very moderate fees, not by compulsion, but because it pays the school financially to increase its attendance. The high school rather beckons to the country boy to come. The State also pays $100 per annum for each grade above the eighth, thus encour¬ aging the maintenance of high schools. Union high schools may be formed wherever districts choose to unite. CALIFORNIA. The country pupil should have as great consideration as the city pupil. If one should have a high-school education (all agree that he should), the other should have it. District, union, joint-union, and county high schools are helping to meet the difficulty in this State. — State Supt. Thos. J. Kirk. Your field of work is a valuable one. The imperative need in our public-school systems is the high school for the rural population. If anything can be done in our nation to arrest the movement of population into centers and stay it in the country, it should be done in the interest of our common inheritance. — J. FI. IIoose, depart¬ ment of pedagogy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles. The question is of the utmost importance. I am glad you are looking into it. — E. E. Brown, department of pedagogy, University of California, Berkeley. Union and county high schools permitted. No State aid for any high school. State fund for primary and grammar schools exclusively. To change this will require a constitutional amendment which is being attempted. Many nonresident pupils attend existing high schools. Fees estimated to average $20 to $25 per year of ten months. An educational commission is now at work formulating desirable amendments to the school laws. Canada. ONTARIO. High schools receive from the legislature aid proportioned to the efforts made by the locality. The county council is required to make a grant equal to that made by the legislature. This latter grant is to meet the cost of instruction for pupils outside the high school district. If this cost can be shown to be greater than the legislative grant, the county grant must be increased accordingly. The law provides for a method of arbitration when required. The county council may, however, require a portion of the county grant to be paid by the rural pupils in fees not exceeding $1 per month. It thus follows that the question of free high schools for rural pupils is a matter of county option determined by the county board or council. About one-third of the high schools thus give free attendance to rural nonresidents; and the fees in the others vary from about $2.50 to about $26 per year. FREE HIGH SCHOOLS FOR RURAL PUPILS. 661 NEW BRUNSWICK. Very important and desirable. — The minister of education. The" entire population of the province is under the operation of free high school privileges. The province has established one high school of high grade in each county and one school in each parish (township) intermediate between the common schools and the county high schools. There are also high schools in and for the cities. Union of districts for high-school purposes is also permitted by law. All schools of all grades receive State aid — about one-half the salaries of teachers. NOVA SCOTIA. It is desirable. Secondary education has been free in Nova Scotia since 1864. — A. H. MacKay, minister of education. All high schools are by law free to qualified students in the section (district). The county academies are high schools free to all qualified students within the county. Practically, all high schools — or most high schools — are also free to students from the country in their competition with the county academies. Town high schools may charge fees to country students, but generally do not. County high schools receive a special “attendance ” grant from provincial treasury. No occasion for the formation of union high schools, as the province subsidizes the county academies and other high schools admit country students free on account of effect on morale of the school. Seven and one-half per cent of all pupils are in the high-school grade (ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth) years of the public school course; about 2 per cent are in attendance at the eighteen county academies; about 4 per cent are taking full course in the other high schools; 1.5 per cent are taking only partial high-school course in these or rural schools with one or more liigh-school grades. At least two of the eighteen county academies charge a fee of $12 a year to stu¬ dents from other counties. Others are generally free to students from anywhere, as the greater the attendance the greater the grant from the province. The reason why high schools here admit students free when they could charge a fee appears to be partly to show the drawing power of the institution as compared with the neighboring county academy and partly to the good effect of the attendance of students who come for the purpose of study, on the tone of the school. Then, the addition of a few students from beyond the section does not often entail any addi¬ tional equipment and increases the amount of the “county fund” which is paid trustees in proportion to attendance in all schools of all grades. I have found much interesting material as to the treatment of the matter before us in foreign countries. But conditions are so radically different as to make these data but very slightly instructive to us. In England there can hardly be said to exist, even for primary grades, a free-school system as we understand that term, although the conditional subsidy plan has brought about practical State control of all private schools. Secondary instruction might almost be considered as historically the antecedent and parent of the English pri¬ mary school. The great “ public schools ” (which here in America we would call private academies) are, next to the universities, the oldest well-established educa¬ tional institutions of England. As a rule, there is no important difference bet ween the country and city people of England as to opportunities for secondary education. On the continent the extreme centralization of the school systems makes them so radically different from ours as almost to forbid instructive comparison. Our system has arisen step by step out of the conscious needs of the people, while theirs has sprung full-armed from the head of the State. Almost the same may be said of the Canadian as of the continental systems. In theoretical completeness these ready¬ made, paternal systems excel ours; and, as a rule, no such gap exists as the one that occasions our present investigation. It may be in order, however, to point out one very important respect in which our system is superior. The glory and strength of the American schools is the popular sense of pride and proprietorship in them. If the system is still somewhat awkward and incomplete, it is nevertheless our own. The people have made it. Little by little they are steadily improving it, and the popular feeling of responsibility for and 6.62 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ownership of the public schools gives them a superior strength which has been noted keenly by those who have thoughtfully studied school systems both here and abroad. It may take some years longer for our slower democratic processes to bring free high school instruction within the reach of the rural population. Considering how extremely democratic we are in our fear of centralization, the process is going on rather rapidly now, as this investigation has fully shown; and when with the full consent of the people and through their own acts the desired end is reached, we shall also have the richer gain of a people’s enthusiastic use and support of the means of public education. Prof. J. Yv\ Stearns, the editor of the Wisconsin Journal of Education, discusses the foregoing plan of Professor Corbett, and states the result of the State’s efforts, which do not seem very encouraging. He says: The establishment of township high schools to provide for the training of rural pupils can not be pronounced a success in Wisconsin. The State lias provided a special fund for such schools, giving them larger State aid than is afforded to city schools, but they have not multiplied as was expected. Only three or four have been created. Owing to wise management and special favoring circumstances these have succeeded, and in one case at least, at De Forest, the success has been very marked. But there are no indications that others will be established soon. Evi¬ dently rural communities do not take kindly to this plan; it is venturesome; it is expensive; it is difficult to bring about such cooperation and harmony in a large neighborhood as gives promise of success in the venture. Besides, there is another solution of the problem which seems better. Rural pupils seek existing city high schools near to their homes and find them well idapted to their needs. A large number of our city high schools show a very con¬ siderable list of “ tuition pupils,” and some of them exhibit not a little pride in the growth of the list. It is generally considered evidence of the excellence of the high school. A few cities find their accommodations so restricted that, for a time at least, they refuse to receive outside pupils, as is at present the case in Madison. Usually such conditions are temporary, holding only while the community is preparing to erect a new high-school building. In our largest cities also there are a few rural pupils in the high schools, owing probably to the sharp contrast of urban with coun¬ try life, and to the expenses of living in the city. These cases, however, are few and exceptional. In the State at large it is true that rural pupils flock to the neighboring city high school. The advantages of this plan over township high schools can easily be seen. The city schools are well equipped, have experienced and well-trained teachers, and are near at hand. The unity of the city government secures them from the jealousies and bickerings likely to arise in rural neighborhoods, and prevents the establishment of a school to weaken and perhaps destroy one that has already been established. They usually offer several courses of study and are affiliated with the work of the normal schools and the universities, thus giving opportunity for considerable elec¬ tions and for further study if that seems feasible. They can at once offer advantages which township schools can only attain to after years of effort, and perhaps may never realize. Further, intelligent parents count it of much value to their children to see something of village and city life and to be caught up in the stronger currents of social and intellectual movement to be found in the cities. Country life must not be allowed to separate itself from the cities. In fact, with the improved means of transit and communication now rapidly spreading, the tendency is in the opposite direction. It is certainly questionable whether a special class of high schools for rural pupils would not be a great mistake, save as they may undertake special preparation for the conditions and industries of rural life. Massachusetts, Nebraska, and some other States have taken a further step to strengthen the natural tendency of rural pupils. to attend existing city high schools. The State pays their tuition, thus giving to all the young people within its borders free high-school instruction. This tuition is only paid, however, to high schools which have been approved for the work by the State. The additional expense involved in hoarding the children away from home while getting their education must be borne by the parents; but they are taxed for their own district school usually as heavily as the inhabitants of cities are taxed for the maintenance of schools, and it is but fair, therefore, that the tuition expense should be paid for them. The wisdom and justice of this provision will in time become apparent to all, and the plan will, we feel confident, be adopted in most if not all of our States. — Wisconsin Journal of Education, August, 1900. ! CHAPTER XIII REPORT OF COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCA¬ TIONAL ASSOCIATION1 ON THE RELATIONS OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Contents: Prefatory note — Public libraries and public schools — Reading lists: List of books for grades, prepared by Sherman Williams — Supplementary reading— The relation of the school to libra¬ ries: List of books for grades, prepared by Charles A. McMurry; list of 100 books for high schools, prepared by J. C. Hanna — Relation of libraries to normal schools — Establishing libraries in villages — Securing libraries for rural schools — Present condition of school libraries in rural schools — Improving poorly managed public libraries — By-laws suggested for library trustees — Hints for cataloguing small libraries — Aids and guides to library work — The librarian’s spirit and methods — Work of certain typical libraries — Schoolroom libraries. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. May 31, 1899. To the Council of the National Educational Association: Gentlemen: We have the honor to submit the following report: It was impossible for your committee to begin active work until December 30, 1898. We have been unable, consequently, to make very full investigations. There have been sent out, however, by the members of the committee several thousand circulars, letters of inquiry, and requests for aid. The results of this work are incorporated in the report in part. In part they have appeared in an increased interest shown by educational and other journals, and by associations of teachers and librarians during the past year, in the relations of schools and libraries. J. C. Dana, Frank A. Hutchins, Charles A. McMurry, Sherman Williams, M. Louise Jones, Committee on Relations of Public Libraries to Public Schools. PREFATORY NOTE. By James IJ. Van Sickle, Superintendent of the north-side schools of Denver and vice-president of the National Council of Education. [Written for this report at the request of the committee.] Since the National Educational Association adopted the policy of using a part of its income to investigate and report upon matters of importance in education it lias greatly increased its influence and its usefulness. The report of the committee of ten on secondary education, the report of the committee of fifteen on correlation of 1 Appointed by authority of the National council at the meeting of the association held in Wash¬ ington, D. C., July, 1S98. Members of the committee: J. C. Dana, Frank A. Hutchins, Charles A. McMurry, Sherman Williams, M. Louise Jones. 663 664 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. studies, training of teachers, and city school systems, and the report of the committee of twelve on rural schools have been widely read and discussed. Educational prac¬ tice the country over has been largely influenced thereby; yet the service of these reports has but just begun. If it is important to the development of the individual that he let his thought go over into action, how true also of an organization like the National Educational Asso¬ ciation! Its annual meetings are delightful and inspiring; the volumes of proceedings form a cyclopaedia of education of untold value; the papers and discussions, while in the main expressing individual opinion, yet show the general trend of public senti¬ ment as it changes and advances from year to year. But valuable as are the addresses and discussions, the carefully prepared reports of the few special committees thus far authorized by the association have been of far greater service in unifying school work. The more careful investigation made possible by adequate financial support insures conclusions which are likely to be accepted as reliable. In this way more than in any other is the National Educational Association becoming a reforming agent of gigantic power. The new rule requiring the approval of the national council of all investigations carrying appropriation, and placing such investigation under the aus¬ pices of the council, insures a careful weighing of values and is a needed and sufficient check upon unwise or needless expenditures. No investigation yet undertaken promises greater returns than the one embodied in this report upon the relation of public libraries to public schools. The past few years have witnessed a remarkable movement, confined to no one part of the United States, looking toward organizing and directing the reading of children; yet the gen¬ eral and departmental programmes of the National Educational Association gave no indications previous to 1897 that the association recognized its opportunity to direct the movement. In 1896, in response to a circular letter prepared by Mr. J. C. Dana, then librarian of the Denver Public Library and president of the American Library Association, a petition to the board of directors of the National Educational Associ¬ ation was numerously signed, resulting in the creation of a library department, with Hon. Melvil Dewey, of New York, as president. Librarians and teachers worked together in the department from the first with a few definite purposes, among which were the following: To find out what had been done by teachers toward the direc¬ tion and study of the reading of children; to find out what librarians had done to encourage and assist teachers in this work; to bring teachers and librarians into more mutually helpful relations; to determine the best books for various purposes and their adaptability to children of different ages. The following quotation from the remarks of Mr. Melvil Dewey before the board of directors at Buffalo gives very clearly the aim of the department : By law the children are put under your influence in their earlier years, when, if ever, they can be taught to love good books so well that in all their lives thereafter they will seize on every opportunity to read them. If the librarians, with their wing of the educational army, can select and catalogue and provide free of cost the best on every subject, the schoolmen, with their wing and with their immensely larger resources both of money and men — and, still better, of devoted women — must send out from the schools, year by year, boys and girls who will be lifelong patrons of the public library, and will in due time help to send their own children along the paths which have proved for them so profitable and pleasant. * * * But its great work should be the partial recognition that education is no longer for youth and for a limited course in a school to which they give most of their time, but that it is really a matter for adults as Avell as youth, for life and not for the course, to be carried on at home as well as in the schools, and to be taken up in the hours or minutes of leisure as the proper accompaniment of their regular business or labor. This means that education must be carried on by means of reading, and that if the librarians are to furnish the books and give all necessary help in their proper field, the schools must furnish the readers. At the Milwaukee meeting, 1897, two committees were appointed — one, with F. A. Hutchins, of Wisconsin, as chairman, to prepare and recommend lists of books and PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 665 editions suited for the reading and reference use of pupils in the several grades of the public schools; and the other, with J. C. Dana as chairman, to report on the relations of public libraries to public schools, indicating methods of cooperation by which the usefulness of both may be increased. At the Washington meeting, 189S, these two committees reported. (See Proceedings of the National Educational Association, pp. 1014-1028.) On the recommendation of the committee on reading lists and editions, the depart¬ ment decided to create a committee of five members instead of two, as before, the new committee, called the committee on relation of public libraries to public schools, to be charged with the duties of the two former committees. An appropriation of $500 having been made by the board of directors for carrying on the work, the mem¬ bers of this committee were appointed by the National Council of Education. It seems to be true that the greatest amount of reading is done by children between the ages of 12 and 14, and that by the end of the high-school course pupils settle down to one class of reading matter, whatever that, may be. (Proceedings of the National Educational Association, 1897, p. 1019.) The importance of deciding what books are suited to children at this period, and of placing such books within their reach, will be readily conceded. Children will read what they like. If we can find out what they like and then provide it for them from literature true to life, now accessible, we may be reasonably certain that the class of reading settled down to later will never drop below the level of the taste thus formed. But to begin our selection for the child at the age of 12 is too late for best results. We must begin as soon as he learns to read, or even before, if possible, by reading to him and by story-telling. Not the least of the difficulties is the selection of a few appropriate books from the vast number available. In this matter the report will be found to be of great service. It covers the entire field of home and school reading. In the city the problem is comparatively easy, provided teachers are alive to their opportunities. Here much has been done. In the country and in the small village the problem is more difficult. This report gives valuable experience to aid the teacher in this great work, wherever his lot may be. I. PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. By Sherman Williams. The education gained at school must, with the great majority of people, be meager at the best. This may be, and should be, supplemented by extensive reading after the school life is finished. If this work is to be done well, and under favorable con¬ ditions, the pupil must, wffiile in school, not only be trained to like good literature, but also, if possible, to use a public library intelligently. This demands cordial rela¬ tions and intelligent cooperation between school and library authorities, between teachers and librarians. The library must be regarded as an important and necessary part of the system of public education. It is said that not more than 1 in 500 of the inhabitants of Massa¬ chusetts are without library facilities. This should be the condition everywhere, and may be at no very distant time if those who should be most interested — the teachers of the country — will make a unanimous, persistent, and continued effort in this direc¬ tion. There is nothing that appeals to people more generally, or to which they will respond more readily and liberally, than an effort to establish free public libraries, if the work is carried on with good judgment. The teachers of a town should know the public library, what it contains, and what use the pupils can make of it. The librarian must know the school, its work, its needs, and what he can do to meet them. He must be able to supplement and broaden the work of the teacher of geography, science, history, or literature. He EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 666 should meet the teachers from time to time and become generally familiar with their work, and they should meet with him and become familiar with the library, what it contains, and its methods. The librarian should make frequent bulletins for school use. He should make lists for collateral reading in history; not merely works on history, but biography, his¬ torical fiction, and poems treating of historical events. The librarian should meet with the pupils occasionally and talk to them upon such matters pertaining to their reading as seems wise. They should have free access to the library shelves. The librarian should issue such special bulletins as may be wise — bulletins giving the books treating of local matters, if there be such, matters of present interest; for example, last winter a special bulletin giving a list of books treating of Hawaii, Cuba, the Philippines, and the Far East would have been of much value. Children must be directed and trained in regard to their reading. They can no more be trusted to get their own knowledge of and taste for literature unaided than they can get their scientific and mathematical training in the same way. If it is the duty of the State to see that its citizens know how to read, it is certainly no less its duty to see that they are trained to do the right kind of reading; otherwise the ability to read may be harmful rather than beneficial, both to the individual and to the State. Not every place can maintain a public library. Some people must be deprived of the library facilities that many places have. But every State can, without great expense, maintain a system of traveling libraries that may reach every community in which there is anyone sufficiently interested to give proper attention to the mat¬ ter. Some States, notably New York and Wisconsin, have undertaken the work, and anyone interested by writing to Secretary Melvil Hewev, Albany, N. Y., or Mr. Fi ■ank Hutchins, Madison, Wis., can learn in regard to the details of the work in those States. Librarians usually know books much better than teachers do, but children not nearly so well; therefore active cooperation is necessary to the accomplishment of the best results. Pupils should, while in school, be trained to know and love good literature, to use reference books, to economize time in reading, through the use of tables of contents, page-headings, etc. Training pupils to read and love good literature is by far the most important work done in school. There is nothing else that a teacher can do at all comparable to it in value. It is the one thing the school does that continues to contribute to one’s education so long as he lives. We should never forget that it is not the ability to read, but the use made of that ability that contributes to the destiny of a child. Someone has said that education consists' in formation of habits and the acquisition of tastes. This is certainly the case so far as reading is concerned, and all that the school and library can do, working together in harmony, is necessary to the best success in this matter of forming correct reading habits and good taste in literature. II. READING LISTS. By Sherman Williams. In the preparation of the following lists certain things were kept in mind that should be considered by those who are interested in the work. It was not thought wise to include any series of school readers. Each community will settle that matter for itself, and any attempt at discrimination on part of this committee would not be productive of good results. The lists are merely suggestive. It is not expected that anyone will be likely to PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 667 use them without change. -They furnish a plan, a basis for work, and are to be modified to meet local conditions. There are many books which, while possessing general interest, have a special interest in certain localities. Frederic’s In the Valley would have a special interest in the State of New York. Parker’s Seats of the Mighty, Kirby’s Golden Dog , Parkman’s Montcalm and T Volfe and Conspiracy of Pontiac, Haw¬ thorne’s Twice Told Tales, Earle’s Social Life in Old New England, Underwood’s Quab- bin, Bynner’s The Begum's Daughter, and the novels of Miss Austin would be of greater interest in New York and New England than in other parts of the country. Page’s In Ole Virginia, Cooke’s My Lady Pohahontas, Goodwin’s Head of a Hundred and White Aprons are of special interest in Virginia. Lummis’ Spanish Pioneers wall be of greater interest in parts of the Southwest than elsewhere. Miss Catherwood’s historical novels will be of greater interest in States bordering on Canada. The story of Joliet, La Salle, Marquette, Hennepin, and others will be of greater interest in the Upper Mississippi Valley. The writings of Boyesen will greatly interest those por¬ tions of our country settled by Scandinavians. So the teachers of each section ot country must select, in part, those books of local interest. It is not possible that any general list will meet local conditions. The lists are not intended to be closely graded. The pupils in the same grade differ so greatly in literary ability, taste, and development that the books selected for any grade should have a corresponding difference. The lists will certainly be criticised, both for what they contain and for what they omit. No list could be made that would not be open to both these criticisms. The critics must modify the lists to meet their tastes and needs. One must always con¬ sider both himself and his environment in the work of teaching. The list for pupils in grades 1 to 12 provides for reading by the class, reading to the class by the teacher and memorizing of certain selections in the first eight grades. While no list for home reading has been made, it is believed that the teacher should, so far as possible, direct a portion of the out-of-school reading of the pupils. There are more books named in each grade than can possibly be read in school, and it will be well to see that some of them are read at home. Provision for having certain selections memorized is made, because it is believed that good reading will not be general in schools in which declamation is not practiced. The teacher should have at least three things in mind in reading to the class. With the youngest pupils the chief purpose should be to arouse an interest in good reading; with those who are old enough to read for themselves it is well to read a portion of books that the children should read, and then let them get the books and finish them for themselves if the}'' care to do so; with the oldest pupils it is well to read some books that the pupils would hardly comprehend if they read them for themselves, yet not so far beyond their comprehension but that, when read by the teacher, and commented upon occasionally, the meaning would be clear and the thought of interest. It is not expected that the class will read all the books mentioned in any grade, or that the teacher will read to the class all named for that purpose, but that selections will be made; nor that all books will be read in full. In the additional lists for grammar grades it is understood that the books named are merely additional books for grades 5, 6, 7, and 8, for the benefit of those schools that can have access to larger libraries. These additional books are intended chiefly for home reading, and are not classified as books to be read in class or by the teacher, though some of them may well be used for these purposes. It is understood that in very many places there will be great difficulty in getting the books needed, and that it will be impossible at present in many schools; but if sufficient interest be aroused in the matter that difficulty will be met and settled. The first thing is to lead teachers everywhere to feel the importance of this work. It is thought best to make the list of reference books comparatively short, and to 668 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. place first those of most importance, and which most schools in cities and towns will he able to get. In the main, the less expensive books are named first, so that those first on the list will be available to the larger number of schools. There is no limit to reference books that may be used to advantage, save the limit of means to purchase them. Whenever the cost of a book is given, it is the list price, from which a considerable discount may be had. It is an excellent plan to keep a record of the reading of the children. This can be best done by having a little book made for each pupil. A book about 4J by 6 inches, with 21 pages, having a heavy board cover, can be had for about 3 cents. Two of the pages should be ruled for keeping a record of the periodical reading, the remain¬ der for a record of the books read. The book should have on the front cover the name of the pupil. On the first two pages should be written the names of all the periodicals of all kinds that the pupil regularly reads. There should be entered in the first of two columns at the right the year in which he began to read them regu¬ larly. In the second column should be written the year in which he ceases to read them. This record, then, will show the periodicals read by the pupil, and the num¬ ber of years he read them. The remainder of the book should contain a record of the books read, giving author and title. The books should be passed out about once a month for the pupils to make entries. The books should be kept by the teacher and passed on to the next teacher when the pupil is promoted, not becoming the prop¬ erty of the pupil till he leaves school. No criticism should be made regarding the character of the books reported, unless it be a favorable one. Otherwise a correct report is not likely to be made. The keeping of the record will of itself largely con¬ trol the child’s reading, tie will read books that he would not otherwise do, because he does not wish to have it known that he is ignorant of that which is generally known by his associates. These records are of much value in the work of the school. For example, a teacher is to have a new class in American history next month. She sends for the reading record of the class and looks over the little books. She makes lists of those who have read much regarding American history, those wdio have read little, and those who have read nothing. In this way she knows more of the reading of the class, its knowledge and its tastes, and what she can expect to accomplish, and how to do it, than she would be able to learn in many weeks without this record. It is well occasionally to have some book read with unusual care. This may be done by making it a basis for rhetorical work. For example, let the book to be read be assigned two months in advance, a part of the class be given topics to write, and others given recitations from the book illustrating certain features. Everyone will read the book with care. When the day for the rhetorical exercises comes, there will be an interest in the book and a knowledge of it that can be brought about in no other way. Of course, every book is not well adapted for such treatment. Unde Tom's Cabin , Robinson Crusoe, Tom Brown at Rugby, Evangeline, Snow Bound, and many others will readily suggest themselves. When one book is treated in this way, the pupils trained in the work will ever after be able to read any other book of simi¬ lar character and get more out of it than they otherwise could have done. Reading must be made something more than merely calling words. Pupils must be trained to see ideas back of the words. They must see the sights described, hear the sounds spoken of, get the author’s thought. PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS 669 Lists of books to be read in grades 1 to 12, inclusive, with special reference to the average country school and the average grade teacher: GRADES 1 AND 2. TO BE READ IN THE CLASS. Beckwith: In Mythland. D. C. Heath & Co. 10.25 Swinton: Easy Steps for Little Feet. American Book Co. 0.25 Pratt: Legends of the Fed Children. Werner Co. 0.30 Scudder: Fables and Folk Lore. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0.40 Wright: Seaside and Wayside, No. 1. D. C. Heath & Co. 0.25 TO BE READ BY THE TEACHER TO THE CLASS. Andrews: Each and All. Ginn & Co. $0. 50 Andrews: Seven Little Sisters. Ginn & Co. 0.50 Andersen: Fairy Tales. Many editions. Cost not over 0.40 Scudder: Fables and Folk Stories. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0.40 Eggleston: Stories of Great Americans. American Book Co. 0.40 McMurry: Classic Stories for Little Ones. Public School Pub. Co. 0.35 Judd: Classic Myths. School Education Co. 0. 40 Burt: Nature Studies, from Burroughs. Ginn & Co. 0. 25 Baldwin: Fifty Famous Stories Retold. American Book Co. 0.35 Kirby: Aunt Martha'' s Corner Cupboard. Nelson & Sons. 0. GO Muloch: Adventures of a Brownie. Crowell & Co. 0.80 Wiggin: Bird's Christmas Carol. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0.40 Wiggin: Story of Patsy. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0. 48 SELECTIONS TO BE MEMORIZED. “Baby Bye” . Theodore Tilton. “A Visit from St. Nicholas” . Clement C. Moore. “Sweet and Low” . Alfred Tennyson. “Dutch Lullaby” . Eugene Field. “Obedience” . Phoebe Cary. “The Brown Thrush” . Lucy Larcom. “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star” . Jane Taylor. “Seven Times One” . Jean Ingelow. “Little Boy Blue” . Eugene Field. “Suppose” . Phoebe Cary. “ Marjorie’s Almanac ” . „ . T. B. Aldrich. “ Little by Little ” . Luella Clark. “ The Dream Peddlar” . Lucy Blinn. “ Do All that You Can ” . M. E. Sangster. “Nobility” . • . Alice Cary. “The Vicar’s Sermon”.... . Charles Mackay. “America” . . . Samuel F. Smith. GRADES 3 AND 4. TO BE READ IN THE CLASS. Andersen: Fairy Tales. Many editions. Cost not over $0. 40 Ruskin : King of the Golden River. Several editions. Cost not over 0. 25 Eggleston: Stories of Great Americans. American Book Co. 0. 40 Sewell: Black Beauty. Weeks & Co. 0. 25 Kingsley: Water Babies. Ginn & Co. 0.50 Defoe: Robinson Crusoe. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 25 iEsop: Fables. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 25 Hawthorne: Wonder Book. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0. 35 Wyss: Swiss Family Robinson. Many editions. Cost not over 0.40 Saunders: Beautiful Joe. American Baptist. 0.30 Longfellow: Whittier:' Biographies Dickens: TO BE READ BY THE TEACHER TO THE CLASS. Paid Revere’ s Ride, and other short poems. From Snow Bound, The Barefoot Boy, and Barbara Frietchie. of Washington, Franklin, Lincoln, and other great Americans. Christmas Carol. Many editions. Cost from $0. 12 to §0. 25 American history, stories from. Andrews: Ten Boys. Ginn & Co. 0. 50 Grimm: Fairy Tales. Many editions. Cost not over 0.40 Kipling: Jungle Book. Century Co. 1.50 670 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 SELECTIONS TO BE MEMORIZED. ‘ The Barefoot Bov ” . .. John G. Whittier. ‘The Children ” . .. Henrv W. Longfellow. 1 • Lullaby” . .. Alfred Tennyson. ‘Snow Bound,’’ first ninetv-two lines . . .. John G. Whittier. ‘Old Ironsides” . . . Oliver Wendell Holmes. ‘ The Sand Piper ” . . . Celia Thaxter. ‘Robert of Lincoln” . . . William Cullen Brvant. ‘Paul Revere’s Ride” . . . Henry W. Longfellow. GRADES 5 AND 6. TO EE READ IN THE CLASS. Burroughs: Birds and Bees, Sharp Eyes, and other papers. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. $0.40 Longfellow: Hiawatha. Houghton. Mifflin & Co. 0. 40 Andrews: Ten Boys. Ginn A Co. 0.50 Defoe: Robinson Crusoe. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 25 Hawthorne: Tanglewood Tales. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0.40 Longfellow: Miles Standish. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0. 40 Longfellow: Children's Hour, and other selections. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0. 40 Whittier: Snow Bound, Among the Hills, etc. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0.40 Warner: A Huniinguf the Deer, and other papers. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0. 25 Irving: Pup T "an 7 Vinlile. Many editions. Cost not over 0.25 TO BE READ BY THE TEACHER TO THE CLASS. Craddock: Down the Ravine. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. $1,00 Franklin: Autobiography. Ginn A Co. 0. 40 Gilman : Magna Chart a Stories. Lothrop. 0. 75 Tennyson : Enoch Arden. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 25 Irving: Legend of Sleepy Hollow. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 25 Warner: Being a Boy. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0.60 Alcott: Little Women. Roberts Bros. 1.50 Bolton: Girls ivho have Become Famous. Crowell. 1.50 Bolton: Poor Boys who Became Famous. Crowell. 1.50 Howells: A Boy's Toicn. Harper Bros. 1.25 Brown: Rab and His Friends. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0.40 Aldrich: Story of a Bad Boy. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0.70 Sidney: Five Little Peppers. Lothrop. 1.50 SELECTIONS TO EE MEMORIZED. “ The Chambered Nautilus” . .. Oliver Wendell Holmes. “ Over and Over Again” . . . Josephine Pollard. “ The Crow’s Children ” . .. Alice Cary. “ Old Ironsides ” . .. Oliver Wendell Holmes. “ The G ood Time Coming ” . . . Charles Mackav. “ The Blue and the Gray ” . - . . Francis Miles Finch. “ The Brook ” . , . .. Alfred Tennyson. “Whittling” . . . John Pierpont. “ What Might be Done ” . . . Charles Mackav. “ Battle Hymn of the Republic” . . . . Julia Ward Howe. GRADES 7 AND S. TO BE READ IN THE CLASS. Hale: A Man Without a Country. Little, Brown A Co. $0. 50 Longf el low: E vangel i lie. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0.25 Eliot: Silas Marner. Many editions. Cost not more than 0.30 Whittier: Snow Bound. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0. 25 Lowell: Vision of Sir Lauvfal. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0.25 Longfellow: Miles Standish. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0.25 Hughes: Tom Brown at Rugby. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 0. 50 TO BE READ BY THE TEACHER TO THE CLASS. Yonge: Book of Golden Deeds. Macmillan. $0.50 Ball: Star Land. Ginn A Co. 1.00 Geikie: Physical Geography Primer. Appleton A Co. 0.35 Scott: Ivanhoe. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 40 Macaulay : Lays of Ancient Rome. Many editions. Cost not over 0.25 Scott: Lady of, the. Lake. Many editions. Cost not over 0.40 Towle: Pizarro. Lee A Shepard. 1.00 PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS 671 SELECTIONS TO BE MEMORIZED. “ The Landing of the Pilgrims ” “Song of Marion’s Men” . “The Ship of State” . “The Centennial Hymn” . “ Abou Ben Adhem” . “ The Manliest Man ” . . “The Way to Heaven ” . “Love of Country” . “Daily Work ” . “The American Flag” . ‘ 1 Gettysburg Address ” . “My Country” . “ The Concord Hymn ” . ‘ ‘ Marmion and Douglas ” . . _ Mrs. Hemans. William Cullen Bryant. Henry W. Longfellow. John G. Whittier. Leigh Hunt. George W. Bungay. J. G. Holland. Walter Scott. Charles Mackay. Joseph Rodman Drake. Abraham Lincoln. James Montgomery. Ralph Waldo Emerson. Walter Scott. GRADES 9 AND 10. TO BE READ IN THE CLASS. Scott: Ivanhoe. Many editions. Cost not over JO. 40 Scott: Lady of the Lake. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 40 Scott : Maimion. Many editions. Cost not over 0.40 Shakespeare: Julius Caesar. Many editions. Cost not over 0.25 Shakespeare: Merchant of Venice. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 25 Cooper: The Last of the Mohicans. Many editions. Cost not over 0.40 TO BE READ BY THE TEACHER TO THE CLASS. Ouida: Binibi. Lippincott. $0. 75 Mac<5: History of a Mouthful of Bread. Harper Bros. 1.00 Warner: Back Log Studies. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1.00 Warner: My Summer in a Garden. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1.00 Goldsmith: Deserted Village. Many editions. Cost not over 0.25 Byron: Prisoner of Chilian. Many editions. Cost not over 0.25 Gray: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. Cost not over 0.15 GRADES 11 AND 12. TO BE READ IN THE CLASS. Webster: First Bunker Hill Oration. Many editions. Cost not over 50. 15 Coleridge: Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Many editions. Cost not over 0.15 Bryant: Thanatopsis. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 15 Macaulay: Lays of Ancient Rome. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 35 TO BE READ BY THE TEACHER TO THE CLASS. Emerson: Essay on Compensation. Many editions. Cost not over 50. 25 De Quincey: Flight of a Tartar Tribe. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 25 Rnskiji : Ethics of the Dust. Many editions. Cost not over 0.25 Shelley: Ode to a Skylark. Many editions. Cost not over 0.15 Holmes: Autocrat of the Breakfast Table. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0. 60 THE USE OF BOOKS AND LIBRARIES IN GRAMMAR GRADES. FIRST GRAMMAR GRADE. Black: The Four MacNicols. Harper Bros.* 51.00 Baylor: Juan and Juanita. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1.50 Boyesen: Against Heavy Odds. Scribner. 1.25 Clemens: Prince and Pauper. American Publishing Co. 1.00 Ewing: Jackanapes. Roberts Bros. 0.50 Taylor: Boys and Other Countries. Putnam. 1.25 Stockton: Stories of New Jersey. American Book Co. 0. 60 Vincent: The Plant World. Appleton. 0. 60 Weed: The Lnsect World. Appleton. 0.60 Towle: Raleigh. Lee & Shepard. 0.60 Wiggin: The Story of Patsy. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0. 60 672 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Stowe: SECOND GRAMMAR GRADE. Uncle Tom's Cabin. Many editions. Cost not over SO. 50 Richards: Captain January. Estes & Lauriat. 0.35 Burnett: Little Lord Fauntleroy. Scribner. 1.25 Dodge: Hans Brinker. Scribner. 1.50 Ouida: The Dog of Flanders. Lippincott. 1.00 Alcott: An Old-Fasliioned Girl. Roberts. 1.50 B uny an: Pilgrim's Progress. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 50 Dickens: Christmas Stories. Burt. 0. 75 Butterworth : Zig-Zag Journeys. Estes & Lauriat. 1.50 Verne: Around the Word in Eighty Days. Coates. 0.50 Du Chaillu: Under the Equator. Harper Bros. 1.00 Scudder: Bodley Books. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 2.00 Bolton: Famous Leaders Among Men. Crowell. 1.50 Scudder: George Washington. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0.40 Towle: Magellan. Lee & Shepard. 0.60 Towle: Sir Francis Drake. Lee & Shepard. 0.60 Towle: Vasco de Gama. Lee & Shepard. 0.60 Brooks: Historic Boys. Putnam. 1.50 Brooks: Historic Girls. Putnam. 1.50 Eggleston: Strange Stories from History. Harper Bros. 1.00 Drake: Indian History for Young Folks. Harper Bros. 3.00 McMurry: Pioneer History Stories of the Mississippi Valley Public School Pub. Co. 0.50 Watson: Boston Tea Party. Lee & Shepard. 0.50 Wright: Children's Stories of American History. Scribner. 1.25 Wright: Children's Stories of American Progress. Scribner. 1.25 Guerber: The Story of the Greeks. American Book Co. 0.60 Guerber: The Story of the Romans. American Book Co. 0.60 Baskett: The Story of the Birds. Appleton. 0.65 Geikie: Geology Primer. Appleton. 0.35 Ker: From the Hudson to the Neva. Lothrop. 1.25 Carpenter: Geography Reader of Asia. American Book Co. 0.60 Fiske: War of Independence. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0.40 Wallace: THIRD GRAMMAR GRADE. Ben-Hur. Harper Bros. SI. 50 Blackmore: Lorna Doone. Harper Bros. 1.C0 Holland: Arthur Bonnicastle. Scribner. 1.25 Cooper: The Pilot. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 50 Jackson: Ramona. Roberts. 1.50 Stevenson: Black A rro w. Roberts. 1.25 Scott: Kenilworth. Many editions. Cost not over 0.50 Scott: The Talisman. Many editions. Cost not over 0.50 Irving: The Alhambra. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 50 Dickens: David Copperfield. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 50 Kingsley: Westward, Ho! Crowell. 0.50 Larcom: A New England Girlhood. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0.75 Cooke: Stories of the Old Dominion. Harper Bros. 1.50 Saintine: Picciola. Burt. 1.00 Hale: A New England Boyhood. Cassell. 1.00 Frederic: In the Valley. Scribner. 1.50 Austin: FOURTH GRAMMAR GRADE. Standish of Standish. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. si. 25 Cooper: The Spy. Many editions. Cost not over 0.50 Page: Two Little Confederates. Scribner. 1.50 Wiggin: Polly Oliver's Problem. Houghton, Mifflin A Co. 1.00 Martineau: Peasant and Prince. Ginn A Co. 0. 50 Seawell: Decatur and Somers. Appleton. 1.00 Yonge: Book of Golden Deeds. Macmillan. 0. 50 Stevenson: Treasure Island. Many editions. Cost not over 0.75 Scott: Quentin Durward. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 50 Longfellow: Evangeline , Courtship of Miles Standish, and favorite shorter poems. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0. 40 Whittier: Snow Bound, Tent on the Beach, and favorite shorter poems. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0. 40 PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 67 $ Abbott: Darius the Great, Hannibal, Csesar, Romulus, William the Conqueror, Empress Josephine, Queen Elizabeth, Madam Roland. Harper Bros. Each 1.00 Towle: Heroes and Martyrs of Invention. Lee and Shephard. 1.00' Kingsley: Greek Heroes. Ginn & Co. 0. 50 Butter worth: Boyhood of Lincoln. Appleton. 1. 50 Macaulay: Warren Hastings. Many editions. Cost not over 0. 50 Abbott: La Salle, Boone, Franklin, De Soto, Cortez, Paul Jones, Peter Stuyvesant. Harper Bros. Each LOO Carroll: Twelve Americans. Harper Bros. 1. 75- Hale: Stories of Invention. Roberts. 1.00 Barton : Captains of Industry. 2 vols. Houghton, Mifilin & Co. 0. 60 Montgomery: Heroic Ballads. Ginn & Co. 0. 40 Alton: Among the Law Makers. Scribner. 1.50 Proctor: The Expanse of Heaven. Longmans, Green & Co. 1.25- REFERENCE BOOKS. Webster's International Dictionary . Merriam & Co. $10. 00' Chambers’ Encyclopedia. Last edition. Lippincott. 30. 00 Rand, McNally : Indexed Atlas of the World. 18. 50 Bartlett: Familiar Quotations. Little, Brown & Co. 3.00 Hoyt and Ward: Cyclopxdia of Quotations. Funk & Wagnalls. 5. 00- Champlin: Young Folks' Clycopxdia of Common Things. Holt. 2.50 Champlin: Young Folks’ Clycopxdia of Persons and Places. Holt. 2. 50 Gave: The World’s Great Farm. Macmillan. 1.50* Haydn: Dictionary of Dates. Putnam. 6.00 Wheeler: Familiar Allusions. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 2.00 Wheeler: Who Wrote It ? Lee & Shepard. 2. OO Soule: Synonyms. Lippincott. 2.25- Gayley: Classic Myths. Ginn & Co. 1. 50 Bui finch: Age of Fable. Lee & Shepard. 2. 50 Lippincott' s Gazetteer. 12. OP- Baldwin: The Book Lover. McClurg. 1. OO Crabb: English Synonyms. Harper Bros. 1.25- Peck: Dictionary of Classical Literature. Harper Bros. 8. OO Bent: Familiar Short Sayings of Great Men. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 2. OO Matson: References for Literary Workers. McClurg. 2.50 Brewer: Reader's Handbook. Lippincott. 3. 50 Brewer: Historic Note-Book. Lippincott. 3. 50 Brewer: Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Lippincott. 3.50 Edwards: Words, Facts, and Phrases. Lippincott. 2.50 Lossing: Cyclopxdia of United States History. Harper Bros. 10. 90 Lalor: Cyclopxdia of Political Science, Political Economy, and Political History. Rand, McNally. Larned: History for Ready Reference. 5 vols. Nichols. 25. OO Johnson’s Cyclopxdia. 8 vols. Appleton. 48. OO Appleton's American Biography. 6 vols. Appleton. 30. OO International Cyclopxdia. 15 vols. Dodd, Mead & Co. 56. OO III. SUPPLEMENTARY READING. By Robert C. Metcalf, Boston, Mass. [Written for the report on the relations of public libraries to public schools, at the request of Sherman Williams.] The term “supplementary reading” usually includes all books used in school, except text-books and reference books. The “school reader” is not a book for sup¬ plementary reading. Geographies and histories are text-books; dictionaries and encyclopaedias are reference books. Supplementary reading is additional reading matter to be used for various purposes. 1, Some supplementary reading is designed to train pupils in the reading of goed books. This kind of reading meets the demand of those who say that having taught the child to read we should teach him what to read. It leads directly to the reading ed 1900 - A3 674 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. of the best literature. It contributes to the aesthetic culture of the one who reads. It broadens and deepens his daily living by making the mind more keenly alive to all that is beautiful in nature and in art. It enriches life by bringing to it the inheritance of the best thought of past ages. 2. Another kind of supplementary reading may be termed “collateral.” It is used to supplement the work in history, geography, and science. It enlarges the pupil’s view of the subject in hand. It helps him in clearing up doubtful points. It shows him the truth from the standpoint of another writer. It strengthens the impression upon his mind, and makes it more permanent. Undoubtedly it adds greatly to the interest which pupils take in their school studies, and hence is of very great value. Supplementary reading of all kinds has a direct bearing upon the pupil’s English. Unconsciously he is influenced by the style of an author, and is impressed by his thought and by his choice of words to give the thought expression. If the teacher is a man or woman of culture, this impression is deepened by a judicious discussion of what is read, and by a somewhat careful examination of the author’s mode of expressing his thought. But while we say that supplementary reading has a direct bearing upon the pupil’s English, it should not be inferred that the teacher’s mam purpose, while using the supplementary reading, is the improvement of the pupil’s ordinary mode of expression. The main purpose is the improvement of the pupil’s thought, the bringing him into intimate relations with the best minds of the literary world, and the giving of frequent opportunity for this influence to shape his expression. REFERENCE BOOKS AND BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING. Books of reference and books for collateral reading should be furnished generously to all teachers, whether in graded or ungraded schools. It is necessary that such books should be near at hand when occasions for their use arise. It is when the pupil is eager to learn, when his interest is most intense, that the information should be furnished. To wait until the close of school, when some library may be visited, or even to wait until a book may be secured from some other room in the same building, is often fatal to the purpose of the teacher. “Strike when the iron is hot,” is a rule equally applicable to pedagogics and mechanics. Collateral books should be consulted in the presence of the teacher, so that he may direct the search of the pupil. To use reference books to advantage requires much skill. To “rundown” a subject will often require the use of several collateral or reference books, and the pupil needs training in this work. One book may give only a hint of the informa¬ tion wanted, and this hint would be lost upon a pupil who had not been trained to seek for information. It is a mistake to appoint only the few bright pupils to con¬ sult reference books. All need this training, and the teacher must not only use skill, but he must be patient while the slow, and even the dull, acquire this power of investigation. The teacher must always keep in mind that mere information, a knowledge of facts, is but secondary in the education of his pupils. Knowing how to consult books for information is often of more value than the facts themselves. “How to use books” is of prime importance in the education of the child. Hence the value of reference books and books for collateral reading, and the importance of careful and systematic training in their use in schools of all grades. BOOKS FOR GENERAL READING. Training pupils in the reading of good books for the purpose of cultivating a taste for what is best in literature must receive more extended treatment. We have in mind now not so much the increase of the pupil’s scholarship as the systematic train¬ ing of his moral nature — not so much the intellect as the heart. The child must be led to love that which is lovely and to hate that which is hateful. When the two are presented for his choice, he must involuntarily choose the former. One who hesitates is lost. PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 675 Books for general reading, to be used for the purpose just named, should, when possible, be furnished in sets, the number of volumes in a set being equal to the number of pupils in the class. These books should be well written, have a high moral purpose, and be of such a character as to interest the pupils for whom they are intended. They should be books of travel, biographies of famous men and women, historical stories, and works of fiction suited to the age and intellectual growth of the pupils. In the selection of books, it should be borne in mind that with parents or with teachers children will read and will enjoy books of a much higher grade than they would be likely to select for their own reading. Boys and girls of 12 or 14 years of age, whose tastes have had no special training, will listen with eagerness to Thackeray, Dickens, and Scott, to Longfellow, Holmes, and Ten¬ nyson, if a mother or some favorite teacher reads aloud to them. Care must be taken, however, that the reading matter be suited to the age and advancement of the pupils, for much of the reading should be done by themselves. The reading from the large sets of books just described should be done by the pupils at home. A chapter or a given number of pages should be assigned by the teacher, to be read by the children as an evening lesson. The teacher must prepare his work as care¬ fully as the work on an3T evening lesson should be prepared. Notes should be taken of points worthy of comment, characters worthy of study, and natural objects worthy of being described. In short, such preparation by the teacher should be made as will enable him to call the attention of his pupils to what is likely to interest or instruct. This preparation having been made by both teacher and pupils, the work of the “reading hour” will be full of interest. This “hour” falls on the day following the home preparation, and usually occurs but once in each week. The books are all returned by the pupils, and in response to simple notes, hints, or suggestions by the teacher, they tell the story in their own words. Characters introduced by the author should be discussed in a simple way; references to natural scenery and to wTorks of art should be pictured to the imagination, and described by the children as a test of the correctness of their mind pictures; and, finally, the study should reach back to the author as one who has become, for the time being, a companion of the children, and who is worthy of their love. Pupils soon begin to appreciate the skill of an author in so arranging the incidents of his story as to bring out the peculiar qualities of his characters. Their interest is enlisted in behalf of the good and the true, and they instinctively loathe that which is low, mean, and dishonorable. The deepest impressions are often made when works of fiction are under discussion. Here the author is not required to confine himself to facts, but may use his imagina¬ tion and his judgment in outlining the peculiarities of his characters. A portrait may be a perfect likeness and yet may seem to flatter the subject. The painter has pro¬ duced his likeness by combining a number of “best expressions” taken at different sittings. Dr. Watson (Ian Maclaren) explains that his “Dr. MacLure” was a com¬ posite, made of lovable characteristics borrowed from a number of physicians whom he knew. So it is in the best fiction — an ideal character is presented, having perhaps no prototype in real life, but formed from characteristics which are easily recognized in many of our friends or acquaintances. Thus the best and deepest impressions made upon children — yes, and upon adults also — are often gained from a careful reading of the best fiction. The reading hour gives an opportunity for conversation, and even for discussion, which may be of the greatest value to the pupils. Not only will a love for reading be gained, but a taste for good reading will be cultivated which will protect them from much that is harmful and debasing. The conversations and discussions connected with the reading hour are also of great help to the children in their use of English. The reading furnishes them with thoughts, their interest in what has been read gives them a strong desire to express their thoughts, and thus the conditions are favorable for the best kind of language work. It is by practice that we learn to use English, and by careful practice that 676 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. we learn to use it well. The gain in the pupils’ ability to express themselves in good English by such practice as has been indicated will be so marked, and even extra¬ ordinary, that teachers are in danger of using the reading hour for a language lesson rather than for the higher purpose of cultivating a taste for good reading. It will be remembered that the kind of work described above can be carried on to the best advantage when large sets of books are furnished and the reading of the children is done at home. But on account of the expense large sets of books are not always available. If there are several classes in the town or village, all of the same grade, expense may be saved by sending the books from class to class, thus giving an opportunity for several readings of the same book during the same year. Three full sets of books circulated among three classes will probably furnish each one with all the reading matter needed during the year; and then, as these pupils pass on to a higher grade, they find three different sets for their use during the succeeding year. Thus the expense of furnishing the schools of a given town with large sets (forty or fifty volumes) of books for supplementary reading is not so great as might be sup¬ posed. HOW TO USE SMALL SETS OF SUPPLEMENTARY READERS. It is doubtless true that the large sets of books, to be read at home by the pupils and to be followed by a conversational exercise during the “reading hour,” are bet¬ ter adapted for use in the grades above the sixth than in any of the lower grades. Experience has seemed to prove that the art of reading must be carefully taught during the first six years in school, and success in teaching depends largely upon an abundance of practice, which requires an abundance of time. To meet this demand for time teachers have been compelled to substitute in place of the home reading, which has been described above, a semiweekly exercise in class reading during school hours. In other words, the time for reading in the six lower grades has been divided between teaching reading, where much time is given to training in the art of oral expression, and practice in reading, where special attention is given to gather¬ ing thought from the printed page, and later to restating the thought by the children in their own words. When supplementary books are read in the class room the progress in reading is much less rapid, and there is great danger that pupils will lose their interest in the work; but a skillful teacher will overcome this difficulty, and will avoid the danger by reading, occasionally, a chapter to the class or by giving with sufficient fullness the substance of certain portions of the book. Much good work may be done in the six lower grades with sets of only three sup¬ plementary books. One book is used by the teacher, and the other two are in the hands of the pupils. One of the pupils reads aloud to the class while the rest listen to the reading. All must be prepared to tell in their own words the substance of what has been read. The books composing these sets must be carefully selected and should be of such a character as will secure the interest of the children. If carefully selected, the pupils will listen with the closest attention; moreover, they will demand of the pupil reader his best effort, in order that they may get the full benefit of the story. The exercise in the reproduction of the story which has been read, and in the'dis- cussion of matters of interest connected with the reading, is the same in kind as that which has already been described. The language exercise, which follows this read¬ ing, will prove just as fruitful with the little children as with those who are more advanced. The exercise in listening is in itself of great value, for it trains the pupils in hear¬ ing and in telling, and thus contributes much to the comfort of the teacher in most of his exercises in the class room. PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 677 POETRY. A love for poetry seems to be innate with children, its first manifestation being in the nursery, where Mother Goose and similar collections of nursery songs furnish a pharmacopoeia sufficient for the healing of most of the sorrows of babyhood. Fairy tales and folk stories, fanciful tales and wonder books follow in order and furnish an abundance of literature for the primary-school age. The child’s fancy finds free range, and his world is pictured with images of beautiful spirits whom he has learned to love, or of evil spirits from whom he shrinks. Later these fancies find their illus¬ trations in real life, and the lessons of childhood become the foundation of the wis¬ dom of maturer years. Memory gems of a few lines each, and short poems adapted to children of the primary-school age, should be read aloud by the teacher and committed and recited by the pupils. The poems should be carefully selected and none but the best admit¬ ted to the treasury of the school room. The teacher should feel that he is selecting and hanging pictures for all time, and that the children’s minds are the art rooms which he is furnishing. His selections must be the most helpful, as well as the most beautiful, of the productions of our best artists. In the grammar-school grades experience has shown that the best results have been gained when the works of one poet have been studied by the pupils for a year. A miscellaneous collection of poems may interest, and the poems may instruct, the children who read and commit them to memory; but no piece of literature, whether prose or poetry, accomplishes its highest good with the student until his study reaches back from the letter of the work to the soul of the author, and a year’s time is none too long to gain that intimate acquaintance which alone will reveal the choicest treasures of the author’s heart. Some of the most satisfactory work in literature in grammar schools may be traced directly to a love for the poet, born into the heart of #the pupils through reading his life in the thoughts woven into the lines he has written. Whittier, and Holmes, and Longfellow, and Lowell become patron saints to the children who for months in succession look into their faces, think their thoughts, and feel the inspiration of their genius. A few books only are necessary for the study of poetry; but every schoolroom should contain a library of well-selected works for ready reference and for use by the pupils during their leisure hours. This report can be brought to a close most fittingly by two or three brief extracts from Books and Culture , by Hamilton Wright Mabie: There is no magic about the process of enriching oneself by absorbing the best books. It is simply a matter of sound habits patiently formed and persistently kept up. Making the most of one’s time is the first of these habits — utilizing the spare hours, the unemployed minutes, no less than those longer periods which the more fortunate enjoy. To “take time by the forelock” in this way, however, one must have his book at hand when the precious minute arrives. There must be no fumb¬ ling for the right volume; no waste of time because one is uncertain what to take up next. The waste of opportunity, which leaves so many people intellectually barren who ought to be intellectually rich, is due to neglect to decide in advance what direc¬ tion one’s reading shall take, and neglect to keep the book of the moment at hand. To learn how to treat the odds and ends of hours so that they constitute, for prac¬ tical purposes, an unbroken duration of time, is to emancipate oneself from depend¬ ence on particular times, and to appropriate all time to one’s use; and, in like manner, to accustom oneself to make use of all places, however thronged and public, as if they were private and secluded, is to free oneself from bondage to a particular locality, or to surroundings specially chosen for the purpose. Within the compass of a very small room, on a very few shelves, the real story of man in this world may be collected in the books of life in which it is written; and the solitary reader, whose personal contacts with men and events are few and lacking in distinction and interest, may enter, through his books, into the most thrilling life of the race in some of its most significant moments. 678 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. IV. THE RELATION OF THE SCHOOL TO LIBRARIES. By Charles A. McMurry. THE FUNCTION OF THE SCHOOL IN INTRODUCING CHILDREN TO THE PROPER USE OF BOOKS. The center around which cluster all the problems which relate to the reading habits of children is the public school. The family, in many cases, is doing more than the school, to be sure, but it is the school, after all, in the great average of cases, which must give the children a taste for books and an introduction to their proper use. It is only in exceptional cases that parents have knowledge and the means to supply children with suitable books, and, what is more important, with the right guidance and sympathy in making a close acquaintance with them. AY e may well inquire, therefore, what the proper function of the school is in teach¬ ing the great body of children how to appreciate and use the best books. Within the last few years teachers have begun to realize that this is one of the few great privileges and duties of the school. To teach children how to read, so that they could make use of books, newspapers, etc., was once looked upon as a chief object of school work. We now go far beyond this, and ask that teachers lead the children into the fields of choice reading matter, and cultivate in them such a taste and appre¬ ciation for a considerable number of the best books ever written that all their lives will be enriched by what they read. This is one of the grand but simple ideals of the schoolroom, and lends great dignity to every teacher’s work in the common schools. The most solid and satisfactory reasons can be given why this should be done in every schoolroom. These substantial materials of culture belong to every child, without exception. They are an indispensable part of that general cultivation which is the birthright of every boy and girl. The child that by the age of 14 has not read Robinson Crusoe, Iliawcitha, Pilgrim's Progress, The Stories of Greek Heroes by Kingsley and Hawthorne, The Lays of Ancient Rome, Paul Revere' s Ride, Gulliver's Travels, The Arabian Nights, Sleepy Hollow, Pap Van Winkle, The Tales of the White Hills, The Courtship of Miles Slanclish, Scott’s Talcs of a Grandfather, Marmion , and Lady of the Lake, the story of Ulysses and the Trojan War, of Siegfried, William Tell, Alfred, and John Smith, of Columbus, Washington, and Lincoln — the boy or girl who has grown up to the age of 14 without a chance to read and thoroughly en¬ joy these books has been robbed of a great fundamental right; a light which can never be made good by any subsequent privileges or grants. It is not a question of learning how to read — all children who go to school learn that; it is the vastly greater question of appreciating and enjoying the best things which are worth reading. Judged on this standard of worth, the reading exercises of our schools have acquired a tenfold deeper significance, and all teachers who have looked into the matter have felt a giiew enthusiasm for the grand opportunities of common-school education. There is no doubt, whatever, among intelligent people, that good literature is a pow¬ erful instrument of education. It is by no means the whole of education, but when the reading habits of children are properly directed, their interest in suitable books cultivated and strengthened, their characters are strongly tinctured and influenced by what they read. If their minds are thus filled up with such stimulating thought material, and their sympathies and interests awakened and cultivated by such enno¬ bling thoughts, the better side of character has a deep, rich soil into which it may strike its roots. So profound has been the conviction of leading educators upon the value of the reading matter of the schools for the best purposes of true education that the whole plan of study, and the whole method of treatment and discussion, as touching these materials, have been reorganized with a view to putting all children into possession of this great birthright. PUBLIC LIBliARTES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. G79 To prove this we will state briefly a few of the changes which have i 1 ready taken place in many of our best schools: 1. Good literature of high quality, from the fertile brains of the greatest writers, has been put into every grade of the common school, from the first year on. This means, of course, that all sorts of information books, in geography, science, history, etc., have given place to better, classic material. We shall see later that these infor¬ mation books have their proper place in school work, but they should never be allowed to crowd out the people’s bible of good literature, 2. In the first three grades, since children have not yet learned to read, but are in the process of acquiring this art, they must get their introduction to the best stories suited to their age by the oral presentation of the teacher. Teachers of primary and intermediate grades are everywhere rapidly acquiring the art of presenting stories, and the stories which they offer are the best which the literature of Europe and America has thus far produced. Tne result is that the teachers themselves are becom¬ ing deeply interested in this material, and they are discovering how powerful and stimulating its influence is upon children. The children are aroused to a nevT inter¬ est in school work, in striking contrast to the dullness and tedium of the old ABC method in learning to read. 3. The works of our best American writers — Bryant, Longfellow, Emerson, Whit¬ tier, Holmes, Lowell, Hawthorne, Irving, Burroughs, and others — have acquired a new and untold significance for American children. These men themselves, without exception, were exemplars of a simple, elevated mode of life, thoroughly patriotic and American, and beautiful illustrations of those words of Longfellow familiar to every school child: Lives of great men all remind us We can mate our lives sublime, And departing leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time. 4. One of the strong marks of this genuine literary revival in our common schools is the rapidly growing disposition to read literary wholes, not selections or fragments — the whole of Snow Bound and Among the Hills , of The Building of the Ship, of Bus¬ kin’s King of the Golden River, of Webster’s Speech at Bunker Hill , of the Vision of Sir Launfal, of Emerson’s American Scholar , of Gulliver's Voyage to Lilliput , of Hora- tius at the Bridge, of The Hunting of the Deer, of Bryant’s Sella, of Burroughs Birds and Bees, etc. This reading of the masterpieces as wr holes with children in the regu¬ lar reading exercises of the school has opened the eyes of teachers and pupils in an astonishing way, and is destined, moreover, under still better teaching in the future, to give a depth and spiritual value to the work of our schools which are beyond ail price. We have discovered, also, that the best English writers are as much ours as our cousins’ across the water; that Shakespeare, Luskin, Tennyson, Arnold, Burke, Scott, and Addison are fully as valuable to us as our own writers, and that their works also must be read as literary wholes. 5. A new principle for the grading and arrangement of literary materials through¬ out the school classes has been applied. The suitableness of the thought, the appro¬ priateness of the story to arouse the interest and sympathy of the children, are made the chief test to determine the place in the grades where a literary whole shall be used. In this way the child has become the center of study, and a very common- sense, practical result has ensued. Children are asked to nead what best fits their age, temper, and understanding. It is no longer a question of learning to read, but of learning to appreciate and enjoy what is most worthy the attention of a child. It is the development of the best feeling and intelligence of children, rather than a dron¬ ing over words and phrases in a mechanical process of learning to read. That chil- 680 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. dren learn to read fluently and with expression is certain, just to the extent of their true appreciation and insight. It has been discovered that the literatures of America, England, Europe, and Asia are already drawn upon to find just the best-suited materials for children of the suc¬ cessive grades. We may yet find that stories as diverse in origin and location as Hia wcitha , Rohm Hood , Don Quixote , Siegfried , l lys-ses, Sinbcid the Sailor , the Lillipu¬ tians , and Joseph in Egypt are needed at different points in the school course to give children what best suits their mental growth. At any rate, we are rapidly finding out that the best of all the ages, from Abraham to Kipling’s Jungle Stories, is needed to educate children. It is an inspiring thought that the proper bringing up of a com¬ monplace American child requires us to sift out the gold nuggets from a whole series of civilizations. This sifting and arranging of materials has been going on for many years, and the series of standard books now recommended for children in some of our best schools insures to them the stimulating and liberalizing influence of a large num¬ ber of the best books of great authors. This body of educative thought material, properly handled, discussed, and read in the schools, becomes the nucleus around which to collect and organize the reading of a lifetime. Moreover, the interests and tastes cultivated upon these books will deter¬ mine what kind of books and to what extent they will be read in the following years. Having insured a proper place and respect for this indispensable nucleus in which reading habits and tastes are to find root and grow strong, we may next inquire into the function of the school in giving children a proper opinion of the value and use of the great body of information books, history stories, geographical readers, travels, biographies, science narratives and descriptions, histories, current magazines, refer¬ ence books, etc., which contribute so largely to a full equipment for life. Within the last few years great progress has been made toward supplying the schools with a large quantity and variety of supplementary and informational reading. The lessons in history, geography, and natural science are constantly enlarged and enriched by this sort of reading, to which children are freely referred in studying their lessons. This use of varied material requires greater skill upon the part of teachers, a wider range of information, and the ability to organize and unify these diverse sources of information with the regular lessons. But this kind of study, if carefully planned and skillfully executed, gives the boys and girls better materials of thought, more independence in using books, and a wider range of knowledge. It points directly to the library as a necessary and very efficient agency of popular education. A small library is becoming indispensable to the teachers and pupils of the grammar school in carrying out the legitimate work of the school. In order to give definite¬ ness to this idea of a small library, suppose it to consist of 500 to 1,000 books, con¬ taining the best classic stories, poems, biographies, histories, travels, novels, and books of science suitable for the use of children below the high school. The neces¬ sity for such a choice selection of library books is made evident by an examination of the children’s present studies in history, geography, and science. History stories are now read in nearly every grade of the common school, to some extent even in the primary. Only a few years ago it was customary to limit the historical studies to the final year of the grammar school, to what is now generally known as the eighth grade. But now history stories are regularly used in all the grades, from the third to the eighth, inclusive. In the third, fourth, and fifth grades, or years, of the com¬ mon school, stories are skillfully narrated by the teacher, discussed, and reproduced by the children. It is^ possible in this way to give them a very keen and hearty impulse toward biography and history. With this interest thoroughly awakened upon the biographies of such American heroes as William Penn, John Smith, Colum¬ bus, Magellan, Williams, La Salle, Champlain, George Rogers Clark, Lincoln, and Fremont, it is very easy to introduce children to that considerable body of American biography which is the very best introduction to American history. The elements of heroism and adventure, the strong traits of personal character and PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 681 manliness, which these American stories exhibit, give these historical stories a great moral value. At the same time the dreary memory drill upon the skeleton outlines of political events has given way to a native interest and enthusiasm for the striking personalities in our past life as a nation. Closely allied to this early biographical story of our own country are the famous epic stories of European countries, the stories of Alfred, King Richard, William Tell, Romulus, Horatius, Ulysses, and Achilles, and such historical narratives as the Retreat of -the Ten Thousand, The Struggles of Thermopylae and Marathon, Scott’s Tales of a Grandfather , and other famous stories, which in most cases have a strong his¬ torical setting and significance. Our schools are now being abundantly supplied with interesting and instructive books of this character. Only a few of them can be thoroughly worked over and assimilated during school hours. Enough, however, can be done and is being done in many cases to give a vigorous training in this kind of study, and to awaken interests which soon grow into habits of study. In order to give the great body of teachers unmistakable proofs of the variety and excellence of these historical stories and poems, a short list of choice books will be appended to this article. Now, it is evident that a carefully selected library of the best books of this charac¬ ter should be found in every grammar school. There will be a considerable number of boys and girls in every school who will be well prepared by such school studies as we have just described for a profitable use of these books in private reading. Children in general can not supply these books. The parents, in most cases, have neither the means nor the judgment for their proper selection. There should be no ambition on the part of teachers ‘to make bookworms of children, and it is certainly advisable to avoid an indiscriminate and loose reading of many books. The teachers should not only give children a careful and appreciative introduction to a few of the best books, but they should also try to advise and assist children in forming profita¬ ble habits of reading. In occasional general exercises before the whole school, and in private talks with the children, many a valuable hint may be given in regard to what books to read and reread, how to study out and' appreciate the characters; in short, how to assimilate what they get from books. In geographical studies a change, somewhat similar to that which has taken place in history studies, has been brought about in the last ten years. Instead of the meager outlines of geographical topics, and in place of the endless map questions and names for memorizing from the third grade on, we have begun to select instructive and interesting topics, which are treated with a richness of detail, illustration, and description that awakens the best thought and interest of children. Much of this work also has to be done in the early grades by the oral presentation of the teacher, and after a year or two of such home geography, by excursion and descriptive geography, by important topics, the children are prepared for making a good use of the geographical readers and books of travel, which have now attained great excellence and value. Here again it is necessary that the school library shall be well equipped with a careful selection of the best recent books. It need not be feared that this method of study and use of books will lead to a superficial, fragmentary, or unsystematic knowledge, but it will require better class¬ room instruction on the part of the teachers, and more ability to organize knowledge derived from reference and other library books. Here again, as in history, quite a goodly number of the children may be led on to excellent habits of voluntary and ' private study. Perhaps the best proof of the right instruction in the class room is the tendency of children to extend their knowledge by later voluntary readings in the use of the library. A short list of books will also indicate how enterprising our best book firms are in supplying what our libraries need in the way of geographical readers, travels, guide books, picturesque narratives, etc. In the field of natural science there is a third great realm of study which has been 682 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. lately brought under the direct jurisdiction of the schoolmaster. It is only within the last few years that any considerable number of schoolmasters and schoolmistresses have begun to appreciate what a glorious field of study has been opened to the common school. But books and libraries seem to stand in a different relation to nature study from that already ascribed to history and geography. In this case nature herself is the book to be studied, and no artificial book should come in between the observer and the leaves of nature’s own book. Nature study, when properly managed in elementary schools, is a direct protest against the wrong use of books. By means of excursions upon the campus, in the fields, gardens, and woods; by experiments in physics and chemistry in the laboratory; by watching birds among the trees, insects 1143011 the pond, butterflies on the clover, trees in their blossoms and fruitage, the weeds by the roadside, vegetables in the garden the children are acquiring the first indispensable impressions and that happy enjoyment of the wonders and beauties surrounding them in nature without which all later study from books and scientific treatises is unreal and unmeaning. After all, the difference between science and the other studies (history and geogra¬ phy) is not so great. We do not begin history and geography with books in the first two or three years, but with oral discussion and presentation. In fact, no study can be properly begun with children from books. It is only after the children have acquired some taste for a study and have accumulated considerable knowledge in its concrete forms that books can be used to advantage. And so it is with books of science. III the first four grades of the common schools, and to a large extent in the higher grades, science studies should he carried on almost wholly without books. Their appreciation and insight into nature in many directions should be steadily cultivated, not through the reading of books, but by direct contact with the senses and by exer¬ cise of the thinking powers upon present objects. Most of the efforts thus far made to introduce children to nature by means of books are farcical and fruitless. But as the children grow older, having accumulated a considerable variety of knowledge and sympathy for nature study, the best books on these subjects will be found very helpful. The teachers, indeed, will find books necessary at all times in guiding their efforts in nature study, but with this we are not now chiefly concerned. It will be found that for children in the intermediate and grammar grades there is quite a collection of science books that should be’ made easily accessible to them in the library. Indeed, some of them can be used to advantage in the supplementary reading in the grades in reading classes. Such, for example, are Short Stories of Our Shy Neighbors, by Mrs. Kelly; Glimpses of the Plant World, by Fanny Bugen; and Town Geology, by Charles Kingsley. Another class of books that children should learn to enjoy is that of Burroughs and Thoreau — the sympathetic and literary side of nature study. Some of these, like Birds and Bees, and Vdild Apples, like the poems of Bryant and Whittier, have gone into our school readings as classics. Then there are the works of the masters of science, Huxley, Tyndall, Darwin, etc., which com¬ bine scientific knowledge and genius with literary power, and are great books for students and adults to read. It is now possible to make up a list of science books, one or two hundred in number, which would add greatly to the value of a school library. There i3 also a great need for teachers to be more abundantly supplied with these fuller and more inspiring sources of study as a help and guide in observation. IV e have seen thus that, besides the usual reference books such as dictionaries, cyclopaedias, atlases, etc., there are four great groups or classes of books which need to be carefully selected and well represented in a typical school library. 1. The best permanent literary books suitable for children’s study and reading. This, for general educative purposes, must remain the nucleus of any school library. 2. Historical stories, biographies, narratives, and histories. 3. Geographical readers and books of travel. 4. Books 011 the leading phases of natural science. PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 683 The extent to which such a library is well used is a significant test of the efficiency of our whole educational activity in the schools. It will be seen from the preceding discussion that the purpose of the school, in addition to teaching children to read, is to give them a spirited introduction to the chief kinds of reading matter, to develop such tastes and habits of reading and con¬ sulting books that they will be disposed in their later years to make the best use of their power to read. The mere ability to read is of very little value; in some cases it is a positive misfortune, when the reading matter is vicious and the taste for such demoralizing books is cultivated. When the children are ready to leave school, their self-education will begin in earnest. One of the best things that the school can do is to launch people upon their independent life with a taste for good reading matter and a judgment sufficiently developed for selecting the right classes of books. The school library and the public library must furnish the chief opportunities for children in their later school years and during the years which follow school life for carrying out any plans of reading. The teachers and parents and the librarian, as far as possible, should come to an understanding and agreement as to what books they would recommend, and encourage children to read. One of the results of the attention recently paid to good literature in our schools is seen in the growing disposition of parents and children to read and discuss the standard books together. Many of the more intelligent and thoughtful parents are willing to spend their evenings with their children, reading and interpreting such books as Gulliver’s Travels; Hawthorne’s Grandfather’ s Chair; the lives of Lincoln, Webster, and other Americans; the story of Ulysses; the stories of King Arthur, the Greek heroes, the Bible stories; grid also the plays of Shakespeare, Plutarch’s Lives, historical biographies, and other books of history and travel, as well as of geography and science. It is not uncommon for teachers and principals of schools to call together the parents and explain the character of our reading matter, the selection of proper books for children, and the advantages of parents reading with their children. There is, probably, no one thing that can accomplish more in making the home what it ought to be than such home readings of books which are recognized by all as among the best. Fortunately, the parents will be benefited as much as the children; for the books that we have had in mind are just as interesting and valuable to grown people as to children. They are books that do not lose their charm. Much has already been done in this direction; but vastly more must be done in the future. The home and the school properly working together can clo a great deal in this way in creating a happy and healthful moral atmosphere, which is most favorable to the development of strong and symmetrical characters. What has been done, therefore, is only a beginning of what should be done all over this land and for the children of all classes in myriads of homes. But to accomplish this, libraries must be numerous and well equipped, far beyond anything which is common among us now. The public library, with its well-stored shelves of choice books, becomes as necessary as the schoolnouse itself. The librarian, trained and cultivated, should know as well as the teachers themselves what books are suitable for school children and young people. Librarians, therefore, should not only be experts in classifying and catalogu¬ ing books, but they should be trained experts in estimating and selecting reading matter for educative purposes. Many of the professional librarians have already responded to this requirement, and a great deal has been done in some of our towns and cities, like Boston, Minneapolis, New York City, and smaller cities, to bring the public librarians into vital touch with school children during these years of educative growth and character-building. A library should furnish a good collection of books in all the principal departments of study. In this way a child in the course of his education may widen out his knowledge and interest in many directions. For the sake of general, all-sided cul- G84 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ture it is desirable that a child should be many-sided in his development, and yet a library may produce an excellent effect upon a child by giving him an opportunity for cultivating a strong liking for one limited class of books. It is a great and suc¬ cessful stroke of education thoroughly to awaken and interest a child in one branch of study, and to make him acquainted with a few of the masterpieces in this narrow field. This one enthusiasm may be enough to make a reader and student, while a child who has never acquired a taste for any one class of books will remain dull, and shallow, and commonplace. From this standpoint, a good library, even though it be not very large, may contribute efficiently to the educational growth of a variety of students. In fact, the library can do for the student what no school can do. It can furnish the opportunity for that fuller and richer study in any one branch of science in which the student has become deeply interested. The school of necessity covers all branches of study with about equal or impartial care. It can not go deeply into any subject. The best it can do is to open up the subject and develop a healthy and hearty appetite for that kind of knowledge. But the library can furnish just that broader and select material which can develop a strong and permanent enthusiasm. The school can do little more than awaken an appreciation for a few masterpieces of forensic literature; but the library should contain all the great speeches of Burke, Fox, Chatham, Cicero, Webster, Sumner, etc., where the boys who have a special taste for this kind of literature can find the best in abundance. The same is true for those who have a taste for history, or art, or the drama, or fiction, or biology. CLASSIC READINGS FOR THE FIRST FOUR GRADES OF THE COMMON SCHOOLS. The Adventures of a Brownie (for teacher), Harper Bros. Kindergarten Stories and Morning Talks ( Wiltse), Ginn & Co. Talks for Kindergartens and Primary Schools (Wiltse), Ginn A Co. Grimm's Fairy Tales (Wiltse), Ginn & Co. German Fairy Tales (Grimm), Maynard, Merrill A Co. Fables and Folk Lore (Scudder), Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Banish Fairy Tales (Andersen), Maynard, Merrill A Co. Poetry for Children (Eliot) , Houghton, Mifflin A Co. The Story Hour (Wiggin), Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Robinson Crusoe , Public School Publishing Co. uFsop’s Fables (Stickney), Ginn & Co. Andersen's Fairy Tales, Part I, Ginn & Co. Seven Little Sisters, Ginn A Co. Ilans Andersen’s Stories, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Fairy Talcs in Verse and Prose (Rolfe) , Harper Bros. Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children, Ginn & Co. Andersen's Fairy Tales, Part II, Ginn & Co. Child Life in Poetry, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Child Life in Prose, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Arabian Nights (Aladdin), Maynard, Merrill A Co. Six Stories from the Arabian Nights, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Gulliver’s Voyage to Lilliput, Maynard, Merrill A Co'. Kingsley’s Greek Heroes, Ginn & Co. Hawthorne’s Tanglewood Tales, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Arabian Nights (Hale), Ginn A Co. Gods and Heroes, Ginn & Co. Gulliver’s Travels, G inn & Co. Adventures of Ulysses (Lamb), Ginn A Co. Hawthorne’s Wonder Book, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Stories of the Old World (Church), Ginn & Co. Ulysses Among the Phoenicians (Bryant) , Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Kingley’s Water Babies (Macmillan), Ginn & Co. CLASSIC READINGS FOR THE FIFTH TO THE EIGHTH GRADES OF THE COMMON SCHOOL. Hiawatha, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Lays of Ancient Rome, Houghton, Mifflin A Co.; Maynard, Merrill A Co. King of the Golden River, Ginn A Co. Stories from Herodotus, Maynard, Merrill A Co. PUBLIC LIBRARIES AIM'D PUBLIC SCHOOLS 685 Children's Treasury of English Song (choice poems, fourth to seventh grades) , Macmillan. Grandfather’ s Chair, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. The Sketch Book, Ginn & Co.; American Book Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co. Miles Standish, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Snow Bound, etc., Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Tales of a Grandfather , Ginn & Co. Birds and Bees , Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Dickens’s Christmas Carol and Cricket on the Hearth, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. The Christmas Carol, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Maynard, Merrill A Co. The Stories of Waverley, Macmillan. The Lay of the Last Minstrel, Ginn A Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co. Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, Ginn A Co.; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co. Hunting of the Deer, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Ginn & Co. Evangeline, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co. Grandmother' s Story of Bunker Hill, etc., Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Sella, Thanatopsis, and Other Poems, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co. Tales from Shakespeare (Lamb), Macmillan. Sharp Eyes and Other Papers , Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Tales of the White Hills (Hawthorne), Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Enoch Arden and The Lotus Eaters, Maynard, Merrill & Co. Sohrab and Rustum, Leach, Shewed & Sanborn; American Book Co. Bunker Hill Monument (Webster), Ginn & Co.; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Leach, Shewed & San¬ born; American Book Co. Seven American Classics, American Book Co. Cricket on the Hearth, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Maynard, Merrill A Co. The Succession of Forest. Trees, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Peasant and Prince, Ginn & Co. Rab and His Friends (Brown), Home Book Co.; Maynard, Merrill A Co. Silas Maimer (Eliot), Leach, Shewed A Sanborn. Vision of Sir Launfal, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Under the Old Elm, etc., Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Julius Csesar, American Book Co. Lady of the Lake, American Book Co.; Maynard, Merrill A Co.; Ginn A Co.; Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Burke's American Orations, D. C. Heath A Co.; Maynard, Merrill A Co. Webster’s Reply to Hayne, Maynard, Merrill A Co. Lincoln’s Gettysburg Speech, etc., Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Merchant of Venice, American Book Co.; Ginn A Co. Marmion, Ginn A Co.; Maynard, Merrill A Co.; Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Masterpieces of American Literature, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Roger de Coverley Papers, American Book Co.; Houghton, Mifflin A Co.; Leach, Shewed A Sanborn. Selections from Ruskin, Ginn A Co.; Leach, Shewed A Sanborn. Emerson’s Fortune of the Republic, etc., Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Bacon’s Essays, Ginn A Co.; Maynard, Merrill A Co. The Holy Grail and Sir Galahad, Maynard, Merrill A Co. The American Scholar, etc. (Emerson), American Book Co. Plutarch’s Lives, Ginn A Co. Vicar of Wakefield, Ginn A Co. Rasselas, Leach, Shewed A Sanborn; Ginn A Co. Swiss Family Robinson, Ginn A Co. Irving’s Alhambra, Ginn A Co. Readings from the Spectator, Educational Publishing Co. Tom Broivn at Rugby, Ginn A Co. Longfellow’s Tales of a Wayside Inn , Houghton, Mifflin A Co. The Peasant and the Prince, Ginn A Co. Peabody’s Old Greek Folk Stories, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Undine, Ginn A Co. Selections from Ruskin, Ginn A Co. German Household, Tales (Grimm), Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Stories from the Arabian Nights, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. The Hoosier School-Boy, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York. Homer’s Iliad (Pope’s), Ginn A Co. Don Quixote, Ginn A Co. Fanciful Tales (Stockton), Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York 686 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Being a Boy, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Tom Brown’s School Days (Hughes), Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Scott’s Quentin Durward, Ginn A Co. BOOKS OF SCIENCE. A Few Familiar Flowers, Ginn & Co. Outdoor Studies, American Book Co. The Story of the Solar System, D. Appleton A Co. Botany for Young People (Gray), American Book Co. The Story of a Piece of Coal , D. Appleton & Co. Toicn Geology, The MacmillaiT Co. Coal and Coal J lines, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Birds of Village and Field, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. In Birdland (Keyser), A. C. McClurg A Co. Bird Life, D. Appleton & Co. F< i miliar Trees and their Leaves , D. Appleton A Co. The Ocean of Air, Educational Publishing Co. Frail Children of the Air, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Butterflies, Henry Holt & Co. Inmates of My House and Garden, The Macmillan Co. Romance of the Insect World, The Macmillan Co. News from the Birds (Keyser), D. Appleton & Co. Animal Life in the Sea and on the Land, American Book Co. Recreations in Botany, Harper Bros. The Stories of the Trees, Thomas Nelson A Sons. The Fairy-Land of Science, D. Appleton A Co. A Naturalist' s Rambles About Home, D. Appleton A Co. Animal Memoirs, 2 vols. (Lockwood), American Book Co. The Population of an Old Pear Tree (E. Van Bruyssel), Macmillan A Co. Plants and tlieir Children (Dana), American Book Co. A Reader in Botany (Newell), Ginn A Co. Short Stories of Our Shy Neighbors, American Book Co. Sunshine (Amy Johnson), Macmillan A Co. Natural History in Anecdote, Dodd, Mead A Co. The Soil (King), The Macmillan Co. How to Study Plants (Wood), American Book Co. Four-Footed Americans, The Macmillan Co. The Great World's Farm, Seeley A Co., London. The Natural History of Aquatic Insects (Miall),The Macmillan Co. Philip’s Experiments (Trowbridge), D. Appleton A Co. Birds through an Opera Glass, Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Madam How and Lady Why (Kingsley), The Macmillan Co. The Natural History of Selbornc (White), Ginn A Co. Boys and Girls in Biology (Stevenson), D. Appleton A Co. Glimpses at the Plant World (Berger), Ginn A Co. Up and Down the Brooks (Bamford), Houghton, Mifflin A Co. Science Sketches (Jordan), A. C. McClurg A Co. BOOKS OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Carpenter’s Geographical Reader of North America, American Book Co. King’s Geographical Reader, 6 vols., Lee A Shepard. Our American Neighbors, Silver, Burdett A Co. Rupert’s Geographical Reader, Leach, Shewell A Co. The Information Readers, 4 vols., Boston School Supply Co. The Great American Industries, 2 vols., A. Flanagan. Ballou’s Footprints of Travel, Ginn A Co. Appleton’s General Guide to the United States and Canada, 2 vols., D. Appleton A Co Shaler’s The Story of Our Continent, Ginn A Co. Stories of Industry, 2 vols., Educational Publishing Co. Lakes of North America, Ginn A Co. Lummis’ A Trip Across the Continent, Charles Scribner’s Sons. Parkman’s The Oregon Trail, Little, Brown A Co. Badlands Modern Europe, Silver, Burdett A Co. Tarr’s Physical Geography , The Macmillan Co. Johonnot’s A Geographical Reader, American Book Co. Heilprin’s The Earth and its Story, Silver, Burdett A Co. Hutchison’s The Story of the Hills, The Macmillan Co. PUBLIC LIBRARIES AIID PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 687 Baedeker’s guidebooks of Great Britain, the Rhine, etc., Karl Baedeker, Leipzig. Scribner’s Geographical Reader , American Book Co. Badlam’s Views in Africa , Silver, Burdett & Co. Carpenter’s Geographical Reader, Asia, American Book Co. Smith’s Life in Asia, Silver, Burdett & Co. Australasia and the Islands of the Sea, Silver, Burdett & Co. Reclus’s The Earth, Harper Bros. HISTORICAL STORIES, FROM THE FOURTH TO THE EIGHTH GRADE. Stories from the History of Rome, Macmillan. ■Story of the Riad, Macmillan. Tales from Spencer, Macmillan. Heroes of Asgard, Macmillan. Story of the Odyssey, Macmillan. Tales of Troy, Public School Publishing Co. Tales from English History, Harper Bros. Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago, Ginn & Co. Tales of Chivalry, Harper Bros. Magna Charta Stories, Inter-State Publishing Co., Boston. Stories of Our Country, American Book Co. Pioneer History Stories, Public School Publishing Co. Book of Golden Heeds (Yonge), Macmillan. Jason's Quest, Leach, Shewell & Sanborn. Ten Great Events in History, American Book Co. Ivanlioe , Ginn & Co. The Making of New England, Charles Scribner’s Sons. Historical Classic Readings, Effingham Maynard, New York. The Beginnings of New England , Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Conspiracy of Pontiac (Parkman’s), Little, Brown & Co. Story of Columbus, Educational Publishing Co. Odysseus, Charles Scribner’s Sons. The Story of the Chosen People, American Book Co. Stories of the Thirteen Colonies, American Book Co. The Story of the English, American Book Co. The War of Independence, by John Fiske, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Story of Troy, American Book Co. The Story of Cccsar, American Book Co. George Washington, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. The Story of the Romans, American Book Co. Watch Fires of ’76, Lee & Shepard. Twelve Naval Captains, Charles Scribner’s Sons. Stories of Great Inventors, Educational Publishing Co. Fifty Famous Stories Retold, American Book Co. Stories of Colonial Children, Educational Publishing Co. The Children’s Life of Abraham Lincoln, A. C. McClurg & Co. Story of JEneas, American Book Co. Stories of Great Americans, for Little Americans, American Book Co. Children's Stories of American Progress, Charles Scribner’s Sons. The Boys of '76, Harper Bros. Southey’s Life of Nelson, Ginn & Co.; American Book Co. The Discovery of America, 2 vols., by John Fiske; Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Old Virginia and her Neighbors, 2 vols., by John Fiske; Houghton, Mifflin & Co. The American Revolution, 2 vols., by John Fiske; Houghton, Mifflin & Co. The Critical Period of American History, by John Fiske; Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Decatur and Somers, D. Appleton & Co. Westward Ho! Macmillan. Old Stories of the Fast, American Book Co. Macaulay’s Earl of Chatham, Leach, Shewell & Sanborn. Macaulay’s Life of Johnson, Leach, Shewel & Sanborn. Macaulay’s Lord Clive, Leach, Shewell & Sanborn. The Life and Writings of Addison, by Macaulay; American Book Co. G88 EDUCATION REPORT, 1399-1900. The following list of one hundred books for high schools is selected by Principal J. C. Hanna, Oakpark, Ill.: ONE HUNDRED BOOKS OF UNQUALIFIED VALUE FOR HIGH-SCHOOL STUDENTS TO READ. FICTION. 1. Rab and his Friends, Brown 21. Last Bays of Pompeii, Bulwer 2. Lorna Doone, Blackmore 22. Robinson Crusoe, Defoe 3. Last of the Mohicans, Cooper 23. Story of a Bad Boy, Aldrich 4. Tale of Two Cities, Dickens 24. The Pathfinder, Cooper 5. The Three Musketeers, Dumas 25. Baviel Copperfield, Dickens 6. The lloosicr Schoolmaster, Eggleston 26. Twenty Years After, Dumas 7. Silas Marner Eliot 27. Micah Clarke, Doyle S. Pilgrim'’ s Progress, Bun yan 28. Kenilworth, Scott 9. The Man Without a Country, Hale 29. Wavcrley, Scott 10. The House of Seven Gables, Hawthorne 30. Gulliver's Travels, Swift 11. Tom Brown's School Bays, Hughes 31. Vanity Fair, Thackery 12. Les Miserables, Hugo 32. Henry Esmond, Thackery 13. Westward Ho! Kingsley 33. Cloister and Hearth, Reade 14. Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker, Mitchell 34. Scottish Chiefs, Porter 15. Treasure Island, Stevenson 35. Hypatia, Kingsley 16. Ivanhoe, Scott 36. Soldiers Three, Kipling 17. Quentin Burward, Scott 37. Kidnapped, Stevenson 18. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Stowe 38. The Talisman, Scott 19. Bcn-IIur, Wallace 39. The Emperor, Ebers 20. Harold, Bulwer 40. Schbnberg Cotta Family ESSAYS ETC. 1. Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, Holmes 6. Essay on Burns, Carlyle 2. Sketch Book, Irving 7. Earth and Man, G uyot 3. Essay on Milton, Macaulay 8. Tice Book of the Ocean, Ingersoll 4. Being a Boy, Warner 9. Sir Roger de Coverley Papers, Addison o. Birds and Bees, Burroughs POETRY. 1. Evangeline, Longfellow 11. L' Allegro, Milton 2. Vision of Sir Launfal, Lowell 12. II Penscroso, Milton 3. Snow Bound, Whittier 13. Lady of the Lake, Scott 4. Tent on the Beach, Whittier 14. Marmion, Scott 5. Selected Poems, Burns 15. Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare 6. Childe Harold, Byron 16. Julius Ctesar, Shakespeare 7. Ancient Mariner, Coleridge 17. Macbeth, Shakespeare 8. Elegy in a Country Churchyard, Gray 18. As you Like It, Shakespeare 9. Lays of Ancient Pome, Macaulay 19. Princess, Tennyson 10. Lyciclas, Milton 20. Idylls of the King, Tennyson MISCELLANEOUS. 1. The Gold Bug and Other Talcs, Poe 13. The Story of the Plants, Grant Allen 2. Stories from Homer, Church 14. Homer (Princes of Liter atu re), Gladstone o O. Stories from I ’irgil, Church 15. Books and Readings, Porter 4. Prose Translation of Odyssey, 16. The Story of the Cowboy, Hough Butcher and Lang 17. The Story of the Mine, 3 Shinn 5. Classic Myths in English Literature Gay ley 18. The Story of the Indian, oj;5 Grinnell 6. Obi Times on the Mississippi, M. Twain 19. The Story of the Railroad ,, M V arman 7. Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, 20. Citizen Bird, Wright and Cones Baring-Gould 21. Brave Little Holland and What She Taught Us, 8. Two Years Before the Mart, Dana Griffis 9. Wonder Book, Hawthorne 22. How Marcus Whitman Saved Oregon, Nixon 10. Tanglewood Tales, Hawthorne 23. Society in Rome under the Caesars, Inge 11. Jungle Books, 2 vols., Kipling 24. Stories from Herodotus, Church 12. The Story of Primitive Man, Clodd PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 689s BIOGRAPHY. 3. Autobiography, Franklin 10. 2. Life of Nelson, Southey 3. Caesar; a Sketch, Froude 4. Hero Tales from American History, 11. Lodge and Roosevelt 5. Christopher Columbus, C. K. Adams 12. [From Heroes of the Nations series.] G. Nelson ancl the Name Supremacy of England, 13. W. Clark Russell 7. Pericles and the Golden Age of Athens. 14. C. R. L. Fletcher 8. Theodoric the Goth, the Barbarian Champion 15. of Civilization, Hodgkin 16. 9. Julius Caesar and the Organization of the Roman 17. Empire, W. Warde Fowler 18. 1. Speech on Conciliation, 2. First Bunker Hill Oration, SPEECHES. Burke 3. Webster 4. Napoleon, Warrior and Ruler; and the Military- Supremacy of Revolutionary France, W. O'Connor Morris Jeanne d’ Arc, the Maid of France, Mrs. Oliphanfc George Washington; an Historical Biography, Scudder Lives of Eminent Men, Plutarch [Makers of America series.] Oglethorpe and the Founding of the Georgia Colony, Bruce Alexander Hamilton, W. G. Sumner Robert Morris, W. G. Sumner Thomas Jefferson, Robert Burns, Schouler- Carlyle- Reply to Ilayne, Gettysburg Speech, Webster Lincoln TRAVEL, DESCRIPTION. 1. Alhambra, Irving 4. From Lakes of Killarney to 2. Views Afoot, Taylor the Golden Horn, H. M. Fields 3. Tales of a Traveler, Irving 5. From Egypt to Japan, II. M. Field; SUMMARY. Fiction . . . 40 Essays, etc . 9 Poetry . 20 Miscellaneous . 24 Biography . 18 Speeches . 4 Travel, description . . . 5-120 V. REPORT OF THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON RELATION OF LIBRARIES TO NORMAL SCHOOLS. By M. Louise Jones. RELATION OF THE LIBRARY TO THE PUPIL TEACHER. The subcommittee on normal schools and libraries briefly considers the problem from three points of view: (1) What 'book equipment has the pupil teacher a right, to demand of the normal school? (2) What is the relation of the library to that, demand? (3) How far are the normal schools realizing their opportunity? Since young men and women enroll in normal schools for the purpose of making- adequate preparation for- the profession of teaching, it seems that the least the insti¬ tution should do is: First, to train them so to discipline their own mind as to make- all its functions in the highest degree serviceable to themselves; second, to help them to acquire such a fund of knowledge as will make them wise guides for the children* third, to give them such an understanding of the human mind as will enable them to train wisely the children committed to their care; and fourth, to give them such an acquaintance with books as shall enable them to know and choose the best for the- child, and to train it how to use the contents to greatest advantage. The importance- of the first two has been realized from the first; the third now engages attention;, but the fourth is comparatively a new field. What can the normal schools furnish in the way of book and library equipment, and what is being done? The student enrolls in the normal school in a double sense: He is thereto develop ED 1900 - 11 690 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. his own capacity, and thoroughly to furnish himself unto the great work of teaching. The first involves academic training similar to that offered in other institutions of liberal culture, and calls for a similar use of books; the second asks an equipment for the profession of teaching, and demands a culture in books otherwise less needful. Ail students require training in thorough, comprehensive research, but the pupil teacher must enter upon it with the idea of becoming an index rerum for his future schoolroom, and of learning to correlate whatever can be mutually related. Personal conviction and class-room stimulus will avail little unless the library be there to do its part. In an academy one may perhaps be satisfied to study Virgil with a lexicon and a work on mythology; but the normal student can to advantage turn to parallel passages in the play of Hecuba and the tragedy of Agamemnon; or read Longfellow’s Enceladus, Tennyson’s OEnone, Wordsworth’s Laodamia. The student of science in an academy may be satisfied to do laboratory and field work, but the pupil teacher must learn to correlate his work in biology with the nature element in literature, or his pupils may not go from Burroughs and Thoreau and Ernest Ingersoll to field and forest and laboratory. The college boy may rest satisfied with In Memorlam as an elegiac poem, but some day the pupil teacher will need to associate it with Emewson’s Essay on Friendship , Trumbull’s Friendship the Master Passion, or the story of David and Jonathan, in order to teach the sacredness of human friendship. No history of education in the United States is comparable to that made by the student himself in a small, well-selected, professional library. In a normal school worthy of the name text-books can be little more than inspirations and suggestions for personal, inde¬ pendent work in library, or laboratory, or afield. The teacher himself must be before he knows how to train being. Again, he who has, as sole capital for his profession, a life certificate to teach in the common schools of the State is “poor indeed.” Given a natural aptitude for teaching, instinct should prompt him to study his own personality with reference to his educative power. One may need myths and folklore, songs and exercises, poems and pictures; the library is his only possibility. The little white schoolhouse on the prairies of the West or in the pineries of the North may demand of another an accurate knowledge and speedy recognition of bird and beetle, moth and butterfly, or a rich supply of mechanical devices; the library should richly supplement museum and laboratory. There, catalogued, indexed, and easily accessible, should be found, not in single copies alone, but sometimes in duplicate sets, whatever will increase his efficiency and promote the interests of the community. Nor is it sufficient for the library to furnish the student what he needs as a teacher; it must, as well, enable him to satisfy the child whom he is to educate. It is no longer safe for a young man or woman who expects to teach to put off acquiring a general knowledge of books until after the professional training is over. The Ameri¬ can boy and girl will read, and, next to the intelligent parent, teachers have the best opportunity for wise guiding. Let the normal library be rich in literature for chil¬ dren, and it will not be long before instructors will see to it that teachers are cor¬ relating work for their own enrichment with literature that will be attractive to their pupils. Books satisfy one craving only to create a fresh one. The judicious teacher who arrested the attention of an idle, pugnacious little fellow with stories of Greek heroes little realized that she was turning the tides of destiny and making him an honor man in college Greek. The one who placed a copy of Burns’s poems in a boy’s hand little realized that thus the Quaker lad would find his own poetic instinct. A book on birds in the hand of a child made one man an ornithologist of no mean note. How many more the world might have had, if children had been given proper lit¬ erature, we shall never know, but it will be criminal in the future to mar such a pos¬ sibility. In several States, normal schools not only are placing such literature on their shelves and making use of it in class rooms, but their pupils in the field are establishing schoolroom or village libraries, and in large measure duplicating what PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 691 they found on the shelves where they were taught. And this is as it should be. If ithe people look to normal schools for trained teachers, then they have a right to demand that these teachers come to them prepared to name the best books, and to use them in the best way after they are purchased. “No teacher, worthy of the name, should rest satisfied until, having chosen a book for a child with as much care as a physician would use in selecting his instruments, he sees that child as an inter¬ ested, and successful reader of the same.” Thus far wre have considered the possibilities of the library as it has direct bearing on the pupil teacher and the book problem of the future schoolroom. Has the stu¬ dent himself, by virtue of being a student, any rights which the library is bound to respect? The teaching profession was the last to feel that it needed a training school of its own, and the last to appreciate the necessity for a literature distinctly profes¬ sional. The universities early recognized the necessity for schools of law, medicine, and theology, and that upon the libraries of professional literature connected there¬ with depended student efficiency. Not until the first normal schools were established in the United States was teaching recognized as in any true sense professional in character. An education more or less general was deemed ample qualification. That normal schools have successfully demonstrated that teaching is a profession and demands a professional literature is evidenced from two facts: First, that a uni¬ versity can no longer hold its title in fee simple without establishing a department of pedagogy; and, second, that all thinkers are studying the problems of education both from the historical and philosophical points of view, and giving to the profession the results of their ripened conviction or of their patient investigation. Thus there is a rapidly growing didactic literature that no normal school can afford to be without. The sections of the library devoted to child study, psychology, history of educa¬ tion, and other strictly professional subjects, should be full and complete. It were far better that in a normal school less be expended on laboratory and museum, and more upon these departments of the library. The teacher can be taught to manu¬ facture much of his own apparatus and to make his own museum, but how shall he train the child aright if he do not know the evolution of the race, the history of its educational development, and the growth of the human mind? Teaching is so recent a science that its history can not yet be written with any fullness; hence normal libraries should become storehouses, in which are being gathered together whatever will supplement text-books and enable pupil teachers to pursue independent investi¬ gation. Nor should the professional side of academic studies be neglected. It may be just as necessary for some future teacher to look up the origin, growth, and decay of the gender idea of nouns as to trace the rise and growth of political parties. Too long have normal libraries been purely academic in character. It is high time for them to become professional as well. The normal school is called upon to do pro¬ fessional work, and to the end that its pupils may have every advantage to know the history and rffiilosophy of their own profession, and that the instructors in it may be able in turn to contribute the results of their own scholarship applied to the prob¬ lems of the age, the library should day the world under tribute for whatever will enrich their field of inquiry and constitute their field of authority. The generosity which the States so unanimously show to their great universities will in time be extended also to the normal schools. It can not come too soon, if the common schools, for which the normal school exists, are to remain the lines of fortification for the Republic and preserve the integrity of the nation. Lastly, since the students are here in the capacity of pupil teachers, they and their constituency have a right to demand of the library a favorable opportunity to study child life .in literature. Every well-equipped normal school has its model training department, serving the double purpose of enabling its students to teach under the watchful eye of a competent critic, and to study the unfolding life of the child. It is here that they begin to realize that theirs is not to teach books, but to educate; that 692 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. streams of impulse are to flow into and become character; that a satisfactory and happy future is conditioned upon a good to-day. Nevertheless is it true that the child is isolated from the world of environment in which he is destined to live. Each little child is to pass from this isolation and seclusion to determine its own relation to envi¬ ronment; yea, more, to adjust itself to its former companions in the schoolroom, now also transformed by changed conditions into a force new and, to some extent, incom¬ prehensible. The thoughtful man and earnest maiden will scarcely be contented to let the legal requirement suffice for the study of the child. They should have the opportunity to turn to literature, where the lifeblood of the race spirit pulses warm and free. It is interesting to watch the novice call the attention of the child to the world outside, The beauty and the wonder and the power, The shapes of things, their colors, lights, and shades, Changes, surprises, and hear her say: “God made it all.” But it is impressive, when she turns to litera¬ ture, to watch the child in the realm of activity, to study how and by what its life is being shaped, to be thankful that even a child may lead from tumult into peace, and from sin unto righteousness. This is and should be the function of the library in a school where teachers are trained to serve the State by educating its future citizens. LIBRARY EQUIPMENT AND ORGANIZATION. One of the serious problems in any educational institution must be the equipment and organization of its library, and this is peculiarly true where self-culture and pro¬ fessional training are to be secured at the same time. The library of a normal school can not afford to ignore a student’s right to efficient service, because, directly and indirectly, it thus influences the entire State. Whatever of advantage the student derives from a well-arranged library, whatever he may learn of library methods, is quite likely to be of benefit to the community where he teaches. From the begin¬ ning, books should be classified according to one of the best systems in general use, and, if possible, like the one at the State university, so that, from crossroads to campus, library usage may be easy. Whether the books be in charge of an untrained librarian or of a member of the faculty, it is not impossible to arrange books and shelves by system, and train students to preserve the classification. Author and title catalogues can be made in harmony with the chosen system, and when 500 volumes are on the accession list, an expert cata¬ loguer is needed, to double the efficiency of the library. Often the portions of a book most valuable to a student are suggested neither in the title nor in the table of con¬ tents; as, for example, the home of Napoleon Bonaparte on the island of St. Helena described in one of the Consular Reports, or some of the interesting facts of educational history treasured in the reports of the Bureau of Education published in the seventies and eighties. An expert cataloguer may seem a heavy expense for a small library, but the smaller the collection of books, the more necessity for using them to their fullest extent. A library expert interested in educational matters is practically an assistant in every department of instruction. She makes herself acquainted with the curriculum and familiar with the lines of work pursued in the several departments; anticipates class-room requirements; and is ready to meet them ; is able to take students in groups, and, by timely talks, not only to increase their library knowledge, but help them to understand a book. A country lad, after fifteen minutes with such an expert, said recently: “That talk with Hiss R. was worth more to me than a term’s work with any professor. I know how to take hold of a book now and get some good out of it.” Experience strengthens the belief that a scientifically trained libra¬ rian is invaluable in a normal school, and more to be desired than large accessions of books without a complete catalogue. In an ideal normal school, senior pupils will PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 693 have opportunities to assist the librarian in this work and thus become familiar to some extent with the methods of interesting students in good literature. Each year periodical literature becomes more valuable. This is evident, whether we consider the price that must be paid for the earlier volumes of any leading maga¬ zine, if perchance they are even in market, or whether we consider the articles that appear in the current month. No teacher can afford to live behind his age, and to do otherwise requires a generous supply of current periodical literature. Notably is this true of whatever is professional in character. Any magazine worthy the attention of a student in normal schools is worthy of preservation in permanent form. Barnard’s Journal of Education was long ago out of market, and the earlier numbers of the Child- , Study Monthly are practically beyond the reach of the many normal schools that failed to order them when current. Too much emphasis can not be laid upon the necessity of buying and binding periodical literature. Poole’s Index and kindred publications unlock this mine of wealth, and yet students often regret that the subject catalogue does not include magazine articles. In the study of the library problems this member of the committee has been led to believe that some portion of the student body in a normal school should be allowed to make such a catalogue for magazine articles. It need not and should not be a part of the regular catalogue, but, in a case exclusively its own, be an integral part of the library equipment. It will serve two purposes — aid the new student to make more effective research, and enable one further advanced to acquire some skill in bringing out subject-matter by topics, thus training him to be an efficient helper in schools where an expert librarian is not an immediate possibility. One of the best sections of the library should be devoted to public documents, both State and national. Plere earnest workers will be found turning the pages of geolog¬ ical surveys for land slopes and scale of foothills, for identification of birds and insects, for descriptions of rare plants and native flora. Government reports are an inviting field for workers in sociology, political economy, history, and finance. Reports of the Bureau of Education, from the first volume to the present, furnish much that the student of the history of education can not find elsewhere. Census reports offer a comparative study of no mean value, and throw light upon many a knotty question in debate. The Growth of Industrial Art , a public document, is good supplementary reading for a class in history of art, and Records of the Civil War are the raw material out of which the new philosophy of history will fashion many a chapter. What is true of Government reports is equally true of State documents. Where should they be found if not in normal schools, where is forged the anchor of our ship of state? One institution is gathering extra volumes of the National Educa¬ tional Association reports. Of the last issue alone several copies are on the library shelves, while three or four times as many are stored in the packing room for future need. This is preeminently the age of associations. Men of wide culture and similar tastes group together for the purposes of scientific investigation, historical research, or a study of the problems of the age. The results of their labors are published as monographs; yet, from the reports received by this committee, it is evident that few normal schools are enriching their libraries with such accessions. Where shall we look for the Herbarticm Yearbook if not in the library of a State normal school? Where may we expect to find the publications of the American Historical Society and others of like nature if not where pupil teachers most do congregate? To the meagerness of legislative appropriation is doubtless due this state of affairs. What¬ ever the cause, is there not some remedy? The nation fosters education. Her school system is at once her pride and the source of her strength. For its maintenance she has made liberal grants. The States, on the whole, are generous. If they are not beneficent toward normal schools, it is because they have not seen the necessity; and who shall make the need known if not the schools where teachers are in training for (594 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. city, village, yea, and country districts? Some of the largest libraries in these pro¬ fessional schools have charged students a small fee and thus materially advanced library interests. Where the libraries are small and the appropriations correspond¬ ingly meager, a revenue in some way from the student body itself seems the only other method. Successful in some States, why not in all? The strictly professional side of a normal-school library can not be too strongly urged. A knowledge of United States history is deemed a necessary requisite for intelligent citizenship. Much more is it essential that he who is to train the child for future sovereignty in a republic should himself be familiar with the rise and development of great educational movements, know the men who were able to inaug¬ urate them, the methods of attaining success, and in what way these same educa¬ tional movements have shaped the history of great peoples. Whatever can be made to throw any light on the development of mind, or the formation of character, should be the student’s to enjoy. The memorizing of a text-book on psychology or ethics may have good disciplinary value, and be serviceable as a nucleus around which to grow, but the evolution of the skilled teacher, able to build brain without weakening it, and form character without marring it, is the product of the library rather than the class room. The survival of the fittest may be all right in the phys¬ ical world, but human life costs too much, and is worth too much, to be sifted by any selective process. Mind-endowed creations can not be thus rudely handled, or even left to their own inherent tendency to gruntle or decay. The new gospel calls any human life sacred and asks the teacher to cherish it, strengthen it, fit it for enjoy¬ ment of life and for usefulness to society. This gospel demands a reverent and responsible study of the child; but before the teacher may safely undertake this study of the living child, and the shaping of child destiny, there ought to be most faithful work in the library, to determine what is a normal or abnormal child, the possibilities of the one, the impediments to the progress of the other; what builds, what mars. In no department of pedagogical work is there more promise of success than in this, nor one that offers a finer culture. The literature on the subject is so rich, both in facts offered and in the culture possible therefrom, that ample provi¬ sion should be made in every normal-school library for thorough and exhaustive study of the same, not only on the historical and scientific side, but also in the realm of literature. There may be a question as to how far a normal school should furnish so-called culture literature in duplicate sets for pupil teachers, and thus free them from the necessity of beginning a library for themselves; but there can be no ques¬ tion as to the duty of filling the child study alcoves with whatever will help to the thorough understanding of the processes of human development, and in sufficient quantities so that each pupil teacher may work unhampered. It is interesting to watch the student go from the text-book on the Study of the Child to the well-filled shelves in the pedagogical department of the library; from there to the cases of general literature for the books in which child life figures; from there to the cases devoted to juvenile literature, where he may satisfy himself as to what a child should read; and then to the child himself. Two incidents have come under my own observation during the preparation of this report. Some young men were play¬ ing games with a group of little children at twilight, when a teacher passed by, say¬ ing: “What a merry time you children are having!” One of the young men promptly answered: “We are studying the children without their knowing it.” Another day a thoughtful young man who had always seemed more interested in books and facts and things than in human life said: “lam longing to enter the professional year. I want to begin the study of the child. I can not pass one on the street without saying to myself, ‘Little mystery, I wish I understood you!’” These are evidences of the growing interest in child study where a library creates a desire for the study. Finally, is it too much to say that professional training of teachers has reached PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 695 that period in its development where the library must be one of the chief factors in the training of pupil teachers; that the instructor, worthy of the chair he occupies, must be familiar, not only with the books and service of his own department, but familiar as well with whatever the pupil teacher must use along kindred lines in his own schoolroom, and be able to help to correlate the work of his own department with that which the pupil is deriving from every other department as well; that the librarian must be a member of the faculty, as much as the teacher of mathematics or psychology, in order to understand the curriculum and be able to supplement class¬ room instruction with library investigation? Is it too much to say that we can not hope to make pupil teachers intelligent readers of books, able to grasp the content of paragraph and chapter, estimate them at their true value, and correlate them with knowledge previously acquired, unless we release them from the old-time enslavement to text-books and grant them the freedom of the modern library? Is it too much to say that the library is not now holding its true place in the training of pupil teachers? Is not Carlyle right when he says, “The true university in these days is a collection of books?” And may I not add that the ideal normal school is to regard text-books as mere signboards, teachers only as wise guides; while the library and training school are the true realm where the pupil of to-day, through a process of evolution, is to become the teacher of to-morrow? SUMMARY OF REPORTS RECIVED FROM STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. The subcommittee on the relation of normal schools and libraries mailed circular letters to each normal school, ‘State and private, listed in the last published Report of the Bureau of Education. Reports have been received from about three-fourths of the schools. A number of these, owTing to “ pressure of work,” wrere not returned until late in May or early in June, and therefore are not fully embodied in this summary. The letters sent out were designed to secure information in regard to the equipment and management of libraries; to ascertain what normal schools are doing, not only to create an interest in literary culture, but an acquaintance with literature; and how far it is expedient to teach library science. The following summary is the result of that investigation: The reports received from private normal schools are few and often incomplete; hence they are not embodied in this report. The State normal school at Terre Haute, Ind., reports 25,000 volumes, the largest normal-school library in the United States. Three schools have libraries of 15,000 volumes; 6 have 10,000; 18 have about 5,000; 19 have, in round numbers, 2,000; 4 have about 1,000 volumes. So far as heard from, no State normal school is without some library advantages, although many have less than 1,000 volumes. The presidents of two of the more recently established schools have generously placed their private libraries in the normal building, and given students free access thereto; in another the professor of psychology turns over to student use his valuable private library, and in the same institution the educational reports in English, French, and German, so necessary to a student of didactics, are the loan of a public-spirited man. The regular library of this school in cultured New England is 3,500 volumes. What has not the self- sacrificing missionary spirit of New England done for school as well as church! The libraries of these schools are supported in the main by legislative appropria¬ tions. In a few instances a regular fee is charged, varying from 50 cents per term to $2 (Terre Haute) per annum. The senior class in one school makes a generous annual gift to the library, and this amount is expended for books; in another a graduation fee is charged, and this goes to the support of the library. As a general rule, books are selected either by heads of departments or by a committee chosen from the faculty. In most instances the funds are under the control of the general office, and library bills are paid there; but in thirteen of the schools the library committee is directly responsible for die funds and makes report to the general office. Only eighteen schools expend any portion of the appropriation for periodicals and newspapers. This amount varies from 2 per cent in one school to one-half of the appro¬ priation in another. The average seems to be from 8 to 10 per cent of the legislative appropriation. The rest of the institutions, so far as they have a magazine library, secure it by voluntary contributions from the students, or by small fees charged for the purpose. A few libraries take a large number of periodicals, including all, or 696 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. nearly all, magazines devoted to science or philosophy, didactics or current literature, and, when bound, make them a part of their general library. It is a matter of regret that the number is not larger, and that even of those who place a generous supply of magazines on the reading tables so few bind any number of them at the end of the year. The following is significant: Table showing the number of libraries that bind the leading periodicals.1 American Journal of Psychology . 8 Atlantic Monthly . 18 Century . 30 Child-Study Monthly . 11 Cosmopolitan . 18 Educator . 8 Educational Review . 25 Forum . 28 Harper’s Magazine . 26 J ournal of Education . . 9 Journal of Pedagogy . 3 North American Review . 22 Pedagogical Seminar y . 14 Primary School Monthly . 25 Primary Teacher . . . 8 Review of Reviews . 20 School Journal . 9 Scientific American . 9 Scribner’s Magazine . 22 Teachers’ Institute . 6 Twenty-four schools, out of 50 reporting on this topic have copies of the text-books in general use in the State; 32 out of 42 reporting purchase duplicate sets of books needed for special research or study in the several departments; 20 out of 46 aim, either by lectures or class instruction, to give pupils some idea of catalogue making; 5 have a short course in bibliography; 12 give instruction in what is called the methods class; 12 leave this to the classes in rhetoric or literature; 22 librarians make it their duty to prepare lists of “sources of information” on various topics; 13 are glad to have the seniors work with them in the library and do give them a training of no slight value; 17 schools so arrange library matters that the alumni have the use of new books, and thus are helped to keep abreast of the times; 53 schools permit pupils to take books home for reading or study; and 47 allow them to visit the shelves for research and study. There is a general conviction that, since the State does so much for students, and since the supply of books on the shelves of the library is inadequate to the demand, students should be charged a small library fee. It is little for the student, but it means much to the library. It is safe to say that comparatively few libraries have, as yet, been able to make a scientific classification of books, and in one instance, at least, volumes already pur¬ chased can not be used in daily study for lack of room for library cases. This summary is necessarily crude and imperfect, because reports were received at a date too late for proper treatment. The subject of libraries in relation to educa¬ tional institutions is so important — and particularly is this true in relation to normal schools, colleges, and universities — that the wish is here expressed that the work begun this year by the council may be continued for one or more years, until a report worthy of this great department of education shall be within reach of every such institution of learning in the Republic. VI. ESTABLISHING LIBRARIES IN VILLAGES. By F. A. Hutchins. Any village can secure and support a free public library when the people fully understand the value of such an institution. The first step, therefore, toward secur¬ ing such a library is to convince the people that libraries are an essential part of a system of education. It is equally important to show them a practical plan for main¬ taining a library at a reasonable expense. A public library should be as much a public institution as a public school, and should be maintained by the public for the same reasons, though experience has proved that the two institutions usually thrive better under separate boards working in harmony. Persons who desire to establish a local library should first study the laws of their State regarding libraries. Fourteen States have State library commissions which have authority to aid in organizing public libraries by means of letters and pamphlets, or by sending their officers. Such bodies can give the most effective help, and every 1 No notice taken oi less than three libraries binding the same magazines. PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 697 State should have one. Any one of these commissions will usually send helpful literature to persons in other States than their own. Twenty States have State library associations, which desire to aid new libraries, and the American Library Association can also give help. (For the addresses of the executive officers of these bodies see Appendix.) A pamphlet entitled “ Statistics of Libraries and Library Legislation in the United States ” can be obtained without cost from the United States Bureau of Education at Washington, D. C. In States which have neither library commissions nor associations, information and suggestions can usually be obtained from librarians in the large cities. The personal counsel of experienced librarians who have some general idea of the local conditions should be obtained, if possible. When the leaders in the local movement have set¬ tled upon a practicable plan for establishing and supporting a library, they should educate public sentiment through the local press, from the platform, and by private appeals. Include in the canvass all citizens, irrespective of creed, business, or poli¬ tics. To ignore any class is to imply its indifference to education and to invite its hostility. To assume that a man from the uneducated classes, or a local politician, is interested in any movement for the public good is a great aid in getting his sym¬ pathy and active help. Enlist the support of the business men who are interested in advertising the town. Show them what other places are doing, and arouse their civic pride. If you can get an agreement by the village board to pay the running expenses of the library, provided the citizens will equip it, organize a movement to raise a suitable sum of money. When you can convince your business men that if a library is started it can be permanently maintained they will often contribute cheerfully to get a large col¬ lection of books, when they would not give anything for a small one. Start with the largest gifts of money that you can get. Let money come later from entertainments. Do not start your enterprise with gifts of books. If books are taken, let it be after all the money possible has been raised. A healthy old library can endure gifts of discarded books, but new libraries are often imperiled by them. It is generally advisable, before canvassing for funds, to find what the running expenses of a library will amount to — how much it will cost for rent, librarian’s sal¬ ary, fuel, light, and printing. If possible, make an itemized .statement of what the expenses will be. Many people have an exaggerated idea of the cost of a library, and fear heavier taxes than are necessary. If you canvass the town, make the canvass so close as to include every family. Have all factions represented on the canvassing committee. Everyone who gives will feel a stronger interest in the library. As a rule, the libraries which are the result of united effort do better work in their early years than those which are founded and entirely supported by individuals. All the newspaper articles about libraries, and all the arguments in public and private, should assume that the library will be primarily intended to benefit the children. This will make it easier, when the time comes, to get a good librarian and to get the right books and liberal rules. The library board should include the person who is at the head of the local school system, two or three who have acknowledged business sagacity, and others who have literary knowledge. Women should, of course, be among the number. If possible, get a trained librarian to help you in organizing. If you can not get one to visit you, write to him or visit him. There is a world of helpful library expe¬ rience for those who insist upon getting help from it. The local librarian should, if practicable, be early chosen, so that she may aid in selecting the books and organizing the library. The usefulness and ultimate success of the library will largely depend upon her ability and zeal. She must have force, tact, and the “library spirit.” She must have the power as well as the desire to interest and help the children. An article in the Library Journal (April, 1899), by 698 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Clara AY. Hunt, of Newark, N. J., describing the work that should be done by the librarian of a children’s library in a large city, applies with equal force to the person in sole charge of a library in a small community. Miss Hunt says: AY hen all has been said and done about devices, and schemes, and baits, there is nothing that will take the place of, or count for as much as, personal contact of librarian and children. If the librarian is an honest lover of children, and if she knows their books, not simply from the lists, but from actually reading them, she can do a thousand times more for the boys and girls than all the bulletins, catalogues, bright covers, and every other material device put together. If she is all this, and much more, she will be interested in every individual child that comes into her room. She will remember their likes and dislikes; she will make every child feel that she is a friend, and yet never let them suspect that she is interfering with their choice of books; she will confide in the children and win their help and confidence; she will use her specially intelligent boys and girls as a sort of book committee to help her decide on what books the children will like; she will interest the children in keep¬ ing the room supplied with wild flowers and other treasures of the woods; and some day, when she is particularly busy, she will help more people than suspect it by getting one of the older girls to read to the little ones who are growing too noisy over in their corner. She will have a mind above caring about the fiction per cent in her room, believing that it is a higher aim to help the boys and girls to be good than to be merely wise, and knowing that the child’s character is more strongly influenced by the ideals of his dear story-book friends than by Gradgrind facts. One can not lay down definite rules under this head of personal work, but by means of it the children’s room and library may become a synonym for everything that is beautiful and helpful and uplifting to the child — a second home from which the boys and girls go out with enthusiastic interest in the world about them, with more than the germs of a taste for history, or poetry, or biography; with the reading habit formed, and the consciousness deeply rooted in their minds that books may always be their friends and teachers; with a distaste, it is hoped, for weak, trashy books; but, above all, with higher ideals of manhood and womanhood; and with aspirations to be brave and honest and pure, like the lifelong friends who have come to them through that dear medium, the book. The village library and librarian should do for the children from sordid homes what the home library and the cultivated father and mother do for the children from refined homes. They should train the children to love good books, to appreciate all their beauties, to handle them carefully, to talk about them, to be fit companions for genuine book lovers, and to go to books habitually and instinctively for pleasure in idle hours, and for comfort and strength in times of stress. No paid stipendiary, no woman who is merely negatively good, can do this w'ork; but a woman with soul and tact, who feels the responsibility and charm of her work, will grow under it until she becomes a living force in the hearts of her children and in the homes of the community. SELECTING THE BOOKS. In selecting the books get the advice of experienced librarians of public and school libraries. Some excellent annotated “lists of books” have been made by competent persons, and the titles of a number of these will lie found in the Appendix. The first books purchased for a library should include a large proportion for children; because the most enduring and effective work can be done for the children, and because the best books for children are enjoyed by everybody. AATien the children’s classics have been read in the homes, and the parents feel that the books are helping their children to become better, more intelligent, the library has won a place in the public heart wdfich will insure its permanent support. The first books purchased must be wholesome, but they must also be interesting to untrained readers. The test of experience must be applied to these books. Choose those that librarians of good judgment agree are deservedly popular. Fortunately, there are a few hundred of such books. Many of these are standard and can be bought at low prices in durable editions. The first purchase may include books of far greater average merit than any subsequent purchase. As far as the PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 699 average reader is concerned, the best 500 popular books are worth all the rest. Do not put too much money in historical sets or bulky biographies and scientific and reference books. With untrained readers the habit of reading for pleasure must precede the habit of studying. Watch the reading of your patrons, and when you find that they are beginning to study, buy along the lines of their interest. Do not use all of your money for books at first, but save some to get a few new books occasionally, when you know more of the tastes of the readers. Frequent purchases of books keep up the interest in the library. In preparing your list for the book dealer describe the editions of the standard books which you wish. It is usually best to get bids from a number of dealers. A reliable bookseller can frequently help you in selecting the best editions for your purpose. Do not waste money in the purchase of expensive sets or bulky compila¬ tions from agents. PREPARING BOOKS FOR THE SHELVES AND CHARGING. The work of classifying and cataloguing the books and providing a system of loaning them belongs generally to the librarian, and needs a preparation that should be obtained either by personal instruction in a well-managed library, in a library training school, or by the study of some of the excellent manuals prepared by trained and competent librarians. MISCELLANEOUS. In the purchase of fittings and supplies, in the making of rules for the manage¬ ment of the library, in the making of by-laws for the government of the library board, and in considering the many questions of library management, appeal should be taken to the experience of librarians as given in the handbooks and pamphlets referred to elsewhere in this report. The rules for the management of the library should be as simple as possible, and should be designed to secure the fullest and best use of the library by the individual which is consistent with the rights of the public. The books of the library should be loaned, without charge, to persons of all ages who will obey reasonable rules, and all people should be made to feel that they are joint owners in the library. As fast as possible, all borrowers should be trained to select their books from the shelves, under proper guidance. Special assistance and help should be given to schools and teachers, and there should be no bars of any kind between the people and the books that may safely be removed. Librarians with the right spirit and tact find it possible in most communities to train the children and the older people to “ browse” among the books, to keep them clean ■and neat, and to be orderly and thoughtful of the rights of others. Children especially should be systematically taught to handle books carefully and lovingly, and the best time to do this is when the books are new. The volumes of a public library should, not need paper covers. THE READING ROOM. Shall we establish a reading room in connection with the library? This question is often a most perplexing one. The usefulness of a good, well-managed reading room in connection with a public library can not be fairly questioned, if the experience of the best of these rooms is taken as a guide. A reading room without proper supervision may become a public nuisance. When a community can maintain a good library and a good reading room it should do so, but the library is of more worth than the reading room, and a good library should not be injured to maintain a poor reading room. A boy ought to spend his evenings in reading rather than in idleness, but if he has a good book the best evening reading room is that which contains his mother. » In its early days the library may often meet the most urgent needs of a small town 700 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1899-1900. if it is open but two or three times each week, and the money saved from shortening the time required of the librarian and the saving in light and fuel can be used for books when the collection is small. With a reading room the temptation to draw upon the scanty book fund for money for periodicals and more “open days” is very strong. When a good collection of books has been secured, and the library has gained a secure place in the public regard, the reading room will be wanted and will get adequate support without crippling the library. GIFTS FOR LIBRARIES. It is becoming more and more popular for people of wealth to contribute liberally to build beautiful library buildings or to provide endowments for libraries. Such gifts bless those who give and those who receive, but when the hope of such private gifts leads the community to delay establishing public libraries, the hope may be a curse. The best way to get large gifts is to make good use of small ones. Many a wealthy man has only a vague idea of the wide usefulness of a library, but when he has seen one at work in his own community there comes a growing appreciation of its work and a desire to help it. The best way to learn to manage a large library wisely is to manage a small one. When all the people of a community have made a united struggle and many sacrifices to found a library, a large gift or gifts will give them a delight and a feeling of personal gain that will not follow a gift in which they have no share. Do not wait for Mrge gifts. If you do your duty, help and growth will come in due time. VII. SECURING LIBRARIES FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. By F. A. Hutchins. In January of the present year a subcommittee of the committee on libraries and schools sent out a circular to leading teachers in each State asking information as to the number, size, and use of libraries in the rural schools. The replies show that, in the great majority of the States, few rural schools have adequate libraries, with a due proportion of books for the smaller children. In a few States — California, Montana, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, and New Jersey among others — the money to purchase rural school libraries has been partly or wholly provided by the State, but in the great majority of our States the money has been obtained by appro¬ priations by school boards, gifts, entertainments, or public subscriptions. In States where the laws require the purchase of suitable school libraries the State departments of education furnish lists of the best books and often aid in training teachers to use the books to good advantage. It seems best, therefore, to devote this chapter to the discussion of the problem which meets the teacher who must get the money for a school library from local sources. A teacher or school trustee who would secure a good school library must first know what benefits will be secured by a library, and must have the enthusiam and persist¬ ence, as well as the knowledge, to make other people understand these benefits. A well-selected small library for children may do much more good in proportion to its cost than any of the large popular libraries. The best books for children, read and reread, are of much more worth to the child than a careless reading of the best, the second-rate, and many indifferent books. The boy or girl upon the farm who has read, many times over, in the school and at home, Seven Little Sisters, Black Beauty, JRobinson Crusoe, The Man Without a Country, The Great Stone Face , and a few other children’s classics; who knows the best biographies of Washington, Lincoln, and Franklin through frequent reading, is almost certain to become a habitual reader of good books. The best books for children are of so much more worth than the second- PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 701 best that a teacher who can get a few of the best books for her children has the greatest encouragement to do so. Each rural school should have a library of from twenty-five to a hundred volumes, which should include wholesome and interesting books for the pupils of all the grades. A library must usually grow by small annual or occasional accretions. It is impor¬ tant to secure the best books in the first purchase, so that the good results of their use may be quickly apparent. The child must get the reading habit before he gets the study habit, and if the teacher must choose for the first purchase between a few entertaining and inspiring stories, like Black Beauty , and a few books of information, like the children’s cyclopaedias, she should choose the former. When the children and parents have fairly grasped the idea that books are a means of pleasure and inspire to better living the library will grow. The wholesome hooks that are read for pleasure will procure the means to buy the books of information. The teacher who would secure a school library should therefore know and love the children’s classics. If she does not know them she must learn of them through other teachers, librarians, county superintendents, State departments of education, or educational journals. When she has read the best of the books she will find her¬ self eager to have others enjoy them. Enthusiasm for books is the foundation of success. Enthusiasm begets enthusiasm. “I have heard that this is a good book” goes unheeded, when “this is a delightful book,” given convincingly, inspires the pupil to get and read it. When the teacher knows and loves the best books, she should find means to get one or more of them, and use them to show pupils and parents that good books give pleasure, inspiration to better living, and broaden the school work. Through doing this she would find the means to get more books. In this, as in all other lines of work, she must learn to do by doing. The ability to lead comes only to those who try to lead. Her first efforts to convince people of the necessity of a school library may not be successful, but if she loves books and perseveres she will convince others. Sometimes the first money for a school library comes from the pupils. A few years ago a determined teacher in a poor neighborhood induced each pupil to give her one or two eggs each week. On the Saturdays she carried these a few miles to a country store, and with the money obtained from their sale bought a few books. Sometimes teachers and pupils have raised money by entertainments and subscrip¬ tions after concluding an agreement with the school board that the board would give as much as the school would raise. When the earnest teacher has secured a few good books, she can get others, if she will use the first wisely. A few books should be called the “school library.” When not in use, they should be kept in a box or case, with a simple system of records. The pupils should be taught to keep the volumes clean and neat, and to have reason¬ able pride in their library and the neatness of their books. At every opportunity pupils and parents should be shown by object lessons the power of the books to entertain, inspire, and instruct. If the teacher knows the books as she should, opportunities will be abundant, and the books will often become the subjects of the daily talks at the homes as well as at the school. In expending the money for the school library, take pains to get its full value. Ho not buy of agents or unintelligent book dealers. Buy durable editions. There are fifty or more editions of Robinson CYusoe, but only two or three that are suited to your purse and your needs. Take the advice of intelligent teachers and librarians, not only in selecting the books, but, in the case of the older books, in choosing the editions. You will be safe in choosing from the lists recommended in this handbook. You should only rarely pay the list price for a book. Discounts vary according to the amount of your purchase and the kind of books bought. The publications of schoolbook publishing houses are generally subject to smaller discounts than those 702 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1899-1900. of houses which publish miscellaneous hooks. Here, as elsewhere, get information from those who have had more experience. Untrained readers, and many others, like small books. To the child who has read little it seems a great task to attempt to read a large book. The great majority of teachers buy too feV small and simple books for their school libraries. SUGGESTIONS. The following suggestions by Miss Gertrude E. Woodward, of Ypsilanti, Mich., are so practical and well considered that they will be found very helpful: If you have not money enough to buy books, make your own. Encourage pupils to bring newspaper clippings on interesting subjects. You will soon have enough to make half a dozen scrapbooks. Sort the clippings into geography, history, literature, biography, and the like. Let the children carefully mount them on uni form -sized pieces of paper, then they may be placed between two pasteboard covers and treated as reference books. This is good work for the boy who always has his lessons and never has enough to do. A book which will be interesting to children is one which contains the programmes of entertainments and school exercises given during the year. These programmes, by the way, need not necessarily be printed. Let the drawing class furnish the design for them. A very pretty book may be made of these designs, and pupils are always interested to know that their productions are valuable enough to be bound. When the birthday of a great man is celebrated put his picture up in your school¬ room for several days, until the pupils have become familiar with the face. IV hen not in use these pictures should be kept in a box secure from dust. Children should learn to take pride in having a library in the room and in keeping it in the best condition possible. Let some pupil be librarian and keep the books in order for a week at a time. What has just been said assumes that the schoolroom possesses shelving, in some form or other. But what if it does not? Well, if not, do just as you did when you had no money to buy books. You made them, and you can more easily make the book shelves.. Any boy in your room will get you a, box from a grocer. Make the shelves of the cover of the box. Line inside of box and shelves with cambric, if rough. Usually, however, there will be some carpenter near by who will gladly help if you can get him interested. Let pupils help as much as possible, for the chances are that they will want to make similar cases for themselves, and that is to be desired. When books through use or accident become torn or damaged in any way, remedy the mischief as quickly as possible. Always keep on your desk a little jar of flour paste. It is the only thing to use in mending torn pages, inserting loose leaves, mounting scrap pictures, etc. It is made in ten minutes from the following receipt, and costs practically nothing: Paste: (a) One tablespoonful flour in cup; one table- spoonful cold water in cup; ( b ) four tablespoonfuls cold water in pan; one-fourth tea- spoonful powdered alum in pan. Mix (a) until perfectly smooth. Heat (6) to boil¬ ing. Pour ( b ) slowly on (a), stirring always in the same direction. Pour all back into pan and heat, stirring until thick. It will be of the consistency of jellv. wi ien pasting clippings lay the article to be pasted face down on a slate and paste from center of paper toward the edges. The slate furnishes a smooth surface and can easily be cleaned. Card system of keeping memoranda: Arbor Day celebrations. King, It. M. School inter¬ ests and duties, pp. 123-146. Card or paper is cut into pieces 3 by 5 inches. Cost of white paper which takes ink, 6 to 10 cents per pound. Put one item on a slip. File slips alphabetically by first word on top line. Keep standing on edge in a box. Comments can be made on the reverse side of slip. In this way preserve authors, titles, and subjects of books, addresses, and clippings small enough to be mounted on slips. A pamphlet on Arbor Bay, by N. H. Eggleston, may be obtained without cost from the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C. Other pamphlets are issued by the Bureau of Education, at Washington. Another class of books which may be obtained free, or for a few cents, is the illustrated guidebooks issued by the various PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 703 railway companies throughout the United States; also the lake and ocean steamship companies. Beautiful books descriptive of Mackinac, the wonders of Yosemite, and the Yellowstone National Park may be had for 5 and 10 cents. They serve as attract¬ ive reference books in geography. Pictures may be mounted on the felt paper used as carpet lining. It can be obtained at any carpet store, and costs 2 cents a square yard. If you have no wall space on which to place pictures, clippings, etc., make a folding screen, cover it with cloth of one color, and pin on whatever is to be displayed. VIIL THE PRESENT CONDITION OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES IN RURAL SCHOOLS AND VILLAGES OF LESS THAN 2,500 INHABITANTS. By F. A. Hutchins. * On account of unavoidable delays the subcommittee which was appointed to investigate the present condition of school and public libraries in farming districts and villages of less than 2,500 inhabitants was unable to begin its work until Janu¬ ary, 1899. It was found necessary to complete the work of this subcommittee by May 1. A large proportion of the circulars of inquiry which were sent out in Janu¬ ary were answered so late in April that it was impossible to tabulate the results. The circulars were sent to all the State departments of education, to all State library commissions, to a large number of librarians and leaders in educational work in all parts of the country, and to nearly all normal schools. The presidents of the institu¬ tions last named were asked to select from among their teachers and students careful observers who had recently taught in small communities or had recently had unusual opportunities for inspecting school libraries in their States. Replies have been received from nearly all the States and Territories. While these show that the pupils in only a very few States have respectable library facilities, and that a great proportion have none, they also show that in every State the leaders understand the necessity of school and public libraries, and are making a determined and hopeful fight for better conditions. The spirit is well illustrated by the remark of the superintendent of public instruc¬ tion in a Southern State. After filling out the blank and looking it over, he writes: “The showing is bad, but wre mean to make a revolution in this matter.” Nearly all the villages in New England and New York have free public libraries, and although many of them are poorly ‘managed, the library commissions and library associations in those States are rapidly improving them. In the States mentioned, and in Michigan,' Wisconsin, Minnesota, New Jersey, Montana, and California, where the States aia rural school libraries, nearly every school has a library, and these libraries are growing in size and improving in quality. In a few other Northern States quite a proportion of the schools have fair libraries, and occasionally there are some notable school libraries. It may be fairly said that in no State in the Union have all, or nearly all, the chil¬ dren in rural communities adequate school and public library facilities, and that in fully half of the States pupils do not have free access to suitable collections of books. The school libraries do not, as a rule, have a suitable proportion of simple books for the smaller children, nor are the books, as a whole, well selected. The replies seem to indicate that the libraries are generally kept in the sehoolhouses, and the books are loaned to the children without unnecessary restrictions. The more care¬ ful observers usually report that only a very small proportion of children have access to a good number of children’s books at home. Ninety per cent of the children who attend school seem, from the replies, to come from homes where newspapers are taken. In two-thirds of the States comparatively few of the children have the oppor¬ tunity to read the best of the children’s periodicals; the same States report that a large proportion of the families are supplied with them. Only a few rural schools 704 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. subscribe for them, and very few have a supply of children’s classics for supple¬ mentary reading. Enough schools, however, report such aids to prove that the belief in their value is growing. A large proportion of village schools seem to have collections of books, though most of them are not well selected for their purpose. A very small proportion of the public libraries in villages are well conducted, and many of the leading teachers do not seem to know how various are the methods by which a good public library may help the public schools. ATery few of the librarians have had special training for their work. The most serious difficulty in receiving school libraries aryl in getting a good use of the books is found in the fact that inost of our teachers did not learn to love books in childhood. IX. IMPROVING POORLY -MANAGED PUBLIC LIBRARIES IN SMALL COMMUNITIES. By F. A. Hutchins. Many small public libraries which have been long established have little educa¬ tional value. Some of these libraries can only be used by members of a small association or upon the payment of a fee. Such libraries should be made free, and usually the same methods should be used in securing that result as are necessary in getting a free pub¬ lic library. Suggestions for such work are given in a preceding chapter. It is, of course, important to have the owners of the established library give it to the village, or loan it, upon the agreement of the village to maintain it as a free library. Often these poor libraries are free to the older people, but the librarian is so unac¬ commodating, and the books are so uninteresting that the patronage is very limited. Frequently the board of directors includes many estimable people who have long held their positions, and who are serenely unconscious of the fact that their library is “ behind the times.” Like Rob Roy, these benevolent old public functionaries are “ ower good for banning and ower bad for blessing.” No one likes to displace them, and yet the library will not do the best work until it is managed by a board of intelligent, enthusiastic people. Poor libraries almost invariably have poor librarians. Good libraries can not be maintained with incompetent librarians. They may have books of undoubted value and still be worthless, because the books are not of the kind that interest the people of the community, and do not include the best books for children. To improve a poor library the i>eople should be made to understand its defects. The teachers and leaders of public opinion should learn the methods in vogue in the best small public libraries, and they should demand better service. The librarian should know how to lead children from the good books to the best. She should be able to help the teachers and pupils of the schools to find the books and reading material that will aid them in broadening the work of the class room. She should manage to get all the children in the town to come to the library and to make them feel at home there. She ought to make her library a workshop for the teachers, the professional people, and the village study clubs. She ought to know how to use pictures to attract children. The library should have the good books that are being talked about in the outside world. It should buy a few books frequently, rather than large orders rarely. If the board can not employ a librarian who is thoroughly competent, the individ¬ ual members of the board should give their incompetent employee as effective help as possible. Library boards may say when confronted with a list of reforms that should be PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 705 made: “We can not do these things.” They may say: “It is unsafe to allow little children to take books; it is unsafe to allow access to the shelves.” A sufficient answer to these assertions is found in the fact that the best small libraries do these tilings without trouble, to the satisfaction of everybody, and to the good of their communities. A small public library can not give the wide opportunities for study that can be found in the great libraries, but it can give much more individual help and much more individual freedom, and the librarian who hates to work to train her patrons to- use these advantages should give place to a more capable person. It often happens that libraries are started with ideals that are not attainable. A committee of good men will select books of undoubted merit that do not interest the masses of the people. After a few j^ears of trial these able professional gentlemen,, who know little of children’s books, will make a further effort to get public patron¬ age and will buy full sets of E. P. Roe, Amanda Douglas, Castlemon, Alger, Ellis,. Optic, ‘ ‘ the Elsie books, ’ ’ and similar stuff. The reading of a single volume, or even of two or three such volumes, is not seri¬ ously harmful, but a boy or girl who reads “sets” of such books as the “Castlemon books” or the “Elsie books” loses relish for the best children’s books, and often acquires a morbid passion for reading that injures their work in school and at home. It may be necessary sometimes to have a somewhat sensational story to draw the habitual “dime novel” reader from the street, but at a time when we have admirable and entertaining books for children in abundance it is almost criminal to give them such unwholesome trash as some public libraries offer. Librarians, like teachers, need professional training, and all who are interested in thp improvement of our educational system should learn of the many opportunities now offered to librarians for professional improvement; for, after all, the best means of improving your library is to put it in charge of a trained librarian or to help your librarian to secure professional instruction. If you can not do this at first get a good librarian to visit your library, talk to your teachers and to your women’s clubs, and suggest practicable improvements. Your State should have an effective library com¬ mission, with ample resources, to aid you in your efforts. Other States have them, if your State has not. Why should your State lag in securing so important and effective an educational agency? The personal aid which the officers of such a commission can give you is the most effective help in establishing and improving free public libraries. X. BY-LAWS SUGGESTED FOR A BOARD OF LIBRARY TRUSTEES. By W. R. Eastman, Albany, N. Y. [Written for tire report on the “ Relations of public libraries to public schools,” at the request of F. A. Hutchins.] 1. Officers. — The officers shall be a president, secretary, and treasurer, who shall be elected annually by the board from their own number. The secretary shall record all the official actions of the beard, and have custody of all its official books, records, and documents, except those in current use by another officer. The treasurer shall receive all funds belonging to the library, and keep the same in a separate account till paid out on written order of the finance committee. He shall keep an accurate account of every receipt and expenditure, with date, purpose, and amount, and report the same at the annual meeting and whenever required by the finance committee. 2. Meetings . — The regular meetings of the board shall be on the (first Monday) of - each month, at - p. m., at the library. The annual meeting shall be on the (first Monday) - of (month) - in each year. Special meetings shall be called by the president, or by request of any two ■ trustees, for the transaction only of business stated in the call. ed 1900 - 15 706 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900. 3. Committees. — The board shall choose at the annual meeting three standing com¬ mittees, on (a) finance, (b) books, (c) administration, each consisting of one, two, or three members, to serve for one year and till successors are elected. They shall act under the direction of the board, and shall report to it from time to time. The finance committee shall have charge of all library finances, and audit all bills and the accounts of the treasurer and the librarian. The book committee shall control and supervise the selection, buying, exchange, and binding of books and periodicals, and the sale and exchange of duplicates or rejected books. It shall examine the library from time to time, and report at the annual meeting. The administrative committee shall have charge of the operations of the library and reading room, the furnishing and care of the building and rooms, the arrangement, printing, and disposal of catalogues, and of all matters relating to stamps, plates, labels, and printed forms in use. 4. Librarian. — The librarian shall have charge of the library and reading room, and be responsible for the care and safety of the books and other library property; classify and arrange all books and publications, and keep the same catalogued according to such plans as may be approved by the board; exercise control over all other employees of the board, and promptly report any delinquencies to the administrative committee; keep exact and detailed accounts of all money received from fines and other sources, report the same monthly at the regular meeting of the board, and pay all money to the treasurer at least monthly; report monthly the number of books added to or lost from the library, and submit an annual report at the annual meeting, and discharge such other duties as may be prescribed by the board; but in performance of his duties no debt or liability of any kind shall be incurred by him without express authority from the board. RULES FOR BORROWERS IX A SMALL LIBRARY. [From the Wisconsin Library Commission Handbook.] Rules should be as simple as possible, and not designed to restrict liberty, but to prevent encroach¬ ment and secure the greatest good to all. RULES. Borroivers. — Adults are entitled to draw books by filling out an application blank. Children must obtain the signature of parents or other responsible guarantor. Borrower's card. — If a borrower’s card is lost, a new one will be given after seven day’s notice, or upon payment of 5 cents. Number of volumes. — (1) Two books not fiction, or (2) one work of fiction and one not fiction, may be drawn at a time. Two volumes of the same work are considered as one book. Time kept— A book may be kept two weeks, except recent fiction marked “ Seven-day book.” Renewal. — All books, other than ‘ ‘ Seven-day books,” may be renewed for fourteen days. Overdue books.— A fine of 1 cent a day will be imposed for books kept overtime. Hours. — The library shall be open every week day, holidays excepted, from - to - . XI. HINTS FOR CATALOGUING SMALL LIBRARIES. By W. R. Eastman, Albany, N. Y. [Written for the report on the ‘‘Relations of public libraries to public schools,” at the request of F. Af Hutchins.] 1. Accession. — All books of a library should be recorded in an accession book. Provide a blank book with numbered lines continuing across two pages. Rule col¬ umns for date, number, author, title, source — i. e., name of dealer from whom bought or name of giver, and cost of each book, and another column for remarks. The books should be entered as soon as received and in any order, and the accession number written in a certain place in each book, for the purpose of reference. 2. Arrangement. — All books should be arranged by groups or classes of literature more or less numerous, according to number of volumes in each. In a very small library all history might be in one class. In a large library history or travel would be divided by countries. Science might be in one group or in several groups, to divide the number of books conveniently. Books of reference, philosophy, religion, sociology, science, fine arts, language, literature, travel, biography, history, fiction, and juvenile books may be considered distinct classes. More complete classification is desirable, and may be secured by the use of either the decimal or expansive system. When the revision by classes is satisfactory, arrange the hooks in each class in PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 707 alphabetic order of author’s names, but books of individual biography should be in the order of the names of persons whose lives are written. This arrangement allows the placing of new books in their true order at any subsequent time. When two or more books are by one author, arrange them under his name in alphabetic order of titles, unless the books have volume numbers, when the arrange¬ ment may follow that order. 3. Marks. — To preserve this arrangement every book should have two or three marks plainly and neatly written on a label on the back of the book. The first mark is to indicate the class or subject group to which the book belongs, and may be either a number or a capital letter or letters, according to the system pre¬ ferred. In many libraries, where the largest class is fiction, the absence of any mark in the place where the class mark is usually put is a sufficient indication of a book of fiction. The second mark is the initial of the author’s surname, and when several authors in the group have the same initial they should be arranged in alphabetic order, and ail after the first be distinguished by the addition of a number — i. e., if five authors have the initial B, the marks would be “B,” “B 1,” “B 2,” “B 3,” “B4.” This is called an “author number.” A more exact number for the author’s name may be found by Cutter’s revised alphabetic order tables. A third mark must be added when one author has several books in one class. The first letter of the first word of the title, not an article, may be added in the form of a small, or “lower-case” letter to the author number. E. g., if S 4 be the author number for Walter Scott, S 4k will be the book number for Scott’s Kenilworth. When there are several titles beginning with the same letter, two or more small letters should be used to keep the alphabetic order. 4. Call number. — A combination of the class number, author number, and title mark, when needed, is the “call number” of the book, and must be plainly marked on the inside cover and on a label on the back of each book. It should be used in charging the book to avoid much unnecessary writing. A bookplate for the inside cover of each book is desirable. 5. Shelf arrangement. — Books should be placed on the shelves in the exact order of the call numbers, with spaces between the subject groups. 6. Lending. — A book should not be lent until accessioned, assigned to its place, and plainly marked with its accession and call numbers. 7. Catalogue. — A catalogue of all the bound books should be provided. This may be either an author index or a subject list following the order of the books on the sheWes, or both. It may be on cards if preferred. A card catalogue has many advantages. Cards for new books may be added at any time in their proper place. By writing two or more cards for each book, the same book may appear both in its subject order and under the name of its author, and also, if desired, under its title. Cards may be kept in a box, tray, or cabinet drawer. 8. Bookshelves. — A bookshelf for ordinary books in a popular library should not be more than 3 feet long and 8 inches wide, and the bookcase should have 10 inches’ upright space between shehces. Special shelves should be provided for larger books. For this reason moATable shelves are recommended. Ten books on an average can be placed on 1 foot of shelving. To provide for fre¬ quent additions it is well to leave vacant space on every shelf, and to leaAre the top and bottom shelves empty. It is a safe rule to provide shelving for double the number of books to be placed on them ah the beginning. Allowance must also be made for Avidth of uprights supporting shelves. If cases are 8 shelves high, and all the above allowances are made, 26 feet of wall shelving Avill be needed for 1,000 books. A floor case with tAVO faces, 13 feet long will also provide amply for 1,000 books. XII. AIDS AND GUIDES IN LIBRARY WORK. [The following lists were revised from the lists in the Handbook of the Wisconsin Free Library Commission by the City Library, Springfield, Mass., at the request of F. A. Hutchins.] I. BOOKS ON LIBRARY AVORK IN GENERAL. Hints to Small Libraries, by M. W. Plummer. New York: Denslove & Comba, 1898. $0.50. Gives brief directions for beginning and running a library, and preparing books for the shelves. 708 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Library Primer , by J. C. Dana. Chicago: Library Bureau, 1899. A handbook giving briefly the most necessary details of library science and methods, with direc¬ tions for starting a library. Public Libraries in America, by AY. I. Fletcher. Roberts Bros., 1894. $1. A brief history of the public library and laws relating thereto, with some details of library mane agement and work. /Statistics of Libraries and Library Legislation in the United States. From Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1895-96. AYashington: United States Bureau of Education, 1897. Free. Papers Prepared by the American Library Association in 1S93 , edited by Melvil Dewey. AYashington. A collection of the papers written for the meeting of the American Library Association at the Columbian Exposition; published in pamphlet form by the United States Bureau of Education. Free. II. BOOKS ON CLASSIFICATION AND CATALOGING. Decimal Classification and Relative Index , by M. Dewey. 5th edition. Boston and Chicago: Library Bureau. $5. Abridged Decimal Classification and Relative Index , by M. Dewey. Library Bureau. $0.50. Made to meet the needs of small and slowly increasing libraries. Expansive Classification, by C. A. Cutter. Parts I-YI now published (work unfin¬ ished). AATrite for particulars to C. A. Cutter, Forbes Library, Northampton, Mass. Rules for a Dictionary Catalog, by C. A. Cutter. 3d edition, 1891. AATashington: United States Bureau of Education. Library School Rules for Author and Classed' Catalogs, edited by M. Dewey. Library Bureau. $1. Includes accession and shelf-list rules. American Library Association List of Subject Headings for Use in Dictionary Catalogs. Library Bureau. $2. Cutter1 s Decimal Author Table. Library Bureau. $1.25. A scheme for giving to each work its own exclusive book number, so that the books stand on the shelves alphabeted by authors under each subject. III. AIDS IN SELECTING BOOKS. Catalog of the American Library Association Library, 1893. AYashington: Bureau of Education. Free. Catalog of 5,000 volumes shown at the Columbian Exposition. Gives authors, titles, publishers, and prices. Shows how books should be cataloged and classified. Includes a model dictionary catalog. List of Boohs for Township Libraries; with supplementary lists for graded and high- school libraries. Address State superintendent, Madison, AATis. Free. Suggestive List of Popular Boohs for a Small Library. Madison, AAds. : AVisconsin Free Library Commission, 1898. 2d edition. Free. List of Boohs for Girls and Women and their Clubs, edited by A. H. Leypoldt and George lies. Library Bureau, 1895. Paper, $0.50; cloth, $1. Invaluable to every librarian or member of a book committee of a public library. Class List of a Library Recommended for Schools. Albany, N. Y. : University of New York, 1896. 2d edition, revised. $0.05. Reading for the Young, and Supplement. A classified and annotated catalog by J. F. Sargent, combined with supplement by Mary E. and Abby L. Sargent. Library Bureau. Cloth, $1.50. Annotated Bibliography in Fine Art. Painting, sculpture, architecture, arts of deco¬ ration and illustration by Russell Sturgis, and music by H. E. Krehbel. Edited by George lies. Library Bureau. Paper, $0.50; cloth, $1. PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 709 Publishers’ Weekly, the American book-trade journal. New York: 59 Duane street. $3 per year. Publishers’ Trade List Annual , the latest catalog of American book publishers. New York: Publishers’ Weekly office, 59 Duane street. Complete Descriptive and Price List of the Public School Library of Minnesota; a classi¬ fied list of books selected and recommended by the Public Library Commission of Minnesota. St. Paul, Minn., 1896. Free. A full list of books, by school grades, as well as classified. References for Third-Grade Teachers , compiled by May LI. Prentice, Cleveland (0.) Public Library, 1898. A useful book, not only for teachers, but for the librarian. “Librarian’s Help Series.” Lists of books, with brief annotations; prepared by the library department of the Baker & Taylor Co., New York. Free. No. 1. American History. No. 2. Spain, Cuba, Naval History, and Science. No. 3. Literature and Education. Books of 1897 and 1898. Library LAst of Looks for Public and School Libraries. New Yr ork : The Baker & Taylor Co. Selected List of Books for School Libraries. Chicago: McClurg, 1898. Catalog of a Model Library — 500 Volumes. New Ymrk: Scribner’s. Free. New List of Books for School Libraries. New York: Scribner’s. Free. All of these are briefly annotated and classified lists by leading publishers. Best Fifty Books of 1898 , Suitable for a Village Library. Compiled yearly by the public library division of the University of the State of New York from notes by librarians. One Hundred Books of 1898. Bowdoin College library bibliographical contribu¬ tions. Compiled by Professor G. E. Little, Brunswick, Me. A list carefully selected from the Annual American Catalogue and annotated with references to reviews in periodicals, favorable and unfavorable. Monthly Cumulative Book Index. Minneapolis, Minn. : Morris & Wilson. Monthly., $3 per year. Write to leading publishers for catalogs, which will be sent free. IV. LITERARY JOURNALS. Book Buyer. New York: Scribner’s. Monthly. $1.50 per year. Book News. Philadelphia: John Wanamaker. Monthly. $0.50 per year. Critic. New York: 27-29 West Twenty-third street. Monthly. $2 per year. Dial. Chicago: 24 Adams Street. Semimonthly. $2 per year. Nation. New Yrork: Box 794. Weekly. $3 per year. Literary T Vorld. Boston: 1 Somerset street. Fortnightly. $2 per year. Bookman. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. Monthly. $2 per year. New York Times Saturday Review of Books and Art. New York: The Times office Weekly. $1 per year. V. LIBRARY PERIODICALS. Library Journal. Official organ of the American Library Association. New York: 59 Duane street. Monthly. $5 per year; single number, $0.50. Public Libraries. Edited by M. E. Ahern. Chicago: Library Bureau, 217 Madison street* Monthly. $1 per year; single number, $0.20. 710 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. XIII. THE LIBRARIAN’S SPIRIT AND METHODS IN WORKING WITH THE SCHOOLS. By J. C. Dana. INTRODUCTORY NOTE. In recent years a good many elaborate investigations have been made, by teachers, psychologists, and others, of the reading of children; what books and papers they read; what kind they most enjoy; what books furnish them with good ideals; what ones seem most to influence their lives. The replies to these questions have led to little in the way of definite conclusions. Few people can so frame a set of inquiries as to make the answers to them of value, even if those answers are clear and honest. Few teachers — and most of the inquiries have been made by teachers — can put a set of questions to their pupils in such a way as to get from them straightforward, unprejudiced replies. Furthermore, the atmosphere of school, the wishes of principal and teachers, as expressed, for example, in courses of study and in books for reading placed in the pupils’ hands, or within their reach, all tend to influence the children in making their replies much more than one would at first suppose. If, for example, a large number of answ ers received from a number of different towns in any given State show that Black Beauty has been much read and greatly enjoyed by children in grades 4 to 7, one may at first conclude that Black Beauty is a book which appeals to the youthful mind through its own unaided attractiveness, and that, if it stood on the shelves of any open library with many other good books for children, it would be one of the first books to be selected and read by a very large majority of those who used that library. Further consideration, however, probably calls attention to the fact that Black Beauty has, for certain definite reasons, been introduced into the schools of that State and vigorously pressed upon the attention of the children by school boards, superintendents, principals, and teachers, and that the children have by no means chosen it spontaneously. And so a careful examination of the influences surrounding the young people who have made answer to these many inquiries into children’s reading shows that in every case little reliance can be placed on most of the conclusions drawn from them. As in other departments of child study, we have here as yet done little but illuminate our ignorance. This is helpful, of course; very helpful, indeed, if we recognize the light we get for what it is, and do not take it for something else. From these inquiries into children’s reading, however, and from kindred investi¬ gations made by those interested in child study in general, in experimental psy¬ chology, and the like, we seem to be able to draw a few very general conclusions, such as these: That the time when the habit of reading is most likely to be formed is in the years from 11 to 16. That in the years from 6 to 16, and especially during the first part of the period, the influence of the teacher in determining the choice of books read may be very great. The teacher of average ability, it would seem, can, if she will, guide the choice and interest of most of her pupils. From these facts, and from the like generally admitted fact that this period from 6 to 16 is one in which tastes and habits in general are most easily and most com¬ monly formed and the general trend of life most seriously affected, we can conclude further that books can have and do have a greater influence for good or ill, on the lives of most people, by affecting them when they are young, than we had supposed, and this influence, through the teacher’s guidance, can be made to work for good even more strongly than we have dared to hope. This conclusion, vague and general as it seems at first to be, is of the greatest moment to the librarian. She commonly lias on her shelves hundreds and thou- PUBLIC LIBRARIES AMD PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 711 sands of volumes — rather hastily selected, not carefully examined — which she is handing out almost at random on every day to scores of young people who have little powers of selection, and will take, one must fear, the hook that is full of the evil communications which corrupt good manners as eagerly as the one which is wholesome in all its influences. She is busy. She has little time to put the right book into the right hands. She likes her library to be popular. She, perhaps, is im¬ pressed more by the quantity of books read than by their quality. If she is wise she sees that for the educational work her library is trying to do, especially with young people, she needs the help of those who can give care and thought to the individual. She sees that the free public library should hasten, after equipping itself with the best obtainable material for children’s reading, to interest parents and teachers in that material, and persuade them to assist in guiding the reading of the children who borrow books. This means, in the present state of society, when parents take a very moderate degree of interest in the books their children read, that as far as its work with young people is concerned the public library must, if it would do good and not harm with its books, rely to a very great extent on the assistance of the schools. The library can, no doubt, be of great help to the teachers; and much space in other parts of this report is taken up with suggestions to teachers of how they can get much of value out of the public library. But our report will fail in one of its most important missions if it does not bring home to many librarians, very strongly, the fact that, as far as its work with young people is concerned, it can do little without the sympathetic cooperation of teachers. How, then, shall the librarian conduct herself, and how shall she manage her library in order to get from the teachers of her community the maximum of sympa¬ thetic cooperation, and be of the greatest possible assistance in the education of the young? These questions I have tried to answer, not fully, but in a suggestive way, by giving a brief statement of the equipment the librarian of an ideal library must have for this work and of the things that an ideal library may do in its cooperation with the schools. THE LIBRARIAN AND HER EQUIPMENT. In establishing helpful relations between libraries and schools in any given com¬ munity the things that are most necessary on the librarian’s part are sympathy with the end in view and a broad appreciation of the particular situation. This sympathy and appreciation will lead to good work, whatever the conditions. The special knowledge and skill needed can be acquired in the doing. Another very important qualification of the librarian, and perhaps the most rare, is a wide and sympathetic knowledge of books of all kinds, especially books for young people. This wide knowledge of books is not the product of a night, or of a week, or of a month, or even of a year of toil and study. It is a knowledge which is in large part not knowledge, but native talent; and the knowledge which goes writh this native talent is acquired only by reading scores and hundreds of books with care and with interest. The librarian, then, is and has been an enthusiastic reader. During the early years of her life, and especially from 10 to 14, she familiarized herself, not as a duty, but as a pleasure, with the best of children’s books; with the children’s books we call classics. We call them such, not because they are necessarily the very be3t books that can be written or have been written for children, but because they con¬ tain expressions, characters, incidents that are constantly reappearing in literature, and are interwoven with the life of the race. They are the books that have become a part of the birthright of every American child. They are alluded to and they are listed in large part in Mr. McMurry’s section of this report. The librarian who did not know and enjoy these when young is poorly furnished for work with children. 712 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. The librarian understands library management. If she has had no technical train¬ ing in a library school, or has not had experience in a well-managed library, she gets some of the books and periodicals mentioned elsewhere in this report and reads and studies the subject, and learns by doing. She realizes that books are tools, are not sacred things, and find their best end in being worn out by reasonable service. She is fond of children, is patient with them, and understands them. Experience in teaching for a few years would be of the greatest assistance to librarians who are trying to work with schools. There are now in print, and a number of them are noted elsewhere in this report, many lists of books for children and teachers, several of them well annotated. Copies of these lists our librarian ha3 at hand, and is ready to lend, and makes use of them constantly in adding to her collection. In the last twenty years a great many articles on the reading of children, litera¬ ture for the young, and kindred subjects have appeared in leading periodicals of this country, and a number of books, some of which are mentioned elsewhere in this report, have appeared on the same subject. These books, or as many of them as possible, the librarian studies herself and places with the teachers’ books in the teachers’ corner. As the librarian’s field of work widens she discovers first of all, if she is honest with herself, her own limitations in respect to the wide and intimate book knowledge already mentioned, and then she discovers it also in her associates, the teachers. It is inevitable, in view of the character of the preparatory training the average teacher gets, that in wide knowledge and keen appreciation of literature, and especially of literature for children, she should often be lacking. We have decided that books proper for children to read are excellent things, and should be easily accessible to them. We have asked for them, and authors and publishers have supplied them. We attempt now to do with them the things we see should be done, if we are to get out of them that which we wish to get, and we discover that those to whom we must appeal to make proper use of them are themselves very lacking in knowledge of them. We are improving in this respect, but little has yet been done toward mak¬ ing the average teacher thoroughly conversant with children’s books, with making her such a reader of books as she must be before she can do with children the things we wish to have done. But the fact of the presence of the books themselves in libraries and schools, and the daily use of them, and the general realization of the possibilities in them, will bring about in a few years a vastly better equipment in this direction, in the teaching force as well as in the library force, than we have as yet had. The librarian realizes that, after all, a collection of books, however good, however well housed, however attractively arranged, is of little value, has little vital force, and does not count for much in the community unless there is added to it the right kind of a librarian. A good librarian is more than half of a good library. Realizing this fact, she tries to live up to her opportunity. While she feels that the most efficient allies in her work are the teachers, and while she feels that unaided by them she can do little for the vast majority of her young students and readers, stil 1 she does not at all relax her own vigilance. She keeps a watchful eye on as many of the children as possible; she lends only what she thinks to be the best of books; she is unceasing in her efforts to learn which are the best; she notes the character of the readers who ask for what she fears are books of doubt¬ ful value; she checks the story mania where she can; she looks for opportunities to turn attention from better books to the best books; she does not think any habit is good so it be a reading habit; she keeps it in mind that books are tor pleasure, but for the pleasure of a lifetime, and not of the day only; are for profit, but not profit in money only; are for knowledge, perhaps not for knowledge she can ever care for, yet good and useful still; are for wisdom, but possibly not for wisdom as she sees it. PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. . 713 She is always mindful that she is a public servant, not a ruler; that she is a counselor, not a faultless guide; that she is a student of books with the children as fellow- students, not a teacher who has already learned all that books can teach. TIIE LIBRARIAN AND THE TEACHERS. The librarian has no special card for teachers, for she finds that by adopting a modern charging system she does not need to make distinctions between her borrowers. She can lend to any person six or sixty books as easily as one, and a special card makes a distinction which by those other than teachers may be thought invidious. She has a teachers’ corner in the library, and keeps there, with special books for teachers, copies of the best and latest pedagogical books and journals and lends them. She prints occasionally and distributes through the schools brief statements in the form of circulars of what the library does with children, what it would like to do, how it helps teachers, and how it would like to help teachers. She prints also from time to time brief selected lists of books, magazine articles, poems, speeches, etc., on special topics, like geography, American history, flowers, birds, Longfellow, Lincoln, Arbor Day. If possible, she prints these lists all in the same form on sheets of the same size, so that the teacher preserving them may keep and handle them with ease. These are posted on the bulletin board and freely distributed. She forms a reading committee of teachers to help in selecting from the new and old publications the best books for young people and in deciding what books it is best to supply in large quantities and to urge the children to read. She takes note of teachers’ institutes and the topics up for discussion in them, and she keeps watch of educational journals to see what problems are being discussed, and makes up lists and buys books accordingly. She does what she can to induce teachers to add library departments to their county, district, or State associations, or at least to give up a portion of the time at the meetings of such associations to the consideration of problems which touch her work. She endeavors to have teachers, principals, »and superintendents on the committees of her library, especially on those having to do with its general economy, arrangement, and selection of books. She makes the fact felt that her institution is a part of the educational system of the community, is not something separate from the schools, but a part of them. She visits the superintendent of schools, and the principals, and teachers. She does not make of her work the opportunity to impress them with the fact that she has a “mission,” and that she proposes to elevate the community by her books; and she does not insist that teachers generally are dull if they do not at once make use of her library, but she tactfully makes it plain that her library is there to be used. She meets with the teachers whenever occasion offers, and is ready to talk with them about matters in her held at all times. She visits schoolrooms, where she can do it without seeming to intrude, and makes herself familiar with the teacher’s work, its opportunities, its needs, and its limitations. She gets the courses of study used in school. She learns what books are already in the schoolrooms; what ones are used as supplementary reading; what, and how many, have been bought in sets, and in every way makes herself thor¬ oughly familiar with the present resources of teachers and children in the way of books. She always works in sympathy with, and with the full knowledge of, the superin¬ tendent and in accordance with his suggestions and wishes. She ventures, if teachers do not borrow voluntarily, to suggest to them that they can take books to their schoolrooms and see if they can make use of them there. This is not an easy thing to do, for unless the teacher is in sympathy with this wrork, to put books in her hands may be to waste good material. For the teacher who is 714 . EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. beginning to use books in her daily work the simpler they are the better. Picture and story books, such as she can lend to restless pupils, either for use in the school¬ room or to take home, are the best. She looks up such a subject as geography, and by examination of the text-books used and by talks with teachers discovers what she can do to assist in making the subject more interesting. She finds, perhaps, that pupils call at the library for cer¬ tain specific books, or for books on some special topic which the library lacks, and she equips the library well for such a call next time. She encourages teachers to borrow from the library, for a few weeks or a term, books on the topics of geography, or history, or science, which may be uppermost for the time. She asks teachers and principals to give her in advance names of topics and sub¬ jects of study on which the children may ask for books later. She announces on her bulletin board that books on such and such a topic will be found in such a place, or are such and such books. If one or two teachers begin to take an interest in the library and borrow books from it for schoolroom use, and their experiments are successful, the librarian lets this fact be widely known. She does not forget that the teacher’s occupation is very wearing; that the best teachers are often the busiest; and that it is the best teachers whom she most wishes to interest. The teacher must keep her children to the course of study as it is laid out; and no matter how flexible that course may be, still it is true that to do the things that must be done each day takes nearly every moment of her time. Oppor¬ tunity to do the work with children suggested in this report is not easy to find. The wise librarian is not discouraged, therefore, even though most of the teachers she attempts to interest are slow to take up with her suggestions. As soon as the timcf is ripe and her supply of books permits, she lends them to interested teachers, in groups of ten to fifty, to put into their rooms as schoolroom libraries. The school authorities may, of course, supply these schoolroom libraries themselves. It is, perhaps better, however, that they be supplied by the library. In the library will usually be found the best collection of books to draw from, and the most skill in their handling. The.schoolroom library is to be used just as are the books the teacher may have of her own or may have secured from the library for her desk. She uses them either for reference work, or lends them to pupils to take home. If she does the latter, then the schoolroom library is in effect a branch library; and the schoolroom library, under the supervision of the teacher, is the ideal branch library for lending books to young people. The teacher with forty pupils and fifty books, the latter changed from month to month as she may choose, and as the wishes of her pupils may indicate, can with little difficulty put the right book into the right hands time and again, when the librarian, with the best inten¬ tions in the world, finds it impossible to do more than supply each child’s request, without regard to the fitness of that request. The librarian hears it said not infrequently, by librarians, that teachers ask more and are more exacting in their requests generally than any other class of library patrons; but she says that it seems proper that this should be so. She is glad that they make use of her library. She is glad that they make complaints, and is not disturbed by them. She discovers that their demands are generally not so much in the spirit of fault-finding as in the desire to get out of the library all that can possibly be got. And she encourages, rather than discourages, the asking spirit in all the teachers with whom she comes in contact. THE LIBRARY BUILDING, OR ROOM, AND THE CHILDREN’S DEPARTMENT. The building for an ideal library, or the room in which it is placed, is simple in the extreme. The best arrangement for a small library is one large, well-lighted room without partitions. The cases are low, and are set sufficiently far apart to PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 715 allow several people to pass between them at once without crowding. The tables and chairs are near the books. If a corner for work is needed, it is separated from the rest of the room, not by a partition, but by a light rail. The desk is near the entrance, and the visitor having passed this desk is literally “in” the library and among its books. A corner in the library is given up to children. The children’s books are here arranged in classes, just as are other books in the library and with the same marks. Stories and books on other subjects are not ordinarily shelved together in one series, though for some special purposes or occasions they may be so arranged. The cases for children’s books are low, not over five feet high, and lower still would be better, and the books are not put lower than two feet from the floor. This gives two or three rows of books one above the other, at the utmost, and prevents crowding among those who are looking them over. The lower the cases are, the easier it is to keep watch of the unruly and noisy. Furthermore, if the cases are low, the tops of them serve excellently for globes and vases, and any articles of interest one may wish to put there. There is a globe in the children’s corner, and a place to hang up a large wall map, which is changed from time to time. On the walls are pictures attractive to young people, preferably in colors. These pictures are such as one would wish to have in the schoolroom. They are large and broad in treatment. A bulletin board in or near the children’s corner has on its lists of entertaining books — general lists, lists on special topics; pictures, sometimes of a general nature, sometimes having to do with one subject; a set of pictures of animals, or birds, or great buildings, or eminent men. The same bulletin board holds, in large type, an occasional sentence or verse of poetry, such as experience showrs children are attracted by and are fond of learning. THE LIBRARIAN AND THE CHILDREN, AND THE CHILDREN’S DEPARTMENT. The librarian makes the process of getting a borrower’ s card at her library very simple for the young people. She, perhaps, thinks it wise to insist that the card be signed by a parent, not so much to protect the library as to engage the interest of the parents in what the young people read. She does not feel, however, that this is essential. She surrounds the process of the signing of the name, the giving of the card, and the presentation of a slip containing library rules and information with sufficient dignity to make it seem of importance to the children. She keeps her library immaculately neat and clean and trains the children to help her in this work, establishing a library league for this purpose, if possible. It takes time and patience to lead children to keep in order the books they themselves use, but it is not impossible and is worth the doing. She notes that the weak points of American children are not timidity and nervous¬ ness. Still, she realizes that many of the children, perhaps those whom it would be best 'worth her while to assist, are shy about visiting a new place and are slow to ask questions. She meets such individuals more than half way. The children’s department is made especially strong in entertaining stories, the children’s classics already alluded to being first chosen. It is far better to purchase a large number of duplicates of each of 15 or 20 standard books that children read than it is to scatter the money they -would cost over the whole field of children’s literature and buy a large amount of inferior stuff. The librarian has investigated the subject of children’s reading for herself and has come to the conclusion, as have all others wrho have given the matter serious atten¬ tion, that in the children’s corner in the public library, or in the schoolroom library, or in the library in the school building, or in any collection of books anywhere to which children are to have access, low-grade books, no matter how popular they 716 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. may have proved themselves to be, are not needed in order to attract children, and that poorly written, unreal, fourth-class, silly stuff is not needed as sweetmeats and temptations to draw children to a collection of good books in an attractive library. She learns from talks with teachers whom she has interested in the subject that the reading of wholesome children’s books does not, save in very unusual cases, dis¬ tract the minds of the children from their studies. She learns, on the contrary, that the bright children, the well-informed children in the schoolroom, are the ones who are likely to be eager and wide readers at the library. With the children’s books she puts the books suitable for reading aloud to children by parents and teachers. It is difficult to draw the line definitely between these two classes. In selecting the books suitable for young people it should be borne in mind that there is much good literature which children themselves will not read, but like to have read to them. Some of this literature can very well be put with the books the children like to read themselves. The reference books for children in their own department are not many in num¬ ber and are simple. One or two encyclopedias, an atlas, a dictionary, and a few sets of periodicals, like Harper's Monthly , with its index, and St. Nicholas, serve better than more elaborate books. The librarian, while supplying a special corner for children and giving them there easy access to the books adapted to their wants, does not forget that an important thing in education is ability to use a large library to advantage. She encourages, so far as the arrangement of her room permits, the use of the main library by young people. She tries so to train them, or help them to train themselves, that they are not lost or dazed in a large collection. She helps the very young people to make use of the laboratory method in the library, as science teachers lead them to use it in physics and chemistry. She finds that children quite quickly catch the spirit of investigation, the spirit of the seeker after truth, and thus become students in the best sense of the word. To help the children to make use of reference books she calls attention to such helps as tables of contents, page headings, indexes, and bibliographies. She gives them an opportunity to consult encyclopedias and dictionaries of varying character. She encourages them to study by topics. So far we have spoken of books on their artistic, literary, general-culture side, the side which, for the younger children at least, must always remain the most impor¬ tant. But there is another side, distinct still from both the “culture” side and from the scientific side, with which the zealous librarian must acquaint herself, would she do her best work, especially with children who have reached the ages of 16 to 18. This is the purely utility side. There is no calling in life, from bricklaying to archi¬ tecture, from shoemaking to railroad building, that does not have the results of latest experience and observation in regard to it set forth in periodicals and books. These periodicals and books are more or less accessible in every public library. The majority of boys, about 95 out of 100 who attend our schools, are on their way to some manual, semimanual, or clerical calling. They will be able to equip them¬ selves better for their calling, whatever it may be, if they make themselves familiar with its literature. The humblest workman in the humblest occupation can adapt himself better to his work, and will have a better chance of advancing in it, if he reads up to it. This is an aspect of printed things which is rarely touched upon in the schools. The sympathetic librarian, as she sees boys grow to young manhood under her eyes, will watch their tastes and inclinations where she can; will note the occupations they are likely to enter, and direct them to the utility literature of those occupations. The librarian makes a collection of pictures, saving therefor old periodicals that are well illustrated, and making requests for old numbers and back volumes that are past other usefulness, to be used for their illustrations. She gets together and mounts. PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 717 on cardboard collections of designs, of pictures illustrating the work of different artists, of pictures to be used in geography and history and science study. These she arranges in groups, hangs on her bulletin board, and lends to teachers, one at a time or many at a time. XIAr. WORK IN CERTAIN TYPICAL LIBRARIES. By J. C. Dana. The libraries mentioned in the following notes are not exceptional. They are typical of a large number, in which some of the things mentioned in the foregoing out¬ line have been attempted. Nearly twenty years ago Mr. Samuel S. Green, librarian of the free public library, Worcester, Mass., delivered an address before the American Social Science Association on the relations of public libraries and public schools. In this address he outlines or hints at nearly all the things that have been done since 1880, in bringing libraries and schools into closer relations; and during those twenty years Mr. Green has again and again urged upon teachers and fellow-librarians the necessity for active cooperation, would they produce the best results from their efforts. The Worcester library has been the pioneer in the world, in the work this report considers. The library league was first tried by the Cleveland, Ohio, library, after a suggestion borrowed from Col. George E. Waring, of the street-cleaning department, New York City. Colonel Waring appealed to the children in certain parts of the city to form leagues and subscribe to an agreement to -help to keep the city clean and beautiful. The Cleveland library established a library league. In joining this league the chil¬ dren signed an agreement to try to handle the library books with care and to per¬ suade others to do the same. The experiment was very successful, and led to other things than simple care of books.. It has given the library a hold on many thousand children, and has helped to strengthen the library’s hands in working with the teachers. No library in the United States has shown a more admirable public spirit than has that of Cleveland, and any librarian who may be contemplating bringing children and teachers into closer relations with her collection of books can not fail to get inspiration and suggestions from the reading in the Cleveland reports of things that have been done there in recent years. At the free library of Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, in its new building, special accom¬ modations have been made for children. The attendants in charge of the children’s department have studied to equip themselves for the work, and are constantly devis¬ ing ways of interesting children and leading them to the use of better books. Exhi¬ bitions of pictures, of notable men and women, of notable buildings, of special regions, of birds, animals, etc. , accompanied by book lists, are attractively put up in the chil¬ dren’s room from time to time. In no other library has a more careful study of the problem of the children and their books been made. The free circulating library of New York City includes now eleven or twelve branches. These branches are in part rather inadequately housed. It is interesting to see how an enthusiastic library spirit has been able to make books and papers attractive, especially to the young in the poorer quarters of the city, even with very insufficient accommodations. Several of the collections of books number only nine or ten thousand volumes; room for readers may be very limited, and yet access to shelves is permitted and children are controlled and interested, and are in many cases led into habits of good reading. In Buffalo, N. Y., there were school libraries in a number of the school buildings of the city. These were about a year ago turned over to the public library. They were found to contain a good deal of useless material. This was set aside, and the old libraries were replaced by collections of books adapted to each school, sent out from the library and changed more or less from time to time, as teachers and prin¬ cipals desired. The public library of Detroit, Mich., has for twelve years been sending school circulating libraries to different school buildings of that city. It now has about 10,000 volumes in these collections. They go to all grades above the fourth, there being a total of some 80 boxes for their transportation. The library in each room is changed once in four months. No one school is likely to get the same books oftener than once in two or three years. The purpose of these schoolroom libraries is to give every child in the public schools some acquaintance with good literature. The books are in charge of the principal of each building, and are given out for home reading under very simple regulations. 718 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. In Milwaukee the teachers, under the general supervision of the librarian and his assistants, issue library cards to their pupils. These cards having been issued, the teachers go to the library and, being admitted to the shelves, select enough books for their pupils. To aid the teacher in her selection, lists have been published of books for young peoifie and of books for special purposes. The books the teacher selects are placed in boxes and sent by the library to the teacher or to the school. They are changed after eight weeks. In 1897 23,000 books were thus issued nearly 90,000 times. In Utica, N. Y., courses of reading have been published in cooperation with the library. These courses contain two lists, one for the grammar schools, the other for the lower grades. Some of the books in these courses are read by the teachers to the pupils and then discussed in class, others are read in the class, and others read by the pupils out of school. The teachers are asked to see that out-of-school reading has been profitably done. Excessive reading is discouraged. One of the first school systems in the country to adopt the schoolroom library was that of the North Side, or District No. 17, of Denver, Colo. Small collections of books, about fifty in number, Avere placed in nearly all of the schoolrooms of the district several years ago, and have been kept up and extended over the whole district since. A brief account of this system as carried on in North Denver is made a part of this report. The free public library of Evanston began cooperative work with the schools about three years ago. Its experience shows how much can be done with limited means, a small supply of books, and narrow quarters. Through several schoolroom libraries it reaches many families who would not otherwise hear of the main library. The assistant librarian in charge of this work visits each school as often as possible, and holds teachers’ meetings for the discussion of children’s books and plans of future work. The teachers come often to the library and suggest books for purchase. The cooperative spirit extends to superintendents, principals, teachers, and all the library staff. The school libraries contain each 100 books chosen for the six lower grades. Each has a printed, graded list. The collections go from one room to another, remaining three months in each building. The librarian mounts the colored plates from the Art Amateur and similar publications, and lends them for art studies or to brighten schoolroom Avails, and mounts pictures of birds and animals gathered from all sources for use in nature study, and saves other pictures for historical and geo¬ graphical work. These pictures cost, when mounted, less than 2 cents apiece. They are lent separately or in groups. The library has formed a children’s library league. The assistant librarian talked with the teachers of each school in regard to it, and circulars were distributed to the children before forming it. The teachers pre¬ sented the subject to the children, and also looked after the matter of registration. The children from the graded schools near the library and from the high school ATisit the library frequently for reference Avork, and the librarian and tier assistant gWe them training in the use of reference books. The library prints a set of special holi¬ day bulletins. It reserves books for class and essay work. During the year the library gives exhibitions of such collections as that of birds with nests and eggs, a collection of drawings lent by some artist for the occasion, or of pictures from the library’s supply. The library has established a children’s corner, Avith open shelves, containing books and numbers of young folk’s periodicals, and finds that the young people discover attractive books Avhich they did not know of and could not know of through the unsuggestrve medium of the catalogue. XY. SCHOOLROOM LIBRARIES. By Clarissa S. Newcomb, Librarian, North Side Schools. Denver, Colo. [First published in the Colorado School Journal. Added to the report at the request of J. C. Dana.] To one who knoAVS hoAV to use books a well-selected library is one of the most valu¬ able means of education. The training of children in the choice and use of books is therefore an important subject to all teachers. An early beginning is necessary, or else the great majority — those avIio leaAre school before the higher grades are reached — wholly escape this training. But how shall this training be given, is the question. Hoav shall we bring the child in touch with good books? Our experience in district No. 17, Denver, leads us to belieATe that each schoolroom should h ave its library. We haAre found that a collec¬ tion of fifty books in a room, chosen Avith reference to the age and ability of the pupils PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 719 in that room, is the most satisfactory means of forming a taste for good literature. We have tried other methods — the central library, the library in the principal’s office, and the plan of moving books from one room to another. The room library — that is, a certain number of books which are the permanent property of the room — has proved the best, because it acts as a training school for the use of the larger public library. We favor the room library for the purpose of getting the little folks accustomed to the use of the books and for the immediate use of the pupils in the upper grades. The more expensive books, which can not be afforded for each room, are kept in the principal’s office. Thus the pupils are led to the public library, for the use of which these small collections have well trained them. That this room-library plan increases the demand for books from the public library has been demonstrated to us by the greater number of cards now held by the pupils. Beginning with the second grade each room in the district has its own collection of books, which remain there from year to year. As the children go from grade to grade they are each year brought in contact with another set of books new to them. Instead of moving the books we move the children. Each room has its reference books and its books for lending. When not in use these are on a table or on shelves accessible to the children at all times. The pupil thus becomes acquainted with the books and feels a personal pride of ownership, and the close contact of the child with the books teaches him to love and respect them. He becomes interested in reading and familiar with his own small library. Fewer disappointments occur in the selection of books than -where the collection is larger; hence, fewer obstacles are presented in the formation of a love for reading. The range of choice is narrowed, and the teacher feels the responsibility of directing the children’s reading, for the library is but another tool with which to mold the character of her pupils. All become readers if the teacher is skillful and tactful and enters sufficiently into child life to appeal to the pupils. Many teachers have found the library an effective means of reaching and interesting dull or indifferent pupils. The teacher can influence and largely control the children in their choice of reading. A reference to a book little used is enough to commend it to someone in the room, and its reputation is established. 'Or some pupil may be asked to give an extract from a book he has lately read. That will interest the other children, who will wish to learn more about it. The recitation is made brighter, and that book goes into the homes and keeps the children from the street. Each book is selected not alone because of its intrinsic merit, but also because it has proved interesting to several children of like age and grade. No mistakes have been made when we have left the matter to the children. They know what they enjoy. When wre find any attractive book we try it in a room. If it is approved by those relentless little judges, the children, we buy a copy for each room of that grade. In the case of a very popular book we sometimes place two or more copies on the shelves. We do not attempt to force upon the children books that are highly instructive or which we think they ought to like. We try to supplant the trashy stuff by providing them with good yet interesting books. Our aim is to give them a love for good litera¬ ture, for when they have acquired that we need have no fear that their education will stop when they leave school. No child should be expected to read every book in the room library. The reason is obvious. Tastes differ among the children, as among adults. Out of the fifty books, representing history, biography, adventure, fairy stories, etc., each child will no doubt find some which he will enjoy. Within the room list we let the child select for himself. Any book which is really enjoyed, which enlarges the range of thought, which makes him happier, is worth the reading even though it has no visible purpose as a part of his school education. r CHAPTER XIV. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. CONTENTS. I. Popular education and national economic development. II. Statistics of education in central Europe. — Comparisons with other countries. III. Appropriations for education in Europe. IV. The schools of Berlin. V. Expenditures for higher education in the civilized world. VI. Children’s claim upon childhood. VII. Medical inspection of schools. VIII. Secondary education as viewed by scientists. IX. The German commercial clerk. X. Statistics of the Swiss school system. XI. Defective children of school age. XII. German schools in foreign countries. XIII. Attendance in higher institutions of foreign countries. XIV. Industrial and commercial schools in Hungary. XV. Corporal punishment in Prussian schools. XVI. Baroness von Billow and her work in behalf of kindergartens. Articles on education in central Europe published in previous Reports of the Commissioner of Education. Title of article. Comparison of the schools of Germany, France, and the United States, with diagrams. Courses of study in graphic representation . Bird’s-eye view of the schools in central Europe . Middle and intermediate schools in Prussia . Promoting public play of school children . . Education of neglected and depraved children . Juvenile wage-workers . . . The schools of the Kingdom of Saxony . . Economic development of Saxony . . . School population in the civilized world. Charts . The December conference on secondary schools . Brief view of the schools of Austria-Hungary . Brief statement of the school system in Prussia . Proportion of population in elementary, secondary, and higher institutions . Industrial and technical education in central Europe . Statistical summary of school population, teachers, and expenditures for schools in the civilized world . . . Legal education in Europe and America . . . Public kindergartens in European and American States . ed 1900 - 46 Report of— Page. 1888-89 32 1888-89 53 1888-89 150 1889-90 281 1889-90 293 1889-90 295 1839-90 297 1889-90 299 1898-99 203 1889-90 306 1888-89 75 1889-90 •549 1889-90 313 1889-90 419 1889-90 455 1889-90 451 1890-91 105 1890-91 369 1890-91 377 1890-91 676 721 722 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Articles on education in central Europe published in previous Reports of the Commissioner of Education — Continued. Title of article. The training teachers in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland . The Swiss school system . . School museums and educational exhibitions . German universities, history and present status . Schools for recruiting the civil service in France and Prussia Recent developments in the teaching of geography . . The schools of Bavaria . . Child study and experimental psychology, with bibliography _ Bibliography of Herbartianism . . German criticism of American education . . Criticism of educational exhibitions . . German view of American technological schools . . Results of Prussian common-school statistics discussed . . Common-school teachers of Prussia . . Development of the common-school system of Berlin . Attendance in secondary schools for boys in Germany . . Courses of study in history found in vogue in Europe . . Bibliography of the history of education . Statistics of university libraries in Europe . German bibliography of arithmetic . The new education in Germany . Is German pedagogy in a state of decomposition . Supplementary and industrial schools in Germany . Ungraded, schools in Germany . German opinions on monitorial instruction . . . Comparative review of courses of study in sixteen German cities Normal schools in Switzerland . Mental fatigue in school . National features of female education . Public instruction in the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg . Pensions for teachers . Public industrial education in Berlin . Salaries of elementary teachers in Germany . Salaries of elementary teachers in Austria . Statistics of higher education in central Europe . Foreigners in central European universities . Music in German schools . . Reform schools in the Grand Duchy of Baden . How agriculture is taught in Prussia and France . Industrial schools in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland . Foreign universities . Review of educational currents of thought . Special schools for children of limited mental capacity . School savings banks in Europe . Attendance in boys’ high schools in Prussia . German view of educational movements in America . German view of the report of the Royal Commission . . Report of— Page. 1891-92 139 1891-92 197 1891-92 239 1891-92 247 1891-92 369 1892-93 279 (1892-98 323 (18S6-S7 172 1S92-93 357 1892-93 '393 1892-S3 521 1892-93 518 1S92-93 657 1893-94 206 1893-94 225 1893-94 245 1893-94 298 1893-94 302 1893-94 306 1893-94 308 1893-94 314 1891-95 322 1894-95 329 j 1894-95 345 [1898-99 189 1894-95 380 1894-95 403 1894-95 406 1894-85 426 J1894-95 449 11895-98 1175 1894-95 460 1894-95 471 1 r 1079 f 1894-95 ) l 1343 1 1898-99 164 1S95-96 138 1895-96 147 1895-96 156 1895-96 165 1895-96 180 1895-96 187 1895-96 158 1895-96 1199 1885-96 1215 (1895-96 1413 -j 1889-90 561 [1896-97 1365 1896-97 126 1896-97 141 1896-97 160 1896-97 164 1896-97 178 1896-97 185 POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 723 Articles on education in central Europe published in previous Reports of the Commissioner of Education — Continued . Title of article. Manual training in Germany . Recent German educational literature . Comparative statistics of education . Commercial education in Europe . Teaching civics in Switzerland, France, and England . History of the German school system . The objects of polytechnics . Technological, agricultural forestry, mining, and veterinary schools in Europe School gardens in Europe . Salaries of elementary teachers in Switzerland . Higher education of women in Prussia . . Illiteracy in Europe . . Examinations, definition and classification . . Philosophy as a school study . . . Means for spreading hygienic knowledge . Textile schools in Europe . Progress of elementary schools of Prussia in ten years . School attendance and compulsory education in Europe . Preparation of normal-school teachers in Prussia . Federal aid for elementary schools in Switzerland. . . . History of secondary schools in Hungary . Seventy years’ attendance in German universities . Report of — Page. r 1896-97 193 11898-99 179 1896-97 197 1896-97 200 1896-97 207 1896-97 233 1897-98 3 1897-98 216 1897-98 222 [1889-90 303 \ 1897-98 221 [1898-99 1067 1897-98 230 1897-98 234 1897-98 236 1897-S8 237 1897-98 246 1897-98 257 1897-98 269 1898-99 125 1898-99 147 1898-99 201 1898-99 211 1898-99 220 1898-99 228 I. POPULAR EDUCATION AND NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. By J. Tews, Berlin. [ Note by the translator. — The author attempts to show the influence of a more com¬ plete education of the people upon national economic development. Though he chiefly refers to conditions prevailing in Germany, his deductions are applicable elsewhere as well. He first shows that higher culture or civilization is dependent upon diversified industrial pursuits and highly developed skill in labor. In the sec¬ ond section he shows that, “mutatis mutandis,” industry is dependent upon culture or education, general as well as special; and in his last section he suggests reforms in the education of the people in all strata of society, which do justice to the demands, both of culture and of industrial skill. Numerous quotations from standard writers enhance the value of the dissertation, which is here offered in English to show the trend of German popular education. The subject has been before the German National Teachers’ Association for several years; also state and provincial associations have discussed it, and all agree substantially with the author, as is seen from various statements in the annual reports of this office since 1894-95. The following is the translation of Professor Tews’ work:] I. The success of the efforts to lift the young to the same plane of civ¬ ilization on which the adult generation moves, and to advance them beyond that plane, will always be dependent to a certain degree upon the economic conditions under which a people live. If all the treas- 724 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1899-1900. ures of culture of the most civilized nations were made accessible to the Samojedes (a tribe in northern Siberia) or to the Pescharahs (inhabi¬ tants of Tierra del Fuego) in their own vernacular even, they could take in but a modest part, since all their forces, including thought and will¬ power, are employed in making a livelihood. And, vice versa, the most civilized people would sink into irredeemable barbarism, even if they retained possession of their purely intellectual culture, their literature and works of art, were they deprived of technical skill and mechanical contrivances — that is to say, if they were deprived not only of machinery and devices, but also of the technically educated human power which could partly restore the former machinery or replace it by new inventions. Their energies would be absorbed in satisfying purely physical necessities, and their former height would be attained only in the course of time by the creation of new technical contrivances replacing crude physical labor. Such a people would, of course, exert all its power to keep from sinking lower. Pioneer farmers struggling against a wilderness are an example akin to the above theoretical instance, with this difference — that they take along with them whatever mechanical aids can be possibly transported. In ancient times the incompatibility between physical labor and higher mental development formed a political dogma, not onty in the despotic Orient, but also in republican Hellas and Italy.1 The free Greek, therefore, never engaged in any physical labor whatsoever, while the slave was debarred from all culture of free citizenship. This view was not the invention of an aristocracy, but was based upon actual observation. Were it impossible to lighten the pressure of coarse manual labor by perfecting methods of work, the general cultivation of mankind would be nothing but an idle dream. Man has become free to direct his energies in a different direction only by learning how to shift the burden of manual labor on other shoulders. Domestication of animals, utilization of the forces of nature, and, in particular, the wonderful mechanical appliances of the present are the foundations upon which a higher national culture can develop. Without such aids the higher culture of one portion of a people must necessarily mean the degeneration of the other. To satisfy the great necessities of culti¬ vated Athenians and Romans required the work of many slaves. Highly developed culture, therefore, requires a corresponding eco¬ nomic foundation. If this is not given by a large development of 1 Aristotle says: “Neither a mechanic nor a day laborer can be virtuous.” Demos¬ thenes addressed the Athenians with the words: “Whoever is occupied with low and trifling things can have no broad and high-minded thoughts.” What Plutarch says is in accord with this: “We often take pleasure in his work, but have no respect for the workman. No noble youth who has seen the Olympian Jupiter would care to be Phidias.” The tribes which conquered Pome originally had no respect for labor, either. Tacitus tells us of them: “They consider it cowardice to gain by the sweat of the brow what can be won with blood.” POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 725 mechanical contrivances, human hands and human bodies must create it. Millions must dig, hew, chisel, carry, and run, so that as many thousands may enjoy a life of higher civilization. What immense results are obtained by one single machine!1 Machinery it is that has brought higher development within the reach of all. It has relieved the slave of his burden, and it will bring men to the same level on a higher plane, just as they were once at the same level on a lower. On the other hand, the form of economic labor is dependent upon the intellectual culture of the laborer. The higher the intellectual culture, and the more firmly established the ethical culture of a people, the more energetic will their efforts be toward perfection also in an economical respect. Highly civilized nations take a much more comprehensive view of the task before them than the less civilized, not only because of their greater attainments, but because they aim much further beyond the present. Economics and culture are interdependent, but their progress is seldom in even steps. At a given period the one is often seen in advance of the other, until the direction of thought tends toward the one less progressive and raises it to preeminence. The labor power of nations varies in compass and in kind; the higher the culture the greater the variation. With culture the perception of national characteristic talents grow, calling forth the effort to develop them to their utmost. The progres¬ sive development of labor power -is, under all circumstances, necessarily dependent upon ethical strength, for personal improvement is always a wearisome task. Who¬ ever possesses no ethical energy succumbs either to the depressing influence of neces¬ sity or to the enervating influence of luxury. The existence of strong moral family ties is of paramount importance. Where they are wanting the growing generation 1 The noted economist Roscher portrayed the marvels of the machine as follows: u Machines do the work that would be too large or too small for the hand; they effect the wonders which fables relate of giants and dwarfs. With a machine of six com¬ pound levers, the long arms being ten times as long as the short ones, a workman with one-kilogram power can move 1,000,000 kilograms. A large steam hammer can beat with full weight 200 to 300 times a minute and yet fall so softly as to crack a nut. In one second a rolling machine can make a sheet 36 cm. from 1 c. c. of iron. Very thick wires could not be made at all without machines. War vessels have engines Avith 7,000 horsepower, and 7,000 steam horsepower is equal to the capacity of 40,000 actual horses. In an English cotton mill 750 workmen with one machine of 100 horsepower turned out as much work PvS 200,000 hand spinners. From 1 kilogram of raw cotton a machine can draw a thread 600 miles in length. At the Paris exposition in 1867 there were exhibited armor plates 18 inches thick, and side by side with them tin sheets of which 4,000 formed a layer no thicker than 2| cm. By means of the steam press 10 compositors and 5 printers can turn out as much work as 200,000 to 300,000 copyists could five hundred years ago. This increased power by means of machines and engines is often a decided saving of material. The more quickly iron is changed by the hammer the less fuel is consumed. An especial advantage of machines is that they do not grow tired, but continue to move with uninterrupted endurance and therefore superhuman uniformity. Think of our chronometers. Our railroad companies now use machines which print 70,000 tickets daily, supply 40,000 with continuous numbers, and count up to 140,000. How many mistakes and miscalculations men would make at this work.” [Some of these statements prove that the quotation is not recent, for the latest inventions far surpass these achieve¬ ments. See Note 1 in appendix, p. 752. ,Tr.] 726 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. degenerates, and the national capacity for labor gradually decreases until the con¬ sciousness of the evil brings about inward reaction. The higher the development a people attains the greater use it makes of natural forces, and the more highly intellectual the resulting character of labor the less sig¬ nificance attaches to purely physical force, and the greater the prominence of intel¬ lectual energy and action. Highly civilized nations are distinguished by the diversity of their prominent characteristics in action, by which in turn the character of their attainments is governed. — From Die Arbeitskraft dev verschiedenen Yolker, by J. Deutsch. The man of culture has no taste for mere manual labor; it makes him unhappy.1 If the existence of a nation were therefore at stake for want of men inclined and able to perform purely physical labor, the general cultivation of the masses necessarily could not be countenanced. Friederieh Nietzsche was opposed to it. This unhappy philosopher says, among- other things: Since much rough, hard work must be done, men must be retained to do it, in so far as labor-saving machinery can not be used. If the necessity and refinement of higher education penetrate into the working masses, the laborer suffers dispropor¬ tionately at his work. A cultured workman seeks leisure, he does not ask for lighter work; he wants to be free from work and lay the burden of it on other shoulders. To satisfy his desire we might propose the introduction of savage tribes from Asia and Africa; the civilized world could exploit the uncivilized, and in this way igno¬ rance could be regarded as subjecting to slave labor. In point of fact, the degree of culture of laborers and employers is so close in European countries that a continu¬ ance of exacting irritating mechanical drudgery will rouse a feeling of rebellion. Close investigation proves that though Nietzsche has observed the fact in question correctly, he has entirely overlooked the influence on the development of technical contrivances which this very impulse exerts. Because the cultivated laborer is disinclined to coarse work, he strives to shift this work elsewhere. Whenever human power can be subjected, slavery is the outcome. Where this condition does not obtain, the work is forced upon brute animals or inanimate nature. That is to say, the man disinclined to physical labor becomes an inventor and devises a technical process which he who finds content¬ ment in labor could never call forth. Great inventors have not always been the most industrious men. Since the work before them was inadequate for their advanced minds, they thought out new methods and mechanical contrivances. There can, therefore, be no policy more injurious to the common weal than that of keeping the 1 “Increasing popular education has awakened in the working people the con¬ sciousness of the burden of mechanical work, the weight of which was not so heavily felt in former times. In England, two persons, on an average, must be occupied with mechanical work so that the third person may enjoy the fortunate condi¬ tion of not needing to engage in such work. The more philanthropists do to raise the working people from a condition of slavery and ignorance, the deeper that con¬ sciousness grows in the workman and the more discontentedly he asks himself why he must spend his life at the vise and loom and deny himself all the higher pleas¬ ures of existence which he sees others enjoy to an excessive degree without apparently doing any work.” — Win. Thomas Thornton. POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 727 laborer upon the lowest possible intellectual level. It is true, for existing methods and for the utilization of mechanical aids at present available, human power may thus be secured, but the way to progress in labor methods and technique is thereby obstructed. That policy may be conservative, but it is antiprogressive. If man did not endeavor to free himself of crude manual labor, we should to-day, as at the beginning of civilization, be loosening the crust of the earth with a tree fork, instead of plowing with steel steam- plows; the backs of men would still be the sole means of transporta¬ tion, and we should still be walking instead of riding and driving. Our whole progress in mechanics is the result of man’s determination to free himself of physical labor, or to transform it into purely men tod or intellectually physical. And the inventors, to whom we owe this progress, have been mostly simple workmen of more active minds than bodies, and employers with insufficient human and animal labor power. That our technical contrivances did not exist in ancient times is a direct consequence of slavery. How this presents itself to the mind of a socialistic writer we see in Bellamjds “ Equally. ” 1 Slaves could do nothing but resign themselves to sheer drudgery. In eastern Germany conditions very like these prevail. The low stage of eco¬ nomic development in agriculture is largely due to the fact that land- owners have always had sufficient labor power at their disposal from among the ignorant Polish masses. The most radical means of civiliz- ing the Slavic elements in eastern Germany and to remove the blight from agriculture would be to forbid the immigration of ignorant labor¬ ers from Poland. The scarcity of workmen would not bring ruin on agriculture; on the contrary, a generation of farmers would arise, as it did in America, who would make use of every suitable mechanical device, and lay all heavy work on animals and labor-saving machinery and implements. Then the laborer would work with his mind. It is almost inconceivable that under present conditions of civilization a want of ignorant individuals should be felt. On the contrary, there will always exist a want of laborers able to meet the demands upon intelligence, skill, and self-command. Man follows the road to higher civilization not from choice, but from necessity. All nations whose necessities of life have been supplied without effort on their part have remained on a low grade of civiliza¬ tion. Neither have those which easily gained a livelihood by means of primitive implements made any progress in technical contrivances. The proverb says, u Necessity is the mother of invention.” To urge civilized man to a perfection of technics he should be deprived of all inferior means of labor. The unparalled development of the United States of America can be explained by the want of inferior labor power, which forced technical or mechanical progress upon the people. 1 See Note 2 in appendix, p. 753. 728 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The more advanced labor methods and the use of machinery require and, therefore, as a matter of course, develop mental and moral power. It is a current but erroneous assertion that machinery makes a machine of man, crushing him down in mind and body. Even superficial com¬ parison between a population engaged in rough farming and one engaged in manufacture proves that machinery does not force the mind under. The assertion applies only when work at machines is exacted for too long a time to the exhaustion of strength and under unhygienic influences. Factory laborers are generally not below, but above, farm laborers in Germany. Moreover, manufacturers employ a large number of indi¬ viduals profoundly intellectual and strictly moral. Even the dirtiest factory girl coidd hardly rank below the woman who does the coarse work on a nobleman’s farm east of the Elbe River. The proposition that machinery saps mental energy, while farm labor favors the develop¬ ment of a highly intellectual life is untenable. That under like con¬ ditions the reverse is true is substantiated by many proofs.1 1 The following is derived from military circles: 4 ‘Neglected and uneducated recruits form an undeniable contrast with those from districts with advanced schools and intensive labor power, with a healthy industry and high standing agriculture. The blessing of modern elementary schools is, in this case, sensibly evident, and the thoughtful observer is forced to adopt correct views on the ethical value of popular education. The number of cases of military punishment inflicted on soldiers coming from different parts of the country is in inverse ratio to the degree of culture in these parts; large cities, however, on account of their special conditions, make statistical tables somewhat confusing.” The Saxon Statistical Quarterly says: “The factory workman occupies by no means a low position with respect to personal morality. In Saxony, for instance, day laborers, house servants, apprentices in workshops, and petty officials are relatively more strongly represented among malefactors. On the 3d of December, 1858, there were 377 mechanics and trade laborers in Saxon prisons, and 468 in workhouses; factory hands numbered only 38 and 52, respectively. Of the largest cities, Chemnitz has the fewest criminals. Reports from factory districts are, in general, rather favor¬ able, while districts in which home manufacture predominates, especially the weav¬ ing industry of the Lausitz district, report very unfavorably. Leipzig has a larger contingent of criminals than the factory town of Zwickau.” Deputy Bebel, in his speech in the Reichstag, January 13, 1899, says: “ I should like to ask the gentlemen of the army commission which soldiers they prefer, the unedu¬ cated or the intelligent worker? They will certainly declare in favor of the latter as being better able to understand his duty. In the preceding session I referred to the debate in Munich on the question of the percentage in the army of recruits from agricultural districts. In that debate General von Sauer declared it to be a great advantage for the army that the greater number of recruits came from cities and industrial districts, as they are more able and skillful than those from rural districts. For the complete training of the individual soldier the greatest intelligence is neces¬ sary. Men from cities are more serviceable, too, because they have frequently had some gymnastic training, vrhich is an unusual acquirement in the country. More¬ over, when reserves from the country are summoned for review and temporary serv¬ ice they have often forgotten what they learned; city workmen are in this case again better and more serviceable.” POPITLAE EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 729 Technical progress has made it possible to satisfy the great necessi¬ ties of highly civilized man without condemning a great number of others to slavery. Power has been liberated for highly civilized life. Any retrogression in economic development would, therefore, signify a heavier burdening of man with inferior kinds of labor, and either less participation in or the total suppression of advanced intellectual life. Evidently, then, the more individuals there are able to labor in con¬ formity with improved methods the richer a nation must be, and the stronger, considered from an economic standpoint. Less can be pro¬ duced with hoe and spade than with implements driven by steam. He who uses the old-fashioned spinning wheel necessarily remains far behind him who uses the most modern spinning machine. The wealth acquired through economic development is the strongest incentive to higher national culture. Adequate means for the general education of the masses are thereby furnished. Yet the least acquaint¬ ance with politics shows that the advocates of the people are obliged to fight for the means which will secure such a result. II. If it has been proved that the education of a nation, the higher culture and civilization of mankind, depend upon economic conditions, and especially upon the kinds of economic labor, the question for inves¬ tigation remains : Whether, and how, economic labor depends upon education. Not to confine the inquiry within too narrow limits, we should first understand the term “education,” as applied in the consid¬ erations which will be adduced. WHAT IS EDUCATION? A number oi* different and irreconcilable answers are given to this question whenever proposed. I shall not at first give an answer, but attempt to find one. Everyone is able, or thinks himself able, to dis¬ tinguish an educated from an uneducated person. With the same assurance we classify nations into educated and uneducated ; and when we are asked to state the distinguishing features of education, we are at a loss for an answer. The educated man shows qualities and powers which are either lacking or, at least, lie dormant in the uneducated. They are the result of the teacher’s work ; under his direction they have been developed. As the gardener cultivates the wild rose and apple tree, so the educator influences the growth of man. He develops many powers and abilities which nature bestows only in embryo. In consequence education is development beyond natural conditions. The uneducated man, therefore, is nothing less than the man by nature. “In its broader sense, education is the development of natural talents 730 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. through contact of the individual with the treasures of civilization accruing from society; in fewer words, through the influence of the objective on the subjective intellect.” (Jodi.) Hence, in civilized nations, there are few or none uneducated, and the distinction lies between more or less education. That we so often hear of the unedu¬ cated is because we do not reflect upon the degree of education pos¬ sessed by the “ common man,” it being by comparison the lowest, and also because our idea of education is incomplete and one-sided. Education expands in proportion to human talents and powers and the endless measure of human action. There are as many kinds and purposes of education as there are directions of civil¬ ization, education being a process of which civilization, or culture, is the result. Whenever man works, gathers experience, and acquires knowledge and skill of last¬ ing benefit to the human race his legacy to future generations must be bestowed through the channels of discipline, schooling, and habit. — (Jodi.) Since, however, development never takes place in full measure, and never in the same proportions, education leads to that manifold varia¬ tion of life in individuals and whole nations so interesting to the philo¬ sophic historian, distinguishing mankind from the brute creation and civilized from barbarous nations. From this circumstance we deduce a second reason why educated persons are frequently looked down upon as uneducated. The observer may look for special intellectual powers where great emotional gifts have been developed, or he expects a well-cared-for body and polished conventional manners where the person in question has devoted all his energy toward acquiring a spe¬ cial science, or a certain skill, or an art. The ideal of a perfect educa¬ tion will ever be a harmonious development of all human powers, but this harmony can not be defined with mathematical precision, else the “know it all,” with a smattering of every kind of knowledge, would be the best-educated man. As there is no simple law of geometry for the lines of beauty in nature, so there exists none foi* the perfection of human education. The value and charm of education lie in the multiplicity of combination that will not leave any powers dormant; otherwise a man loses as an individual and forfeits the ability to under¬ stand and enjoy the talents of another who has specially developed the power neglected in himself. The development of all talents to a certain point, and a knowledge of all learning to a certain degree, we consider general education. As has been said, its value is not simply ideal, it makes social life in its nobler bearings possible. The possessor can look up to all heights of knowledge. True, he can not attain them, hut he has an idea, faint as it may be, of how far they reach. He who has no thorough gen¬ eral education can not fully comprehend what others are. General education, therefore, has a social value. He who possesses it is one of an educated community; he who lacks it is excluded. Technical or POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 731 professional, briefly termed special, education, on the other hand, is that part of education which fits us to work with creative ability for ourselves and others. Nevertheless, it can not be said with truth that general education has only a social, and technical education onty an economic value. The truth is only that anyone possessing only a gen¬ eral education is not fully equipped for participation in economic action. His education must be supplemented by technical knowledge and skill. General education, however, is the trunk from wdiich tech¬ nical education branches. Without the former the latter is in most cases impossible. In maim important callings technical education is but a small part of the whole; in others it plays a more important part. The neglect of general education has disadvantages from an economic standpoint; the social disadvantages are even greater. He who lacks adequate general education is like a stranger in the world. There is no tie between him and his fellowmen, and he can not fulfill the duties incumbent upon him as an intelligent member of a com¬ munity. He who has only a general education is a worthless economic factor, a passive observer of economic action who defrauds the world of its material tribute. He enjoys without pa}Tment; he is a drone in the human beehive. The practical aim of human education is expressed in the old saying, “Professional in one” (special education) and “amateur in all” (general education). If after this I am called upon for a definition, I should pronounce education in its formal relation a development of the powers and gifts of man as not affected by the mere process of nature. Friedrich Nietzsche, in his Schopenhauer as Educator, says: That is the secret of all education, it furnishes no artificial members, waxen noses, spectacled eyes. That which claims to supply these gifts is but a false imitation. Education means liberation, a clearing away of all weeds, rubbish, and vermin prejudicial to the life of tender germs, a giving out of light and warmth, the quiet fall of nightly rains. It is an imitation and a worship of nature, motherly and merciful; the perfecting of nature, when it restrains cruel and merciless traits, and directs them toward good, and when it covers with a veil what of nature is dark and mournful. It is true there are other means for self-knowledge, there are other ways of awakening from the stupor in which we live as in a cloud, hut none is better than the direction of a teacher and educator. In the language of Nietzsche, though not as he means it, this “Uebermensch” (man of gigantic stature in every regard, physically, intellectually, and emotionally) alone is able to master the attainments of civilization to a greater or less degree. But he has not only been enabled to imbibe knowledge without aid, much of it he made his own during the process of education. The way of development is paved with the presentation of the works of culture and civilization. The teacher develops the mental and moral powers of his pupils by means of the poems of Schiller, Goethe, and Uhland, the pictures of Hol¬ bein and Kranach, and by means of mathematical theorems and phys- 732 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ical laws; and while so doing the teacher makes these treasures of art and science a lasting possession during the life of the student. The teacher distinguishes between the development of inborn powers, or formal education, and the acquisition of information. This distinc¬ tion, however, is only ideal, in practice the two are inseparable, and to attempt to separate them implies a perverse, one-sided theory. That the one or the other trend is so often stubbornly advocated in educational literature to the exclusion of the other side of education, is because such advocacy is the outcome of the struggle in school politics. Diesterweg would never have become so prejudiced an apostle of ex¬ clusive formal or general education, had not a narrow-minded school- bureaucracy, in his time, attempted, most unreasonably, to limit the course of study of the public elementary school to a few studies, and firmly resisted the harmonious development of all mental powers. His struggle, therefore, did not deal with calm, dispassionate, theo¬ retical propositions that could stand their ground before scientific criticism. To use the language of Lessing, Diesterweg stepped on the other end of the board (went to the extreme). If this master of peda¬ gogy had labored in other times, his writings would have been free of this prejudice. In judging of the education of a person we do not ask for the one or the other — that is, for his general education alone or his special knowledge — but we ask for both combined. Generally, and especially in examinations, preference is given to facts. Consequently those with a vigorous memory but little creative power receive commenda¬ tion and good positions, which they fill indifferently, and thus bring undeserved blame on the schools they attended. If we remember that education means development, that it is an increase of intellectual capacit\r, we must be careful in using such posi¬ tive expressions as ua finished education” or ua half educated man.” True education consists not in leading to an end or in finishing the development, but in the very contrary. A development begun by edu¬ cation and its attendant acquisition of knowledge can only cease when nature cries halt — namely, at an age when the powers decay. He who has had a good teacher is influenced by him during his whole life, and on the firmest the gratitude frequently shown to teachers r foundation. Though the educated man has entered upon a course of uninterrupted development, there are certain boundary lines and points of view which determine his advance as the constellations define the infinity of the starry host. So we return to the assertion of a more or less com¬ pleted education. But we must not look upon this completion, so far as the intellect is concerned, as a certain well-defined amount of knowl¬ edge, but as consisting in the existence of positive intellectual rela¬ tions between the elements of education. “ The essence of education POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 733 is the generality and universality of views rather than the amount of knowledge” (Diesterweg). The educated man has a picture of the world within him, the uniformity of which his own intellect must have created. In other words, he must have gained a world-view (Welt- Anschauung). The picture of the world or the world-view of individuals need not be alike; in fact, they can not be, but are as different as talents and powers on the one hand differ from acquisition of information on the other. And as we expect no geometric relation in the latter, but only harmony in an esthetic sense, so a man’s picture of the world may con¬ form to his individuality; complete in itself, however, it must be with¬ out any wide gaps; otherwise the realization of thought process, namely, a consistent world-view, is impossible. Both ideas of education thus dissolve into one again. A harmonious education, whether formal or material, is the only complete education, but it is complete at every stage. Moreover, as has been already said, every man should be prepared by special education, according to his surroundings, for a useful, prac¬ tical participation in the life about him, so that his education may have a certain market value. The educated man wanting in this prepara¬ tion must, in the spirit of bluntness peculiar to practical life, be desig¬ nated as miseducated. Whoever would deny the value of education must change the concep¬ tions of greatness, beauty, and perfection found in the human race. He would needs teach that the bud compressed within a brown envelope is of greater worth than the blooming or fruit-laden branch developed therefrom through nourishment under the benign influence of the sun. To him the egg must have a greater value than the bird hatched from it, which delights the eye of man with its plumage and his ear with its song. He must place the rough marble above the statue carved by the master’s hand. In a word, by him greater worth must be given to what is undeveloped, to the embryo, than to that which has attained full development. Force he must rank below feebleness, and he must close his eyes to the beauty with which educa¬ tion clothes man. With the aid of natural forces a few educated persons can accomplish that which is impossible to millions of the uneducated. The mind finds expression m the countenance of an educated man. There beams a light from his eyes, the mirror of a liberated soul, which in the uneducated is but a faint glimmer. Education is a specifically human work. Man as a member of a community alone possesses power, expedients, and knowledge wanting in the individual and not to be acquired by his own efforts unassisted, but forming a common intellectual possession; a capital constantly increasing, newly invested, converted into labor, and transferred to succeeding generations through thousands of channels enriching and vivifying. From the kind and manner of the transfer it depends whether this intellectual cap¬ ital is to be a dead factor, or whether it is to be converted into a living force. Hence EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 70^ < tj-1 the almost passionate interest evinced in all educational questions since mankind has become conscious of the significance of its cultural possessions; hence also the inex¬ orable tenacity with which political parties and social groups, whose ideals are in the past or in the preservation of what is existing, guard just those channels from which the stream of education is to flow on to succeeding generations, in order to regulate and at times color it according to their own notions.” — (Jodi.) Therefore, he who claims to cherish a love for mankind in his heart, who would be a true Christian, can not oppose the work of education. Humanity, true love of neighbor, as taught by the Nazarene, that love which makes it our duty to share with our neighbor whatever we con¬ sider best and most valuable in our lives, makes it a sacred obligation upon us to teach the people and their children.1 For this reason education must go from the castle to the hut, from the gentleman’s to the laborer’s home. Education is a process of ennobling, a development beyond that which is naturally human. We labor to cultivate plants and animals. We improve roses, fruit trees, horses, and dogs by training, and should we not do the same by flesh and blood like our own? It is in our power to develop human beings into an existence a thousandfold more splendid than anything the gar¬ dener’s and fancier’s art can produce, and we would not? Jupiter chained Prometheus, the bearer of light, to a rock; and even to this ~ day we hear of the happiness of ignorance and stupidity. But no paradise of barbarism exists on earth. Where there is no civilization man is exposed to poverty, immorality, and bondage, giving himself up to every brute instinct. We find paradise on earth only where man does not live merely in obedience to the desires of his senses, but rises to lofty heights occupied by only a limited number, among whom, alas, some look down from this vantage ground, cold and unloving. That paradise we would gain for all our brothers and sisters, and the road that leads to it is that of the highest and best possible education. If these views are shared, the opinion may be accepted that the edu¬ cation of man must be an end in itself; everyone of the people should be educated as well as possible without respect to other ends. Never¬ theless, it is advantageous to make known in ever widening circles the xDr. Schmitz, suffragan-bishop of Cologne, says: “The commonest laborer in the country, the simplest maidservant, the most ignorant woman laborer in the worst districts * * * must be an object of our care, since we are bound to elevate them to a higher intellectual life. All of us bear this responsibility. The land- owner is wrong in saying he need not instruct his servants. The priest transgresses when he says: “I will keep the people in ignorance so that they may remain pious.” No, he must educate as well as instruct them, that their faith may be the more intense.” In an article of the Center Party on Equality in Prussia (Bachem, Cologne) it is said: “Of course, the half idiot who can hardly recite the Lord’s Prayer suffers the least temptation to losing faith; but according to such reasoning we might say with the pessimist: It is best to be a stone, for that enjoys no pleasure and suffers no pain. Life and religion are by no means as simple as that. And if, finally, knowl¬ edge and high mental aspiration rob us of a Tertuliian, they will give us back an Augustine. ’ ’ POPULAR EDUCATION AETD ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 735 great results of a more advanced national education for the life of a nation. The nation will then incline more to support the efforts of its teachers.1 2 In the present instance we are considering only the economic sig¬ nificance of a more advanced national education. The fact, however, must not he forgotten that economic excellence in individuals, as well as in nations, can not be achieved in the absence of certain moral, political, and social qualities. This fact is so generally admitted that it does not require closer investigation. As the qualities referred to are in no small degree the result of careful education, and especially of thorough school training, if is no exaggeration to call the labor question a question of education and training.3 If we consider education specially in its significant bearing upon national economic development and upon the position of individuals in business life, the importance of special education, as has been stated before, is greater than that of general education. Its significance in practical life is so generally recognized that it is needless to dwell upon it. But the fact is often ignored that a good special education must be based upon a thorough and broad general education; that he whose general education is deficient can not acquire a higher and thor¬ ough special education. Special education without general education is as a house without foundation, or sowing without plowing. Never¬ theless, in times when industrial evils cry for redress, special educa¬ tion is unduly emphasized and general education depreciated.3 Thus special preparation is often advocated at the expense of thor- 1 Dr. J. Conrad, professor in Halle, said in his Handbook of Political Sciences: “It is desirable for education to have itself in view as an end, and not be made openly or covertly subservient to other purposes. In point of fact, however, espe¬ cially in cases where better situated persons apply the means necessary for the fur¬ ther education of others (beyond that of the elementary school) such other purposes play an important part; be it that the students are either led or kept in certain defined directions, or are protected against influences considered dangerous to exist¬ ing social conditions.” 2 Dr. G. von Schonherg says in his Handbook of Political Economy: “The labor question is also an educational question. The better the school training the higher the labor capacity and the morality of the laboring people. All measures of the admin¬ istration to establish a good condition of public schools (compulsory attendance, sufficient number of schools and teachers, thorough instruction) are also means for the solution of the labor question. No outlay is more productive than that which the State applies to the education of its future citizens.” 3 Professor Ahrens, in Kiel, director of an industrial -school, said recently: “What is the good of having acquired a fine general education, if we are simpletons in practical business life, forced to acknowledge, ‘ That which we know we can not use, and that which we use we do not know.’ If general industrial excellence, cleverness, and artistic skill, in short, the productive capacity of the nation, were forced to seek bread despite general education, then we should rather set store by less knowledge and greater ability for practical work. Therefore, instead of compulsory general supplementary schools, we should establish schools with definite relation to practical callings — industrial, agricultural, and commercial schools.” roo EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. ough general education, which seems a grave error. It does not seem superhuous to recall some opinions of competent authorities on this point, for the best judges of the industrial education question are loud in their advocacy of a thorough elementary training before special education is begun. The value of popular education seems to be least appreciated among agricultural people. The political press has published a number of more or less authentic expressions of farmers, not only underrating the training of the mind, but advocating its entire neglect, as far as farm laborers are concerned. A farmer of W est Prussia is said to have stated: • J The most ignorant laborers are the best. ” The following words are attributed to a large landholder in Pomerania: “No education is nec¬ essary for gathering potatoes.” A nobleman of Mecklenburg is said to have remarked to a teacher who applied to him for an appointment in school: “I need three oxen for my plow, and if the one behind the plow can call out 4 Gee! 1 and ; Whoa! ’ at the right time, nothing more is necessary.” Even in the Prussian House of Lords it has been said: “If we teach the peasant how to calculate and keep accounts he is ruined. His duty is to plow and to drive; he need know nothing of accounts.” In the memorable debate in the Prussian House of Deputies from the 9th to the 11th of February of 1898, in which the school question was discussed with reference to agricultural interests, the better education of the farm laborer was pronounced not only superfluous and indiffer¬ ent, but even undesirable and harmful. Deputy Szumla spoke of the farm laborer of Austrian and Polish Galicia as the ideal workman. “The people, of whom one-half can hardly read and write, think of nothing save their work and wages; they are the most respectable peo¬ ple in the world and could serve as models in ethics for our German laborers.” He emphasized particularly “that there is no vestige of politics among them ; not one of them knows what politics are.” Deputy Count Strachwitz expressed these views still more forcibly. He would in all seriousness keep the whole working class of the eastern section down to a proposed level of education. He said: “I believe that the only effective means is to provide for a certain increase of population by immigration from Poland, after the extent of the demand for work¬ ing hands is known. A less pretentious working class would soon be formed, and to my mind this is most desirable.” It should, however, be stated that the other party of the House which supports a reactionary policy did not see lit to indorse these views. The conservatives declared against the introduction of uneducated laborers and against the lowering of educational standards. But their recommendations and motions would certainly have the effect of low¬ ering the educational level of the rural population. Whether the party as such realized what would be the effect of their efforts, and whether the minister of agriculture intended to promote such tendencies, is not POPULAE EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 737 easity decided. At all events, it is especially worthy of note that intelligence among laborers was publicly declared by this party to be neither unnecessary nor harmful. One of the conservative speakers, the royal councilor of state from Halle, von Mendel-Steinfels, even confessed that u the strongest and most intelligent persons are required for the management of agricultural machines,” and deplored that many of such men locate in cities.1 The importance of a more advanced education for agricultural peo¬ ple has received special notice elsewhere. At the last general meeting of the Society for National Education, Dr. von dossier, president of the province of West Prussia, and also a landed proprietor, said: “The greatest present necessity of farmers is a better, and especially a sci¬ entific, education.” The Economic Society of Pomerania has recog¬ nized the necessity of a better schooling for farm laborers, even though much restricted, and perhaps specialized. These views are fully confirmed by scientific men. I will confine myself here to citing the following opinion: Agriculture requires more judgment, care, and skill on the part of laborers to-day than a hundred years ago. This is due to the more varied uses of ground, to the employment of finer and more complicated implements and machinery, and to the better feeding and care of animals; furthermore, to the fact that human labor forms a much greater portion of the total product now than heretofore, and consequently the product of an establishment depends in a greater degree upon the profitable utili¬ zation of human labor. — (Handbook of Political Economy, by Professor Schonberg.) When agriculture was primitive, and the farmer satisfied his wants by the products “in natura,” farming could be followed with com¬ paratively little education. To-day the farmer needs a thousand things which he must buy; again, he must sell, so he must be a mer¬ chant. Furthermore, the elementary means of utilizing soil and ani¬ mals are no longer adequate; he must understand his occupation as an industry, and be mindful of its continual progress. His every neces¬ sity cries aloud for a higher education than mere reading, writing, and arithmetic can offer. This is the true meaning of the agrarian ques¬ tion; it is not one of the price of grain. Howto prepare farmers who are abreast of the times, and in a position to develop the latent resources of the soil, is the task of the people’s or elementary common schools. A few remarks on Danish agriculture deserve insertion here. Den¬ mark is a countiy with many flourishing rural popular high schools. Sons and daughters of peasants attend them to extend and strengthen their general education. Maikki Friberg, a woman thoroughly acquainted with the Danish peasantry, expresses a very favorable opin¬ ion of the excellent work rendered by these high-school pupils, and attributes the rise of the butter trade of Denmanc to the better educa¬ tion of the peasantry.2 :See note 3 in Appendix, p.753. ed 1900— T7 2 See note 11 in Appendix, p. 754. 788 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. In Germany particularly the farmer requires a more advanced educa¬ tion. Only intelligent men can be prosperous farmers in Germany. Nature has not endowed the soil with untold riches. Within its bound¬ aries there are no districts of inexhaustible productiveness; no wheat fields, as in Roumania and Hungary; no “black earth," as in Russia; no fertile plains yielding an abundant harvest without much labor, as in the Argentine Republic and the United States of America. In Ger¬ many the gods have made success dependent upon industry and, above all, upon intellectual and technical training. It were no idle question to ask how many of its inhabitants could be supported if the popula¬ tion were upon the low level of civilization of former centuries, or on a level, for instance, with that of Russia. Surely not one-half of the present number. Thirty millions of the fifty -five would be forced to emigrate or die out if industry, commerce, science, and art did not support them. German agriculture can only maintain its ancient hon¬ orable position in national economics by intensive cultivation of the soil and giving preference to the highest products of husbandry. Times have changed within a generation. The luxury of ignorance can hardly be found to-day in the day laborer’s cottage. A thorough school education is, of course, still more necessary for industrial and commercial workers. What would German industry be to-day without common schools! It is not to be thought of. Espe¬ cially is industry on a small scale altogether dependent upon the edu¬ cational standpoint of those engaged in it.1 We are just now living through a period of hard times, it is true. The man of small means, the mechanic in his home shop, is waging a useless war in many branches against industry on a large scale — that is, the factory. In some parts of the Empire the former is in the ascendant, or the factory does not as yet enter into competition with him. But industry on a small scale has been suffering less from the influence of business depression than from the incapacity and meager education of those engaged in it during the past few decades. Who at present becomes a mechanic? In many districts not even the mechanic’s sons themselves. They get to be officeholders, teachers, specialists in the practical arts, factory hands, anything but mechanics. They .find in the callings specified a freer existence, but often one with few, if any, prospects. Mechanics to-day come either from the coun¬ try, the sons of day laborers, or from the lowest ranks of city work- 1 “The present business dealings of mechanics have long since done away with the simple forms of earlier times; they have become more and more merchant-like. Purchase, payment, sales, etc., all presuppose much more knowledge, a higher degree of intelligence and commercial ability than was expected of mechanics in former years. Aside from his thorough practical (i. e., technical) education, the mechanic must meet the demands of the time, which call for a general education as well, if he wishes to enjoy success.” — (H. Bottger, Manual for Mechanics.) POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 739 men. These recruits, because of tlieir deficient education, have not what is most necessary for their calling in critical times — quick com¬ prehension, adaptability, etc.1 It is reasonable to suppose that development will again be along other lines. The increase of officeholders will grow less, industry on a large scale will attain its fullest growth, and the younger generation vcill cease to go in these directions; then many forces will be spared for trades that are now lost to them. But shall we wait idly until this hap¬ pens? We can do better by improving the people’s schools in vil¬ lages and cities, making them a secure foundation for industrial labor, and by seeing to it that the knowledge gained in them may be preserved and broadened in supplementary and special schools of all kinds. If the application of education in the pursuit of agriculture has been with difficulty brought about, its value in industry has not been doubted for a long time past. Some men, and particularly some corporations, have opposed the motion of a broader education for apprentices and youthful laborers. On the whole, however, all man¬ ufacturers and tradesmen are convinced that great results can not be attained by apprenticeship alone, however carefully it may be guided, but that it must be supplemented by special school education. It is not so long ago that leaders in industry and commerce ex¬ pressed themselves against compulsory education. In 1854 the Cham¬ ber of Commerce at Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) declared that u compul¬ sory attendance at school and the reduction of working hours for the young would have a bad effect on the condition of the lower classes.” Whether these views are still entertained in that body is a question; 1lii judging a crime of omission or of commission, our reason prompts us to con¬ sider not only separate impulses and their immediate motives, but to investigate the former life, youth, and education of the defendant, in order to establish the more intimate connection between cause and effect, and thus to establish mitigating cir¬ cumstances for the accused, if possible. The economic condition of a nation, or of a class, where deficiencies or glaring evils are discovered, should be considered from a similar point of view. It is not only important to learn that this or that branch of industry has gone to the wall from a domestic or a foreign cause, but we are interested In knowing how the faulty condition arose ; what were the early years of the industry in question ; whether those engaged in it made good and proper use of the period of development and learning, and above all whether they commanded sufficient means for the training of existing talents. Therefore, if our trades are not all that they should be, if much is inadequate and deficient, the responsibility rests not only on the present generation, but on its teachers and progenitors, on state and society that refused the means necessary to bring them to perfection. The saying “The child is the father of the man” is a paradox verified in life. The deepest and richest foundations for the actions and conduct of the adult man are laid during youth, and the causes of failure or success often lie far hack in the past. The actual conditions of individuals, as well as of classes and of nations, are effects, the causes of which are rarely found in sudden bursts of luck or misfortune, but in the silent forces of previous education.” — (H. Bottger, Manual for Mechanics.) 740 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. but judging from general political manifestations in that region they are not. It is a noteworthy fact that the members of the conservative party in industrial districts are much more in favor of popular educa¬ tion than their colleagues in agricultural districts. The hyper-aristo¬ cratic merchants in commercial centers likewise show a proportionately generous spirit of sacrifice for popular education. They know that industry and commerce can not thrive without an intelligent class of laborers. Bebel, the socialistic leader in Parliament, himself praises enterprising manufacturers and merchants for their appreciation of intelligence in workmen. He then goes on to say: Every intelligent man of enterprise in England and America (in these countries there is not a difference of opinion even among farmers on this subject) says that the most intelligent laborer is the best and cheapest, on account of being the most competent and responsible. The higher the grade of intelligence and the better the schooling of our laborers, the greater the advantage for industry and agriculture. These are the views of my party, but I am sorry to say they are not shared by all parties. — (Bebel, speech in the Reichstag, January 13, 1899.) Anyone who has given thought to labor at and with machines knows that every workman in factories must have an advanced edu¬ cation to fill his position satisfactorily. The invention of machines is reserved for a chosen few, but an appropriate use of them and work¬ ing with and among them require a man of technical skill and intel¬ lectual and ethical development greater than that of a mere drudge. Xtoscher, who has by no means very modern views on the high results of elementary schools, writes in his System of Economics: If those who despise learning repeatedly call to mind that Wyatt, Lewis, Ark¬ wright, Hargreaves, Crompton, J. Kay, Jacquard, were self-taught men, mostly poor uneducated weavers, that Cartwright was a theologian, Watt not at all a trained mechanic, it does not follow that genius and chance can ever take the place of schools, Statements of great weight of English factory owners go to show that a good educa¬ tion makes the workman more clever, versatile, and ready to grasp a new idea. In this respect the laborers of Saxony, Switzerland, and of America are often ahead of the English. And J. G. Kohl, in his Travels in England and Wales, remarks: Under the present conditions of manufacture, when so much is done by machinery and intricate instruments and the little done by hand is diminishing day by day, discretion, systematic order, punctuality, and good conduct grow more and more important. And as all these qualities are developed and encouraged by careful edu¬ cation, education itself gains in significance day by day. I believe that at the present day there are few, if any, enlightened mechanics who are not of the opinion that those factories in which the greatest number of well-raised and educated, workmen are employed yield the largest results and the best work in the best way. Worrishofer, the well-known factory inspector of Baden, s&ys: Intelligent direction is not alone sufficient for the progress of industry. In less civilized countries, or in former times, with a less educated and less civilized labor class, incapable of applying advanced technique, the same success in industry could not have been achieved; for the reason that the necessary, and often ignored, pre- POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 741 supposition of progress and success is that their attainment depends upon intelligent instruments, down to the least important workman. Let it not be said that per¬ fected machinery renders unnecessary intelligence in inferior agents. That is true only in a very limited sense, for the demands upon the responsibility of performance and upon right judgment in the direction of labor processes by means of machinery have become greater. We need only in thought remove intelligent direction, together with perfected machinery, into earlier times to see the falsity of the assertion that human labor exercises less and less influence on the success attendant upon industry with the progressive development of mechanical appliances. Dr. von Schulze-Gavernitz, the renowned professor of economics, is of similar mind. He sa}"s: Machines, which are getting to be more and more complicated, require a certain affectionate handling, a thorough understanding on the part of the workman of the technical thought embodied in them, just as the English thoroughbred horse must be led by understanding and love, lest it refuse obedience to the rough treatment of an inexperienced groom. As the highly-developed type of factory labor requires an intelligent appreciation of its individualities, and gives the best results where it receives a certain sympathy for its aspirations from the employer, * * so the more and more artistic machinery will not bear unwilling and ignorant management. Even the masterpieces of the human mind give the best results when the operator has risen to the height of intelligent labor. T1 he rough Polish laborer, farming the fields of Posen and upper Silesia, could not have amassed the wealth of a Krupp and a Borsig, The better educated laborer even under the most intelligent direction. works not only better but on the whole cheaper than the one who is ignorant. This fact is often confirmed in treatises on economics, by contrasting the workmen of Russia with those of western Europe.1 Our industrialists therefore earnestly try to keep educated hands, and to employ none other. They are favorable to education from a proper understanding of their oven interests. Some, it is true, have the notion of a slave machinery devoid of right and intelligence, but such can never and never do become either Krupps or Borsigs. The difference between workmen who have attended school and those who have not is much more conspicuous in countries where school education is a rare thing, as, for instance, Russia, than in Ger¬ many and England. We are indebted to the well-known professor of political economy, Dr. von Schulze-Gavernitz, for some facts on Rus¬ sian factory labor which shed a strong light on the subject in hand. The}" prove that in manufacture ignorant labor is worth much less than intelligent.3 The inferior achievements of the Russian workman compared with the Belgian and the German have received the atten¬ tion of other writers.2 The writings of an older author, J. G. Kohl, belonging to the middle of the nineteenth century, are even more valuable, since school education was at that time not so general in western Europe. The passages referring to this subject are found in Travels in England and Wales, Volume II, and are so emphatic and 1 See Note 5, p. 754, in Appendix. 2 See note 6, p. 754, in Appendix. 742 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. professionally correct as to deserve special consideration at this time. In one the writer quotes an English factory owner’s opinion on the value of school education for laborers; 1 in another he compares laborers of different nationalities with respect to their natural abilities and with respect to their school education, at the same time showing the value of education, not only for capacity of work, but for duties of civil life. The last assertions are based upon the statements of a manufacturer of Zurich (Switzerland) whose 600 to 800 workmen were of all sorts of western European nationalities.2 The significance of a thorough school education for the economic prosperity of a country is nowhere so clearly defined as in the King¬ dom of Saxony. Saxony is the leading industrial State of Germany. It is that not because of its natural wealth, but because of the uni¬ versal education of its citizens. The Social Correspondent of Bohemia says on that subject: Saxony is to-day a rich country. Yet, within recent times the poverty of its min¬ ing district population was proverbial. The once rich silver mines had been almost exhausted; the bobbin trade, which had been developed by the wearing of lace caps, fichus, and cuffs, during the Rococo period, was no longer encouraged by fashion. Manufacture, too suddenly developed under the continental exclusion of English goods through Napoleon I, was too weak to compete with the English after the over¬ throw of the French system. Thus, after the Congress of Vienna (1815), economic evils arose in Saxony which weighed heavily on the greater part of the population. However, prudent appreciation of industry, invention of new methods, incessant practical labor, commercial excellence, widespread, yet thorough popular educa¬ tion, wise administration, and economic penetration have removed these evils, virtu¬ ally wiped out poverty, and lifted the State to a degree of industrial importance almost unrivaled. Saxony, inconspicuous as to size, and of little political influence in the Vienna congress, has since been lifted far above the significance of its extent by systematically teaching the people to cultivate a bee-like diligence, and to acquire the world market for the products of their industry. Since the establishment of the ‘ ‘ Zollverein ” (custom’s union) and the reestablishment of the German Empire Saxony has grown to be a very wealthy State. The people are noted for special skill in all branches of industry. So much is well known. Their skill, however, is not innate, but acquired. It is an outcome of a broad and fruitful education, wisely regulated from the beginning. Saxony has not been in vain the cradle of an educa¬ tional reform, breathing life into all educational efforts. Justice demands recogni¬ tion of its priority among the German States and its circumspection in the matter of popular education. The decree of February 14, 1803, during the reign of Frederick Augustus, and the general school law of March 4, 1805, brought about this improve¬ ment on a large scale. What was then sown, the present is reaping. The remark¬ ably good elementary or people’s school system of Saxony is the strong foundation on which is reared an extensive and lofty superstructure of technical schools; to these latter is due the economic skill of Saxony, which has brought about the national prosperity. The position of Saxony in the German Empire is that of the Empire with respect to Europe and the rest of the world. Whenever foreign¬ ers speak of the economic successes of Germany, they dwell upon the influence of the people’s (elementary) schools. Two quotations from 1See note 7, p. 755, in Appendix. 2 See note 8, p. 756, in Appendix. POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. hr a o ( 4o foreign expressions may suffice; one from nonprogressive East Russia, the other from Belgium: The German teacher is a man of short stature hut of great mental calibre. He commanded recognition at Sedan, and crowned the Prussian King with the imperial crown handed to him by Bismarck. With untiring energy he is at present applying himself to his work with perseverance and method. A survey of his work shows that he is preparing the most startling surprises. The English had hardly expected to cope so soon with an equal competitor in industry, commerce, and colonization. But their eyes were suddenly opened to the fact that the Germans had not only caught up to them, but were surpassing them in many ways. * * * If in the history of the new German Empire the army has drawn the full measure of what the teacher has prepared, we also must give the most earnest attention to the effect of German school education. Otherwise the German teacher would ensnare us in times of deepest peace, and throw us, close neighbors in Asia now as in Europe, from one surprise into another. — (Nowja Wremja, January 29, 1898.) Baron de Haulleyiile has published an article in the Brussels Journal on Germans in Brussels, in which he says with emphasis: The causes of the great and irrresistible expansion of German influence are: Instruction, education, and discipline. The elementary schools of Germany are, on the whole, the best in Europe; children there learn to fear God and respect authority. In military service this education is supplemented by the science of discipline. Every German learns strict obedience and, consequently, learns how to command. Com¬ bine, so the conclusion reads, the marvelous system of technical education with this education in elementary schools and with disciplinary training, and you have the secret of the present power of Germany, political and economic, with its future inevitable consequences. The knowledge that all relations of political and social life and, in particular, economic conditions depend upon the education of youth has made its way especially in those times when there was a question of saving a community or a nation from retrogression or even from ruin. The most enthusiastic panegyrics on schools and national education were composed in Prussia after the disastrous year 1806, in Austria after 1866, and in France after 1870; and at the present day we hear in Spain, humiliated by the war with the United States, cries for a thorough reform of national education neglected under church guar¬ dianship. Greater value, however, attaches to education from an economic standpoint in the extended literature pertaining to the indus¬ trial defeat of Germany in Philadelphia in 1876 than by the foregoing historical examples in which general political relations received the greater consideration. Similar discussions have been published by the foreign press for a number of years, ever since the knowledge came home of what great economic factors the people’s schools of Germany are, if combined with an extended system of supplementary and technical schools. In times of economic progress we incline too much toward ignoring the relations between popular education and economic national devel¬ opment. It is in the nature of man to grasp but one, and that the most prominent, fact in a succession of phenomena. That is why the 744 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. tasks set before civilization are often neglected to an incredible extent in such times. England, whose past furnishes an unexampled indus¬ trial development, made comparatively little use, during its most successful periods, of the proceeds of economic labor, in order to raise a better educated labor class. Only since she sees her supremacy in industry threatened has she tried to make these omissions p’ood. In the last ten years she has increased the amount spent cn elementary schools from $44,268,000 to $68,068,000, thereby far overshadowing Prussia, which without sufficient reason is called u the land of schools.” Prussia with about one million more inhabitants than England and c"3 Wales together, spends fully twenty-four millions less — that is, about as much as England and Wales spent ten years ago. The Germans, therefore, have no reason to look down upon Eng¬ land, even though her schools may not come up to theirs in many respects as }Tet. The millions that she is now spending for education will bear fruit in the near future. Do we Germans need another actual u debacle” to rekindle our zeal? It almost seems as though the powers were in the ascendant which are opposed to advanced popular education. Fine words are heard in parliament and elsewhere, but with many their deeds rather prove that these words serve only to conceal thoughts. III. Popular education has another effect upon national economic develop¬ ment besides that of increasing wealth production. It likewise1 pro¬ motes a more equal distribution of the results of labor. The more 1 Concerning the effect of good common schools upon the entire social life, Lorenz von Stein says, in his Manual of Administration, as follows: “The import, extent, universality, and freedom of elementary education indicate the force and direction of the whole social movement of an epoch, and in such a way that its existence and extension, as well as its organic connection with all other edu¬ cational factors, mean the elevation of the lower strata and especially their approach to the intellectual plane of the better situated strata of society. The common schools, or, as they are called in Germany, the people’s schools, fill out that distressing gap between illiterate ignorance and culture which exists in some countries. No true social progress is possible without well-organized elementary education. Where this is wanting, there is felt the absence of the great intermediary link for the transition of one class to another — in short, the element of equalization of classes and the wiping out of class distinctions. [The American common school, for instance, is a grand crucible within which the most heterogeneous nationalities and the most dis¬ tant social elements are fused into one homogeneous nation of equal legal and social rights. There is no factor that could have secured this end in the United States better than the great equalizer, the common school. — Ta. ] The social struggle in countries lacking common schools becomes therefore rough and brutal. Though it may have the increase of welfare as an aim, it has despotism as a cousequence. Thorough and universal elementary education alone can change matters, more by its principle than by its substance. Wherever good and progressive elementary schools exist, the social advance of the lower strata is continuous. The possibility of a violent revolution decreases with the advance of general education.” POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 745 educated a nation is in its entirety, the more lively the effort to share the national wealth, material and intellectual. Social struggles thus arise which tend to lessen that preponderance of fortune, education, and political power which a few possess among an uncivilized or little educated people. That is one of the chief reasons why popular educa¬ tion is looked upon with such disfavor by some. Social and political prejudices are added to erroneous economic ideas. In the meantime, they who place the common good above the supposed interests of indi¬ viduals and particular classes will not only advocate a greater equality of cultural treasures, but use their full power to bring it about.1 That is the only way to social peace; and, at the same time, the only way to make the proceeds of labor serve to develop the whole nation.2 If this tendency is opposed by force, revolutionary ideas grow in the public mind, threatening our whole civilization. The famous professor of political economy, Wilhelm Roseher, says on this point: The higher the civilization the greater honor attaches to labor; barbarous nations despise it as slavish. A working class that is despised and recompensed below the dignity of man will surely show the estimation in which it is held by the bad quality of its work. Adam Smith commented on the diligence of well-paid workmen. Labor will necessarily be the more distasteful to the ignorant the lower their wages. In the long run, it always serves the interests of the employer to pay his workmen well. Permanently high wages are among civilized nations most closely connected, as cause and effect, with a flourishing condition of the people. On the one hand, they attest the high productiveness of national industry, as well as wisdom, self-esteem, and self-control among the numerous lower classes, which virtues are only found in connection with political liberty, and social esteem on the part of the higher classes. On the other hand, they enable the large majority of the people, who must support themselves by wages, to occupy a creditable position, in which they can decently educate their children, enjoy the present, and provide for the future. With low wages, all equality before the law, all active participation in affairs of state, are merely exasperating phraseology, simply privileges (private rights) of the minority. With¬ out contentment among the lower classes, neither the liberty of the middle nor the domination of the upper classes is secure in countries of high civilization with sensi¬ tive and mobile social conditions. The best intended efforts for the equalization and general distribu¬ tion of wealth, education, and power will never succeed in establishing perfect equality. Inequality will and must exist. But one who is gifted by nature should see before him the possibility of ascending the JJ. E. Thorold Ungers says: “The excellence of a social condition does not now consist in the abundance of acquired and amassed wealth, but in such an actual distribution of the same as assures the greatest possible enjoyment of life, and the best hope to all whose sus¬ tained efforts ‘create present national industry and the prospect of its further growth. 2 The “ Arbeiterfreund,” volume 35, says on this subject: “The chief dangers of modern civilization do not lie in the wholesome struggle for subsistence forced upon us. They are not of an economic but of a moral nature. We must see to it that the increasing massing of capital now taking place in all civil¬ ized nations does not provoke a feeling of anger or lead to effeminacy, but that capital be usefully applied, appropriately distributed, and made to serve noble ends.” 746 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. social ladder; even he who is not specially talented and belongs to the poor, should not be held back to his disadvantage and the advantage of others, his equals in mind, by arbitrary obstacles. This standpoint was most strongly demonstrated in systematic form in the speech with which Professor Schmoller, of Berlin, opened the conference on the social question in Eisenach, which is here quoted: In all progressive steps toward division of labor, in all reorganization of industries, business affairs, labor contracts, and in any new legislation referring to these, the first and almost only question raised is, Will present production be increased thereby? and not the equally important one, What effect will that have upon humanity? Will the new organizations, new arrangements, and new legislation furnish or create moral factors, without which society can not exist? Will they train the youthful elements of society sufficiently, or better than before? Will they influence adults with respect to diligence, economy, honesty, and family life, so that progress is likely in these directions as well as in economics? These are questions equally important with the one asked first. The members of this conference are convinced that the neglect of this psychological connection between economic readjustment and reorganization and the moral condition of the nation is the germ of the evil, and that reform must be based upon the recognition of this ‘causal nexus.’ Their judgment on the labor question is founded on these views. That the workman dresses and lives better to-day, and that perhaps not so many thousands die of slow' death from hunger as in past centuries, offers but little encouragement. The first consideration is, whether the conditions of life in which most workmen live to-day, promise them moral and economic progress; that can not be said of the majority. Instead, the contrast between them and the wealthy, educated classes grows more marked every day. Moreover, the contrast in material things is not nearly so dangerous a portent as the difference that has arisen in regard to culture, education, view's, and ideals.1 His¬ tory teaches that all higher civilizations, the Greek, the Roman, and others, declined on account of similar contrasts, class struggles, and revolutions — that is, the utter ina- ability to reconcile the higher and the lov/er classes. The same dangers, if yet in the far distant future, threaten our civilization, unless vTe succeed by means of equal law's, general education, and military discipline, as w'ell as many social reforms, in elevating, educating, and reconciling the lower classes to such a degree that they v'ill form a harmonious and peaceful, because contented, part of the social organism. Equalization in the sense in which the socialistic party interpret the term is not our ideal of society. We consider that society nearest the normal and healthiest which consists of different grades, of easy transition from one to the other. Our present society is like a ladder that grows in length at both ends, the middle rungs of w hich are breaking out, while there is no hold save at the top or bottom. We believe that too great an inequality in wealth and income, or a too bitter struggle between the classes, must in time overthrow all our political institutions and bring us again into the danger of an absolute government. Therefore, we believe that the state can not be indifferent to such a development. We expect state, society, and every individual anxious to cooperate in the work of the present, to be inspired with a great ideal. This ideal can and must be no other than to bring a constantly increasing proportion of the nation to a participation in ail the higher benefits of civilization, education, and prosperity. That can and must be the duty of our reform efforts; the great democratic duty in the w'idest sense of the term, as it seems the great aim of universal history. 1 The difference between the degree of education of a knight, during the time of chivalry, and that of a peasant, was not near so great as that existing between a sci¬ entifically trained man and an ignorant farm hand to-day. — Tr. POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 747 The article by Henry. Herkners on 44 Economy and luxury from the standpoint of national free will,” is also one of note, and may be looked upon as an appeal to the conscience of those in possession of power. The following is a quotation: It is not difficult to understand that a greater inequality in income and wealth, on economic, educational, and political grounds, portends a fatal national disease. How can economic conditions flourish, how can a national market exist, if the masses are scarcely able to buy necessities? The elevation of the purchasing and consuming power of the labor class is alone able to overcome, in some measure, the chronic disturbances in the economic cycle, and to bring consumption and production closer to equalization. The moral and intellectual dangers that threaten the golden heights of wealth and work in the deep abyss of misery are very apparent. In the end we must acknowledge to ourselves that political development leads irresistibly to a greater equality of public rights and to a more extensive participation of the masses in public power. If economic development among the people does not keep equal pace with the equalization of rights, or even if it exert a contrary influence and accentuate the difference in wealth and education, a catastrophe is unavoidable. If the method of production by capital and the economic rule of the people are to be a blessing, the people must understand how to overcome the dangers. Sharp social contradistinctions must be softened. The treasures of civilization and culture must be disseminated among the working class, and material culture must be further advanced by better distribution. The social problems devolving upon industrialists from their posi¬ tion in the economic here. 1 It is a part of the duties of teachers to labor for the general dissemi¬ nation and distribution of all treasures of culture among the people. The fact that this tends to their own prosperity we must pass over.2 Let it suffice that such equal distribution increases the power, happi¬ ness, and development of all grades of society, even of the higher classes.3 Development destined to benefit all can not exclude the lower classes. National wealth must not be in possession of the few, as was the case in the Roman Empire. Concentration of capital means the downfall of a nation.4 IV. organism of the present need not be considered Unfortunately, a general development of the laboring people to a higher degree of culture meets with great opposition in Germany. Why? Lord Bacon has said with truth: 44 Knowledge is power,” or, more clearly expressed: “Human knowledge and power are one, for ignorance frustrates every successful issue.” But just because this is well known, because it is an axiom that a learned or educated people is a strong' people, strong from an economic and from a political standpoint, certain persons and political factions would confine knowl- 1 See Note 9, in the Appendix, p. 758. 3 See Note 11, in the Appendix, p. 759. 2 See Note 10, in the Appendix, 759. 4 See Note 12, in the Appendix, p. 760. 748 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1899-1900. edge and culture to a few select circles, and consider them privileges (private rights), like many other good things in State and society. That such a view is partisan, devoid of every higher point of view and consideration for country and the common good, needs no further demonstration. It is just as clear that special interests suffer by these views as that the feudal knights of the Middle Ages sealed their own doom, as well as that of the peasants, b}^ their short-sighted policy with respect to vassalage. The noblemen of northeastern Germany of to-day are ruining themselves, first of all, by withholding advanced education from the farm laborers. That lower instincts, and especially selfishness, play a great part in party politics is easily understood. But it would be a mistake to base a party programme on this; such a programme does not satisfy those of an earnest moral nature. With them considerations of a general nature turn the scale, and there are considerations of this kind also which have the effect of making it difficult for the mass of the people to acquire a better education, or of debarring them from it altogether. Those reactionary politicians who base their political principles on a world view, believe that a political system can not exist without a broad layer of working people with little education and engaged in none but physical labor, and that the common good requires this basis of ignorance. This notion has had so great a hold on the wisest men of antiquity (Aristotle, Plato) that they considered slavery indispen¬ sable. The opinion that the mass of the people can not be brought to act from free, personal resolve, is decisive for keeping them inten¬ tionally in a state of intellectual dependence. The falsity of these views has been proved by modern nations, notably by the United States, but still these views must be ever and anon held up to be combated. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, when Germany was politically rent asunder, and Prussia lay crushed at the feet of the ruthless conqueror, Fichte addressed the following words, seemingly forgotten to-day, to the German people and government: That people whose very lowest classes possess the broadest and most general edu¬ cation will be the mightiest and happiest of its times — invincible to its neighbors, envied by its contemporaries, and a model of imitation for them. Fichte’s views were at that time enthusiastically received in the most influential circles. To build up the shattered state through a better education of }Touth, all e}Tes turned to the best source to he found — Pestalozzi. So it happened that this educational genius, so misjudged in his less expansive fatherland, received general recognition in the land of the Hohenzellern, and exercised a penetrating influence on schools in Prussia, and subsequently in all Germany. Three generations separate those times from ours, a period full of developments and revolutions. Popular education has celebrated one POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 749 triumph after another. It has won battles, acquired the world’s trade, subdued poverty, and, to he just, lessened immorality and crime. Nevertheless, this resplendent triumph of the benefactress education is regarded by those who consider themselves the highest, not only with indifference, but with jest, mockeiy, and even animosity. Why is this? The conviction that the lowly horn should remain on their low plane, that it is the divine order, and that it is absolute^ impossible to raise the masses to a high plane of culture and education, is as old as the hills. The more ancient social fetters have been loosened, however, the stronger the conviction has become that many a one may pass easily from the lowest to the highest stage of human existence and culture. Many born in the hut have now the right to sit side by side with the children of the wealthy. The oftener old barriers have been broken through or surmounted, however, the more zealous become the efforts of certain persons and political factions to prevent such cases. The number of those who have a contempt for the masses is less ; the number of their enemies is greater. Among the upper ten thousand the insane idea has gained ground that the elevation of the lower classes is d.etrimental to the higher. u Rise, that I may be seated! ” is what the city magnate and the feudalist regard as the actual motive of all thorough efforts in behalf of popular education. The owners of large estates fear to lose their humble farm hands; council¬ ors of city and state, officials of all kinds, dread for their own sons the competition of men from the u common people ” in filling positions which, in the opinion of many, should be conferred according to the old custom of caste. All are afraid of forfeiting some of their small advantages. The elevation of the main" means to them the decadence of the few. Development suggests to them the fable of the fox and the goat in the well. We recognize in this the same lamentably narrow view of general culture which we meet in discussing the position of our country in the world economics. Yd hat is to become of our fatherland is the keynote of the general lamentation, if other nations develop a productive industry? Who will buy of us? According to this idea, we live, in a certain measure, on the lack of culture in other nations, as the educatedof a nation live on the lack of culture in the masses. A cursory view convinces us of the fallacy of that argument. The contrary is true. When the large major¬ ity of our nation were poor and ignorant, the present well educated and enormously rich led a beggarly existence, that the present laboring man would not be satisfied with. The poor and uncivilized produce little, and are, therefore, insignificant competitors. But they use or consume still less, and are, therefore, still more insignificant buyers. If Africa, South America, and Asia were more civilized, what a market they would be for Europe! In every branch of commerce the more 750 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. highly cultured have the advantage. They buy more cheaply and sell at higher prices. Apart from their greater circumspection in commer¬ cial transactions, their products are what the less civilized desire, and they exchange less attractive goods. So the great man need not trem¬ ble before the growth of the small one. On the contrary, those who have cause to distrust their power may well be afraid that others may grow beyond them. Only sycophants and nepotists, privileged weak¬ lings, and not the most highkv educated, show any interest in keeping the aspiring down. The educated are raised with the elevation of the broad basis of national life. The peaks of Chimborazo and Gaurisankar do not rise from the swampy valleys of the Amazon and Ganges rivers, but from the mighty backbone of the Andes and the Himalaya. The opponents of a more advanced education for the masses think they represent the interests of a circumscribed minority; but in that they err also. They even prevent the development of their own class. The nobility of Prussia east of the Elbe River are impoverished by clinging to the idea that they must have an ignorant population of farm hands, while industrialists in the western part of the country and English lords, on the other hand, are getting richer and richer, because they understand the saying, ‘“Live and let live.” However absurd the idea of repressing the laboring people may be, it exercises greater influence on public life than any of us dream of. The animosity of feudalists, for instance, toward every measure which will promote higher development of our economic existence is rooted in the same views. If they can not raise more grain and sell it at an acceptable figure, they think their political power and existence annihilated or at least threatened. That a life of higher development in a country increases first of all the demand for food, and that this demand makes articles of food more profitable, the large land owners mentioned do not seem to understand. If food sells dear, the laboring man must deny himself meat, bread, eggs, etc., the very articles that can be made the most profitable. This adopting the habits of the badger, as is so often the case, destroys prosperity and progress. Shall we ever succeed in convincing the opponents of popular edu¬ cation of the fallacy of their views? Ho rapid or present success, indeed, can be expected. The ground must be contested inch by inch. Every breastwork raised in their defense must mercilessly be over¬ come. Finally, the time will come when truth shall conquer; when no class and no calling shall believe it to their interest to maintain ignorance; when those who wish to hold a place of authority must be properly prepared for its duties. Education and culture have gradu- alljT spread from the higher to the middle classes. If the progress of development suffers no unforeseen setback, education, if not the high- POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 751 est kind of culture, will soon be a common possession, at least among the most civilized nations. Then personal incapacity or one’s own fault alone, and not rank and station, will be the only hindrance. Only on such a basis can true aristocrats, in the noblest meaning of the word, arise and lead a higher, purer, and nobler existence than is possible to an aristocracy that regards its livelihood as based upon ignorance. An aristocracy built upon an educated lower class may be truly con¬ sidered the flower of the human race, while one rooted in the slime of ignorance must occupy a low moral position. To an aristocracy which would prevent the spread of the light of heaven the wordg of Denzel apply : “No human heart beats in the breast of him who recognizing the power of education, would withhold it from the people and build up a wall between himself and those beneath him.” These remarks, at one time pronounced with such vehemence for the public ear, should to-day be brought to the notice in particular of every one participating in the administration of public affairs. Every government official, down to the lowest, should hear a course of lectures on educational politics (Kulturpolitik). The conviction should be fostered in all, that the highest and most important factors in a modern community are highly educated men, and that in all public arrangements, even those of a purely economic and purety political nature, administrators of public affairs should not lose sight of this fact. Only a nation that is in earnest with the education of the masses can expect to hold an honorable position to-day. Now is the opportune time to emphasize the connection between popular education and economic development in Germany. We are in danger of resting inert upon our modest laurels. Our machines work, and our locomotives and steamers transport enormous loads over land and sea. We have a host of inanimate slaves, in comparison with which the human slaves of antiquity are as nothing. If we apply the properly trained human force to this immense apparatus, if each one of us does his part, and no idle or incompetent member is found among us, we can produce goods and means far above our daily wants, useful in elevating our posterity by the enjoyment and application of the accu¬ mulated treasures of civilization, especially the elevation of tho^se who as yet know, enjoy, and imagine little of ail that is great, noble, and beautiful.1 To find out the wa}^s to be traveled, the means to be employed, and the obstacles to be overcome, is the first duty of the German teachers. In the foregoing it was my intention not to direct my efforts at definitely formulated results. My only object was to present and illustrate facts that must be considered in stud vino- the question in 1 See note 13 in the Appendix, p 760. 752 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900. hand. In looking over what I have written the following conclusions present themselves: (1) General education is the foundation and necessary antecedent of increased economic activity in all branches of national production in agriculture, small industries, manufactures, and commerce. (The ever increasing differentiation of special and technical education, made necessary by the continual division of labor, must be based upon a general popular education and can not be successful without it.) (2) The consequence of the increase of popular education is a more equal distribution of the proceeds of labor, contributing to the general prosperity* social peace, and the development of all the powers of the nation. (3) The economic and social development of a people, and their par¬ ticipation in the international exchange of commodities, is dependent upon the education of the masses. (I) For these reasons the greatest care for and the fostering of all educational institutions is one of the most important national duties of the present. APPENDIX. Note 1, p. 725. — Mr. Samuel Andrew, secretary of the Oldham Master Cotton Spinners and Manufacturers, a practical spinner, equally esteemed by employers and workmen, delivered a most instructive lecture on “Fifty years’ cotton trade,” at the meeting of the economic section of the British Association, held in Manchester, September, 1887. He discussed in a modest but most interesting manner the development of the cotton industry in England during the reign of Queen Victoria and its present condition. The lecturer, whose name and experience vouch for the correctness of his asser¬ tions, stated that at the time of the Queen’s accession to the throne home wmrk pre¬ dominated, but that spinning had already come under the factory system. He compared the low, dark, poorly-ventilated mills, not fireproof, of that time with the high, roomy, well-lighted, well-ventilated, and mostly fireproof buildings of the present. Industrial and labor-saving machines have been improved, with the result that machines now have greater capacity and that there is less need for human labor. Concerning the success of these efforts, Mr. Andrew said: “(1) In the year 1837 seven workmen were required for 1,000 spindles; in 1887 only three were needed. (2) If we consider the average length of a mule and the length of thread produced per spindle, at that time and at present, every workman in a cotton mill, be it man, woman, or child, produces four times as much thread as in the year 1837. (3) The cost of production can not be exactly estimated; one fact, however, remained deeply rooted in the memory of cotton manufacturers of that time, namely the great strike in Stalybridge, when “4 shillings 2 pence or sweal” was posted on the walls of the mills. That meant, spinners demanded 4 shillings 2 pence per 1,000 hanks of No. 50 thread, or they would burn the mills down. To-day (in 1887) hundreds and thousands of pounds of No. 50 are rapidly spun at 1 shilling one-half pence per 1,000 hanks; consequently for one-fourth the price demanded during that strike. (4) Improvements in the construction and POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 753 arrangement of buildings as well as of machines, like warps, lines, and other auto¬ matic apparatuses, enabled the workman to do his work with one-half the exertion formerly required, and I can prove that the wages are now double what they were in 1837.” In weaving, the rapidity of mechanical looms has likewise increased. A woman can now take charge of four looms instead of two, and the average wages have doubled. It must not be forgotten that reference is not made to the latest inventions in machinery. The machines in question, with the exception of the ring spinning machine, are the machines of 1837, but constantly perfected in detail. The great capacity of the single workman, despite the ten-hour law, is not to be attributed solely to the progress in machinery, but partly to the increased skill and dexterity of spinners trained from early youth to their work, without interruption, and their close attention and diligence directed toward getting as much out of the machine as possible, not always to the advantage of its cleanliness and good condition. Note 2, page 727. — From Bellamy’s Equality, page 40: “It is a constant study of the administration so to bait the less attractive occupa¬ tions with special advantages as to leisure and otherwise as always to keep the bal¬ ance of preference between them as nearly true as possible; and if, finally, there were any occupation which after all remained so distasteful as to attract no volun¬ teers, and yet was necessary, its duties would be performed by all in rotation. As, for example, I said, the work of repairing and cleansing the sewers. If that sort of work were as offensive as it must have been in your day, I dare say it might have to be done by a rotation in which all would take their turn, replied the doctor, but our sewers are as clean as our streets. They convey only water which has been chemically purified and deodorized before it enters them, by an apparatus connected with every dwelling. By the same apparatus all solid sewage is electrically cre¬ mated, and removed in the form of ashes. This improvement in the sewer -system, which followed the great Revolution very closely, might have waited a hundred years before introduction but for the Revolution, although the necessary scientific knowl¬ edge and appliances had long been available. The case furnishes merely one instance out of a thousand of the devices for avoiding repulsive and perilous sorts of work which, while simple enough, the world would never have troubled itself to adopt, so long as the rich had in the poor a race of uncomplaining economic serfs on which to lay all their burdens. The effect of economic equality was to make it equally the interest of all to avoid, so far as possible, the more unpleasant tasks, since henceforth they must be shared by all. In this way, wholly apart from the moral aspects of the matter, the progress of chemical, sanitary, and mechanical science owes an incal¬ culable debt to the Revolution.” Note 3, page 737. — The obstacles in the way of the introduction of machines into back¬ ward country districts are shown in the following statement of agrarian conditions in Pomerania: “The hand is still in prominent use for individual operations, and it does not seem as though machines will ever enter into competition with it. They are sold at a high price and are only used to a limited extent. Besides, careless and awkward manipulation can not be avoided on account of the deficient training and inexperience of the operators, however carefully they may have been selected. In consequence, the machinery often refuses to act, and just when business is most pressing all dispositions are upset. This occasions innumerable setbacks, especially in view of the difficulty of procuring without notice expensive human labor or other temporary assistance, and necessitates intricate and expensive repairs. More¬ over, the occasions of accidents are increased in the most fateful manner. Those who come in daily contact with the apparatus become careless, utterly neglecting the already inadequate precautions to be taken against accidents, so that they get easily hurt.” — (Rural labor conditions. Laborer’s Friend, Berlin, 1885.) ed 1900 - 48 754 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Note 4, pvge 737. — “But what is to become of these young men (the students of rural high schools) later? many a one may ask. Will they not dislike physical labor, aspire to something higher, and thus make themselves very unhappy? Not at all. The young man goes back to his workshop or to the plow as before; but he works with a more cheerful spirit, because now the whole world is larger and infinitely more beautiful to him. Labor is no longer a heavy burden to him, but a joyful duty, an honor. By means of it he serves not only his family, but his country and all mankind. Thus, for instance, the peasants of Denmark have united and established large farms everywhere. The so-called peasant butter has altogether disappeared from the trade, and the exportation of prime butter has increased from 18,000,000 to 79,000,000 pounds a year. So with the exportation of hogs and pork. Within late years great progress has been made in the planting of barren wastes. All over the country we find athletic clubs, sharpshooters’ societies, reading rooms, and libraries. Wherever we look we see the traces of animated industry.” — (People’s High Schools in the North, by Maikki Friberg. ) Note 5, page 741 ■ — “ In the mills of Vladimir, Russia, which manufacture very simple material, one workman is employed to 0.8 of a loom; in England the average is one workman to 2.8 looms, and in northern Lancashire, in case of the simplest manu¬ facture, even one to three or four looms. Setting aside preparatory work and con¬ sidering the weaving alone, one workman in Vladimir for simple material operates two looms; in England, four to six. As regards wages, the English workman earns three to five times as much a week as the Russian; nevertheless, the cost of labor by products are only a little lower in Russia than in England, and noticeably lower only in those large factories of Moscow that have adopted the nine-hour law. This differ¬ ence in favor of Russia is more than equalized by appropriations for dwellings for workmen, as well as by the costs of supervision and management, which are far higher in Russia than in England. In England the weaver is his own overseer, and can therefore demand the latter’s wages. This distinction is especially characteristic. While with the elevation of the labor class in England applications for positions of trust are numerous and the attendant salaries smaller, so technical knowledge is rare in Russia, and foreigners are employed at very high salaries. Russian factories swarm with a staff of technical employees, while in England the much lighter super¬ vision is in the hands of a plain man from the ranks of the labor class.” — Dr. von Schulze in The Cotton Industry in Moscow, Vladimir. ) Note G, page 741 • — The same author (Dr. von Schulze) says: “The extension of the elementary school curriculum and the existing factory laws are Europeanizing the Russian factory hand. Recently the question of compulsory education has been thoroughly agitated. In every public meeting it has been advocated, and every news¬ paper is discussing it. Every year the attendance is increasing in district, parochial, and government schools, and in consequence the still large proportion of illiterates in factories is diminishing. In the opinion of factory owners of penetration, indus¬ trial labor is being advanced; they believe that illiterates will remain on the very lowest stage and can only be used in Russia for what is known as ‘black work,’ requiring nothing but physical strength. For operating machines, they are unprofit¬ able; and to do preparatory work or superintend, they are utterly unfit. Even for purely physical labor the man who can read and write is preferable; he understands how to take hold of his work and thus save muscular force. Fewer accidents occur when intelligent labor is employed, and the loss of time and material is less. These facts were lately maintained at the congress for technical education in Moscow, and, as Madame Janschull tells us, they were confirmed by American experience. From all this it follows that intelligent labor is better paid than ignorant. This holds good at the very entrance into a factory, and the difference increases in subsequent years. At the congress mentioned before, Lehestakoff read a report communicating POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 755 the following interesting data furnished by a noted industrial concern in Moscow (a calico printing and dyeing establishment): Wages of — Difference in favor of educated workmen. Age of workmen. Number of work¬ men. Workmen who can read and write. Illiter¬ ates. 15 to 20 years . 427 Copecks. 33. 5 Copecks. 31.1 Per cent. 8+ 20 to 25 years . . . 282 51.0 45.6 124- 25 to 30 years . 297 62.1 48.2 254- 30 to 35 years . . . 203 89.7 59.8 504- 35 to 4u years . 166 88.5 64.8 374- 40 to 45 years . . . 91 88.9 69.7 284- j-5 to 50 years . . . . 56 107.5 71.4 514- “The more advanced ages (above 50), which show irregularities, are omitted; read¬ ing and writing are exceptional among them, and besides, very few workmen in the concern are over 50. “The explanation of this surprising difference in wages is found in the fact that children are trained at school to attention and mental exertion, upon which all human labor is based. In visiting many Russian elementary schools I noticed the little muzhik with his blond round head and his red cotton shirt — the tribute which he pays to the cotton industry. With astonishing zeal he applies himself to the secret art of letters, and tries to master that fine instrument, the pencil, with his clumsy fingers. Up to the present day liquor has been the only friend of the workman during leisure hours — a friend whose acquaintanceship brought with it headache and omission of duty. The Russian who has learned how to read is fond of reading. I remember to have observed on the Dnieper and Volga steamboats that readers were always sur¬ rounded by a large audience. Manufacturing districts report that the workman has grown beyond the childish reading matter the people’s libraries offer him. As we know, only a small number of writings that have passed the censorship are allowed in people’s libraries. The better employment of leisure no doubt increases the endurance and skill of workmen at labor.” Another quotation from a different source confirms the foregoing: “How great the waste of human labor in the Russian iron industry is, and how insignificant the accom¬ plishments of the Russian iron workers are, we learn from the fact that 142,486 work¬ men were employed in 1893 in the Ural district for the manufacture of half a million tons of pig iron and 360,000 tons of steel and rod iron. Accepting the Belgian work¬ man as a standard, only 11,165 men (according to Radzig) would be required for a like result. Even in the works of highest technical standing in south Russia (Radzig, Vol. I, p. 104) 6,284 workmen could do the amount of work for which 14,030 are now employed. The capacity of a workman in the iron mines of the Ural amounts to about 50 tons, in south Russia to about 39 tons, while a German miner turns out about 370 tons.” — (Dr. C. Ballod, Yearbook of Legislation, Administration, and Eco¬ nomics in Germany.) Note 7, p. 74%- “There existed — and still do exist,” writes Kohl, “many preju¬ dices among manufacturers detrimental to the progress of good schooling, general mental development, and even morality among workmen. Among such prejudices are the following: It is thought, firstly, that general education and thorough knowl¬ edge stand in the way of a workman’s excellence in doing any kind of special work; secondly, that the use of strong drink by the laborer is advantageous to the employer because it stimulates the laborer to do excellent work; and thirdly, that especially good workmen are as a rule especially hard drinkers, and their faults should be overlooked on account of the excellence of their work. To add weight to the first 756 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. proposition, English manufacturers make a special reference to the German work¬ man to prove that general education and better training are detrimental to any kind of special work, and that what they call “special training” is the most useful for the puposes of factory employees. How great this prejudice against well brought up and generally educated workmen was, we see from the pertinent questions pro¬ posed to some enlightened factory owners by the ‘poor law commission. ’ Recently this prejudice has been weakening, and to further its decline the ‘poor law com¬ mission ’ considered it necessary to publish the evidence given. Here is a quotation from the statements of Mr. Fairbairn, one of the largest manufacturers of machinery in Manchester. This experienced gentleman, beyond a doubt one of the best judges on the subject, spoke as follows of the usefulness of a more advanced educa¬ tion and training for workmen: ‘In our establishment we intrust the most difficult operations of a piece of work to the best trained and most educated workman. If, for instance, an engine, a water wheel, or any piece of machinery is to be- built, we must select a number of responsible and intelligent workmen. In nine cases out of ten the choice falls on a man of better schooling, who can not only draw a little, calculate dimensions, write letters, make analyses, and take special or accidental circumstances into consideration, but who understands how to deal in the wisest and most careful way with those with whom he comes in contact. The advantage of a good general education is particularly apparent in changing about with work. The operations in our factory are especially varied, and we always find that it requires an early mental training for a man to be able to undertake a certain series of operations in the best way, so that they do not miss their effect or fail in their intended purpose. Men of such abilities are always found among those who have enjoyed a good school education. Occasionally men arise who are gifted with a strong nature, and who do more for themselves than any school could do; but these are isolated exceptions. A school education is not exactly necessary for better work in the lowest departments with the simplest kind of contrivances. In this case, the very least trained persons are as good as the well educated. Such rough hand work requires only special drill. But it does not follow that this special drill could not be combined with a general education, and that it need be hindered in its develop¬ ment thereby, apart from the fact that a workman is never so much of a machine as never to be called upon to do a different kind of work from what he has been engaged to perform.’ If then, general, education does not injure special drill, and if general skill is even necessary in a great many cases of exception, it is, on the other hand, of the greatest advantage, in all other relations and connections between employer and employee independent of the labor required. For instance, in all questions affecting wages, we always find that the best educated workmen are the most reasonable in their demands, the most peaceful and modest in their behavior, and the most willing to abide by appropriate or necessary changes in the wage schedule or arrangement of workrooms and labor whether they be to their advantage or to their disadvantage. Ignorant and uneducated workmen are opposed from a kind of constant blind jealousy against their employer to even such changes as are designed for their direct advantage. While they live in constant animosity and hatred against their employer, the bond is drawn closer between the educated work¬ men and their employer. In every case, when a disturbance or a strike threatens, we need only call our best educated men together and reason with them. Generally the dissatisfaction and disturbance is quieted by them. The better educated men, likewise, live more harmoniously together; and, on the whole, we enjoy more rest and peace the more educated men we employ.” — (J. G. Kohl, “Travels in Eng¬ land and Wales.”) Note S, p. 142. — “I came to England and read in an industrial report a further account of the English workman by one of the foremost Swiss manufacturers in Zurich, Switzerland, who owns one of the largest machine factories on the Continent, POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 757 and employs 600 to 800 hands, natives of Switzerland, Saxony, Wurttemberg, France, Denmark, Norway, Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, Holland, Scotland, and England. As the questions presented to this gentleman are highly interesting, and his replies very positive, clear, and comprehensive, and as he, at the same time, compares only Eng¬ lish-speaking with German-speaking workmen, I shall quote at length the report of his testimony, which is a complete treatise on the subject in question. The most noteworthy questions and answers were: ‘How do you classify the workmen of dif¬ ferent nations with whom you have had the opportunity of becoming acquainted, with respect to those abilities which are natural endowments, as distinguished from those which are the product of the work and efforts of the schoolmaster and edu¬ cator?’ ‘ In this regard I give Italians preeminence, the French are next in order, and after them come all the northern nations , which are on about the same plane in this respect. Among these northern nations I place all of Teutonic origin, the English included. The quick and energetic natural intelligence of the Italians is shown in their extraordinarily quick comprehension of every new kind of work given to them; they grasp at once the meaning and thought of their instructor, and adapt themselves to new conditions with much greater facility than any other nation. The French have the same characteristics as the Italians, but in a lower degree. The English, Swiss, Dutch, and German workmen are slower of comprehension than those mentioned.’ “The second query was: ‘ What are the differences among these nations with respect to knowledge and special technical education?’— ‘The preference must undoubtedly be given to English workmen ; they are trained and educated for the special branches of industry and the arts to which they have devoted all their thoughts and skill. But as men of general business knowledge, and for general service, and as workmen by whom a manager prefers to be surrounded, I should most decidedly prefer the men of Saxony (Germany) and Switzerland; and first of all those of Saxony, because they have received a very careful general education, which has developed their power of comprehension beyond the limits of a special occupation and prepared them to undertake any kind of business after a brief preparation. If I engage an English workman for the construction of steam engines, he will understand his work per¬ fectly, but nothing more. Though he may be intimately familiar with the construc¬ tion of steam engines, he will be awkward and helpless in other branches of mechanics. He can not adapt himself easily to neve conditions, and is unable to give good advice and hand in clear and well-written reports and letters on the different branches of his work. Therefore, the workman of Germany will, as a rule, hold precedence over the English and be in a position above him, and on account of his skill and general serviceability he is more apt to become an overseer or a foreman.’ ‘Is the greater general serviceability of the workman of Saxony, or indeed of any workman of good education, combined with greater morality and better habits and manners?’ — ‘Most assuredly is this the case. The better-instructed and more carefully trained work¬ men are sober and frugal. They are moderate in their enjoyments, which are of a sensible and more select kind. They are also much more polite and try to move in better society, which they seek without forcing themselves, and by which they are, therefore, the more readily accepted. They cultivate music, read, enjoy the pleas¬ ures of nature, and arrange excursions into the country. They are more economical, and their economy goes beyond their own small purse; they save for their employer also. They are, therefore, honest and deserving of confidence. “ ‘ The detrimental consequences of deficient education are particularly conspicuous in Italians who, despite their better natural talents, belong to the lowest class of workmen. Although, as I have said, they comprehend quickly, still it seems to me that for want of education and skillful development their mind lacks all logic, all system, and all rational classification, and is totally unable to sum up, so to speak, any series of observations and experiences, or to draw sound conclusions from a part 758 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. to the whole. This is especially apparent when several Italians work together. Every Italian, separately and alone, will quickly and skillfully perform any operation assigned to him, but as soon as many work together everything is confusion. They do not understand how to divide their different parts in cooperation. The most energetic direction and attentive classification by those in charge are required to make the working of a number of Italians together a success and gain its purpose. The Neapolitans are the most clever people in the world, each for himself. But when they are employed in numbers we notice the same lack of what I have called logical schooling and system. I have been constrained in every instance to appoint superintendents and inspectors of northern nationality over them — for instance, Ger¬ man or Swiss — although these had less natural aptitude they were better adapted by education to direct and control the whole work with circumspection and system. Laborers from northern Italy, and especially of Lombardy, combine a better educa¬ tion with natural aptitude. In those occupations in which they are experienced, as, for instance, construction of roads, canals, agriculture, etc. , I consider them as com¬ petent as any nation in the w'orld, if not more competent.’ “ ‘What is the character of the Dutch workmen whom you employ?’ — ‘The Dutch employed by us are mostly shipbuilders. Like the English they are specially trained for their work. Their general education is not of a very high order, but it is sound, and decidedly above that of the English, We have found them to be exceptionally honest, economical, orderly, and trustworthy?’ ‘Have you ever employed Scottish laborers, and what are their characteristics? ’ — ‘We find that the Scottish workmen get along better on the Continent than the English. I attribute this principally to their better education, which makes it easier for them to adapt themselves to all circumstances and emergencies, and enables them to get along better with their col" leagues, and in fact with all with whom they come in contact. As they generally possess a knowledge of the grammar of their own language, it is easier for them to learn foreign languages. They have great taste for reading and try to move in good society. This desire makes them careful of their conduct, and animates them with the inclination and zeal to cultivate themselves for such society.’ “ ‘Do you place the Scottish workman on equality with the North ’German and Saxon?’ — ‘As workman, he may stand higher in his special branch, but as a man in his social position he is not so cultivated and has lower tastes and less universal knowledge, and hence less serviceability than the Saxon and other German work¬ men.’ What rank do you assign to English laborers in regard to love of order and knowledge? ’ ‘Although with regard- to the special work to which they have devoted themslves, English workmen decidedly take the lead, their conduct is anything but good. They are ungovernable and negligent, and the least worthy of confidence and respect of all the nationalities represented in our establishment. In saying this I express the experience of every manufacturer on the Continent with whom I have had the opportunity of conversing; and English manufacturers on the Con¬ tinent are loudest in their complaints. This characteristic, however, does not belong to those English workmen who have enjoyed the benefit of education, but only to the ignorant in proportion to their deficiency. When the poorly trained. English laborers are set free from the iron fetters of a strict discipline in which they are kept by their lords and n^asters in England, and if they are treated on the Continent with that urbanity, friendliness, and kindly feeling which educated workmen expect and receive from their employers, they lose their balance, so to speak. They forget their position and, in a short time, grow to be uncontrollable and useless. On the other hand, well-educated English workmen quickly adapt themselves to their position and assume an appropriate manner.’ ” — J. G. Kohl, Travels in England and Wales. Note 9, page 747. — “ In industrial circles greater leisure should be combined with a less strong desire for purely personal gain. - The social judgment of the employer POPULAR EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 759 should not only take the amount of profit into consideration, but, in the first place, the number of educated, happy, and contented men which his undertaking creates. No one blames a manufacturer for claiming a return for the risk he runs, or for draw¬ ing a salary for his management of affairs. But the insatiable and inconsiderate desire for the constant increase of wealth; the pursuit of profit for profit’s sake, stunting all the better instincts of man, and the zeal for amassing capital are grave mistakes. Our wealthy people should spend, indeed, a great deal more, but not for enervating luxuries, such as table delicacies, jewels, dress, sport, gaming, and sensual enjoyments. Prosperity and leisure should be devoted to the extension of education among the masses, to the advancement of tire general well-being, or to the elevation of moral and mental attainments — art, literature, science, and intellectual and noble enjoyments. Much money is spent at the present day for the promotion of art, but in such a way that it is very doubtful whether art is really benefited. It may be said that wealth ismuchmore indebted to art than art to wealth.” — (Economy and Luxury, by Henry Herkner.) Note 10, page 747 . — In his German Public Opinion A. Damasclike says on the con¬ nection between educational and social problem as follows: “ The position of German teachers can not be separated from that of the German people in general. If the people advance, those to whom their children are intrusted advance with them; and, if the people fall back into impotence and insignificance, the position of those upon whom the mental development of the people depends loses in importance. Does not history confirm this truth? When the masses consisted of bondmen and serfs, mechanics and invalid soldiers sufficed as teachers. Only when social disturbances led to national rupture, which raised the people from bondage, could teachers, in our sense of the term, exist. And it was only when the grant of equal and direct fran¬ chise declared the people of age that teachers could acquire their present important position. When in our times the workmen, the large majority of our nation, aspire to elevation, when they demand ‘education and work’ — that is, a full participation in the treasures of our much praised civilization — the question is one that affects teachers closely. The decision in this struggle is a decision on their position and all issues of school and education. It is self-evident that teachers will not blindly accept what is represented as ‘social;’ that they will consider, prove, and reflect upon the patriotic character of that which presents itself as a social question. Acquainted with the laws of existence and decay, they will naturally oppose all that that does not mean organic reform. The chief consideration, however, will always be that social reform bears the closest relationship to the affairs of the teachers. Whoever does not consciously labor to hold and improve his position in the great struggles of our times fails to fulfill not only the duty which he owes to all as an educated member of society, but the special duty incumbent upon him toward schools and his colleagues.” Note 11, page 747 . — “The higher the standing of morals and religion, ethics and law, the more perfectly churches and schools are organized and exert a wholesome influence, the deeper all social discipline and the process of intellectual and moral elevation and education reach into the lowest strata, the more the different classes come in contact with one another and the better they understand one another, the more the higher classes look upon their position as a higher duty and not as an occasion for greater enjoyment, exercise of power, and for amassing wealth, the more readily the elevation of the lower strata and a new education of the middle strata will succeed. The increasing inequality of individuals and classes is the natural side of progress in civilization. The intellectually moral side is that the rising aristo¬ cratic powers lift up»all others to their level — it is an ever-successful democratization. What the near future has in store for us no one knows. Inequality will probably be greater for a time. Single branches of the class of mechanics may disappear alto¬ gether. But the point is that we know and believe that there are high moral forces and tendencies which prevent a great, healthy nation from being divided into a few 760 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. capitalists and large numbers of proletarians; and it behooves us to enter the service of these forces.” — (Bdhmert.) The conclusions of the Evangelic-Social Congress (June 10, 1897) have the same tenor. ‘ ‘ It notes with satisfaction the conviction of Professor Schmoller, based upon scientific observation, that the economic development of modern times does not necessarily lead to the dissolution of the middle class, so important for the adjust¬ ment of social contrasts, and which experience has proved to be of such consequence in regard to national ethics and religion. The disappearance of certain parts, it is true, can be foretold, but others will continue to exist, and those that decline will be replaced by new. The congress, therefore, considers it necessary to uphold the tend¬ ency commended by the Professor, which will further this wholesome process by the elevation of school and technical education and by strengthening the ethical forces of the whole nation. At the same time it will benefit economically and socially those of the lower classes who can never form a part of the middle classes. We shall not find it necessary to change the foundations of civil society, for civil society is not in decline, but only in a state of transformation. Therefore, all the great forms of a civil-ethical order in family, state, and all graduated conditions of human intercourse are not antiquated. No future is fundamentally different from the present or the near past.” — (Bdhmert, in Germany as an Industrial Country and the Development of the Middle Class, 1897. ) Note 12, page 747. — “Equality of rights and education for all are the embodiment of the fundamental Christian idea of the brotherhood of man, and mean the reestab¬ lishment of natural selection, without which a higher development of mankind is impossible. This force receives entirely too little attention, and yet its recognition would solve many an enigma in history and show us plainly the way in which we should go. Every community and every State that suppresses the principle of natu¬ ral selection by artificial laws and moral regulations is positively destined to decline. Slowly, perhaps, but surely, the physical and intellectual qualities of the people will degenerate. Where a class intermarries only among its own members, and bequeathes the same hereditary traits, the race will soon show signs of degeneration. Slavery, the spirit of caste, and the maintenance of classes are the causes of cretinism, both above and below — above in dispensing with the wholesome struggle for subsistence and in favoring the propagation of disease germs; below in depriving better talents of space, air, and light for prosperous development, and exposing whole classes to degen¬ eration and decay. A number of oriental nations have found their merited fate on this descending scale, and others will meet theirs — not because the genius of history so wills it irrevocably, but because they lack wise self-knowledge. And so the nations of the west, with the Romanic and the Germanic in the lead, will go the way of all flesh, unless a new political wisdom wards off their destruction in time. The forms of law in themselves, however, will only hasten the process of destruction by adding permanent civil war to class distinctions. The greatest treasures of the higher culture will not be a protection against it, if the whole national tree be not restored to health in its roots, trunk, and branches. Let the constantly spreading egotism, the thoughtless sensuality, among our aristocrats and bourgeoisie and the bent, pitiful forms in our factory districts be a timely warning, so that our people may not be trodden under foot by foreign conquerors powerful in health and civilization. Let us give this “fourth estate” that which makes them our equals in the struggle for existence, that which alone can reestablish the principle of natural selection in our society, namely: Equal education with equal rights — education, and again education! Then weakly individuals may succumb and unhealthy branches die, but whole classes, in the end the whole nation, will not come to destruction.” — (From Equality before the Law, by G. Hirth, 1873.) Note 13, page 751. — “From the benches of parliaments, from university chairs, and in all the streets and byways the workman hears: ‘You are free. No one hinders STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 761 you in the development and realization of your powers. Work, save, and get rich, as those did whom you envy.’ But society denies him the means and cuts off from him the possibility of acquiring the intellectual training that would give him the ability to rise above a purely vegetative existence in his work at machines. Indeed, it gives every preference to those who profit by his intellectual inferiority. In indus¬ trial districts thousands of working children are starving. From early morning till night their little hands are busy helping to earn a livelihood for the family. Teach¬ ers complain of their physical inactivity and mental torpor in school.” — (Charles Bucher, in The Question of Industrial Education and Retrogression.) II. STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE, AND COMPARISONS WITH OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. Contents. — Part I. — Introduction, importance, value, and definition of educational statistics — Table 1, Attendance in Prussian elementary schools — Table 2, Special features of the Prussian elementary schools — Table 3, Expenditures of the Prussian elementary schools — Table 4, Continuation schools in Prussia — Table 5, Secondary schools in Prussia — Table 6, Attendance in Prussian universities — Table 7, Statistical review of elementary schools in the German Empire — Table 8, Supplementary schools in Germany— Table 9, Secondary schools in the German Empire — Table 10, Univer¬ sities — Table 11, City schools— Table 12, Public libraries — Table 13, Schools in Bavaria — Table 14, Schools in Wurtemberg — Table 15, Schools in Saxony — Table 16, Schools in Baden — Table 17, Schools in Hessia — Table 18, Schools in Hamburg — Table 19, Summary of schools in Austria — Table 20, Schools in France — Table 21, Elementary schools in England and 1 Vales — Table 22, Comparative review of educa¬ tion and its results. Part II. — Results of education — Statistics of illiteracy — Education of army recruits in Prussia — Illiterates among recruits in European countries— Illiterates among inhabitants — Same in different provinces — In other German States — In other Euro¬ pean countries — Dr. Petersilie’s summary — Table 27 compiled in Bureau of Educa¬ tion — Ratio of illiteracy in Switzerland. INTRODUCTION. Under the caption “ Unterrichts-Statistik” the Encyclopedia of Pedagogy, by W. Rein (Jena, Germany), contains a number of statis¬ tical summaries of education in central Europe, which may lay claim to the distinction of remarkable accuracy and simplicity. The techni¬ cal terms used and the classification of schools are so specifically Ger¬ man that if they were literally translated they would probably be misunderstood in the United States. Hence it has been necessary to adapt the work to American conditions by applying our terminology in tables and text. Some data have been brought up to a later date than those in Rein’s encyclopedia. The German author confines him¬ self largely to statistics derived from official reports, and does not indulge in estimates of any kind. Wherever he departs from official sources he states the source used, and thus enables the reader to judge as to the value of the information given. The following is the adapta¬ tion of both text and tables: 762 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Part I. IMPORTANCE, VALUE, AND DEFINITION OF SCHOOL STATISTICS. In late years much importance has been attributed to statistics of education. Countries in which public education has reached a high degree of perfection, and whose school systems are well developed and successfully managed, are readv to show in statistical array their van- ous educational conditions. Scholars of international repute have attempted from time to time a comparison of the school statistics of different States and nations. But the school systems of the civilized nations have developed quite independently of one another. The tech¬ nical designations of the numerous institutions of learning, as well as the extent and limits of the different categories of schools, are very unlike and, moreover, legislative regulations, economic conditions, 'and habits of life and conduct of the people have caused essential dif¬ ferences in educational affairs, so that international and even interstate comparisons of school statistics should not be overrated (see those of the United States, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland, for exam¬ ple, in which countries school affairs are not centralized), even though they be mathematically correct, a thing that can not be claimed for all such comparisons. Above all, the educational conditions of a country should not be considered as wholly dependent upon the number of schools and teachers, for the general state of culture of a people does not always correspond to its school statistics. The intellectual culture of a people having a highly developed industrial and commercial activity, a free political constitution, and an influential daily press, and offering to all its citizens participation in public affairs is, as a mattter of course, greatly enhanced by these agencies, even though it may have inferior and insufficient public schools. Its intellectual life, down to the lowest stratum, is kept in motion, and its education is constantly growing. It is of essential importance for the general advance of cul¬ ture of a people that, aside from public schools, other sources of enlightenment be opened and institutions be established which will enable the child to enlarge and deepen the education he acquired in school. The comparatively high degree of development of such insti¬ tutions, and the publicity given to ail affairs of state and society in England and in the United States, are the reasons why the degree of general culture in these countries is not behind that of countries in which, by means of compulsory school attendance, education has been given an impetus, the result of which is an almost utter absence of illiteracy. International comparison of the conditions of school systems and education has, therefore, to take into account very complicated politi- STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN' CENTRAL EUROPE. 763 cal and social relations that can not be rubricated in a statistical scheme; hence official statistical statements as to number of schools, teachers, pupils, expenditures, etc., can not claim to be reliable standards of comparison between nations; therefore, the following tables do not claim to be regarded as standard measures of the culture of the States or nations mentioned therein. These tables do nothing more than characterize the efforts of certain States in a few important directions, but this they do better than would be possible without numerical data. Among the different educational statistics those of illiteracy are often erroneously taken without critical analysis as a standard measure of civilization. They should be used with the utmost caution. Even if the number of illiterates were obtained in the same manner, which is not the case, it could not always be used as a standard measure for reasons indicated above. The object of educational statistics is twofold: First, to state in tabu¬ lar form the classes and numbers of educational institutions and other items, such as attendance, grading of pupils, school age, expenditures; second, to show the results of these institutions. The first class of data embrace what is properly called school statistics; the second, sta¬ tistics of culture or civilization. In both classes statistics perform the duty of stating present conditions according to the last obtainable information, and by means of comparisons showing the results of changes noticed. A high degree of perfection has been reached in school statistics proper, but in some civilized countries we find the statistics of culture, naturally, in an undeveloped state. As was said before, illiteracy has so far been regarded in most countries as the standard measure; little or nothing is known of the proportion of pop¬ ulation possessing a thorough secondary or a thorough higher educa¬ tion. For, to take the percentage of students enrolled in high schools as a measure for secondary education in a population is manifestly wrong, inasmuch as only a small percentage of them ever graduate. A like condition prevails with reference to higher education. More¬ over, it would be utterly futile to measure the culture of any nation by the number of students it has in certain educational institutions, since their results vary not only in individual cases, but in institutions of the same kind. Again, for example, u illiteracy ” is not measured by a uniform standard. While in one country (Prussia, for instance) the number of army recruits unable to read and write is considered, in another (Switzerland) the recruits are subjected to a rigid written and oral examination to see whether they have a thorough elementary education in reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, historjp business methods, etc., and all who do not come up to a reasonably high stand¬ ard are said to be illiterate, and are ordered to attend schools provided by the Federal Government. The method used in Prussia revealed, in 764 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. 1896-97, a proportion of one-tenth of 1 per cent of illiterates; the method used in Switzerland revealed a proportion of 3 per cent in 1896. The field of educational statistics has been greatly extended lately, partly by the establishment of a variety of new educational institu¬ tions, and partly by the development and increase of older ones. Among the new establishments or agencies may be classed institutions for supplementing elementary education, special schools for a great variety of purposes, public libraries, efforts for popularizing higher studies by public lectures, and others. The statistical treatment of all these new educational agencies is fragmentary in continental Europe, while other countries, such as England and the United States, furnish data for such institutions as carefully gathered as for the common schools. The systems of special and professional schools in central Europe, in the last few decades, have experienced an extension be}rond the boldest expectations of those interested; but an exhibition of their statistics can not be made as complete as that of common elementary, secondary, normal, and higher schools, hence they are omitted in the following tables. The most exact u school census” in Europe is taken in Prussia, where statistical data are gathered every five }Tears. The beginning of regular periodical school statistics in Prussia dates back to 1822, in which year information on the following points was required: (1) Number of schools (and buildings). (2) Number of regular teachers (men and women). (3) Number of special teachers (men and women). (4) Number of pupils (boys and girls). The scope of the inquiry was twice expanded by other items of infor¬ mation called for. This was done in 1837 and in 1858. The present Prussian form of inquiry, and, consequently, that of its school statistics, date from the year 1886, and have been repeated in 1891 and in 1896. The tabular forms and blanks for this quinquennial u school census,” as the Germans call it, are framed according to the most approved scientific Aethods of statistics, and facilitate a rapid and accurate com¬ parison. Switzerland also furnishes a very complete statistical exhi¬ bition of its educational facilities; and so does Austria-Hungary, only much less frequently. The following tables chiefly illustrate the educational conditions of Prussia, other German States, Austria (Cislithania), and Switzerland. Other countries are mentioned only where vital data are needed for comparison. Several of the following tables concerning Germany are based on data of the year 1891-92, because in order to make a comparison pos¬ sible the statistics had to be of the same year, the lesser states of Ger¬ many not having published reports since that date; while some reports STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE 765 of larger states date from 1894 (Saxony), 1895 (Bavaria), 1896 (Prussia). This is plainly seen in several of the following tables where some new entries have been made for Prussia and Saxony, to show the great increase in attendance and expenditures of late years. Table 1. — Attendance in elementary schools in Prussia. Classes of schools in Prussia, 1896. A. People’s or elementary schools . (а) Public . (б) Private . Purely people’s schools . (a) Public . . (b) Private . . Practice schools in normal schools . (а) Public . . (б) Private . Schools in orphan asylums . (а) Public . (б) Private . B. Advanced elementary schools . (a) Public . . . (b) Private . Advanced boys’ schools . (а) Public . . (б) Private . Advanced girls’ schools . (a) Public . (b) Private . Advanced schools for both sexes ....... . (a) Public . . (b) Private . C. Middle schools for girls . . (a) Public . . (b) Private . . . . D. Schools for children with defective senses . (а) Public . (б) Private . Schools for the blind . (a) Public . . . (b) Private . Schools for the deaf . . (a) Public . (b) Private . Reform schools and asylums . (а) Public . .' . (б) Private . Schools for feeble-minded and idiots . (а) Public . (б) Private . Urban and rural schools together. Number of Number of Number of Number of* schools. classes. teachers.1 pupils. 36,812 93, 357 5, 279, 849 36, 330 92, 561 78, 994 5, 257,336 482 796 (?) 22,513 36, 542 92, 638 5, 254, 702 36,138 92, 001 78, 959 5, 236, 826 4 04 637 (?) 17, 876 192 559 19,955 184 536 19, 582 8 23 373 78 160 172 5,192 8 24 35 928 70 136 137 4,264 847 3, 965 117,596 394 2,750 2, 891 97, 230 453 1,215 20, 366 386 1,857 55, 507 203 3,318 1,355 46, 656 183 539 8, 851 116 969 1.062 35, 995 116 969 1,062 35, 995 345 1,139 26, 094 75 463 474 14, 579 270 676 11.515 856 5,180 107,901 210 1,732 1,962 45, 867 646 3, 448 62, 034 248 858 920 14, 780 97 531 586 7, 324 151 327 334 7,456 35 60 78 703 13 57 74 669 2 3 4 34 50 394 444 4,128 44 345 391 3, 557 6 40 53 571 140 225 238 6, 990 22 56 61 1,876 118 169 177 5,114 43 179 160 2, 959 18 73 60 1,222 25 106 100 1,737 38, 763 103, 360 5, 520, 126 37, 031 97,574 84, 433 5,407,757 1,732 5, 786 112, 369 E. Total lower schools (a) Public . (b) Private .... 1 See special teachers in Table 2, section 9. 766 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Table 2. — Special features of the public elementary schools in Prussia — comparison of data. 1886. 1 1891. 1896. (1) Number of public schools . 34,016 34, 742 36,138 Number of class rooms . 66, 540 72, 921 80, 311 Number of pupils . 4, 838, 247 4,916, 476 5,236,826 (2) Number of public schools in cities . 3,718 3, 871 4,242 Number of class rooms . 23, 081 26, 616 30, 090 Number of pupils . 1,503,906 1,615,455 1,773,370 (3) Number of public rural schools . 30, 298 30, 871 31,896 • Number of class rooms . . 43, 453 46, 305 50, 221 Number of pupils . 3, 334, 341 3,301,021 3,453,456 (4) Number of classes in public schools . 75, 097 82, 746 92, 001 Number of boys’ classes . 10, 096 12, 168 14, 422 Number of girls’ classes . 10, 297 12,281 14, 552 Number of mixed classes . 54, 704 58, 297 63, 027 (5) Number of ungraded schools . 17, 744 16, 600 15, 892 Number of pupils . 1,146,701 868, 598 886, 864 Number of schools of two classes or grades . 8,845 9,474 10, 181 Number of pupils . 1,078,459 1,047, 507 1,061,716 Number of half-day schools . 5, 409 5,878 6, 817 Number of pupils . . . 571, 474 568, 235 621,820 Number of schools of three grades . 3,919 4,477 4,920 Number of pupils . 833, 013 850, 383 889, 703 Number of schools of four grades . 1,352 1, 553 1.709 Number of pupils. . 449, 74-1 476. 403 489, 900 Number of schools of five grades . 649 692 863 N umber of pupils . 285, 282 274, 412 320. 166 Number of schools of six grades . 1.187 1.551 1,830 Number of pupils . 829, 823 994, 952 1, 102, 642 Number of schools of seven or more grades . 290 425 733 Number of pupils . 215, 225 303,221 485, 835 (6) Number of pupils in city schools: Bovs . 745, 187 805, 182 881,704 Girls . . . 758, 719 810, 273 891,666 Number of pupils in rural schools: Bovs . 1 , 676, 857 1,662, 376 1, 743, 012 Girls . . . 1, 657, 484 1, 63S, 645 1, 720, 444 (7) Number of children taught in mixed classes, i. e., boys and girls together: Bovs . . . . . 1 , 766, 807 1 , 718, 269 1,764,393 Girls . 1,691,812 1, 739, 963 (8) Religious denomination of pupils: (a) Protestant . . . 3, 062, 956 3, 107, 701 3, 286, 481 (6) Catholic . 1, 730, 402 1, 766, 835 1, 901, 013 (c) Other Christian . 9. 569 11,554 12,317 (d) Jewish . . . . 35, 420 30, 386 27, 015 (9) Number of nlaces for regular teachers . 64, 750 71, 731 79, 431 Of these were occupied . 70, 711 78, 895 Number of special teachers (religious teachers, candidates, and those for manual training and woman’s handiwork) . . 35, 655 41,354 39, 944 Number of teachers for woman’s handiwork . 34, 270 36, 871 37, 193 Number of teachers of rfth'g'ion . 2,407 2,252 (10) Of the regular teachers there were: (a) Protestant men . . . 40, 900 44, 937 48, 670 Protestant women . 2, 551 3,545 4,574 (6) Catholic men . . . . . 16,549 17. 959 20, 112 Catholic women . , - 4,233 4,890 5, 662 (c) Other Christian men . 21 5 3 Other Christian women . 11 1 1 ( d ) Jewish men . 432 336 347 Jewish women . 53 58 62 (11) Religious denomination of the schools: (a) Protestant . 23, 122 23,749 24, 487 Number of teachers . 41, 539 46, 282 50,715 Number of pupils . 2, 993, 852 3, 050, 864 3, 228, 560 (b) Catholic . 10, 081 10, 154 10, 725 Number of teachers . 19, 632 21, 547 24, 264 Number of pupils . 1,613,497 1,635, 779 1,749,731 (c) Jewish . 318 244 246 Number of teachers . - - - . 407 305 308 Number of pupils . 13,270 9, 519 8,123 (d) “Simultaneous” or mixed schools . 515 595 680 N umber of teachers . 3, 172 3, 597 4,144 Number of pupils . 217, 628 220, 314 250, 412 Number of pupils taught by teachers of their own denomi- nations: (1) Protestant . 2, 918, 689 2. 973, 775 3, 148, 354 (2) Catholic . . . 1, 582, 464 1,612,167 1, 727, 582 (3) Jewish . . . 13, 249 9, 502 8, 123 STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE 767 Table 3. — Expenditure for public elementary schools, for the years 1886 , 1891, and 1896. 1S86. 1891. 1896. 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'-H 'PH Q o OOP O 343 Hamburg . 681,632 4 2, 319 11 1,224 3 858 Lippe-Detmold . 134; 617 6 722 Schaumburg-Lippe . 41,244 2 65 Reuss, junior line . 131,469 1 294 2 406 4 413 2 198 Reuss, senior line . 67, 454 1 350 1 70 Waldeck . 57, 782 119 1, 094 2 75 Schwarzburg - R u d o 1 - stadt . 88, 590 12 463 2 130 3 138 Schwarzburg - Sonders- hausen . 78, 248 92 1,199 6 264 1 40 2 50 Anhalt . 293, 123 17 1 393 1 10 3 137 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . 216; 624 152 3,720 3 368 3 256 3 182 Saxe-Altenburg . 180, 012 11 482 5 350 1 126 1 50 Saxe-Meiningen . 233, 972 298 4,199 1 200 2 67 3 89 Brunswick . 433, 906 1 250 11 1,743 2 261 4 214 Oldenburg . 373, 662 1 50 8 480 6 290 1 50 Mecklenburg-Strelitz. . . 101,513 9 711 1 736 1 14 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 596, 883 45 3,260 1 620 8 164 Saxe-Weimar . . . 338; 887 452 5, 152 10 1,552 7 332 5 226 Hessia . 1,039,388 905 25, 268 81 8, 322 6 654 7 865 Baden . 1,725,470 1,591 25, 649 106 8,390 12 1,099 17 1,500 Wiirtemberg . 2, 080, 898 2,079 31, 176 169 15, 592 6 1,070 14 1,938 Saxony . 3, 783, 014 1,943 76, 994 39 10, 660 112 10,119 40 4,871 Bavaria . . 5, 818, 544 (?) 134, 227 253 • 31, 321 (?) (?) 8 1,270 Prussia . 31,855, 123 12 5,000 1,320 145, 672 97 8,625 217 17, 029 Agricultural Schools for girls. Total. States of the Empire. schools. General. Industrial. Num¬ ber of schools. Number of students. Num¬ ber of schools. Number of students. Num¬ ber of schools. Number of students. Number of schools. Number of students. Liibeck . 1 30 ( 5 1,486 2,122 4,881 722 Bremen . 10 Hamburg . 1 480 19 Lippe-Detmold . 6 Schaumburg-Lippe . 1 30 3 95 Reuss, junior line . 1 120 1 174 11 1,605 420 Reuss, senior line . 2 Waldeck . 4 126 125 1,295 751 Schwarzburg - R u d 0 1 - stadt . 1 20 18 Schwarzburg - Sonders- hausen . 101 1,553 Anhalt . 21 L540 4,843 1,073 4, 902 2, 826 1, 167 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . 3 317 164 Saxe-Altenburg . 1 50 1 15 20 Sgxe-Meiningen . 2 98 14 202 2 47 322 Brunswick . 1 50 1 139 2 178 22 Oldenburg . 7 277 1 20 24 Mecklenburg-Strelitz . . . 11 1,461 Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Saxe-Weimar . 3 52 2 40 59 4,136 7,398 35, 716 60, 816 104, 128 107, 376 345, 840 2 90 2 46 478 Hessia . 11 307 2 116 4 184 1,016 1,901 Baden . . . 21 567 (?) 2, 093 7 16,717 51, 087 1,596 170, 000 4,011 154 6,894 2,929 2,445 (?) 10, 392 Wiirtemberg . 22 366 37 4, 420 2,170 Saxony . 11 691 18 Bavaria . 477 9,022 23, 831 (?) 123 (?) 2, 977 Prussia . 1,193 1 26 214; 560 STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 771 Table 9. — Summary of secondary schools in Germany , attendance in which for six years entitles to an abridgment of military service to one year. [Reports for 1898.] c3 O 5 r—l ’ inoom- 1 high Realgymnasia or schools both classical and mod¬ ern. .3 'm O £ oA ^ o modern without OQ 73 'n o ^ 2 &c o 2 u So 0Q O “ o c a a Th O 6 Public. Pri¬ vate. Prussia . 280 52 84 62 26 69 114 16 20 Bavaria . 40 27 5 49 12 6 6 Saxony . 17 10 25 18 5 6 Wurttemberg . 17 3 3 4 6 9 6 2 Baden . 14 2 2 5 4 16 4 2 Hessia . 9 2 3 16 i 3 i 9 Mecklenburg-Schwerin _ 7 6 3 2 i 1 Saxe-Weimar . 3 2 9 2 2 Mecklenburg-Strelitz . 3 1 1 Oldenburg . 5 1 1 1 i Brunswick . 6 1 1 * 1 1 9 i 3 Saxe-Meiningen . 9 2 2 r1 1 Saxe-Altenburg . 2 i i 1 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . 9 i i 1 1 1 2 Anhalt y . 4 2 1 1 1 1 Schwarzburg - Sonders- hausen . 2 2 1 i Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt .. Waldeck . i 2 1 i 1 1 Reuss, senior line . i 1 1 Reuss junior line . 9 1 1 1 Schaumburg-Lippe . 1 1 l1 T 1 ppe- U of rn nl t 2 1 i 1 T/nbeck . 1 1 i 1 1 Bremen . 9 2 1 2 1 1 Hamburg . 2 1 1 6 1 6 Alsace-Lorraine . 17 4 3 8 6 i The Empire . . . 443 91 127 87 42 215 2 181 32 57 Table 10. — Statistics of German universities. Num¬ ber of profes¬ sors in sum¬ mer of 1899. Number of students in winter semester of 1898-99. Theo Protes¬ tant. logy. Cath¬ olic. Law and ad¬ minis¬ tration. Medi¬ cine, surgery and phar¬ macy. Philos¬ ophy, philol¬ ogy, mathe¬ matics. Num¬ ber of matric¬ ulated stu¬ dents. Num¬ ber of stu¬ dents, not matric¬ ulated. Total* num¬ ber of stu¬ dents. 402 412 2,107 1,311 2,321 6,151 4, 841 10, 992 38 (?) (?) 588 (?) 588 146 81 273 473 252 701 1,780 128 1,908 24 (?) (?) 343 4 347 12 10 60 70 70 164 76 211 456 321 458 1,522 111 1,633 68 181 200 424 221 1,026 16 1,042 109 199 427 587 225 1,438 97 1,535 76 59 230 229 199 717 39 756 113 136 349 222 484 1,191 78 1,269 94 205 177 284 109 775 24 799 147 385 373 241 606 1, 605 142 1,747 153 56 345 240 501 1,142 101 1,243 96 36 184 194 250 664 43 707 100 59 122 321 145 647 33 680 120 64 227 318 239 848 81 929 215 317 1,089 643 1,311 3,360 338 3, 698 96 93 302 270 375 1,040 58 1,098 186 167 1,238 1,341 1,159 3,905 199 4,104 47 325 241 566 15 581 54 32 93 105 214 449 25 474 126 72 330 335 338 1,075 58 1,133 99 270 169 431 261 175 1,306 30 1,336 84 152 220 713 258 1,343 26 1,369 2, 771 2, 533 1,506 9,379 8,613 10, 588 33, 651 6,487 40, 138 Universities. Berlin University . Berlin Agricultural School Bonn University . Bonn Agricultural School. Braunsberg . Breslau . Erlangen . Ereiburg . Giessen . Gottingen . Greifswald . Halle . Heidelberg . Jena.. . Kiel . Konigsberg . Leipzig . Marburg . Munich . Munster . Rostock . Strassburg . Tii binges . Wurzburg . Total . 772 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Table 11. — Details of elementary school statistics in some cities of the German Empire. Cities. Berlin . Hamburg . Munich . Leipzig . Breslau . Dresden . Frankfort-on-the-Main . Magdeburg . Hanover . Diisseldorf . Konigsberg . Nuremberg . Chemnitz . Alton a . Bremen . Strasburg . Charlottenburg . . . Barmen . Danzig . Halle . Brunswick . Dortmund . Aix la Chapelle (Aachen)... Crefeld . Posen . Kiel . Carlsruhe . Cassel . Augsburg . Erfurt . Mayence . Wiesbaden . Duisburg . Gorlitz . Liibeck . Metz . Frankfort-on-the-Oder . Potsdam . Bochum . Freiburg . Number of inhabitants in 1895. Number of ele¬ mentary schools'. Number of teachers in 1894. Number of classes. Number of pupils in 1894. Total. Among them — Special teachers. Women teachers. 1, 677, 135 229 4,036 424 1,685 3, 412 184, 312 619,217 110 1,824 4 598 1,506 67, 830 407, 974 30 966 232 463 697 36, 381 398, 448 40 1,220 31 128 1,239 55, 458 373, 206 113 865 330 721 40, 709 335, 070 * 33 727 30 167 717 33, 553 229, 299 22 333 22 82 284 14; 207 214, 397 37 686 137 210 540 28, 653 209, 116 29 391 68 82 326 19, 403 176, 024 31 330 139 329 21, 870 171,640 25 287 17 101 254 15; 528 162, 380 376 57 45 319 15, 545 160, 991 15 332 1 17 426 22, 996 148, 944 27 317 1 111 279 17, 221 141, 937 32 405 15 75 357 17, 298 135, 591 69 235 8 123 222 12, 283 132, 383 14 208 12 58 188 9,579 127, 002 46 324 23 73 300 19,710 125, 639 24 242 2 80 220 12, 828 116, 302 9 261 59 261 14, 419 115, 129 18 318 44 69 297 14, 102 111,235 24 271 5 83 259 16, 184 110,489 46 238 1 117 237 14,118 107, 279 44 297 1 84 289 17, 711 96, 163 32 200 2 63 . 193 13, 600 85, 668 19 192 2 67 161 8, 358 84, 004 7 135 33 153 6, 734 81,738 17 188 16 35 168 8,119 80, 798 26 176 6 42 175 8,100 78, 167 9 191 3 45 189 10,110 77, 735 138 54 125 6 772 74, 122 8 153 13 12 134 7! 170 70, 287 25 169 2 8 166 11 380 70, 172 8 135 17 125 7, 353 69, 812 22 240 60 86 172 7,672 59, 728 27 100 3 50 96 4,585 59, 049 11 122 13 26 107 5,666 58, 452 10 93 3 28- 89 4,909 53, 788 23 131 58 124 9, 633 53, 081 9 125 28 34 99 4,477 Table 12. — Public libraries , partly or wholly maintained by cities in Germany , exclusive of all university , college , or State libraries. Cities. Number of volumes on shelves. Number of volumes given out during 1896. : Total ex¬ penditures. Amount paid by city treas¬ urer. Altona . 4,400 1 30, 000 85, 240 82, 618 Berlin . 100, 520 600, 853 9,641 8,506 Bonn . 1 5, 000 41,141 1,238 262 Brandenburg . 4,000 1 40, 000 452 476 Bremen . 14,796 1 39, 000 35/ (?) Breslau . 15, 084 130, 985 2,204 2,001 Bromberg . 3,000 1 15, 000 298 (?) Carlsruhe . . 5,811 21,316 377 120 Cassel . 2, 500 1 14, 000 619 619 Charlottenburg . *8,000 46, 481 3,570 3,570 Chemnitz . 4, 982 9, 509 270 24 Cologne . 1 13, 000 53, 362 1,540 1,540 Danzig . 6, 965 77, 600 597 120 Darmstadt . 3, 289 15, 458 621 476 Dresden . 42, 186 152, 414 3,796 3,427 Duisburg . 1,938 (?) (?) (?) Diisseldorf . 5, 155 48, 090 1,523 1,523 Eisenach . 1,036 2,444 100 (?) Erfurt . 1 4, 000 26, 500 397 397 Frankfort-on-the-Main . 35, 300 178, 5S9 7,388 1, 416 Freiburg . 1 12, 000 29, 250 381 238 Gotha . 1 5, 000 38, 400 (?) 143 Greifswald . 3,400 30, 069 452 • 72 1 About. STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE 773 Table 12. — Public libraries, partly or wholly maintained by cities in Germany, exclusive of university, college , or State libraries — Continued. Cities. Number of volumes on shelves. Number of vloumes given out during 1896. Total ex¬ penditures. Amount paid by city treas¬ urer. Guben . 3,500 (?) 623 (?) Hagen . 8, 207 26, 847 381 381 Halle . 32, 984 (?) 615 (?) Hamm . 1,800 6,277 200 120 Hanover . 11,040 43,297 865 286 Jena . 9, 500 65, 998 3,165 (?) Kiel . 5, 760 15, 692 384 (?) Konigsberg . 12, 350 1 60, 000 1,467 385 Ko-nigshutte . 1,200 7, 510 660 72 Leipzig . i 15, 000 14,175 (?) 714 Lfibeek . 2,100 1 6, 000 385 (?) (?) Magdeburg . 3,^26 1 18, 000 179 Mannheim . 1 7, 000 1 40, 000 1,575 714 Mayence . (?) (?) 720 (?) Munich . 27, 743 173,131 3,230 714 Nuremberg . 1 4, 000 5,000 (?) (?) Pforzheim . 3,263 12, 594 452 238 Schweidnitz . . 6, 500 24,119 428 72 Stuttgart . 5, 500 36,313 3,875 (?) Him . 11,000 i 5, 200 190 72 Wiesbaden . 12,517 51,421 2, 050 952 Zwickau . 2,300 3,888 98 36 1 About. Table 13. — Schools in Bavaria, Germany. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. People’s or elementary schools . Boys’ schools . . . Girls’ schools . Mixed schools . Public schools . Private schools . Catholic schools . Protestant schools . Jewish schools . Mixed schools . Number of classes in these schools . .. Number of teachers . Men teachers . Women teachers . Secular teachers . Ecclesiastical teachers . Regular teachers . Special teachers . Catholic teachers . Protestant teachers . Other Christian teachers . Regular teachers — Definitely appointed . Principals . Assistants . Number of pupils . Boys . Girls . Catholic . Protestant . Jewish . Other denominations . Average number of pupils to 1 school Number of pupils to 1 teacher . Total tuition fees paid . Holiday and evening schools: Pupils . Boys . Girls . Catholic . Protestant . . Other denominations . 1887-88. 1892-93. 7, 177 7,239 393 417 400 416 6,384 6,406 7,116 7,188 61 51 5,060 5,130 1,893 1,909 90 88 134 139 12, 817 13, 524 22, 516 24, 101 17, 069 17,861 5,447 6,440 15, 671 16, 700 6, 845 7,401 12, 957 13,611 6, 098 16, 541 17, 826 5, 771 6, 085 204 190 12, 184 13, 366 1,874 1,745 1,613 1,689 817, 589 858, 924 400, 379 421,049 417,210 437, 875 581, 908 606, 315 228, 961 245, 050 6, 050 7,014 670 545 113 120 66 60 $385, 141 $429, 023 283, 713 304, 227 126, 557 134, 227 157, 156 170, 000 205, 671 221,248 76, 533 81,815 1, 509 1,564 774 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Table 13. — Schools in Bavaria, Germany — Continued. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS— Continued. 1887-88. 1892-93. Total expenditures for elementary schools . $3, 550, 856. 00 1,543,329. 00 2, 007, 525. 00 .63 4.13 $4, 249, 886. 00 1,863,191.00 2, 3S6, 695. 00 .75 5. 20 Incidental and building . . . . . Personal . Per capita of population . Per capita of pupils . . Total income of teachers1 . 3, 653, 978. 00 2, 955, 668. 00 352, 329. 00 245, 981. 00 4, 370, 208. 00 3, 622, 986. 00 356, 498. 00 390, 724. 00 Regular teachers . Principals . Assistants . Industrial supplementary schools . 239 27, 589 1,335 $98, 784. 00 3. 57 253 31, 321 1, 592 $136, 862. 00 4.28 Pupils . .*. . Teachers . Expenditures . Per capita of pupils . Agricultural supplementary schools . 545 10, 396 866 $37,874.00 3.58 477 9, 022 758 $38, 104. 00 4. 37 Pupils . Teachers . Expenditures . Per capita of pupils . 1 It is seen from this total, which is larger than the total expenditures for schools, that the free rental, use of land, and extra income for services in church as organists, have been counted in when computing the teachers’ income. SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA. Schools. Teachers. Students. Gymnasia . 37 983 16, 032 3, 289 496 Latin schools . 50 481 Realgymnasia . 4 ■ 64 Realschulen . 58 899 12, 687 2,006 1, 194 Preparatory schools . 44 233 Normal schools . . . 21 191 High schools for girls . 129 1,696 13, 544 Table 14. — Schools in Wurttemberg, Germany , 1896-97. Protestant. Catholic. Total. I Number of school districts . 1,360 1,462 1,409 1.332 835 2, 195 2,331 2, 267 2,167 II Number of elementary schools . 869 A Simple elementary . 858 (T) For both sexes . 816 (2) For boys only . 36 21 57 (3) For girls onlv . . 41 21 62 B Advanced elementary . 37 1 38 C Jewish pehnnls . 26 Ill Number of classes . 4, 827 \ 296,749 j 1,672 TV Number of pupils . f Boys, 141,433 V. Number of supplementary schools: A. General supplementary schools — (1) Number of districts — (a) For boys . t vans, 1,075 225 ioo, csro 597 ( b ) For girls . . . 80 '305 Total . 1,300 1,429 677 1,977 2, 141 (2) Number of classes . 712 (3) Number of pupils — (a) Bovs . 17, 922 9, 572 7,274 2,946 25, 196 12, 518 ( b j Girls . . . Total . <» . 27, 494 10, 220 37,714 STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE 775 Table 14. — Schools in Wurltemberg, Germany, 1896-97 — Continued. Protestant. Catholic. Total. V. Number of supplementary schools — Continued. B. Sunday or special schools — (1) Number of districts — (a) For bo vs . 270 219 4S9 (6) For girls . 1,141 752 1,893 Total . 1,411 1,313 971 2, 382 (2) Number of classes . 932 2, 245 (3) Number of pupils— (a) Boys . 2, 051 2,483 12, 916 4,534 38, 605 (5) Girls . 25, 689 Total . 27, 740 15, 399 43, 139 VI. Number of teachers: A Regular teachers . 2,433 32 1, 075 29 3,508 61 B Principals of graded schools . C. Assistant teachers . 883 376 1,260 Total . 3, 349 259 1,480 150 4,829 VII Students in preparatory schools . 445 VIII Students in normal schools . . . 286 184 470 IX Students in female normal schools . 36 24 60 Total expenditure of the State for elementary schools, exclusive of local taxes and tuition fees, $757,499. SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN WURTTEMBERG. A. Classical high schools . 92 Number of students . 8, 138 Number of regular teachers . 436 Number of classes . » . 359 B. Modern high schools . 79 Number of students . . . 8, 964 Number of regular teachers . 303 Number of classes . 305 Total expenditure of the State for secondary schools, exclusive of local taxes and tuition fees, $320,658. Note. — For university and polvtechnicum, see general tables for the German Empire. Table 15. — Schools in Saxony, Germany. REVIEW OF ALL THE SCHOOLS IN THE KINGDOM IN 1894. Character of school. 9 Number of schools. Number of teach¬ ers. Number of pupils or stu¬ dents. Amount of expendi¬ tures. Kindergartens . . . * . 234 346 } 11,278 11,015 697, 137 $111,655 5, 566, 140 Public elementarv schools . ■ . 2, 254 1,945 Public supplementary schools . Deaf and dumb asylums . 2 54 374 65, 838 Blind asylums . 2 36 221 Reform schools . 6 35 629 Private elementary schools . 75 446 5, 528 2,648 4,819 8,053 2,921 1,355 Schools in prisons . 10 36 Commercial schools . 41 254 117,519 Industrial high schools . 30 364 36, 477 421,929 Normal schools . 19 281 Private secondary schools . 7 73 Secondary girls’ schools . 2 39 741 39, 728 Modern high schools . . . 23 301 5, 516 3,317 291 ; 979 223, 047 530, 748 91,864 422, 182 Realgvmnasia . 10 224 Classical high schools . 17 339 5, 451 645 Polytechnicum . 1 47 University . 1 194 2, 985 PROGRESS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN SAXONY IN TEN YEARS. 1S84. 1889. 1894. Number of public elementary schools . 2,154 2,205 12, 918 2,254 14, 320 2, 005 9,998 210 Number of classes . IT 319 1,963 Number of simple elementary schools . 1,985 9,167 208 Number of classes . Number of intermediate schools . 179 Number of classes . 3, 570 12 3,749 Number of advanced schools . . 12 39 Number of classes . 181 573 776 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Table 15. — Schools in Saxony, Germany — Continued. PROGRESS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN SAXONY IN TEN YEARS— Continued. 1884. 1889. 1894. Number of supplementarv schools . Number of teachers in ali elementary schools . . . (1) Principals . 1,892 8,768 228 1,934 10,102 266 1,959 11,278 306 (2) Regular teachers: Men . 4,956 119 5, 884 144 6,796 186 Women . (3) Assistants: Men . 1,466 1,310 1,312 Women . . . 58 43 69 (4) Special teachers . 86 66 (5) Substitutes . 166 215 2,338 617, 848 302,720 (6) Teachers of female hand work . 1,941 536, 115 263, 954 272, 161 2,203 578, 794 Number of pupils in elementary schools . Boys . . . 284 j 033 294, 761 75, 938 74, 659 1,279 Girls . 315, 128 79, 289 77,542 1,747 Number of pupils in supplementarv schools . 63, 353 62, 525 Bovs . Girls . '830 EXPENDITURES FOR PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. Details. 1889. 1894. Total . $4, 320, 761 3, 302, 974 1,017,787 $5, 566, 140 4,169,811 1,396,329 954, 774 1,010,456 3,600, 910 4, 028, 418 Salaries for teachers and supervision . Incidental expenses . . State’s quota . Tuition fees . ' 359; 463 1,217,600 2, 745, 693 3, 018, 033 Local taxes . Salaries for teachers only . Table 16. — Schools in Baden , Germany , 1895. 'nentary schools. eliools: 1,588 2,891 135 231, 271 Y. — Private elementary schools. Simple elementary . Advanced elementary . . . Teachers . Men . Women . 10 6 68 36 32 I.—Eler Number of schools .. Simple elementary si Men teachers. . . . Women teachers Pupils . Advanced elementary schools: Men teachers . 592 Women teachers . . 153 Pupils . 36, 850 II. — Supplementa ry schools. Number of teachers . 2, 038 Number of pupils . 46,226 Boys . 28,370 Girls . 17,856 III. — Schools for female hand work. Number of teachers . 1,789 Number of pupils (only girls) . 84, 994 IV. — Schools in orphan and reform asylums. Number of institutions . 21 Number of teachers . 43 Men . 32 Women . 11 Number of pupils . 1, 040 Boys . 656 Girls . 384 YI. — Secondary schools. Classical high schools for hoys: Teachers . 244 Students . 4,596 Classes . 168 Classical modem high schools for boys: Teachers . 40 Students . 880 Classes . 30 Modern high schools for boys, with Latin: Teachers . 113 Students . 3,057 Classes . 87 High schools for hoys, without Latin: Teachers . 149 Students . 3,106 Classes . 141 High schools for girls, rvith and without Latin: Teachers . 97 Students . 3, 436 Classes . 86 EXPENDITURES FOR SCHOOLS IN BADEN, 1895. Total. State’s quota. TT1 pm pn tn r\r sp"honls . $1,070,834 102, 531 . 277, 745 271,297 82, 097 418, 328 $284, 117 TrwincrfriDl . . . . ; . Classical high schools . 118, 889 93, 471 8, 330 366, 104 Modern high schools . . . . . Girls’ high schools . Higher education— universities and polytechnica . . . STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 777 Table 17. — Schools in Hessia, Germany , 1896. 1. Simple public elementary schools 900, in 27 of which the sexes are separated, in 56 the sexes are separated only in the upper grade, and in 907 there is no separa¬ tion of sexes. In regard to religious denomination of the pupils, 49 schools are Protestant, 50 Catholic, 2 Jewish, and in 889 the schools are common. The grading in classes has proceeded as follows: 509 schools are one-room schools, 240 have two rooms, 110 three rooms, 63 four rooms, 62 more than four rooms. Tuition fees are paid in 348 elementary schools; 642 offer tuition gratuitous. The number of pupils is 155,335, or 76,982 boys, 78,353 girls; 104,821 are Protestants, 47,256 Catholics, 2,369 Jews, and 889 of other denominations. The number of teachers is 2,496, of which only 179 are women. 2. Supplementary or continuation schools 901, of which 746 are one-room schools, 101 have two rooms, 54 three rooms or classes. The number of pupils is 24,623. 3. Private elementary schools 55, with 3,972 pupils, 245 teachers. 4. Advanced elementary schools 30, with 4,021 pupils, 164 teachers. 5. Secondary schools: 7 gymnasia with 2,696 students, 122 teachers; 4 similar schools with 1,863 students, 90 teachers; 11 modern high schools with 4,526 students, and 187 teachers. Total, 9,085 students, 309 teachers. 6. The State subsidy for the support of secondary schools for the period 1894-1897, was $115,352. Table 18. — Schools in Hamburg , 1897-98. Kind of school. A. — Public schools. 1. Secondary . 2. Elementary preparatory . 3. Elementary people’s in city . 4. Schools in asylums . . 5. Schools for the defectives . 6. Rural elementary . Total . B. — Semipublic schools. 7. Secondary . 8. Elementary preparatory . 9. School of St. John’s Convent _ 10. Other schools in city . 11. Other schools in rural districts.. Total . C. — Private schools. 12. Secondary . 13. Elementary preparatory . 14. Other schools in city . 15. Other schools in rural districts. . Total . I). — Normal schools. 16. Normal schools proper . 17. Preparatory departments . Total . Num- N umber of classes. | Number of pupils. ber of schools. For boys. For girls. Mixed. Total. Boys. Girls. Total. 11 151 151 4,203 1, 705 37, 002 4,203 1.705 8 45 45 109 792 797 9 1,598 37,407 74; 409 2 6 4 6 16 412 175 587 2 11 11 76 59 135 49 24 30 127 181 4,212 4, 231 8,443 181 1,010 831 153 2, 002 47, 610 41,872 89, 482 3 24 24 817 817 2 11 11 498 498 1 24 24 673 673 21 50 73 14 137 2, 210 2,681 5, 071 2 1 1 4 6 96 85 181 29 86 98 18 202 3,621 3,619 7,240 3 32 32 821 821 3 12 12 220 220 59 43 378 13 434 831 6, 158 6,989 2 17 17 253 253 67 87 395 13 495 1,872 6,411 8,283 3 3 6 9 87 172 259 2 3 2 5 90 67 157 5 6 8 14 177 239 416 282 1,197 1,332 184 2,713 53, 280 52, 241 105,421 Grand total 778 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Table 19. — Summary of schools in Austria, 1895, exclusive of Hungary. Kinds of schools. Higher. Universities . Polytechnica . Agricultural college . Mining college . Art academies . Theological seminaries . Total . Secondary. Classical high schools . Modern high schools . Mixed high schools . ‘ . Normal schools for men . Normal schools for women . Total . Special schools. Commercial schools . Industrial schools . Agricultural schools . Nautical schools . Veterinary schools . Lower mining schools . Schools for midwifery . Schools for music and drama . Schools for female handwork . Other schools for special purposes . Total . Elementary . Public elementary and burgher schools Grand total . Number of institu¬ tions. Number of teachers. Number of students and pupils. 8 1,262 11,029 6 368 2, 692 1 48 248 2 30 228 3 40 412 47 249 2,098 63 1,997 19, 707 159 3,279 49, 842 80 1,610 23, 600 20 454 6,310 51 754 7,995 33 518 4,417 343 6, 615 92, 164 165 1,010 17. 397 891 5,875 92, 640 117 774 3,814 3 23 108 8 41 818 6 14 186 15 35 897 542 1,141 21,226 591 889 21,272 785 3, 562 42,917 3,123 13, 364 201,277 18, 285 69, 776 3, 260, 852 21, 814 91, 752 3, 574, 000 Table 20. — Summary of schools in France. I. —PRIMARY OR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 1885-86. 1890-91. 1. Number of schools . 80, 651 81,990 Public: Secular . . . . . . . 57, 589 9, 688 59, 907 7,411 Church . Private: Secular . 4,025 9, 349 27, 907 3,512 11,160 27, 657 34, 301 20, 032 138, 230 100, 064 Church . For boys onlv . For girls only . 33; 426 19, 318 130, 399 96, 501 33, 898 5, 585, 838 4,502,059 1,081,779 3, 836, 826 1,749,012 137, 000 Mixed schools . 2. Number of classes . In public schools . In private schools . 38, 166 5, 593, 883 4, 384, 905 1 , 208, 978 3. Number of pupils . In public schools . In private schools . In secular schools . 3; 912; 013 1,681,870 In church schools . . . 4 Number of teachers . ' 146i 490 102, 272 54, ", 43 (a) In public schools . 97, 996 Secular men teachers . 52^ 572 Ecclesiastical men teachers . 2,832 28, 562 l’ 263 34, 259 10, 967 pecnlar women teachers _ Ecclesiastical women teachers . 14,009 (b) In private schools . 39; 004 1,976 6, 269 6, 928 42; 478 1,451 Secular men teachers . Ecclesiastical men teachers . 7i 974 Secular women teachers . 6; 285 26, 768 $29, 8S9, 579 7.7 Ecclesiastical women teachers . 23, 831 $27, 707, 557 11.5 5. Expenditures . 6. 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CQ CQ CQ o p The schools of Berlin, Germany , in 1898 — Continued. SCHOOLS FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION— Continued. 796 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. £ C C.' oocot^i^cD CO rH C9 lC CO t— < CH O r-i & O lO CO C CO Cl O lit' 05 M H C H O H 1C 00 o d eO I'- 1 - - w X- O Tf CO Ci 1> 00 CO i> CD CdHN lO MnOl w n OiCCCOCOOICiOQOJr-O^ (N iO D* O' ^ O X 1C ^ ^ Cl D U Cl H Cl iO Clrt Cl OHICXO X X I- ■w Oi lO H CO c. X lO O X H C C C X O Tf Oi « CliOr-lXC^XiOOX' COXiO-^Cl 2^0 X - - - ^ ft O Xfl d ft I K c o p -f-. 2 Sb’-S O >> o c n d o ft p o ft . a> d c ~ ' XT w S'S'S S X Ch d §bj) "3 .2 o ^ p rry a> .d be > £ »> W M ft > o o Jh P ft ^ CJQ X ft ft C p - t_, s_, J-I ftft P Pi be f p s O < xn Pi a> ft ft 03 & w ro > 02 P P» > Pi Q' C> 0 •«— C C d CL'ri S-i S-i V. U COCO M o o 02 C OC > C C ) c o ;ccco c c o o o o coo o o o CO 02 CO o o 02 CO 02 O O C O O o o o c o c: c: ,c c: .c o o o o o CO CO CO CO CO o H 03 o o a> & 02 r— I d -♦-> O -p nd d o3 p 0 COST OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 797 The schools of Berlin, Germany , in 1898 — Continued. SUMMARY— GENERAL AND SPECIAL EDUCATION. Number of schools. . . . . 433 Number of classes: Boys’ . . . 3, 236 Girls’ . 2,628 Mixed . 135 Total . i . 5, 999 Number of pupils: Bovs . 147, 794 Girls . 126, 234 Total . 274,028 Between 6 and 14 years . 231,362 14 years and over: Number . 42,666 Percent . 15.10 V. EXPENDITURES FOR HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE CIVILIZED WORLD. [Reported for 1897-98 and 1898-99.] While most civilized nations make some efforts at establishing com¬ plete systems of elementary schools, all have higher seats of learning, many of which are of venerable age. This proves that education invariably works downward into the broader layers of society. First, the State establishes universities and colleges, then preparatory and secondary schools, and lastly an elementary school system. This proc¬ ess is plainly illustrated in an article on u History of the German school system ” (see Annual Report of 1897-98, Part I, pp. 3-88). Simi¬ lar observations are made in other countries, and while it would seem as though Great Britain were an exception to the rule stated with regard to secondary schools, it must be borne in mind that the people of England supplied the demand from their own initiative. Higher educational institutions act as incentives to students of secondary schools, and to enter a secondary school is the ambition of the ele¬ mentary pupil. If the elementary pupil saw nothing higher to aim at he would soon sink back into a state of self-satisfaction, which is a foe to progress. Therefore, to state what the various countries of the civilized world pay for higher education is establishing a standard measure by which their general education may be gauged. This will indirectly indicate their standing in elementary education, and a comparison with their reported percentage of illiteracy will show, if not exactly, yet approxi¬ mately, that generous expenditures for higher education are a reliable indication of well-advanced secondary and elementary schools in any country where such generosity is shown. In the following tables a careful detailed statement of expenditures for higher institutions of the civilized world is made, based in most cases upon reports to the editors of the Minerva, Jahrbuch der gelehr- ten Welt, by university treasurers and secretaries, and in cases where reports were missing estimates are made to supply the deficiencies, but such occasions are rare. 798 EDUCATION REPOST, 1899- 1900. The general conclusion from the summary on page 806 is that in Europe the Anglo-Saxons, or, generally speaking, the Teutonic nations, are ahead of the Latin or Romanic nations, and they in turn, with the exception of Spain, leave the Slavic nations far behind. The table is necessarily very fragmentary for Asia, Africa, and South America, while wherever the English have established colonies or conquered nations institutions for higher education have sprung up in great number. Witness Australia, Canada, and India. Our own country assumes an honorable place in the list. Where the institutions mentioned in the list have failed to report their expenditures for 1898—99 the amounts reported for a previous year have been copied. The cases are easily detected by comparing the statements of the two years. Of the European nations, only Nor¬ way and Denmark show a slight decrease. All others show an increase. 1. EUROPE. I.— GERMANY. [Where figures are alike for both years no later ones were available.] 1897-98. 1893-99. 1. Universities. Berlin . Bonn . Braunsberg Breslau _ Erlangen . . Freiburg . . Giessen _ Gottingen . Greifswald . Halle . Heidelberg Jena . Kiel . Konigsberg Leipzig .... Marburg. . . Munich. . . . Munster . . . Rostock Strassburg . Tubingen . Wurzburg . Total /marks. [dollars 2. Polytcchnica. Aix la Chapelle . Berlin . Brunswick . Darmstadt . Dresden . Hanover . Karlsruhe . Munich . Stuttgart . Total /marks. [dollars 2, 808, 442 1,238,578 46, 550 1.347,783 1,129,000 651,200 966, 600 1,227,237 893, 587 1,506,010 828, 670 448, 739 955, 871 1,057,170 2, 051,220 925, 893 1,300,000 293, 082 341,500 1,048,980 989, 869 1,278,560 23, 334, 541 5, 553, 621 188, 800 840, 000 212, 825 454,115 460, 920 459, 986 428, 400 512, 526 349, 212 3, 906, 784 929, 815 2,871,114 1,260,749 46, 550 T, 387, 883 1,400, 000 691, 200 996, 600 1,297,547 907, 005 1,506,410 828. 670 448, 740 992, 952 1,057,170 2,263,659 925, 893 1,600,000 293, 082 341,500 1,048,980 990, 000 1, 279, 000 24, 434, 704 5, 815, 460 304, 000 900, 000 220, 022 454,115 510, 000 488, 487 458, 900 560, 000 380, 000 4,275,524 1, 017, 575 1897-98. 1898-99. 3. Agricultural and fores¬ try academies. Aschaffenburg . . 40, 000 45, 000 Berlin . 281, 805 330, 865 Eberswalde . 117, 687 199, 000 Eisenach . 101, 550 101, 550 Hohenheim . 74, 745. 50, 000 Miinderi . 50, 000 77, 000 Poppelsdorf . 176,017 176,017 Tharandt . 87, 140 87, 140 Tn+ii [marks... 928, 944 1,066,572 iotal . [dollars.. U. Mining academies. 221, 089 253, 844 Berlin . 467, 280 497, 250 Clausthal . 111,170 104, 940 Freiberg . 134,415 126, 540 Total . .flags ;; 5. Veterinary colleges. 712, 865 728, 730 169, 650 173, 438 Berli n . 255, 175 255, 175 Dresden . 132, 600 132, 600 Hanover . 112, 350 112, 350 Stuttgart . 100, 000 118,400 Munich . 160, 000 180, 000 Tnl-n /marks... iotal . [dollars . . 760, 125 798, 525 180, 908 ISO, 049 Grand total . dollars . . Population: 52,279,901. 7, 055, 084 7, 450, 366 Per capita: 1897-98, 13.5 cents; 1898-99, 14.3 cents. 1 mark — 23.8 cents. Note. — The reason why Germany pays comparatively little for higher education, that is, compared with England and the United States, is found in the fact that German secondary schools reach far into the college course. There should, therefore, be added to the foregoing totals a sum equal to the expenditures for the two higher grades in gymnasia and other schools preparing for higher seats of learning. COST OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 799 II.— GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. [Some of the amounts stated are estimates.] A. — England and Wales. 1. Universities and colleges. Aberystwith . Bangor . Birmingham . Bristol . . . : . Cambridge . Cardiff . Durham . Lampeter . Leeds . Liverpool . London (12 institutions) . . Manchester . Newcastle . Nottingham . . . Oxford . Sheffield . Totfll /pounds., total (dollars .. 2. Technological institutes. London . A Sheffield . London (economics) . Total /pounds., total - \No data. 3. Professional schools. Toronto (6) . dollars.. Grand total . . .dollars. . Population: 5,185,900. Per capita: 1897-98, 19.5 cents 114, 000 |no data Quebec . Toronto (2) . Total . dollars.. 2. Colleges. Toronto (4) . dollars.. 1,014,254 II.— UNITED STxiTES. In other parts of this Annual Report (Vol. 2) maybe found the details of expendi¬ tures for higher education in the United States. If the total amount reported by each institution were accepted as spent for higher education, the per capita would be 35 cents. But if a reasonably estimated sum spent for the secondary and elementary preparatory departments of the higher institutions be eliminated, the per capita proves to be 22 cents for 1897-98. Since this chapter goes to the press several months earlier than the statistical tables of Volume 2, it is impossible to state the facts for 1898-99. A fair estimate places the per capita at a trifle higher than that of the previous year. III.— MEXICO. 1897-98. 1898-99. Population: 12,619,959. Medical school. Mexico . dollars . . 30, 000 No data. Other professional schools, but no data. IV.— CENTRAL AMERICA. No data available (5 States). Population: 3,209,957. V.— COLOMBIA. No data available. Population: 3,878,600. COST OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 809 AT.— VENEZUELA. Two universities and several colleges, but no data. Population: 2,323,527. VII.— BRAZIL. 1897-98. 1898-99. Population : 14, 333, 915. 1. Agricultural College. Campinas . dollars.. 150, 400 145, 700 2. Polytechnicum. Sao Paulo . dollars.. 263, 718 275, 000 Other professional schools, of which no data. VIII.— ECUADOR. One university and several colleges. No data. Population: 1,270,000. IX.— PERU. Several colleges at Lima. No data. Population: 2,621,844. X.— BOLIVIA. Several colleges. No data. Population: 2,019,549. XI.— CHILE. One university and one superior pedagogical Population: 2,712,145. institute. No data. XII.— PARAGUAY. No data. Population: 221,079. XIII.— URUGUAY. One university at Montevideo. No data. Population: 827,485. XIV.— ARGENTINA. 1897-98. 1898-99. Population: 3,954,911. University. Cordoba . dollars.. 250, 000 No data. Per capita: 1897-98, 6 cents. XV.— CUBA. 1897-98. 1898-99. Population: 1,572,797. University. Habana . No data. No data. 810 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. XVI.— OTHER ISLANDS IN THE WEST INDIES. No data. XVII.— ENGLISH, DUTCH, AND FRENCH GUIANA. No data. SUMMARY (ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND AMERICA). Expenditures for higher education. Per capita. Countries. Census. Population. 1897-98. 1898-99. 1897-98. 1898-99. Cents. Cents. Algeria . ' . 1896 4, 430, 000 $109, 834 $128, 535 2. 5 2.9 Egypt . 1897 9, 734. 405 (?) (?) (?) (?) Cape Colony . 1891 b 527, 224 (?) (?) Australia . 1897 4, 018, 590 563, 983 614, 140 14.3 15.2 Liberia . 1897 5,727,090 51,500 102, 434 0.9 1.8 Japan . 1897 44, 750, 073 (?) (?) (?) (?) China . (?) 402, 680, 000 (?) * (?) (?) (?) Philippines . (?) 8, 000, 000 (?) (?) (?) (?) Palestine . (?) (?) (?) (?) (?) (?) India . 1891 287, 223, 431 (?) (?) (?) (?) Canada . 1897 5, 185, 900 1,014,254 19. 5 Argentina . 1895 3, 954. 911 ' 250, 000 6.0 United States . 0) 75, 000, 000 (2) ' (2) 22.0 (?) 1 Estimate for 1900. 2 See report. Statistical tables in Volume 2. No data available for other American countries. VI. CHILDREN’S CLAIM UPON CHILDHOOD. “ Die Zeit ” (The Times), a weekly in Vienna, Austria, recently con¬ tained a lengthy article on the subject of u Children’s claim upon childhood,” in which a number of most important facts are stated. They are viewed from an educational standpoint and illustrate condi¬ tions which are met in Germany and other northern countries, as well as in some States of this countrv, by strict laws regulating factory or child labor, and by laws compelling school attendance. Stripped of its objectionable expressions, the article may be of service for the comprehension of educational conditions in Central Europe. The facts it mentions are gleaned from laws, regulations, and official reports of governments and societies. The following is an adaptation of the article: To understand to what extent children are protected from the premature exaction of labor, it is necessary to study the school laws as well as the labor laws. The Aus¬ trian school law was passed by the so-called Liberal party in 1869 and revised by the Conservative party in 1883. This law, which certainly contains more ample pro¬ visions for popular education than that of former years, furnishes evidence of the interest of the Liberals as representatives of the people. This “pearl of Austrian legislation,” as the school law lias been called, contains in paragraphs 9, 24, and 60 regulations granting manufacturers the right of employing children. When the Conservatives succeeded in gaining the majority in Parliament in 1883, they revised the law in the interest of agriculturists; that is to say, by means of the so-called “individual and general instigation of school-attendance laws,” in paragraph 21 of the school law, they granted the same right of employment of children to children's claim upon childhood. 811 farmers. In both industrial and agricultural pursuits children may be employed between the twelfth and the fourteenth year of age. In the same year in which this revision took place Parliament instituted an inves¬ tigation of the labor laws by one of its committees. This extended from April 30 to May 8. The result of this investigation was an amendment to the “ Gewerbeord- nung” (regulations concerning industry). In Article IV a number of supplemen¬ tary regulations affecting child labor were adopted. Thus section 94 reads: “Children shall not be regularly employed in industrial pursuits until the com¬ pletion of their twelfth year of age. From their completed twelfth till their com¬ pleted fourteenth year of age, children shall only be regularly employed in indus¬ trial pursuits if it can be done without injury to their health, and without retarding their physical development, or interfering with the requirements of the school law. For children eight hours is the maximum length of a workday.” In paragraph 95 child labor is forbidden between the hours of eight in the even¬ ing and five in the morning. According to paragraph 96 (6), children 14 years of age and under shall not be employed in factories. But so long as this prohibition does not apply to farming and shop work, the evil is not remedied. The position of working children has not been improved by paragraph 96 (5). Children discharged from factories are given over to unrestricted labor by parents who, driven by want, hire them out for all sorts of labor outside of factories. In Germany protective child-labor laws have existed since 1891, and the Govern¬ ment seems inclined to protect children against excessive domestic labor also. On December 13, 1897, the imperial secretary of the interior announced in the Reichs¬ tag that governmental inquiries into the industrial occupations of school children had been instituted, and that their results would be submitted to the committee on labor statistics for their use in framing legislation. In the meantime the imperial chancellor drew the attention of the various state governments to the great increase of child labor in industrial pursuits. This measure was provoked by the many inquiries made by German teachers and teachers’ unions during the past few years. Through the untiring efforts of Mr. Agahd, a teacher in Rixdorf, near Berlin, a widespread interest has been aroused with regard to child labor. At present a great deal of material is available for a thorough study of the subject in Germany. In Austria, as yet, there has been little systematic inquiry. Apart from a few scattered notes in pamphlets and journals, and the efforts of several teachers in Vienna who in 1898 distributed by circular letters inquiries under fifty-three headings, next to nothing of child labor is known. The extent to which child labor is utilized in farming districts in Austria may be learned from the official school reports respecting attendance at schools. Compul¬ sory attendance laws are mitigated, either in behalf of entire communities or upon application of individuals, in those crown lands where eight years’ attendance is com¬ pulsory; these are Upper and Lower Austria, Salzburg, Carinthia, Tyrol, Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. IIow extensively the rural population set children to work is seen from the fact that the greatest number of communities enjoying the right of mitigation of attendance laws make use of that right. During the school year 1893-94 as many as 93,745 children within the limit of two years below the required age for dismissal enjoyed general;1 and 55,905 individual2 mitigation of enforced school attendance. Hence during the school year 1893-94, in the eight crown lands men¬ tioned, 149,750 children of the age above specified were excused from attending school during the summer. In the decree of the minister of education, June 8, 1883, various grounds of exemp¬ tion from attendance during the seventh and eighth years are adduced, so that there is 1 Mitigation granted to all children of a school district within the age of two years below the required limit for dismissal. 2 Mitigation granted to some parents for their children upon application. 812 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. practically no obstacle in the way of hiring children out as farmer’s help. The party which brought about these amendments did it in order, as asserted in parliament, to improve the condition of the peasants. They gained adherents to their cause by the promise of cheaper wages and by drawing attention to the fact that in consequence of mitigation of school laws it would be possible to lessen the burden of school taxes by a better utilization of the force of teachers (by asking teachers to teach two sets of pupils each in half-day schools). Cheaper wages are not only a consideration for the small farmer, but also for the large landowners. The general mitigation of school attendance law, applicable to all children 13 and 14 years old in a school district, makes of the children of poor farmers, peasants, and cottagers a class of help that works for starvation wages. School authorities are also aware that even younger children are hired out to work. This is proved by the official reports in Carinthia, for example, a crown land where the amended law is in force. In the report of 1894-95 the following was stated: “ In summer regular school attendance in Carinthia suffers, as is generally known, by the many ‘free’ children who in many schools number more than half, as high even as two-thirds to three-fourths, of the entire enrollment. These children and their mothers are supported by the farmers in return for light services rendered by the children, such as tending flocks, etc., and in case of punishment for unjustifiable absence from school are released from service.” The school board of Gorz and Gradisca, where only six years’ daily attendance is compulsory, quotes in its reports of 1895-96 and 1896-97 the following, among other reasons, for absence: ‘ ‘ Poverty forces parents to hire out their older children as assistants, or to put them to service beyond the borders during the summer.” On page 9 of the appendix to Report IV, 1896, of the school authorities of Lower Austria, it is stated as follows: “In the lower districts the larger children are in many cases taken from school to work in the garden and fields, to tend flocks, and to help in hunting game.” In the labor congress held in Zurich, 1897, Dr. Quark, of Frankfort-on-the-Main, said: “ In Wurttemberg, Germany, children are imported from Tyrol and Vorarlberg (Austria) for service on farms. This traffic is under the direction of Austrian clergy¬ men, who have formed a regular organization for this purpose.” More is learned of this traffic in children and its organization from the Tyrol Gazette. In the issue of November 13, 1897, it says: “The Tyrol Society for Protection of Children held its annual meeting on Novem¬ ber 8 in Perfuchs. From the report handed in by Secretary Streiter we glean the following: “ The society this year transported 290 children to Friederichshafen (on Lake Con¬ stance) by way of Ravensburg and returned 250. The trip from Mals to Landseck was given by the railroad company free, for which assistance the society expresses its thanks. Through the kindness of the directors of transportation a private train and boat were placed at the disposal of the society. The contract was drawn up under the superintendence of six guides, and most of the children found good homes. The wages were fairly good. The amount received by those who returned was 14,014 marks ($3,335.33), not including a double suit of clothes.” The educational journal, Teachers’ Opinion, commented editorially on this report, and received the following communication: “ Why go to distant lands for what is within easy reach? This occurred to me when I read your article on the Tyrol traders in children in No. 22 of the Opinion. We need not go to Tyrol, nor beyond the confines of Lower Austria, for only six hours’ ride from Vienna we find exactly the same conditions. In the district of. Pdggstall children are put out to service to an extent hardly equaled. The people children’s claim upon childhood. 813 are extremely poor. To eke out half an existence many take foundlings from the foundling asylums in Vienna. Such a mite, it is supposed, has naturally forfeited all right to education. For the support of a foundling, according to age, three to six florins ($1.50 to $3) a month are paid by the managers of the asylum. This is not the only advantage gained from these children. From early morning till late at night they are required to do heavy housework. During the summer tending flocks and herds is their only occupation. Instead of being in school these victims of society must look after oxen and goats, to receive as their reward for the day’s dili¬ gence a piece of dry bread, a potato, and a small allowance of thin soup. The authorities trouble themselves very little about whether these children attend school or not. The rich farmers, too, keep such foundlings to get their work done cheap. Now, what do such children learn in the society of servants, cattle, and goats? Schools are powerless against these factors, and still the fault is laid at their door. In some schoolrooms 75 per cent of the children are foundlings. It often happens that such children are absent from school because they get nothing to eat at home.” If such conditions prevail in the cultivated districts of Austria proper, one may easily imagine the state of affairs respecting child service in the eastern and southern Crown lands. In countries where six years’ attendance at school is compulsory, so- called repetition or continuation schools have been established for children 13 and II years of age. These schools discontinue in March, so that pupils ‘ ‘ may not be deprived of the opportunity of devoting themselves to practical pursuits.” The results of special inquiries presented by the teachers of Pomerania (Prussian province, Germany) point out the dangers threatening the health and morals of working children. More than 46 per cent of the children at work in the country, with whom these inquiries dealt, were in danger of losing their health, while more than 70 per cent were exposed to moral danger. But all the misery in which these children live, all the neglect they suffer in the interest of the peasants, does not com¬ pare with the fearful fate that befalls children of the lowest classes in cities. In the country children are excused from school so that they may earn wages; in the city these unfortunates must attend school and work for wages besides. For many the school is a place of refnge; the hours spent there are hours of rest. Who can blame a child for falling asleep during lessons when he has to work early in the morning and again till late in the evening? He often drags his tired body to school in the hope of receiving a card which entitles him to a meal. The mere mention of the different occupations of school children gives an insight into the surroundings the influence of which school is called upon to counteract. The following statements are based upon articles that appeared in the June number (1898) of the Teachers’ Opinion, and upon information received from Vienna teachers. Unfortunately, the inquiries cover only 53 school classes (or rooms), 37 girls’ and 16 boys’, in School Districts II, IX, XIV, XVI, and XVIII. Among 2,740 children attending these schools, 353, or 13 per cent, were emploj^ed partly in factories and shops and partly in heavy housework; 129 worked away from home. Children in domestic industries and home work are occupied, for instance, in making cigarette wrappers and cases; in bookbinding; in making paper flowers, envelopes, toy money banks; in papier-mache work; in making net lining for men’s hats; in knitting and crocheting; in stringing beads; in making dolls, fans, collars and cuffs, shirts, corsets, and belts, etc. The time for work for children from 8 to 14 years of age varies; on school days it is from two to ten hours; in vacation and on holidays the maximum reaches fourteen hours. A 10-year-old boy works four hours a day in making cigarette wrappers and receives 45 kreutzer (about 22 cents) for 1,200 wrappers. Another child works seven to eight hours a day, and with the help of mother and sisters finishes 120 flowers at 1 kreutzer apiece. (A kreutzer is the hundredth part of a florin worth 48.2 cents.) A girl 13 years of age works nine hours a day stringing beads; during 814 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. vacation she works sixteen hours. Ffer average pay is 15 kreutzers (7 cents). Sixty beads form a string, and twelve strings make a bundle. The pay for a bundle is 3 kreutzer (1.4 cents). A second group of working children is engaged in shops and hotels or inns. The number of the latter is extraordinary in Vienna. A number of mechanics can maintain their independence only by hiring apprentices. Some do not furnish room and board for their help; these employ their own and other children from 8 to 14 years of age, and pay them a few kreutzer. In all trades such conditions prevail. In 16 boys’ schoolrooms there were found a mason, an upholsterer, two cabinet¬ makers, a shoemaker, a painter, and a rope maker. The working hours were regu¬ lated by the amount of business done by their employers. A teacher in the second district makes the following remark in his report concerning one of his boys: “Stays at home in busy times; poorly fed; drinks brandy now and then; smokes often.” The occupations of children in hotels and restaurants are most demoralizing and prejudicial to health. They serve as waiters, venders of bread and cigars, dish¬ washers, and set up the pins in bowling alleys. A teacher in the second district, in whose room, during 1897-98, 6 out of 22 boys were engaged in bowling alleys, remarks: “All children employed in hotels, inns, and restaurants are sleepy and unfit for lessons the day after one of service.” Often worse eviis arise, because guests offer them beer and wine. The conversations which they hear and the scenes they witness exert a decided and evil influence upon their morals. In Germany the police regulations forbid the employment of children in taverns. In Austria the minister of trade decreed May 27, 1885, as follows: “ It is allowable to employ children as waiters, or otherwise, from 8 in the evening till midnight.” And this decree is approved by the minister of the interior. The people of Vienna are so accustomed to their “bread boys” that no bread would seem palatable unless bought from such children. Whoever takes the trouble to observe these 8 or 10 year old boys on a Sunday afternoon in a Prater coffeehouse is filled with indignation against the indifference of the large crowd, eating, drinking, and enjoying the music, unmindful of the fact that between the tables children are wandering about that have the right too to enjoy Sunday, but have lost their claim upon childhood. Children engaged in heavy domestic labor at home or among strangers form a large group. In Vienna hundreds of girls 10 to 14 years of age are “in service.” They often work in one household before school hours, in a second after school, and in a third at night. Errand boys and girls, milk carriers, paper carriers, stable boys, etc., form a large group of working children. Paper carriers and milkmaids are often busy three hours before the opening of school. Juvenile paper carriers are usually employed by those who purchase rounds from publishers. If these are poorly paid one can imagine what wages the children receive. These children usually belong to the class that regularly fall asleep in school betweeen 8 and 9 o’clock. Small boys are also employed at railroad freight depots for unloading. One teacher in the tenth district has in his class two boys, aged 1 1 and 13, who are employed during school time in unloading freight. They are thoroughly neglected. From September 16, 1897, till February 15 one boy was absent from school 142, the other 130 half days. A number of children add to the family income in their own way. They peddle various articles, as cakes, matches, buttons, pictures, and violet powder, or pick up from the streets wood, coke, coal, iron, and rags. The peddlers can be seen any day in taverns and especially in the Prater restaurants during the summer, but the differ¬ ent collectors must be sought at their work. Mornings and evenings one is sure to find children gathering wood and coal at railroad stations. In the morning, for instance, when the carts leave the northern yards, children with baskets on their arms stand waiting to follow them and pick up every piece that falls. Younger brothers and sisters may be freezing at home. Who, then, can censure the child children’s claim upon childhood. 815 who, trembling with cold and •impatient at the slowness with which the pieces fall, helps himself now and then from the cart itself. In conclusion it may be remarked that a number of children are engaged to work during certain seasons only. Those deserving first mention are the makers of Christ¬ mas tree ornaments and the like. Poor young creatures must work till far into the night, so that the children of the well-to-do may rejoice. There may be many other branches of industry in which children are employed. An entire review of the evil will be possible only when the authorities institute an investigation into the question of child labor. Every educator must indorse positive prohibition of child labor for wages. In Austria the minister of trade and industry has repeatedly advocated shortening the term of school attendance. The near future holds out no hope that the State will interfere and abolish child labor. In November, 1898, the district board of public schools in Vienna proposed measures to the city council on this ques¬ tion, but since the doing away with the evil of child labor can not serve the interests of any political party the members of which consist of industrial classes still pursuing old methods of trade, it is hard to believe that there will be any kind of satisfactory settlement in the city. The school authorities, or anyone desiring to ameliorate pres¬ ent conditions in this respect, can always count upon the support of teachers. It is to be hoped that teachers will not be left alone in their demand that the children’s claim upon childhood be heard. The foregoing statement of facts may find some official confirmation in the following comprehensive table taken from the publications of the Royal Statistical Bureau of Wiirtemberg, which in turn credits it to the work of the Imperial Statistical Bureau in Berlin. A glance at the sum¬ maries will convince the reader that child labor is by no means a myth in Germany, despite the strict compulsory school attendance laws in force there. Nearl}T a quarter of a million of children under IT years are wage-earning, but that does not mean in many cases that the chil¬ dren are illegally kept from school, but that they have availed them¬ selves of the provision of the lav/ which allows the local school authorities to exempt children from further regular attendance after 12 years, if they have acquired a tolerably complete elementary edu¬ cation. It is reasonable to suppose that by far the most of the 211,951 wage-earning children are between 12 and 11 years of age, many of whom attend evening schools. For particulars the table may be consulted. Wage-earning children under 14 years in Germany. 816 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. rr . 1 cs ^ ^ _ GO U-t -T .*1 rH 0^7 ^ tP Tf CO ~P X r-H r- QG lO Cr-H CD CO D U LO X U O O O Ci ‘O H lO Cl O OXlDXXC1-H-0'X'HhXXlOCAXCD CO ICO N c c -t -f CO CO Cl O O C CO H r-i 1^ 00 X D CO O X CO c£) C CO C H g C lO H H C N D CD hM X Tf H Cl O LO H a 0) ' ^ o ^ ^ -p *r“1 X ^ _ o 4- ^H°3 r ^ -a cprg >p .2 rH Jr C3 P 2 0-'OICOC'IOOOrl.G2 Q « ^ cS 2 g 00 LO CO CD CO 1>1 CC cT lO CO' r-T ) ^ Cl X Cl O Cl - CC CD 'CC U- lO X rH d rH COHCO^OCSOHOX^CiasNOlCO O C Cl lO TP CO H X I - I - X 01 Cl Cl 1—1 1—1 CO CO X O Cl X Cl CC rH C 1 I> Cl Cl CD TT n (NO^iOHHOXNtP OXCOXCCf l^^COCl Cl t— l X Cl O r-1 r — p ci h -p -p ci o c ci x c c t- o (NlOOCXHCICCMNODCXhO C l D D C D D CC X X D O D O CO ~H tj^cT rf" o' of lO CO cT x'ic' CO O Cl 70 CD lO X X lO t—1 ‘ Cl oc O X Cl h ci lOCCOClOCi^XXCJ DDhh-OC'IXiOmX DXOXCXODOU of io cT r-T t-h cd co cT 00 cd CO^COlCldNHHC’fCOC^H Cl X LO- X CO 1-t Cl I- O X CD OO Cl O X C D D H O h D -P d LO O h D CO H Cl cT i>T icT cd cT co'cf oo r-T t^qo'qo'o cTcT O X X lO Cl h CD X O N Cl CO h C D CC rf D Cl D 1.0 CO ^ n M HH COUiO^iO^dClOD CD ac t Cl CC x ccc LO O iO 01 D O O L'* X w T-H ac O X r-H O Cl Cl -mo O D C lO pp O lO Cl D D O DC » 0 r-H I'- O I> 1> CD 1.0 rH O CD O rH r-H rH DC t~* oo ac oo xT rj^'cT cT cd" i.oT of o' r-T cc of cf t—7 H Tp Cl O 1 ^ H ac O h O X Cl H D r lO ODDOXODXH rH Cl rH i-h i-h CCClOrHXCDXXOO CCiOXOHHOXXO OrHCCdOlOOXOX O ccT r-T rrT iC cT crT cT r>T xT HOXCOOCJCD^CCX X lOOdClX^DCLOt^HHdDHC r-H o CD CO TJ1 I- LO lO L'- t-h X -H ’CC X Cl CO H Cl CD Cl 1-H O Hr H x O l> oc o O X cT cTco'cTcf cf x'cd cc co cT lo" cT oo i7 of O h lO 1^ H X Cl O CO O *D X CO I'- r-H cc HT O O O CD :© CO n CO nr Cl H Cl Cl OiOXNXCHlOOCC O 1- X H M D H H CC lO OHODC1CUOXXD i cT t-h cd cn r— co" o i i-T co X CD CD Ol Cl X CC CD rH rH rH CD to Sx co p-m ,,9 G* ^ - ^ 2 := ej a> •g o > 2 : T ! boh • s-< C3 : h g 1 G b) o 2 <&&,.. X X xgg a3 c3 O 'h P4 bo S-i a; o cx ~ a 5 2 3 H t-1 2 bo <-5 O ° s? G N - -u ,ia - HOlW^XODXOOHOlX^iOOh X D O H Ol X H iO CO t — ' t-h or ci ci oi ci oi oi Ph s H 0 H 1 These numbers include all children who earn wages in agriculture, forestry, mining, industry and building, commerce and transportation, domestic service, civil and church service, and other occupations not easily classified. 817 children’s claim upon childhood. The foregoing census table has been subjected to a thorough analy¬ sis by a teacher in Bixdorf near Berlin, Conrad Agahd, a gentleman much interested in the question of child labor. Some of his publica¬ tions have been referred to in the previous pages. Lately he pub¬ lished in the Zeitschrift fur Philosophic and Pasdagogik (Vol. VI, No. 5) a very careful analysis of the census table, and adds to it some details gathered by himself and other teachers, which explain the offi¬ cial returns. His article is here translated: No one [says Mr. Agahd] will deny that children should enjoy home, school, and fresh air, but necessity, selfishness, and competition have been mightier than true humanity. In view of this fact, the Imperial Government in Germany and some of the separate states of the Empire have deemed it necessary to take measures forbid¬ ding child labor in factories. For the first time the imperial census statistics (vol¬ ume “ Berufsstatistik ” ) report facts, inadequate though convincing, relative to the- occupation of children not reached by the protective labor laws; and since their pub¬ lication the need of more extensive legislation has been recognized. The reports of boards of trade and inspectors have also, so far as industry is concerned, furnished an abundance of material which legislators may use. Nevertheless, it is indisputable, that teachers deserve the credit of having aroused the public conscience on this sub¬ ject. The results of an official inquiry, instituted by the imperial chancellor (depart¬ ment of state), will likewise soon be ready for publication. The best proof of the necessity of agitating the question is the immense extent to which children of school age are employed in trades of various kinds. The trade statistics referred to report 214,954 children, of whom 40,499 are under 12 years of age. They are distributed as follows: Occupation. Children under 14 years of age. Boys. Girls. Total. A. Connected with agriculture . . . 94,121 30, G18 3, 506 41 , 001 135, 125 38, 267 5,296 1,812 B. Connected with industry . . . 7,649 1,790 1,487 C. Connected with commerce . D. 01 different kinds not easily classified . . . 325 E. Connected with army and navy . . . F. Other oublic service and professions . . . 867 86 953 G'. Domestic service . 848 32, 653 33, 501 Totals . . . 130, 285 84, 669 214, 954 Agriculture and domestic service are not included in the new investigation set afoot by the state government. The chancellor’s order reads: “ Much of the lighter- employment in agriculture — for instance, the tending of cattle — is especially adapted, to children.” But of this more anon. ed 1900 - 52 818 EDUCATION EE POET, 1899-1900. In considering industry, we shall mention only those occupations of the 152 specified which the report itself notes as conspicuous. The following table refers to children under 14 years of age: Occupations. Total. Boys. Girls. Brickmaking . •. . 1.575 1,453* 982 122 Blacksmithing . 989 7 Loeksmithing . 2, 075 1,148 2, 199 426 2,062 459 13 Spinning . . 689 Weaving . . . 1,057 143 1, 142 283 Knitting . . Embroidering . 382 160 222 Lace making . 183 59 124 Paper and pasteboard work . 232 108 124 Cabinetmaking . 2,107 2,078 1,803 947 29 Bakery . 1,919 988 116 Butchery . 41 Tobacco-factory work . . . 792 333 459 Plain sewing . . 1,223 2,156 2,026 1,223 427 Tailoring . 1.729 Shoemaking . . . 1,962 64 Bricklaying . 2, 272 2, 152 120 We add to this list a few other items: There were working, in smelting works 211 boys, 30 girls; in coal mines, 62 girls; in stone cutting, 28 girls; in glass works, 225 boys, 46 girls; in precious metals, 244 boys, 220 girls; in iron foundries, 181 boys, 15 girls; in cutlery shops, 119 boys, 12 girls; in machine manufactories, 457 boys, 35 girls; in rubber goods, 24 boys, 9 girls; in bookbinding, 287 boys, 105 girls; in flour mills, 371 boys, 14 girls; in breweries, 196 boys, 10 girls; in distilleries, 34 boys, 8 girls; in carpentering, 599 boys, 18 girls. These figures are anything but encouraging for education at the close of the nine¬ teenth century. Under normal conditions children receive only a moderate amount of instruction at elementary schools, and yet a large number are withdrawn before they have attained their fourteenth year. There are 3,449 not 14 years old who are already apprenticed to some trade. Moreover, the figures given in the census returns (see table on p. 816) are minimal, a significance the report itself specifies, and prin¬ cipal callings only are considered. For the sake of completeness, we mention a number of conspicuous occupations in trade, commerce, public service, shows, music, and theater. They serve to illustrate the term “minimal numbers.” used in the report. Class. Occupations. Children under 14years. Boys. Girls. Total. C 1 Trade in merchandise and produce . . . 2, 051 705 2, 756 C 9 Monev and credits . 22 2 24 e 5 Newspaper carrying and expressage . 25 11 36 C 7 Commercial agencies . 13 1 14 C 9 Auctions and intelligence bureaus . 7 7 C 11 Postal and telegraphic messengers . 3 3 C 13 Railroad traffic . 24 5 29 c is T.fidinp' find ’nan line . . 53 6 59 C 17 18 IV avia at inn . . . 119 2 121 c 9o’ Rerya n t s a n d in csscn aers . 15 8 23 C 21 TTnrjortnkinP' establishments . 2 2 F. 3 Rtate or commercial service . . 367 1 368 E 7 A mnmipnsis and enpyinp- . . . . . . . 25 25 E 8 Music theaters shows . . 467 62 529 To C 5 may be added the fact that in one express office of a Berlin suburb alone 36 children are employed. C 20 may be supplemented by saying that thousands of children are employed thus during part of the day. In cases falling under E 8 the so-called “higher interests cf art” play an important part. In “Archives for Social Legislation and Statistics” it has been proved recently that the diminution of child children’s claim upon childhood. 819 labor in factories is no proof of the diminution of child labor in general. As far as industry is concerned, it means only the opening of other fields for child labor. But even though, as has often been statistically demonstrated, the exploitation of children prevails to a greater extent in home industry than in factories, no philanthropist would desire a return to former customs which were obviated by legal enactment. The suppression of child labor in factories has been a great blessing. There only remains to take the next logical step — that is, to extend the blessings of the law to supervision of home industry. The benefits of the protective imperial labor law would be jeopardized if the present conditions are allowed to remain unchanged. If the imperial law prohibiting child labor in factories had not been passed, there would be engaged to-day in factories at least 40,000 children of school age. Accord¬ ing to the reports of the boards of trade in Prussia, there were thus engaged in 1886, 21,053; in 1888, 22,913; in 1890, 27,485; in 1892 (the date of the passage of the law), 11,212; in 1895, 4,327; in 1896, 5,312. The last figure again shows an increase. Moreover, trade statistics and the reports of inspectors give no representation of the actual extent of child labor. A large number of occupations are not mentioned at all, and others are only treated summarily in the official tables. Moreover, age, amount of work done, the necessity or uselessness of the occupation, and its influence on health, morals, and school life are specified within the narrowest limits, whereas the study of details is absolutely indispensable for remedying the existing evils. The author has examined the subject uninterruptedly since 1894, and has collected facts concerning 3,267 boys. Carefully prepared special tables show results from which the following are taken: Among 3,267 boys, 600 earned money by doing regular work. Of these, 121 were bread carriers, 63 newsboys, 104 bowling-alley boys (a large number in Berlin), 62 errand boys, 24 worked in factories and workshops (in abattoirs, tobacco, button, whip, and pen factories), 56 were cloth binders, and 170 were polishers, weavers, tin and rag gatherers, carousal (merry-go-round) boys, waiters, beer tappers, milk boys, and peddlers. A classification of these boys by grade shows the following: Upper grades. Middle grades. Lower grades. Bakers’ boys . 67 41 13 "Newsboys . . . 18 27 18 Bowling-alley boys . 43 35 23 Errand boys . . . 23 32 7 Boys in factories and workshops . 8 11 23 5 Cloth binders . 20 13 Others . 33 84 56 Of 357 children belonging to the first or highest grade in school there were 104 wage-earning (29.13 per cent). Of 405 children of grade II there were 108 (26.66 per cent). Of 600 children of grade III there were 131 (21.83 per cent). Of 580 children of grade IV there were 122 (21.03 per cent). Of 664 children of grade V there were 119 (17.92 per cent). Of 661 children of grade VI there were 16 (2.42 per cent) . Or 27.82 per cent in the two upper grades, 21.44 in the two middle grades, and 10.17 in the two lower grades. Of the 600 wage-earning pupils there were: Orphans, 7 (ljt per cent) ; half orphans, 68 (11-J per cent) ; those whose parents were living, 525 (87^- per cent). Compared in age with others the wage-earning children were as follows: In grade II, 76 out of 108 (70.36 per cent) were older; in the middle grades, 113 out of 253 (44.84 per cent) were older; in the lower grades 50 out of 135 (37.03 per cent) were older than the average pupil of their classes. 820 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The bakers’ boys worked summer and winter from 3.30 to 6.30 in the morning on week days; on Sundays the working hours were increased to five (cleaning tins, etc. ). Newsboys worked four hours daily; a shorter time on Monday. Bowling-alley boys were engaged until 10 and 12 o’clock at night, and sometimes even till 3 in the morn¬ ing. Cloth binders were especially overworked during the busy season. Flower venders, pretzel peddlers, shooting-gallery boys, and waiter boys work until mid¬ night. The working hours of factory hands are not always regular. The wages of bakers’ boys vary between 2 and 6 marks a month (50 cents to §1.50), inclusive of breakfast. Newsboys are, in part, assistants of their parents, otherwise their wages average 4 to 44 marks a month (§1 to §1.12). Milk boys get 2 to 3 marks (50 to 75 cents). Bowling-alley boys 5 cents an hour, besides tips, and 1 cent extra “for all nine.” 1 Cloth binders receive between 6 and 16 or 30 cents, or 14 cents an hour or per dozen, according to size. The selling of flowers pays especially well. Through continued agitation in the educational press, conditions have been improved in about thirty cities and in some rural districts. The teachers of Pome¬ rania in particular have shown a most active interest. The provincial authorities of Potsdam supplemented the teachers’ investigations with official inquiries, the results of which have not been published as yet. A comprehensive order addressed to the city authorities and school inspectors, however, may be accepted as an indorsement of the teachers’ work. Dr. Jacusiel so considered it, and made the author’s treatise in the report the subject of a special discussion. He writes, using the words of the governmental order, as follows: “In some of the principal districts of Berlin 1,013 out of 11,440 school children were employed in trades; 898 of them worked more than four hours; 283 began to wTork before 6 o’clock in the morning; 205 worked after 9 o’clock at night, and 642 on Sundays.” After mentioning the kinds of occu¬ pation, he says that “the usefulness of some light occupation, especially in the open air, is demonstrated; but in view of the harm so frequently done to physical, mental, and moral growth by child labor, all branches of such labor must be dealt with according to law.” The various authorities were admonished by him also to take a deep interest in opposing the employment of school children in trades. The attention given by teachers to the subject was an encouraging sign. The exec¬ utive committee of the National Teachers’ Association of Germany proposed the theme for discussion. Fruitful work among the local and provincial associations led to the introduction of investigations made by the bureau of statistics in large cities, as, for instance, in Breslau, Dresden, Charlottenburg-Berlin, Stettin. Mr. Fechner, in Berlin, who read a paper on child labor before the national teachers’ union at Breslau, has since then published the following facts: “ In cities and else¬ where where child labor in trades, shops, or home industries is in vogue, 233,500 pupils have been questioned. Of these about 30,500 were wage-earning — that is to say, 13 per cent. If we include Berlin, 428,500 school children have been questioned, of whom about 56,000 worked for wages. The ratio is the same. That the investi¬ gations are confined more to rural districts proves that rural and industrial occupa¬ tions are often so closely combined that separation is difficult. The summaries show that 25 per cent or 9,246 of 35f573 children were employed in labor.” Altogether, 646,173 were questioned, including those counted by Fechner; of these 83,500, or full 12.9 per cent, worked. In the rural districts the ratio rose to 25 per cent. The most distressing conditions prevail in factory or industrial cities, and in provinces in which home industry is frequent.2 In Miilhausen the ratio was 25 per cent; in Altenburg, 33.6 per cent; in Schmolln and Hohenstein-Ernstthal, 60 per cent. 1 European bowling alleys have 9 pins. The falling of all nine at one stroke occurs more seldom than in this country where 10 pins are used. — Tr. 2 The term “home industry” needs an explanation. The Germans mean by it weaving or other manufactures for which the workmen own their own tools, such as looms, and for which they work by the piece at home. Every member of the family able to aid is called upon to take part in the work. Hence, the great number of children engaged in home industry after school hours. CHILDREN'S CLAIM UPON CHILDHOOD. 821 The city bureaus of statistics of Charlottenburg-Berlin and Dresden give by far the most complete reports on actual extent of child labor; on the kinds and dura¬ tion of occupation; on the ages of children working for wages; the uselessness or necessity of the occupation; the conditions of labor, whether at home or among strangers, etc. A copy of the scheme of inquiry recently instituted by the imperial chancellor, Prince von Hohenlohe, is here given to show its simplicity. Its purpose is outlined in the introduction: “The purpose is to ascertain the extent and degree to which school children are employed in trades, shops, and industries.” KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. Questions covering the occupation of wage-earning school children during the month of February, 1898. (1) Place of school district.} in County - (2) Kind of school. (3) Number of grades in school. (4) Number of classes in school. (5) Class and grade for which the statements are made. (In ungraded schools questions 3 and 4 are left blank.) (6) Number of boys - - — . Number of girls - . (7) Number of boys - and girls - who were earning wages in February, 1898. State exactly the nature of the occupation. Total wage¬ earning. Of these worked more than 3 hours a day. On how many days a week more than 3 hours a day. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. (For the convenience of the teacher a large num¬ ber of occupations were named.) Place and date. Signature of the class teacher. The statistics published by the imperial statistical bureau, based on the census of 1895 (see table on p. 816) unfortunately cover only a modest fraction of child labor, and the sum total of 214,954 children found by the enumerators to be wage-earning does not nearly express the real facts. In taking up the results of the teachers’ inquiry much better information is gleaned. Their labors have proved that children are employed to a deplorable extent in agri¬ culture and industry, and that child labor conceals great dangers (a) when the strength of children is overtasked, or they are called upon to work at too early an age; (6) when play time and night and Sunday rest are too much shortened; (c) when they are exposed to the inclemencies of the weather; (cl), in addition to (a) and (b), when they are kept in close confinement. All this has reference to physical injury only. But they proved that also the most pernicious moral injuries threaten and often occur: (a) Among cattle tenders, bowling-alley boys and girls, peddlers (whether at fixed points or on the street), butchers, and ballet girls; (b) moreover, when the labor is performed (1) without intelligent supervision, (2) without proper separation of the sexes, (3) without parents’ control of the wages, (4) when adults utterly disregard decency in conversation and deportment; (c) when young cattle-tenders are obliged to sleep with servants. Injuries of this kind are often manifested by disregard of authority, the dangers of precocity, sensuality, and brutality. Teachers have also brought to light the direct detriment to school life as manifested by (a) inertia and dullness during lessons; (b) decreased diligence at home, and hurried, slovenly written work; (c) frequent tardiness; (cl) absence from school; (e) conspicuously irregular promotion; (/) lack of progress of a whole class which contains many wage- earning children. We quote the fol owing figures relative to children who were 822 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. obliged to deliver breakfasts in Charlottenberg. The results ajiply to the winter months only. Boys. Girls. Children carrying breakfast— Before 4 o’clock a. m . . . 20 85 Between 4 and 4.30 . 10 Between 4.30 and 5 . . . G5 11 Between 5 and 5.30 . 88 11 Between 5.30 and 6 . 41 24 About 6 and later . 50 23 Total . . 349 79 Of these children 104 were not 10 years old, 147 were between 10 and 12, and the others over 12 years old. In Dresden it was found that 1,282 wage-earning children were between 6 and 11 years old. In Liegnitz 445 — that is, 36 per cent of all the wage-earning children — were under 10 years of age. In Altenburg 33 per cent of the wage-earning children belong to the lowest grades in school. Idalle numbers 40 per cent under 10 years, and as many as 56 per cent engaged in home industry. If in the discussion of this subject there is to be found a ray of light, it might be looked for in the afternoon occupations; but the following figures disappoint us: In Charlottenburg the older boys worked longest, but 72.1 per cent even of the boys, between 12 and 14 years of age, worked six hours and more after school hours. Worse even than that is the fact that a number of boys are occupied between 8 o’clock and midnight. In Brunswick 1,625 (or 88 per cent) of the wage-earning children work after school hours; of these 436 (27 per cent) work between 8 and 10 p. m. ; with 111 (7 per cent) working hours extend beyond 10 o’clock. Bowling- alley boys especially are engaged at night; in Miihlhausen 13 work after 10 o’clock; 3 work until 12 and sometimes later; in Charlottenburg 9 work after midnight, and 9 from 10 till midnight; 86 per cent of these boys, then, worked after 10 o’clock, and if the working hours are the same in all places, as we have the right to believe, Rix- dorf, a suburb of Berlin, having 101 bowling-alley boys, must have about 86 who are obliged to walk home after midnight, some as far as to Berlin. The teachers in their investigations found large numbers of children who are com¬ pelled to work before school hours till they are physically tired; at school they are confined to mental application for 3 to 5 hours. Not a few are also employed during the noon intermission and again in the afternoon till late at night. In view of these conditions the appointment of school physicians seems advisable, though there are teachers who maintain that many physicians are not thoroughly acquainted with the subject of school hygiene. The publication of the results of medical examinations of working children would offer astonishing disclosures. An insufficient amount of sleep retards growth, weakens the power of resistance against the influence of dis¬ ease, creates predisposition to illness, and favors the development of hereditary weak¬ ness. Even though the actual sickness be not the outcome, the constitution is always weakened. Rev. Mr. Schbnberger (Berlin) in his report to the synod brings out the moral dangers in a strong light. He shows that out of each 100 youthful convicts in the penal institution at Plotzensee, near Berlin, 70 had worked during their school term as bowling-alley boys, breakfast carriers, and newsboys. Fechner (Berlin) states that in pursuance of official inquiries bakers have testified that they could not send out apprentices to deliver breakfast orders on account of the moral dangers to which they would be exposed, hence they employ children under 12 years of age, presum¬ ing that they are safe. Bowling-alley boys learn to know the taste of spiritous drinks CHILDRENS CLAIM UPON CHILDHOOD. 823 very soon, and, surely, peddling, shows, ballets, etc., are dangerous schools. If a child’s character is to be poisoned, then the “higher interests of art” are hard to understand. There is much complaint about children’s utter disregard for authority. We are dealing with one of its causes. Work at too early an age makes children too inde¬ pendent. They aid in supporting the family, manage their own pocket money, and can not be controlled. In the course of one teacher’s investigations he learned of the existence of a “club,” the members of which were very well posted on ques¬ tionable localities; and they told of their knowledge with a candor that was deplor¬ able. If, after they are dismissed from school, all authoritative influence ceases, the result is utter disregard of all authority. Indolence, too, is noticeable. The teachers who have kept an eye on such chil¬ dren after they had left school have observed that bowling-alley boys who have received high wages are never disposed to become apprentices in workshops. Girls, too, who have worked among strangers for wages, enter factories after they have been confirmed in church. Often they have been overworked in domestic service, and hence do not choose that kind of work when free from attending school. These young girls are replacing adult home servants and nurses. In Charlottenburg alone 61 girls of school age were compelled to work 40 to 50 hours, 24 even 50 to 60 hours, and 4 as many as 60 hours and over (one 72 hours) a week. Sad as this may be, the facts are vouched for. One can hardly blame girls for losing their taste for work in private families. Children working in the country for wages are likewise exposed to moral dangers. This has been proved beyond contradiction by 58 reports of teachers who investi¬ gated conditions in the province of Pomerania. In 3,275 cases this was found to be beyond doubt; in 312 to 653 cases a doubt was justifiable. The figures that relate to the harm done to school life are even more discouraging. The statistics of Hanover (teacher Garlee) show 13 percent (141) of wage-earning boys unsatisfactory in diligence and attention; 15 per cent (167) lazy, inattentive, and sleepy. Among the girls the conditions of the highest class were worse (21 per cent) ; of the second class, similar to those in boys’ schools. Home lessons were poorly performed by 286 (26 per cent) boys and 32 per cent girls, 6 per cent of both sexes bringing worthless work. The progress in study of “almost one-half of the wage-earning pupils is below normal.” The statistics of industrial districts show a still more deplorable condition of affairs. Wherever there is a large number of working pupils the evils mentioned exist. The promotion in school of wage-earning children in Eixdorf (near Berlin) is very irregular; only 70 per cent of grade II, 50 per cent of Grades III and IV, 57 per cent of Grades V and VI were promoted at the close of the year 1897. Reports from Halle, Gena, and Muhlhausen record similar facts. The questions sent out from the imperial chancellory are to include all children employed in any industrial pursuit, but not those earning wages in agriculture, hor¬ ticulture, fruit and. wine culture, or domestic service. It is not apparent why these are excluded, since individual investigations have revealed the fact that fully three and one-half times as many children under 14 years of age work in rural pursuits. No one will doubt the wisdom of the following words of the imperial authorities: “From consideration of health, the employment of children for light work in gardening and agriculture, at which their strength is not overtaxed and during which they enjoy physical exercise in the open air, is not only permissible but useful and desirable.” But, on the other hand, a proclamation of the governor of the province of Silesia deserves equal attention: “It is most desirable that the school authorities and teachers relax the demands of school duties in the interests of our home industry (culture of sugar beets) as far as possible and compatible with undis¬ turbed progress in school studies. The employment of school children must not be 824 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. abused. Proper supervision should be instituted to protect these children against moral dangers. Compelling them to work on Sunday and distributing brandy among them can not be allowed under any circumstances. If laxity in the observance of the law in any direction or abuses are noticed, the government will regret to be obliged to draw limitations or revoke its concession of employing child labor. I therefore beg the local commissioners (Landrathe), in the interest of both agri¬ culture and public education, to earnestly oppose existing evils and to aim at sup¬ pressing them.” No German state government legislated against the evils connected with tending of flocks and herds until they were so glaring that measures became urgent. Such measures are now necessary in southern and eastern Germany, where, through the agency of a special society (Young Flock and Herd Tenders’ Association, Tyrol), 290 children were imported in 1897 from Tyrol, Austria. For the sake of 34 florins, on an average, they were taken from their families and sent to Baden. Complaint is even made that the law of compulsory school attendance applies to them as well as to native children. But even where no suvh associations exist conditions are bad enough. The state of affairs seems to be particularly bad in the province of Posen. At the provincial teachers’ meeting of 1897 it was stated that the school of Pomykowo (Lissa Co.) numbered 65 pupils, of whom 32 were employed in work at home and 12 by stran¬ gers. The other 21 were still too small to work. Thirty-eight children, including 13 girls, tended cattle; the others worked in the fields from 4 a. in. till school time, again during the noon intermission, and from the close of the school session till dark. The flock and herd tenders receive no wages but clothing, and the field workers 15 to 20 marks ($4 to $5) a year. Another teacher reported: “Only 2 out of a class of 55 do no farm labor; 20 are employed by strangers. Of these 2 were 6 years, 1 was 7 years, 2 were 8 years, and 3 were 9 years old. Those over 10 years are usually hired out to strangers.” On one estate children receive 25 to 40 pfennigs (65- to 10 cents) a day for working from 6 till 10 a. m. When such facts are compared with the words above quoted from the imperial order, and with the attacks on elementary schools by the conservative party in the Diet of Prussia, or with the numerous demands to exempt children from school attendance during the summer term, the increase of holidays, the introduction of half-day schools to meet the want of labor, and when the new law of Weimar and the old protective law of Anhalt are considered, the friends of popular education begin to be apprehensive. An economist of high repute spoke against the protective regulation in force in Anhalt, hence it is well to quote it in full: “ Children must be 8 years of age before they can be called upon to do a full day’s work; under that age, they may be engaged for only half or two-thirds of a day. As soon as the number of workers in any place exceeds 25, the sexes should be separated and sent to work under supervision. Children at work should be sepa¬ rated according to both age and sex. Their working hours are to be from 6 o’clock in the morning till 6 o’clock in the evening, with two hours’ recreation at dinner. If the children are obliged to walk home, working hours must be so arranged that they may arrive home not later than 8 o’clock. If wagons are used for transport, overcrowding and accidental falling out should be prevented. No work is to be required before morning lessons in school. On hot days employers must provide sufficient drink. Yiolaters of these rules are to be fined 15 marks.” It is incredible that objections should be raised to such regulations; yet it is done openly in the legislature. Strange employers engaging children for work require much more of them than parents who use them as assistants at home. Proof of this fact is found in the fore¬ going statements as to time of labor. Employers want work for their money, and MEDICAL INSPECTION OE SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. 825 this applies especially to a large number of children who are employed in domestic service. The statistics gathered in Charlottenburg are eloquent on this subject. The efforts of teachers who make the inquiries are frequently opposed by those who employ children, especially by bakers. In Berlin the motion was made by some confectioners to employ only adults to deliver breakfasts, and to charge the customer a small fee for service, but it has never gone into effect. In Spandau bakers pro¬ tested, as also in Muhlausen and Hamburg. The objections noted above lead to the consideration of the attitude of State and district authorities toward the subject. Several communities, as Hamburg, Stettin, Luckenwalde, Heppenheim, Giessen, Dresden, Reinickendorf, Muhlhausen, and Spandau, have endeavored to suppress the worst abuses by means of police regula¬ tions. In Hamburg the Hanseatic superior court declared such a regulation con¬ trary to law; but in a similar case in Muhlhausen the Imperial supreme court decided the contrary as in harmony with the police law, according to which city authorities have the right to enforce regulations for the protection of health and morals. This decision of the highest court of the Empire has prompted the minister of education and the minister of the interior to recommend cities to establish similar regulations. Finally, after lengthy consideration, Berlin, which was in this respect far behind its suburbs and other cities, decided that children under 9 years of age should not be employed, nor older ones between the hours of 8 p. m. and 6 a. m. Heretofore the suburbs have always referred to Berlin as the place where such regulations were most necessary, and now the city has reversed the case. At all events, the regula¬ tions for Berlin were first proposed by the school committee of the city council and framed by a joint committee of school and police authorities. During the last two years the subject has been discussed in associations, such as the Woman’s Union, the Society Against Ill-Treatment and Abuse of Children, and the Society for the Hygienic Education of- Youth; in socialistic clubs and in polit¬ ical party meetings. Friends of humanity have not allowed the subject to drop out of sight. In conclusion, it may be mentioned that during the winter of 1898-99 city school inspector, Dr. Zwick, of Berlin, opportunely referred in the Reichstag to the crying evils during the discussion of a bill for protection of trades, and he proposed a num¬ ber of beneficial measures. The question is happily not a party issue. Meanwhile, all interested in it must await the result of the official inquiry. Radical measures are expected for the protection of laboring children. Statistics, which have revealed with such brutal frankness the oppression practiced upon chil¬ dren of school age, is silent on the number of children under 6 years who are forced to work for wages. Police regulations alone are inadequate; still, they are better than nothing at all. The differences apparent in the State and the provincial laws prove the necessity of Imperial legislation. Money is likewise needed for the support of indigent children and mothers. Help must be solicited. Moreover, the citizens have a duty in the premises: All should take an interest in the question and rescue children from being torn away from childhood before they have learned to know it. VII. MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. The medical inspection of schools, which of late years has engaged the attention of the public, and particular^ of educators and physi¬ cians, has gained a firmer basis for advancement in Germany in conse¬ quence of the definite attitude of the Prussian minister of worship, education , and medical affairs. Opinions for and against medical inspec- 826 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. tion have been expressed. Educators in general opposed it because- of the extensive demands of some physicians and hygiene specialists. If these extreme demands were granted the inspections, periodical and regular, would infringe upon the functions of teachers and seriously imperil the orderly procedure of schools. Many justifiable require¬ ments could be satisfied as easily by teachers, properly trained, as by physicians. Physicians generally favor the plan, because with them it involves both pecuniary gain and professional authority. Lately the contention has lost some of its acerbity, but it has not come to an end. In this conflict of opinions the experience gained under conditions existing in the city of Wiesbaden seems to oiler a solution. To study these conditions the Prussian minister of education sent two of his councilors, Mr. Brandi, of the division of schools, and Dr. Schmidt- mann, of the division of medicine, to W7iesbaden, and forwarded their reports to all State school officers located at the capitals of the prov¬ inces, and also to the provincial school board of Berlin. The following statements are based upon Dr. Schmidtmann’s report, published in German in the Medicine and Hygiene Quarterly. In the spring of 1895 about 7.000 pupils of the city public schools — that is, practically all the children of school age — were subjected to a medical examination by order of the city council of Wiesbaden. The result proved that 25 per cent were sick, physically defective, or suf¬ fering even from contagious diseases. This one examination showed the practical significance of medical inspection for the health and the education of children, as well as for the interests of school authorities. In proper appreciation of this result, and in pursuance of the proposi¬ tion made by Councilman Kalle, whose opinion on this subject is especially worth}" of consideration, the city, by way of experiment, in 1896 appointed four temporary medical inspectors of schools. Their duties as fixed by law comprised — (1) The examination of all new pupils who failed to furnish a med¬ ical report on their physical condition. (2) The keeping of a medical chart or record for fourteen days for every child not in health. (3) A medical consultation hour in every school, with (4) Examination and inspection of class rooms with respect to furni¬ ture, light, ventilation, heating, cleanliness, etc. (5) Brief lectures to teachers on questions concerning the health of children. Each physician received $150 a year for these services. The favor¬ able result of this preliminary arrangement has led to the permanent appointment of six medical inspectors. The health certificate given to every newly admitted pupil mentions, besides name, residence, vac¬ cination, etc., the following points: General build, height, weight (each school has apparatus for measuring and weighing), chest measure, con- MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. 827 dition of chest and stomach, skin diseases, measurement of spine and limbs, eye and strength of vision, ears and hearing, mouth, nose, and speech, special remarks and propositions for treatment in school, remarks for parents, observations of teachers. The medical inspectors have pronounced 7.6 per cent of the chil¬ dren afflicted with pronounced or incipient curvature of the spine; 9 per cent predisposed to rupture, not noticed until their examination; and 13.6 per cent suffering from eye and ear complaints, etc. These facts are a protest against the customary assertions that these com¬ plaints are brought on by attendance at school. Regular examina¬ tions promise to prevent the introduction of infection and disease germs into schools. Hence the appointment of medical inspectors is evidently a generally useful measure. In 1895 as many as 45. 7 per cent of 6,949 children were well built, in contradistinction to 45.6 per cent of somewhat defective build and 8.7 per cent of bad physical formation. These figures prove that the children of the poorer parents are inadequately fed. The warm breakfast of oatmeal and bread supplied from voluntary contributions and distributed from December till March, in the public schools of ¥7iesbaden, meets a positive necessity. Experience in that city has not substantiated the objections raised against medical inspectors. Teachers recognize that the action of these officials promotes educational ends without interfering with order, and the interest of teachers in behalf of the health of children has grown more active. Dr. Schmidtmann, from whose reports these facts’ are gleaned, considers the wav clear for the combined action and mutual support of teachers and physicians in behalf of schools and the civili¬ zation dependent upon them. The Prussian minister of education, Dr. Bosse, therefore addressed an order to the various provincial governments, regarding the intro¬ duction of regular medical examinations and the inspection of all educational institutions. It reads in part as follows: “Medical inspection in the schools of Wiesbaden has prpved that many infirmities, diseases, and predisposition to disease are found in children of large cities before their entrance into school, which after subsequent recognition are erroneousty attributed, to attendance at school, and which, moreover, imperil the health of other pupils. It is of interest to learn the state of health of children in rural districts by means of the medical examination of a large number of children who either have been just admitted to school, or have attended some time, so that it may be judged from the facts deduced whether permanent med¬ ical inspection be necessary in rural schools, and to what extent. The provincial school authorities are therefore ordered to select about six schools in each count (Regierungs-Bezirk), where children about to be admitted, chosen from various grades of the population as far as 828 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. practicable, shall be examined by the health officer, assisted by the local school inspector and teacher, to ascertain whether they may be admitted without danger to other pupils, and whether they can attend all or some of the classes (this refers to dispensation from gymnastic exercises, etc.) without prejudice to their physical development. In regard to the lirst point, the investigation should cover infectious and contagious diseases, especially scarlet fever, measles, whooping cough, and diphtheria. With regard to the second point, the general build, mental development, constitutional diseases, and physical infirmities should be considered. “The inspection of class rooms from a hygienic standpoint is like¬ wise required, and the following points are to be considered: Number of children, capacity of rooms, cleanliness, natural and artificial light, window shades, temperature, ventilation and heating, condition of the air, seats and desks and other furniture. The inspection of school- houses includes that of grounds, in regard to drinking water, drainage, and vicinity of factories.” According to the opinions of the educational press in Berlin, the medical inspector is welcome as a physician. School hygiene, how ever, is not so much a subject of medicine as of pedagogy. Of course, teachers at both universities and normal schools require a better preparation in hygiene than heretofore. If official physicians as such had a seat and vote in the local school boards all reasonable demands ■would be met, and not a single physician should assume the right of tutelage over schools and teachers, as the clergymen have heretofore done in their official capacity as local school inspectors. It is that which the teachers fear and, as the Berlin journals urge, not without reason. VIII. SECONDARY EDUCATION AS VIEWED BY SCIENTISTS IN GERMANY. The Munehener Allgemeine Zeitung (General Gazette of Munich) recently reported upon the subject of secondary education at length, and since the opinions of important German scientists are quoted, it is deemed of sufficient interest to American educators to publish the article in English. The reporter of the Gazette is Prof. L. Fleischner, of Budweis, Bohemia, Austria. The occasion for this symposium of opinions was the seventieth annual convention of German scientists and physicians at Diisseldorf, in Rhenish Prussia. The following is the report: That educational questions are proposed for discussion and argued at almost every meeting of scientific men is an encouraging sign of the increased appreciation of their importance. It is not surprising, therefore, that among the many papers read at the seventieth eonven- SECONDARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 829 tion of German scientists and physicians, held at Diisseldorf in Sep¬ tember, 1899, there were some of vital interest to educators and the general public, for the reason that they gave a clear idea of the strong undercurrents in education which in no far distant future will reach the surface. That many of these topics had been amply discussed and most care¬ fully considered before — that is, at the December conference in Berlin, called together by Emperor Wilhelm eight years previous — is not unworthy of note. The fact that secondary schools do not attain their desired end because of faulty organization, bad methods, or too extended or restricted a curriculum had no weight whatever in calling that December conference. Considerations altogether foreign to schools and their functions led to the assembling of those forty-four trustworthy men of different stations and vocations. As the invitation read, they were to meet 64 for consultation on a number of important questions affecting the secondary schools of Prussia.’5 In his cabinet order of May 1, 1890, the Emperor, in his capacity as King of Prus¬ sia, had already expressed the purpose uto make the various grades of schools useful in resisting the expansion of socialistic and communistic views;” consequently to make it their business to oppose social democ¬ racy. Nevertheless, purely didactic questions, proposed by the min¬ ister of education, were also considered at this conference. To these the Emperor added seven others referring to school hygiene, course of study, methods of teaching, and mental overtaxing, which were of the same tenor as those discussed in Diisseldorf. However, the mem¬ bers of this later convention did not coniine themselves to conditions in Prussia or in Germany. In Austria two questions of school reform are being much agitated. An inquiry started by the Vienna weekly, Die W age (The Balance), a year ago, gave a number of well-known educators an opportunity of expressing their views on the reform of secondary schools.1 These opinions were collected and published in pamphlet form. They referred to the same questions that were debated in Diisseldorf, and the learned men at Vienna arrived at the same conclusion as the German scientists. The chief fault of the gymnasium (the classical high school) was thought to be inadequate object lessons, leaving the graduate deficient in observation. Some complained of burdening the pupils with the study of Greek, while Latin was generally considered necessary, still it was maintained by some that English and French should be substituted for the dead languages. Mention was also made of laying too much stress upon memorizing in these classical schools, thereby neglecting other powers of the mind. The education offered in the realistic high school (Realschulen) was considered a sufficient preparation for tech- 1 “Was leistet die Mittelsehule? ” (What does the secondary school accomplish?) Published by the editor of Die Wage, Vienna, 1898. 830 EDUCATION REPORT, 18S9-1800. nology, but these schools, it was claimed, ought to offer a general edu¬ cation of a higher order than at present. All agreed, however, upon a uniform secondary school with a six-years’ course, and this proposi¬ tion received marked approval in the convention. If we turn our attention from these general statements of school reforms considered in the past to the different papers read at Diissei- dorf, we shall find, as has already been remarked, that the same ques¬ tions were there debated as in Berlin, 1890, and in Vienna, 1897. The movement toward a comprehensive school reform which, like ail great modern events, will one day be regulated by international agreement is not coming to a standstill; ceaseless agitation is one of its character¬ istics; the indifference that once prevailed has been effectually sup¬ planted by an active interest dominating all spheres of society. The paper of Professor Klein, of Gottingen, on “Universities and Polytechnic Institutes,” deserves first mention. The lecturer voiced the demand of the Polytechnic Institutes for more stringent condi¬ tions of admission, as well as for greater assistance from the State in the establishment of secondary technical schools, so-called preparatory schools. He spoke further of a possible union of both, the university and the polytechnicum, but at the same time, he advised representa¬ tives of universities to strive to avert a disruption of higher education which is threatened by the antithesis of theory and practice. As the development of polytechnic institutes necessitates their adopting some university arrangements in their organization and management, so the universities in turn should not be idle spectators of the progress in the engineering arts. Professor Klein joined his arguments, in a certain sense, to those expressed by Professor Riedler in a book entitled “Our Universities and the Demands of the Twentieth Century.”1 This book had only been published shortly before, and had excited much comment on account of its bold attack on several evils existing in the system of higher and secondary education of German. (A briefer statement of his views published in the educational press was presented in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education of the year 1897-98, pp. 216-222.) In his estimation, those educational factors should be considered in the preparatory schools which can no longer be ignored in modern civilization, and these reforms are desirable, because the coming century will be one of economics, and in that field higher problems than ever before will confront the nations. Both, Riedler and Klein, refer to the defective connection between universities and practical life, as well as to the circumstance that these highest exponents of education pay too little attention to economic questions of the day. 1 “ Unsere Hochschulen unci die Anforderungen des 20. Jahrhimderts.” A. Riedler, Geh. Regierungsrath und professor. 4. Auflage, Berlin, 1898. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 881 At the close of the century, he asks the justifiable question: How must the highest educational institutions be planned in order to meet the demands of the future? His remarks, it is true, sound like a eulogium on polytechnic institutes since these fit their students for prac¬ tical industrial pursuits without neglecting scientific investigation. His opinion is, that universities will be obliged to replace their tendency to specialization by instruction which grasps more of the totality of knowledge. To bring about a closer relationship between both groups of institutions, Eiedler would rearrange the faculties into faculty of arts and faculty of technology. In the polytechnic institutes a corre¬ sponding arrangement would be necessary, but an improvement in the department of general culture would at first suffice. Representatives of polytechnic institutes should, however, strenuously oppose a mere annexation of technological sciences to the curriculum of universities, as the influence of their own schools would thereby suffer, and the studies themselves come to naught. Eiedler, in conclusion, proposes plans of effecting these reforms, to pave the way for equal rights for the institutions of whose equal merit he is convinced. The other papers of a pedagogical tendency read at the convention of scientists treated under different titles one and the same subject: “Mental overtaxing in high schools.” Whether the discussion be of “ classical or realistic high schools with reference to overburdening;” or of “cause and prevention of nervousness in pupils of secondary schools;” or of “ changes in the organization of high schools to relieve mental overtaxing;” or, finally, of “ measuring mental capac¬ ity and fatigue,” the tenor of all is dissatisfaction in regard to the tasks imposed upon pupils. Articles upon articles and many books have, likewise, been written on these subjects. From the many, one may be selected1 in which the author discusses this question in con¬ nection with the reforms instituted in the northern countries, and openly censures the faults that cling to the German educational sys¬ tem even after the December conference in Berlin. Equipped with a complete knowledge of the subject, he demonstrates that the custom¬ ary terms, “general education” and “learned education” (allgemeine und gelehrte Rildung), are no longer synonymous. In his opinion, the pupils of secondary schools may be divided into three groups. To the first belong those who already in the lower grades show their inability to meet the requirements of the school; they drop out very soon. Those in the second group attend two or three years longer before entering upon practical life. Comparatively few finish the course and are graduated; and many among these enter upon practical “Only a life without attending: higher institutions of learning, 1 “Schulreformen und Scliulreformbestrebungen in den Skandinaviscben Lan- dern.” W. Wtetekamp, Oberlehrer am Realgymnasium zu Breslau. Breslau, 1897. 832 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1899-1900. school which takes these facts into consideration can attain its object of being a preparatory school for life, and such is the reformed school.” The author proceeds to describe this reformed school as it exists in Scandinavian countries. In Norway the high school consists of an intermediate school with six grades and a gymnasium with a three years5 course, one branch of which is devoted to the humanities, the other to natural science and mathematics. In Denmark the course is divided into one of four years, upon which a two years’ higher course follows, devoted to either the classics or to natural sciences including mathematics. In Sweden three lower grades form a general uniform foundation for all secondary schools; in the fourth grade only pupils are allowed an option in Latin or English and drawing. (Note. — It must be understood that all these secondary schools build upon a founda¬ tion of elementary education lasting four years or more, i. e., from the sixth to the tenth or eleventh year of age.) Wetekamp also mentions the tedious discussions provoked in the legislative bodies of the coun¬ tries mentioned by school reforms, as well as the report of the commis¬ sion that declared the proper beginning for improving instruction to be found in 66 adapting it to the susceptibility of the juvenile age and in considering the aims and means of school education from the stand¬ point of the boys’ needs and aspirations.” Concentration he thinks necessary with respect to the number of studies, but more even with respect to their subject-matter. From the illustrations the author deduces that throughout Scandinavia there is no indication of turning aside from the path of reform adopted years past — that is to say, to begin Latin and Greek earlier; on the contrary, the general desire is to continue within present lines until a new, modern, uniform school is formed out of the present multiplicity of schools. Views differ only upon the speediness in the adoption of these reforms. Wetekamp does not doubt that in Germany, too, the dead languages will sooner or later be removed from the lower six grades of the high schools and will not be obligatory in the higher grades. The history of education in all civilized countries so plainly shows a development in this direction that we would have to close our eyes not to see it. He concludes with these words: u When schools are nourished by the life around them, then alone can they fulfill their task of preparing for life. Whether we be in sympathy with the details of their reforms or not we must be grateful to these northern nations if, favored by simpler conditions of life, they take the lead in reform, and gather experiences which we may be able to turn to account.” At the convention in Diisseldorf, prominent speakers also demon¬ strated the consequences of straining and overtaxing the mind by the present system. These complaints are by no means new; silenced by the pressure of political events, they break forth again with increased venemence. At the time of the conference in Berlin a great deal had SECONDARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 833 been written upon the necessity of physical training. Attention need only be called to the valuable works of Preyer, and particularly to his lecture on 44A New German School ” before the Lette Society in Berlin, February 5, 1890. In this he proposed, among other things, that theoretical instruction (i. e., lessons which employ' the intellect only) be confined to morning hours, that afternoon hours be devoted to recreation, and that home lessons and public examinations be omitted. It seems as though he had foreseen what was proved in Diisseldorf eight years later, namely, that one-fourth of the number of pupils are physically below par (korperlich minderwerthig); one-tenth the num¬ ber in the lower grades of intermediate and secondary schools suffer from nervousness, which, with all its attendant effects, increases to an alarming extent in the higher grades, in single cases as high as 60 per cent, whereas 20 per cent are victims of insomnia. The same speaker further complained of the unnecessarily long working hours, the unsuitable distribution of work over the whole day, and of other evils arising from the fact that 44 lawyers and phi¬ lologists compose the boards of trustees, to the exclusion of experts in hygiene.’5 This gives the present writer the desired opportunity of referring to two noteworthy lectures of Dr. Emil Krapelin, professor of psychiatry in Heidelberg, which he delivered a year ago and again in Diisseldorf. In both papers, entitled 44 Mental Work11 and 44 Over¬ taxing the Brain,”1 the author discusses the question in its connection with mental capacity and the latter’s dependence upon food, sleep, and physical exercise. Upon experiments made by professional men he forms conclusions that agree with the requirements set by the con¬ vention to make the pupils’ burden lighter. After mentioning some pedagogic, didactic, and hygienic circumstances, and quoting the investigations of Leo Burgerstein, of Vienna, who proved that tired children may be forced to sit still and keep silence, but not to be thoroughly attentive, Dr. Krapelin concludes that with the present extent of instruction 44 tiresome teachers are a necessity, for if all teachers understood how to awaken and hold an absorbing interest in their lessons, children would be incited to continual mental exertion in spite of fatigue,, and the consequences would be disastrous, or, at least, hard to estimate.” The necessity of shortening the time of work must be repeatedly emphasized. It is not enough that children help themselves through enervation and consequent lack of interest, since a decrease of susceptibility on the part of the pupils destroys the fruit of instruction, and since continued exertion in spite of fatigue is injurious as a stimulant taken habitually. The author proposes, in the firsi place, a shorter period of time for each lesson, as well as a separation of the intellectual work into two 1 “ Ueber geistige Arbeit” mid “ Zur Ueberburdungsfrage.” Dr. Emil Krapelin. Jena, Gustav Fischer, 1897. ed 1900 - 53 834 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. chief divisions: The morning should be devoted to the greater number and to the more difficult studies; lighter Avork should till in the after¬ noon; home lessons should be limited so as to allow plenty of time for play and sleep. Professor Krapelin knows perfectly well that his propositions can not be carried into effect without a radical change in. present methods and management, and he shows how such a change can be brought about. The general aim of instruction avouIcI require consideration, and children would be placed (in the class room) accord¬ ing to their capacity for work, since the different degrees of taxability are about the same among them as among adults. What one group could bear without injury would overtax another group of pupils per¬ haps not less talented. In conclusion, he says “That within old lines and in the old form, schools are not able to meet the pressing demands of the future. School education (Unterrichtsbetrieb) has expanded in Avidely different direc¬ tions, but the measure is full to overflowing.” The same thought was expressed in all the papers read at the convention : Schools must be adapted to changed conditions of life and civilization, for the best conceivable schools grow out of date in the course of time. Mention was likewise made of the system of granting social privileges to high schools, an arrangement which attaches important tangible advantages to certain kinds or grades of knowledge,1 and whereby boys of medi¬ ocre intellect are induced in great number to enter secondary schools. The question was put Avhether this monopoly had not better be aban¬ doned. It was further urged that efforts be made toAvard a change, in the sense that ail the students should learn the results of intellectual conquests, of the past, so that they may come to a lively understanding of the present through their knowledge of the past. This evidently refers to the demand to base every study upon a historical basis, be that astronomy, mathematics, geography, or anything else. The reporter in conclusion says: All the reforms of a pedagogical nature, advocated at the coiwention in Diisseldorf, should he recewed with Arise moderation and careful reflection. The proper medium must be adopted, Avhich, setting aside antiquated forms overruled -by development in civilization, will meet the true necessities of the times and the nation, in proper measure and with the best suited means, Avithout merely serving an ephemeral utili¬ tarianism directed only by what is latest in vogue. When that idea has once taken root we need have no fear for the German high schools, at least not for such as take a firm stand against superficiality and shallowness by their scientific method and their strong purpose to teach science. Then the question of school reform, at pres¬ ent striking at the roots of all civilization and conditions of life, will be solved, in a sense that we need not say wfith Heinrich von Treitschke, the historian, “adding a violent breaking with the oldest traditions of education to the mighty commotion of the time.” 1 The reporter here refers to the privilege of abbreviating the term of military serv¬ ice by two years, if a certain examination in high schools (at the close the 6th grade or the seventeenth year of age) is passed. GERMAN COMMERCIAL CLERKS. 835 IX. THE GERMAN COMMERCIAL CLERK. The annual reports of the Commissioner of Education of recent years in their references to Germany have contained a number of statements — statistical, descriptive, and argumentative— concerning governmental efforts in preparing youth for special vocations, for agricultural, industrial, and commercial pursuits. Attempts were made to demonstrate the intimate relation existing between Germany’s recent phenomenal progress in industry, technology, and commerce, and the vast system of special schools that base their course of study upon a thorough elementary or secondary education, as the case may be. English publications confirm this view, but English and Ameri¬ can visitors to Germany are almost unanimous in saying that the present astonishing expansion of Germany’s industrial and com¬ mercial activity is not solely the result of these special schools, but is due to a variety of causes. They see as chief cause the consistent general education that was inaugurated by the German States dur¬ ing the eighteenth century, and that has since been carefully supported by compulsory school-attendance laws, so that the whole people has been trained consistently and incessantly. This general education, it is claimed, accustomed the people to regularity and order, to clear thinking and broad views, to patient and painstaking industry, and enabled them to practice what they learned in their occupations in life. A certain mechanical skill and useful habits, accumulated through generations in families and communities, became of emi¬ nent use when the era of machine labor began, just as thorough famil¬ iarity with geography and the ability to speak foreign languages aided the commercial man wThen German industry sought foreign markets. The opinion of many Englishmen is particularly strong upon the present impossibility on their part to compete with the present state of general education in German}r, owing to the length of time it takes to change the national habits. They say: It is impossible to compete with the 66 German clerk,” for instance, or with the thrifty and economical German housekeeper, or with the skillful German fac¬ tory laborer, who is more than a mere “hand,” owing to his home and school training. It is said that the English workman, clerk, or what¬ ever he may be, even though he has received an elementary education, is not the patient, plodding, economical man that the German of like grade is. The same is true of the American. There is a radical difference, it is said, between the Englishman and the German, a dif¬ ference that can only disappear after a century’s school and home train¬ ing, such as the Germans have had. This is plainly set forth in the following article by Prof. J. J. Findlay, of London, a man who has lived- for many years in Germany and is qualified to judge and to 836 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. indulge in comparisons, knowing, as he does, the German schoolboys as well as the English. All this may be true, but there is another reason, not often stated because not so well known, which determined the education and con¬ duct not only of many German boys, but of whole nations. It is the fact that the Germans were a poor people. They were incredibly poor, and the same ^reason which made the population of our Ameri¬ can West so thrifty, industrious, and successful, viz, the poverty and necessary privation of the pioneers, had a like effect in Germany. Under unspeakable hardships the Germans at the beginning of the nineteenth century had to labor to uphold their States and earn a liveli¬ hood. In consequence of the Napoleonic wars Germany was thrown into confusion and the people were impoverished. They were poor then, and they remained poor until the year 1871, when an unexpected wealth fell to them, and money ffowed through all the channels of intercourse and raised the purchasing power of the people. Industry took an upward start then, and when in the course of time the limits of the purchasing capacity of the German nation were reached, over¬ production took place, and industry invaded foreign markets. This was the golden time of commerce, and men were ready to meet its demands, men of general culture and linguistic training. On the other hand, the Englishman had for over a century been the trader of the world and the supplier of manufactured goods. He was rich, is rich now, and will be rich as long as his commerce is maintained. Wealth, however, prevented him from fostering the virtues and form¬ ing the habits attributed to the Germans. The neglect of establishing a national system of education in England until 1870, of course, must be considered as a weighty error, which is especially weighty in the a r g um en t me n t io n e d. It may be said that the many elementary and secondary special schools in Germany — agricultural, mining, industrial, technological, art, and commercial schools — as well as the innumerable continuation and drawing schools, are rather an effect of the enormous expansion of industry and commerce than a cause. Few of these schools date their establishment before 1870, and few of their graduates can have had much influence upon the increased wealth-producing activity of Germany. It is reasonable to say that the men who were the originators of that expansion saw the necessity for the future to pre¬ pare a generation which can meet the ever-increasing demands life makes upon the individual and the nation. It is precisely the same case as when we see a poor man slave himself and deny himself luxu¬ ries in order to enable his children to gain a better education than he received, saying, u My children shall not go through the trouble I went through.” Hence it would seem that the argument in favor of a general education is upheld by the facts in the case. GERMAN COMMERCIAL CLERKS. 837 Professor Findlay’s article, which follows, appeared in the Fort¬ nightly Review of September, 1899: There can be little doubt that the country is at last alive to the fact that the doc¬ trine of competition has developed a new phase. Thirty years ago we rejoiced in the competition of goods; we boasted that England could hold her own anywhere with anyone, either in the manufacture of wares or in their exchange; to-day, however, we are confronted with another form of competition — the competition of men with intellect and will power, adapted to light the battle of to-day, just as our coal and iron were adapted to the earlier phase of competition. Our opponent in this new war is the German clerk. He assumes many forms and plays many parts, but in one and all of these he steadily makes his way in every country, and in every large city in the world against his English rival. It may be worth while to indicate exactly how he is manufactured so as to fit so precisely the needs of the commercial market. It is all the more necessary to make the inquiry because so many false impressions have got abroad as to the mode by which this valuable article is produced. Thus it is supposed that we can turn out a similar article — an English clerk or commercial traveler — by the simple plan of setting up a school or two and awarding certificates and prizes to the best students. Unluckily for us, the process is not so easily or rapidly accomplished. The fact is that the German clerk, as we have learned to know him since 1880, it has taken about sixty years to produce; and it will take us just about as long to create a homemade article of the same quality, if we care to try and compete in this line. This sounds discouraging, but it is no' use blinking facts. A human machine, be he clerk, mechanic, or plowman, has to be grown and cultivated with at least as much care and patience as Mexican rubber, and he presents obstacles to cultivation which no foresight or skill in organization can overcome. Now the Germans have not, during these sixty years, set themselves purposely to create the invaluable com¬ mercial weapon; he is mainly the outcome of tendencies in the life of the people, and these have only in a small degree been assisted from efforts expressly designed by the State and by men of business toward the same end. If, then, wre propose to compete, we are bound to have regard not only to those positive measures of minor importance which have been planned with foresight, but to the governing factors in the situation which place our English houses of business at so great a dis¬ advantage. For, although in Germany these factors may have operated uncon¬ sciously, it is quite conceivable that we may imitate their methods by design, and in course of time produce a similar result. There are two leading factors which have been at work during these long years, both contributing to the success of the business world. First, the Germans have developed a liking for culture and books, for an indoor, sedentary life, for intel¬ lectual intercourse, which no other country in the world can parallel, except, per¬ haps, the smaller Teutonic peoples about her, Holland, Norway, Sweden. Now a commercial life is not the ideal outcome of these tastes — your real native German boy longs to be a professor and to write a book — but work in a countinghouse is an alternative which is far preferable to digging beets and potatoes in the field. Com¬ merce has its intellectual rewards to a man whose chief interest in life is in reading and thinking. Your typical German is genuinely interested in learning all that he can about foreign nations, not only because he may profit thereby in pocket, but because he likes to learn things. Everyone who has lived in Germany must have been struck by this general feature of the people in contrast to ourselves. We are credited with greeting the foreigner with arf a brick; ” the German greets him with a polite bow and with broken English. And the English which he speaks may be “ broken” at first, but it soon improves by diligent use of opportunities. There are at this moment many thousands of our countrymen, boys, girls, and students, as 838 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1899-1900. well as adults, in the fatherland, and nine out of ten of these are talking English! for the benefit, of course, of German commerce. Hence the German system of education, which is popularly supposed to be the sole agent in creating the German clerk, is an effect and not a cause. The boy likes his school; his family fosters his tastes; they talk English or French wTith him constantly. You will not find a town on the north coast where English is not heard in families which boast of being refined or educated. The ordinary middle-class parent in Ger¬ many knows more about the real nature of education, and the conditions which will make schooling successful, than our English cabinet ministers. But they possess this knowledge, not because they have studied the subject, but because they have grown up with it, as part of the life of their city and country, all through the century. Second, your German has always been poor and thrifty, content with a salary which his English colleague would scorn. No doubt, since 1880, things have altered for the better (or worse?); patriotic Germans complain that the luxurious habits which have begun to prevail since the victory over France started the country on its career of phenomenal prosperity. But we in England have, for at least two hun¬ dred years, maintained a standard of comfort far in advance of what obtains abroad; and although food is cheaper in London than in any other city in the world, it is the foreigner and not the Englishman who finds that he can make a profit out of a “liv¬ ing wage.” These are the two governing factors in the situation, and they would have created, the competition in any case, since the increase of population in Germany, fostered by discontent at heavy taxation and despotic government, is always driving young men out of the country. Nevertheless some importance must be attached to the positive measures, to which we have referred, undertaken by government and by chambers of commerce. These consist, firstly, in the establishment of commercial colleges and universities (Han- delshochschulen), where boys who have already received a good modern education can learn all about the world’s trade, and can qualify for responsible posts in large firms. Secondly, in sending teachers abroad, so that they may return properly qual¬ ified to teach modern languages and commercial geography, both in the schools and the commercial colleges. What, then, can we do in England to fight this competition? Can we, in fact, attempt to fight it at all? So far as it is simply a problem of the standard of com¬ fort we can not adopt any measures which will keep out the German clerk. If he will do for a guinea what the English clerk will only do for two guineas, then he will inevitably hold the market ; the Englishman must either forego his extra guinea or find other work. So far he has preferred to seek for other work, and we can not blame him. However, this is not the only factor. The first and leading element in the situa¬ tion is the nature of the English schoolboy and his upbringing at home as well as at school. We can not take our boy and transform him in a few months into a German clerk ; to achieve such a transformation we should have to begin with the boy’s grandfather, and make him a little less of a barbarian ! But some of the leeway can be made up, if we go the right way about it. What has happened in Germany as a result of national tastes and tendencies can be achieved in England by definite public-spirited effort. A few commercial colleges will do a little, but they will not do much ; and indeed they are bound to fail unless we feed them with pupils such as are supplied in Germany from the modern second¬ ary schools (Realschulen). The one main reform which is possible of achievement is to foster every school which provides a sound, complete course of education for boys of the so-called middle classes. And this fostering care must be exhibited, not only by the education department, but by every local and imperial authority. Unfortunately, there is very little sign of encouragement among public men. The GERMAN COMMERCIAL CLERKS. 889 Duke of Devonshire lias produced a bill for secondary education, but it has remained in the House of Lords, and there is every reason to fear that any such bill will be killed by the opposition of vested interests which profit by the present forlorn con¬ ditions of culture. And the bishops may oppose reform because they fear that religion will suffer unless the church controls the schools; primary teachers will, it is feared, oppose any reform which does not promote the interests of the primary teacher. It remains to be seen whether there is enough genuine zeal for culture among the middle classes of this country to make it worth the while of either polit¬ ical party to take up the cause of secondary education. If not, we shall deserve to suffer from the competition of continental countries which are enlightened enough to understand that modern commerce depends upon a knowledge of the world, and that this knowledge can best be acquired by sound modern schooling, fostered by the home, supported and supervised by the State. We can not, for many years, hope to create in English society such a general atmosphere of culture as prevails in Germany, nor need we desire to do so, for the German type is not wholly to be admired; but we can do something to make the English schoolboy a little less of a barbarian, and his teachers, the masters in our secondary schools, are only waiting for the necessary countenance and aid from Parliament. Until public opinion takes the matter in hand, it is idle for us to complain of commercial competition. The foregoing is reenforced by an article of Prof. Edward J. Goodwin, of the High School for Boys and Girls, in New York, pub¬ lished in the School Keview (Chicago, November, 1899), which article is here reproduced to show some of the secret forces that produce the w German commercial clerk,7’ as well as other factors of the prosperity of the empire. RESULTS IN THE PRUSSIAN GYMNASIUM. It may be said at the outset, that nowhere else in the world are the general condi¬ tions more favorable to good schools than in Germany. In no other country is a sound education more necessary for the maintenance of the integrity of the nation and the autonomy of the race. The instinct of national preservation acts as a pow¬ erful incentive towards such a system of discipline as shall result in seriousness of mind and a readiness to submit to rigid laws. If we were surrounded on either side by powerful and aggressive enemies, and if our national existence depended upon our having a large number of highly educated and well trained men, it would be less difficult to impress our people with the importance of a vigorous and scientific train¬ ing. As it is, there are not a few of the patrons of our secondary schools who not only do not believe in the necessity of subjecting boys to systematic and thorough discipline, but decidedly object to it when their own children are concerned. In any attempt to estimate the value of the training of the gymnasium, or to find out how the secondary schools of Prussia obtain their results, the first thing to be reckoned with is their peculiar system of school government. It is effective and com¬ plete to the last degree. The order is so perfect, and the attention of the pupils to the work in hand is so absorbing and persistent, that the superficial observer can not fail to be impressed with admiration for the system and pity for the boys. The sources of such a severe form of school government must be sought for, I believe, outside of the school. In the presence of a large standing army, the belief that there is urgent need of maintaining it at the highest point of efficiency, and the strict enforcement of a rigid code of civil and criminal law, have more to do with fixing the standard of discipline in the schools than the schools themselves. No American teacher would wish to see such an artificial and arbitrary standard of school govern¬ ment established here. It is neither possible nor desirable. The purposes of school 840 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. government in the two countries are widely different. German children are trained to submit to authority, but our boys must be taught to govern themselves. The former are to be the subjects of a prince, the latter are to participate in the government of a free state. This difference in the purposes of school government involves a corre¬ sponding dissimilarity in methods of discipline. In the one country the control of the school is direct, absolute, and sometimes severe: in the other the teacher con¬ stantly appeals to the reason of both pupils and parents, and exercises strict authority under the law only as a last resort. To bring a school under effective control by methods that command the assent of reasonable and liberty-loving pupils is just as difficult, and quite as essential, as to give skillful instruction in the several subjects of study. Our boys, as we believe, must have a definite degree of freedom of action, the larger the better so long as the proper work of the school is not interfered with. But to determine where the liberty of the pupils shall end and the restraint of the school begin is a question so complex and delicate that it often taxes to the utmost the wisdom and resources of the teacher. The Prussian schoolmaster is not called upon to solve any such perplexing problem. The time, thought, and energy which we expend in school management he may devote to strengthening his scholarship and increasing the efficiency of his instruction. But in respect to effectiveness of organization the superiority of the Prussian gym¬ nasium is very great. I use the word organization to include the curriculum of stud¬ ies, the character and methods of instruction, and the training, appointment, and pensioning of teachers. In formulating and executing wise plans of education a cen¬ tralized government has immense advantages. The wisest men may be called upon for counsel, and the ablest men of the Empire may be intrusted with the responsi¬ bility of administering the affairs of the schools. In Germany a great school reform may be inaugurated in a day; in America reforms come only after long periods of discussion and agitation. In Germany there is a splendidly elaborated system of State schools; in America there is a kind of local option in education. The general looseness and weakness of our organization seem to be a part of the price that we have to pay for our free insti¬ tutions. The right of our municipalities to organize and direct their own schools is as carefully guarded and persistently maintained as if the perpetuity of the civil lib¬ erties of the people were dependent upon it. The slowness of the decadence of the old New England district school system is a striking illustration of the stubbornness with which our people resist all tendencies toward centralization of government. Under our present municipal form of organization, we can not expect to have such a uniformly good system of schools as vTe find in Prussia or any other State of Germany. Another source of weakness in our education becomes apparent when v7e begin to examine our courses of study. They are more varied in their form and content than the climate and productions of the localities which they represent. They lack cohe¬ rence, rational order, and stability. They are subject to the caprice of school super¬ intendents, principals, teachers, and influential members of school boards, who may, or may not, be well informed in the philosophy of education. In Germany, how¬ ever, programmes of studies are carefully matured by wise and learned men after a protracted and profound study of the ends and means of education. Our lecturers on education talk in a wise way about the correlation of studies, but in Germany we may see the principles of correlation in actual operation in the courses of study and methods of instruction. This is especially true in the gymnasium (classical high school), where we find a definite and elaborate scheme of studies and careful attention to the details of instruction. I can not attempt within the limitations of this paper to give a formal analysis of the curriculum of the gymnasium. And yet, it is easy to find embodied in it several of the most important principles formulated by the committee of ten. I quote from page 16 of their report: 4 ‘It is inevitable, therefore, that spe¬ cialists in any one of the subjects which are pursued in the high schools or colleges GERMAN COMMERCIAL CLERKS. 841 should earnestly desire that the minds of young children he stored with some of the elementary facts and principles of their subjects, and that all the mental habits, which the adult student will surely need, begin to be formed in the child’s mind before the age of 14.” The acceptance of this most important general truth would revolutionize our elementary education. Germany has already accepted it, and demonstrated its practicability and utility. The boy of 14 in the gymnasium has had something more than the husks of learning. He has had five years of Latin, two years of Greek, five years of history with related geography, five years in the elements of arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, four years of natural history with one of physics, and a con¬ tinuous course of five years in German, religion, writing, drawing, singing, and gym¬ nastics. A comparison of these subjects of study with those that are set before a boy from 9 to 14 years of age in an average American grammar school, will show very clearly one of the means by which the German gymnasium achieves such large results. The pupil’s vigor of application, range of thought, and grasp of subject-matter, dur¬ ing these golden days of a boy’s education, are much greater than they are with us. Their programme of studies is much more extensive and intensive than ours, and, although the gymnasium is a clearly defined classical institution, only about 35 per cent of its time is spent upon Latin and Greek. It is worthy of note, too, that there are no short courses in any subject of study. German, Latin, history, mathematics, science, religion, singing, and gymnastics are pursued continuously for nine years, while French and Greek are studied respectively seven and six years. I have already alluded to the great superiority of the organization of the Prussian schools. To my mind the most important and striking characteristic of this organi¬ zation is the large number of class exercises. The average number per week for the nine years of the curriculum of the gymnasium is thirty -three. This includes sing¬ ing, drawing, and gymnastics, but excludes English and Hebrew, which are electives. It is well-nigh impossible to exaggerate the far-reaching significance of this fact, when we attempt to compare the achievements in scholarship of the Prussian gym¬ nasium with the results attained in the secondary schools of the United States. Twenty lessons a week nearly represent the maximum in our best schools. What would be the outcome if we coukl enlarge this number by 50 or 60 per cent? The curriculum could be enriched, more subjects of study could be pursued continuously, and the effectiveness of the instruction could be increased. Consider the amount of energy our pupils spend in misdirected and futile efforts. Compute the time that is wasted before they acquire the habits of study or the power of persistent applica¬ tion by means of which the student grapples successfully with subjects that are hard to understand. In the gymnasium this loss is minimized. For instance, per¬ plexing problems in mathematics are solved under the eye and guidance of a teacher. The paradigms of Latin and Greek are clearly taught in the class room; they are not memorized as disconnected facts, but practice in the use of words in their right rela¬ tion goes on “pari passu” with a study of their forms. This stimulating help of the teacher insures rapid progress, and runs clear of the errors and misconceptions that pupils make, who spend only time enough with the teacher to recite the lessons that they have learned elsewhere. It must be, too, that no inconsiderable number of our pupils fail in scholarship for the lack of just such skillful and systematic instruction as the German teachers give, and which we can not impart for want of time. Those who survive the struggle in our schools are doubtless more self-reliant than the students of the gymnasium, but, since only about two-thirds as much time is given to their instruction, they can not fairly be expected to attain the same standard of scholarship. In listening to the recitations in foreign languages I was forcibly impressed again and again with the fact that the instruction of the gymnasium appeals to the sense of hearing more than to the sense of sight. In our own schools it is quite common to see translations from English into foreign languages written by pupils on black- 842 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. boards and corrected in the presence of the class. An exercise of this kind in the gymnasium did not once come under my observation. An equal amount of work was often done orally in less than half the time. But written lessons were not wholly neglected. Test exercises written in blank books, and subsequently corrected by the teacher, were sufficiently frequent to acquaint the instructor with the prog¬ ress of each pupil and the accuracy of his knowledge of vocabulary, forms, and syntax. The rapidity of these oral exercises was quite wonderful, and surpassed anything of the kind that I had ever seen in the schools of this country. This unusual facility in oral recitations is of course a natural consequence of a greater fullness and readiness of the memory. In the younger classes the demands made upon this faculty are severe and continuous. The Germans seem to recognize more clearly than we do that the years preceding adolesence are best adapted to the acquisition of knowledge through the memory. A writer in a recent number of the School Review declared that the aims of clas¬ sical study in Germany have undergone radical modifications in recent years. My observations agree with this declaration. The official statement of the general aim of the study of Latin in Prussia is expressed in these words: “The understanding of the more important classical authors and philological training.” It was clearly evident in the instruction that the order of importance of the two general aims mentioned agrees with their order of precedence. In the more advanced classes the examina¬ tion and discussion of the content of the classic authors occupied a large share of the time of the recitation. Questions concerning the modes of warfare, the institu¬ tions of government, and the forms and essence of the morality, religion, and philos¬ ophy of the ancient Greeks and Romans constantly recurred. In one recitation where a group of boys 11 years old were reading Nepos the greater part of the hour was spent in a discussion suggested by the words “columna rostrata.” The central purpose seemed to be to inspire the boys with humane thoughts and high ideals. The study of the laws of language is necessarily made prominent in the elementary classes, but in the latter part of the course this gives way to the critical examination of the content of the literature. The method of teaching history to classes of young pupils seemed to be a successful combination of the lecture and recitation. The lesson began with a quiz on the review, which was conducted with great rapidity and animation. The questions covered a wide range, and were evidently designed to fasten permanently upon the memory a general outline of important historic data. The quiz was followed by a lecture on the topic of the next day’s lesson, which occupied about half of the hour. The lecture was so vivid and skillful that one class which I saw was quite carried away by their interest in the teacher’s narrative. There are obvious advantages in thus blazing the way through a period of history for a class of young students who are too immature in judgment to find a way for themselves. In a class of older pupils I saw a good illustration of the so-called seminar method of studying history. Nothing excited my admiration more than the simple device by which the gym¬ nasium endeavors to exercise an almost complete control over the literature that the boys read during the years of childhood and youth. Every class room that I visited contained a small portable closet, in which was kept a collection of interesting books, carefully selected and adapted to the age and maturity of the class. The supply is kept good by occasional contributions from the boys, and the books are given out with sufficient frequency to provide the boys with all the books that they have time to read out of school. A scheme so simple and salutary as this is worthy of general adoption. The incentives that operate upon the minds of the pupils in the German secondary schools likewise demand consideration. The graduates of the gymnasium not only escape two years’ military service, but they are the only ones permitted to study law, medicine, or theology in the university. The right to compete for the honors and GERMAN COMMERCIAL CLERKS. 843 emoluments of the learned professions is, therefore, open only to those who succeed in the gymnasium. This privilege must tend not only to bring the most ambitious boys into the gymnasium, but to incite them to the loftiest achievements in scholarship. But what shall we say of the German schoolmaster? In all essential respects he is a professional man. He is trained for his duties with the utmost care and fore¬ thought, and in turn is required to carry on his work of instruction with an equal degree of precision and skill. After graduating from the gymnasium and the univer¬ sity, he must serve an apprenticeship of two years without pay under the supervision of some head master before he can become a candidate for an appointment. These precautions insure the selection of only the most worthy candidates, and tend to produce a class of teachers who are mature in years and scholarship and well informed as to the purposes and methods of instruction. Add to this permanency of tenure and the certainty of a pension, and we have a combination of conditions that yields a class of men who have a capacity for skillful and efficient service that is unsur¬ passed by the teachers of any other country. The chief reasons for the excellent results obtained in the German gymnasium may be summarized in a single sentence. They are national institutions; they are believed to be essential to the national welfare; they easily maintain the -strictest and most effective discipline; they have a broad, well-balanced, and substantial pro¬ gramme of studies; the number of hours per week devoted to class exercises is exceed¬ ingly large; the purposes of the instruction are clearly defined; the methods of instruction are well considered and wisely adapted to meet the ends designed; the incentives to study are extraordinary, and the teachers are well trained, mature, scholarly, secure in their positions, and sure of a pension when overtaken by ill- health or old age. Prof. W. Weinig, the principal of a commercial college in Bellinzona, Switzerland, writing on the subject of commercial education, lays special stress on the study of foreign languages. His paper is here reproduced: ON THE VALUE OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING FOR BUSINESS MEN. Some years ago there appeared a certain book by Mr. Williams, entitled ‘ £ Made in Germany,” which caused a great sensation in the commercial world, especially in England. Its purport was to show the steadily increasing progress of German industry and trade. Everywhere, it said, English goods and English trade were being confronted with the so much abused German made articles. It was acknowl¬ edged that the much vaunted English commodity could no longer compare so favorably with the goods “made in Germany,” and it was regretfully stated, with illustrations by means of official figures, that the trade in the foreign articles (and the trade of the foreigner itself) were making large inroads on the formerly exclu¬ sively British markets. Iiow far this well-established fact indicated a serious danger ahead may be judged from the subsequent efforts made in England toward imperi¬ alism and the protectionism so closely connected with it. And yet, this had only been a symptom of deeper-lying causes and effects of which I may be allowed to adduce one more particularly to the point. In fact, this state of things had long been patent to the unbiased observer. Nations do not stand still, or if they do they are left behind by their more active and intelligent competitors. An unmistakable sign of such successful competition was the outcry raised in Eng¬ land, and chiefly in its huge metropolis, over the foreign clerk pressing in everywhere and elbowing his British rival out, to such an extent that the national sentiment grew alarmed and cries of ‘ ‘ fair play ’ ’ and ‘ £ England for the English ’ ’ were fairly dinned into the ears of every head of a firm who wanted employees. 844 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. It may be interesting and useful to look a little more closely into the above-men- tioned facts. Why do the imported goods hold their own against the product of the highly-skilled native workman? Why did and do English firms still prefer foreign clerks? Evidently because they have a better insight into commercial matters, because the foreigner works more expeditiously and accurately ; in short, because he h in every way better fitted for his calling than his native colleague. There is, of course, no need to tell in so many words that the foreign clerk is superior to his home¬ bred rival because he went out into the world carefully instructed and equipped with a general knowledge of everything he could possibly be in want of. And this would indeed seem urgently needed in our days, considering how rapidly one inven¬ tion follows another, how keenly progress in every department of human activity is watched and espied by thousands of thousands of eager eyes, to be at once utilized for practical purposes, and considering what efforts need to be made to maintain the old ground and to secure new outlets for the world’s products. It will ever be an eloquent testimony to the perspicacity and activity of our Swiss trading community to have perceived the one-sidedness and stodginess of the old established routine and to have promptly found ways and means for enabling the growing-up generations of commercial men effectively to grapple with the difficulties they would be sure enough to encounter. Comparisons are odious; and yet, without disparaging the good done by our neighbors and others, we may point with some pride to the advantages our commercial instruction in particular is able to bestow; the tradesman of the new school will compare with the routine-man taught by rote like the modern rifle with the time-honored crossbow, or like a modern ironclad with the once respected three-decker. To mention only one of the many disadvantages besetting a commercial man of the old school — the imperfect knowledge of foreign languages. What principal, having had to deal with employees of the old school, but has been made painfully aware of the deficiencies in the learning acquired in this respect by his subordinate? Well may he have been satisfied if the latter could make out at a pinch the bare meaning of the letter of a foreign customer, but how much m >re so when he had to interpret by word of mouth the intentions and desires of the would-be purchaser ? Or, again, what bungling and consequent loss have not been caused, even by clever business men, passing from one line of business to another? While calling attention only in passing to the immense progress realized during the last ten years in the teaching of modern languages, let us consider at leisure what our modern thoroughly up-to-date instruction is able to do both for the future commercial clerk and for the principal who is anxious to secure employees who are fully up to the mark in every requirement of their calling. The gain accruing from a sound, broad commercial training will, we hope, appear clear enough after a perusal of the following description of the apprenticeship which our future merchants, traders, and bankers have to serve in our college (Scuola Cantonale di Commercio, Bellinzona, Switzerland). The first requisite one has to look for in a future man of business (and which we first of all demand in our students) is that he should possess a satisfactory rounded- off education, so that our specializing and higher instruction may set in with full effect; that is to say, we never once think of receiving an individual who does not in every way appear capable of being fitted for the commercial career. And this business capacity will not show before the age of 14 or 15 years. If we are so far satisfied, we begin providing him as good a training in three or four languages as can be had from teachers examined and paid by the State — our college, being a public institution, offers the strongest guarantees for there being found none but highly competent men on the staff — all our courses to extend over five years. All instruc¬ tion is given with a view not to scholarship, but to future practical use. And, as a matter of fact, no diploma is conferred upon any one pupil who is not able to speak fluently, and to write correctly, the more important modern idioms (French, Spanish, GERMAN COMMERCIAL CLERKS. 845 Italian, English, and German). This may, to an English-speaking person, appear “a large order,” hut we may add that we Swiss, being on the coniines of three of the above nations, are by nature so far favored that a good steady effort will infalli¬ bly bring us to the end in view. Besides, his large international trade has ever compelled the Swiss merchant to consider the possession of several idioms a foremost essential to success, as well as to encourage every endeavor likely to shorten the once tedious way of acquiring foreign languages. At the same time our students are initiated into the manifold branches of knowl¬ edge which every educated man of our time may be supposed to possess, only much more so. This purpose, only just mentioning political economy, commercial law, commercial statistics, etc., is served by a good, solid instruction in merceology (Waarenkunde), which enables our students, helped by an enormous collection of samples of all the more important trading articles, to discriminate both the various qualities of goods and their adulterations. This, of course, is made concurrent with a sound training in chemistry and natural science. But a far larger part of our attention, as may be expected, has to be given to com¬ mercial arithmetic, and especially the model countinghouse. Scarcely any modern business college can do without this latter. In this department of our college the students, under the guidance of a specialist, perform the everyday work occurring in a business office; here they apply the theoretical knowledge imparted to them in the courses on bookkeeping, commercial calculation, etc. The model counting- house represents a trading company with the teacher as principal and the students as employees. After having made out the assets, the teacher goes through a series of (fictitious) commercial operations in order to teach the pupils the way of setting them down in the books. Some have charge of the ledger, others of the daybook, some of the invoice books, others again of the cashbook, etc., and still others of the correspondence which is required for the accurate performance of the transactions intended. From time to time, say once a month, these functions are interchanged between the students, so that at the end of one year every one has had, in his turn, to discharge the duties of each department. Or again, every individual pupil represents a firm, and the head of the model countinghouse (the special teacher) tries to get as many kinds of trades represented as may be possible. One pupil trades in colonial produce, another does the banking, a third assumes the part of the manufacturer, and so on; two others again combine to form a trading company. Next, the students do business with one another, carry on correspondence, hand each other invoices, make remittances by means of checks, drafts, etc. The specialist teacher in this branch gives particular attention to the practical application of the more important systems in bookkeeping, as well as to the continual practice in commercial calculations, theories of exchange, commercial law7, and, as much as possible, tests his pupils in every branch of commercial science. The teacher, however, is not tied down to these operations only. Owing to his relations and con¬ nections in the world of trade, he will, from time to time, induce them to engage with his department in a pro forma business transaction, which will thus come as near doing real business as can be, inasmuch as correspondence, entries, abstracts of invoices, bills, checks, etc., are real. Such an operation differs from a real business transaction in nothing but the fact that goods are not being forwarded. So far, then, v7e supply the minds of our pupils with a store of knowledge, languages, and the various ways and means of utilizing them. But I fancy I hear someone say¬ ing: This is all very well; but, after all, it will scarcely come up to the attainments of our practical business man. Well, this objection, too, has been foreseen and met in our course of instruction. It is true that even in many of our Swiss “business col¬ leges” this defect is not remedied yet. Still, I think we can show conclusive evidence that our students at least on leaving us do not need to envy their practical rival. It has been said above that our course extends over five years, the first three of which 846 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-19(10. are devoted to the acquiring of as much theoretical and practical knowledge as an apprentice may pick up in three years in a firm. Now, our last two years are intended for ‘ ‘ commercial practice, ’ ’ one of our most important subjects in so far as the students there become real customers and take an active part in the doings of real firms. This “commercial practice ’ ’ forms a distinctive feature of our college, and consists, briefly stated, in reading, discussing, and explaining market reports, price lists, account sales, invoices, etc., which are sent us by Swiss and foreign business houses. These reports, etc. , are complemented by the study of the corresponding items in the various foreign daily papers and periodicals to which we are subscribers. In this branch particular attention is being paid to the correspondence w ith actually existing, not merely fictitious, firms. We constantly and successfully endeavor to increase our number of houses which are d isposed to keep up a regular correspondence with our two highest classes. At present, our students entertain an active interchange of letters in the four languages with many important Swiss, French, Austrian, and English firms concerning the more intricate business matters, such as arbitration, contested claims, claiming damages, etc. Of this branch typewriting and shorthand form essential features. Thus an important silk export firm at Zurich has intrusted to us the English and Italian correspondence with their English and Italian customers. The replies again pass through our hands; we may, therefore, say that we are transacting real business operations. Another important Austrian firm, having a partly disputed claim on a Swiss client, asked us to see the matter through. Our highest class carried on an extremely interesting correspondence in German and Italian with the creditor, the debtor, the court of bankruptcy, and after many attempts at an amicable settlement we had to compel the debtor to file his schedule. Thus our students, besides getting practical experience, are also taught the professional secret, the strictest injunctions in this respect being enforced. Moreover, these relations with real firms afford our students excellent practice in several languages, together with a certain knowledge of the customs of the various countries. A foreign business letter written by a thorough man of business gives rise to a great many discussions, and its tenor, expressions, and abbreviations create at once the greatest interest and convey the most enduring impression. Another means of introducing our pupils into practical business life is afforded us by the obliging offer of our local bankers and merchants who, during a few months, initiate our highest class in all banking operations, in conformity with a fixed program. We have thus, supported by our public-spirited commercial community, realized that aim, which alone can crown the endeavor of any college of this kind, expressed in the maxim: “Theoretical instruction, if it is to be of any use at all, must needs be combined with practical attainments.” We rejoice to. say that up to now the students who, after a severe examination, could be awarded a diploma, have always given the highest satisfaction to their employers, and we think wTe have practically proved that the man of business, as much as any other, is all the better fitted for his vocation by receiving as good and as varied a training as possible, and that the employee trained as has been outlined in the foregoing sketch is a safer guarantee for thoroughly good work and success than any, however confident, individual who lacks the systematic and therefore com¬ plete instruction, the broad knowledge, and the special attainments with which wTe equip our students. STATISTICS OF THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 847 X. STATISTICS OF THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. From the Jahrbuch des Unterrichtswesens in der Schweiz for the years 1896-97 and 1897-98 a brief summary of statistics is here given, which will enable the reader to recognize the sum total of educational efforts in Switzerland at a glance. Switzerland is a democratic repub¬ lic, and has a population of 2,986,848, according to the census of 1894. The total number of elementary pupils in public and private institutions is 647,116, or 21.7 per cent of the population. If the population esti¬ mated for 1898 were taken as the divisor, the ratio would be about 20 per cent. The total number of students in secondary and higher institutions is 28,3S5, or 0.95 per cent, so that the proportion of the population attending school of some kind is over 22 per cent. This is a remarkably good showing, if compared with France, England, Austria, and smaller Eurooean states. The ratio is even a trifle larger than that of the whole of Germany, and is only surpassed by that of Saxony in Germany. Wherever the data are given in the u Jahrbuch,” the numbers of pupils are specified as to sex. With regard to nationalit}7 the Swiss Government does not recognize a difference, the population being made up of Germans, French, and Italians, and the three languages are officially used in all public documents. In 1888, 2,083,097 inhab¬ itants spoke German, 634,613 French, 155,130 Italian, and 38,387 Ivomansch. Most, if not all, educated people in Switzerland are able to speak two languages — many speak three. The number of teachers is stated in all the tables save two. In Table D (continuation schools) that item is omitted, because these evening, holiday, and secular Sunday schools are taught by the teachers of the public, primary, and grammar schools; hence it would be an unnecessary duplication in counting the teachers. The average daily absence of pupils in 1894-95 amounted to 13.4 per cent, of which 10.9 per cent were excused, 2.5 per cent not excused. In 1897-98 the daily absence was 11.8 per cent, of which 9.7 per cent were excused, 2.1 per cent not excused. An average daity attendance of 88.2 per cent (86. 6 per cent, respectively) is a good showing. ISTot counting the children of kindergartens and maternal schools in the total of elementary pupils, the proportion of elementary and sec¬ ondary enrollment is 96.4 to 3.6 per cent. The Statistical Yearbook of Education in Switzerland shows at first glance the great number of school types found in the little Republic. The federal constitution expressly forbids the central Government to assume control and maintenance of education, except in a few cases specified, to wit: The polytechnic institute, schools for army recruits, industrial, agricultural, and commercial schools. The twenty -five Can¬ tons, or States, have each sole charge of their public schools, precisely as is the case in the Empire of Germany and in the United States. There is little, if an}y uniformity in the educational organizations of 848 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Switzerland. Everywhere the schools are managed according to local laws, and organized to suit local predilection and needs. A conse¬ quence of this condition is that the laws requiring obligatory attend¬ ance differ very materially as to length, beginning, and end of school term. That these laws are strictly obeyed, however, is a fact which speaks well for the training in self-government of the Swiss citizens. Concerning the organization of the various types of schools the fol¬ lowing explanation may be desirable: 1. Institutions far the pre- scholastic age. — Kindergartens and mater¬ nal or infant schools are conducted essentially according to Frobel’s principles and practices, but one vital difference deserves to be men¬ tioned. While the kindergartens of German Switzerland exclude all instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic, these branches form an essential part of the course in the “ ecoles enfantines” of French Switzerland. In the French Cantons the school laws expressly state that the infant or maternal schools are to be regarded as preparatory to the elementary schools. They are also considered in the French Cantons as integral parts of the elementary school system. This plainly shows that the German-speaking Cantons of Switzerland imitate Ger¬ many, where kindergartens are nowhere made a part of the school sys¬ tem, and the French-speaking Cantons imitate France, where the mater¬ nal schools are a legitimate part of the public-school system. From this statement of the purposes of the institutions the further fact is explained that in western (or French) Switzerland, in Vaud, Neuchatel, and Geneva, the cantonal governments have the duty of establishing and maintaining maternal or infant schools in every school district, while in German Switzerland the establishment and main¬ tenance of kindergartens are left to the initiative of private persons and corporations. The only exception is the Canton of Basel (city), which, through the law of 1895, makes the State assume the expendi¬ tures for kindergartens; that is to say, allows the Government either to subsidize private institutions and thus to make them public, or to establish new institutions at its own expense. 2. Elementary schools , called primary schools, after the model of the French and Italians. As a rule, attendance at these schools is obliga¬ tory for six, seven, or eight years — in exceptional cases, also nine years, but in every Canton this elementary course is followed by attendance at supplementary or practice schools for one, two, or three years. This supplementary education is compulsory in some Cantons, in others it is voluntary. In the Canton Basel (city) the elementary school is divided into four years’ primary and four years’ grammar school. In Geneva, Neuchatel, and V aud, the course is divided into infant, primary, and supplementary departments. In Valais, the pri¬ mary (6 years) and the supplementary or continuation schools all belong to the elementary group. The following table is inserted here STATISTICS OF THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 849 to show what legal requirements exist in the various Cantons of Swit¬ zerland with reference to the terms of compulsory attendance: Term of compulsory school attendance in Switzerland. Cantons (or States). Age of admis¬ sion (years). Day schools — Number ot years of compul¬ sory at¬ tendance. Continua¬ tion schools — Number of years of compul¬ sory at¬ tendance. 1. Zurich. . 6 6 3 2. Berne . 6 8-9 (i) 3. Lucerne . 7 7 2 4. Uri . 7 6 9 5. Schwyz . 7 7 6. Obwalden . 7 6 2 7. NidAvalden . 7 6 - 2 8. Glarus . 6 7 2 9. Zug . . . 6 6 3 10. Freiburg . 6 3 9 11 . Soleure . 7 48 12. Basel, city . 6 8 13. Basel, country . 6 6 O 14. Schaffhausen . 6 8-9 15. Appenzell, I . 6 7 2 16. Appenzell, II . 6 6 2 17. St. Gall . 6 7 2 18. Grisons . 7 8 19. Aargau . 7 8 20. Thurgovia . 6 5 9 21. Tessin . 6 8 22. Vaud . 6-7 8-9 23. Valais . 7 8 24. Neuehatel . .' . 7 6-7 2 25. Geneva . 7 6 2 1 Girls are required to attend industrial and domestic science school one year. 2 Only for boys. 3 Only eight years for girls. 4 Only seven Years for girls and one year industrial school. 5 For girls, eight years day school and two years singing and industrial school. Women's handwork . — In all the Cantons of Switzerland instruction in female handwork (knitting, embroidering, sewing, darning, etc.) is a part of the course of elementary schools for girls. Although not everywhere legally, it is practically an obligatory branch. Where the cantonal school law fails to make instruction in woman’s handwork obligatory it is left to the communities to make regulations regarding it. This is the case in Uri, Obwalden, Appenzell I. lih., and Valais; all the other 21 Cantons specify female handwork as an obligatory branch of study for girls. In a large number of Cantons domestic science, or housekeeping, is part of the instruction given to girls under the head of female handwork, while in some Cantons domestic science is provided for in extra lessons. In 15 Cantons the law does not men¬ tion housekeeping. In some Cantons where coeducation is in vogue, the girls have the same lessons given to boys, requiring as many hours a week, and female work is taught in addition to the other branches, thereby requiring the girls to spend more hours in school than the boys. Some Cantons, on the other hand, try to obviate this inequahdy by exempting the girls from some school exercises so as to gain time for the work especially designed as female. Thus in Uri, Schaff hausen, and Valais, the girls are excused from gymnastic exercises; in Tecino, from gymnastics and grammar; in Lucerne, from drawing and gy hi¬ ed 1900 - 54 850 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. nasties, and so on. In Basel (city) the sexes are strictly separated in schools, and the courses of study of boys’ schools differ from those of the girls’ schools. The differences are not great, but sufficient to allow the girls time to acquire proficiency in domestic accomplishments. 3. Continuation or supplementary schools. — Attendance in elemen¬ tary schools ends, according to local laws, indicated in the preceding table, at 14, .15, or 16 years of age, but generally in Switzerland the idea prevails that the knowledge acquired in elementary schools needs constant refreshing, as well as extending and deepening, to make it of use for the duties of practical life. The gap between the fourteenth and the eighteenth or nineteenth year of age — that is, from the close of school to the time of entering upon practical life — should be bridged over, and the results of school education secured by a continuation of school work. Guided by this consideration, all the twenty-five cantonal governments have established systems of evening, secular, Sunday, and holiday schools, called 66 Fortbildungsschulen” (literally, further developing schools). In the school laws of some cantons the object of these schools is stated to be preparation for the educational examination of army recruits, and therefore attendance during two or three winters preceding the conscription is required. This prepara¬ tion is deemed so important that attendance is made compulsory for boys. This is done in the cantons of Uri, Schwyz, Obwalden, Nid- walden, Zug, Freiburg, Appenzeli i. Rh., Tecino, Vaud, Valais, and Neuchatel; but in Berne, Lucerne, Soleure, Basel (city), and Basel (land) attendance is optional; while no courses for army recruits are arranged in Zurich, Glarus, Schaffhausen, Appenzeli a. Rh., St. Gail, Grisons, Aargau, Thurgovia, and Geneva. These latter-named cantons, how¬ ever, have supplementary schools for boys of 14 to 18 years of age. Attendance at these schools is obligatory in 13 cantons, optional in 7 cantons, and in 5 cantons it is left to local school authorities to regu¬ late the attendance. The term continuation school (Fortbiidungsschule) has become a technical term in German Switzerland, as it has in the German Empire; that is to say, in the common use of the language it has assumed a specific meaning. It is used for institutions the students of which are beyond the legal elementary school age, yet do not acquire more than elementary branches. These schools offer no instruction in higher mathematics, nor in foreign or dead languages; they are in no sense secondary schools as that term is understood in the United States. They are open only in winter, and rarely require more than six hours of attendance a week. The teachers of elementary day schools are also the teachers of evening or continuation schools. Their courses of study, though differing widely, have all the well- understood object of giving the boys a practical turn of mind, that is of offering them knowledge which has direct bearing upon the occupations which they have chosen. Nevertheless there is ver}^ little uniformity in STATISTICS OF THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 851 these schools, even in name. They are variously called “evening schools, repetition schools, burgher schools, repetition courses, supple¬ mentary schools or courses, holida}T schools, practice schools." If. Grammar or advanced elementary schools , called in Switzerland secondary schools. To this class of schools, which is not to be con¬ founded with preparatory or high schools in the United States, belongs a large number of institutions which aim to meet the local needs of .better situated people and ambitious children. They are parallel with the four higher grades of elementary schools where such schools have eight or nine grades. They have the purpose of extending as well as firmly securing the results of primary education, and are, therefore, properly styled advanced elementary schools. Only two cantons have decreed obligatory attendance for these schools, to wit: Basel (city) and Geneva. It is plainly seen that in their organization these advanced day schools must be organically connected with the primary schools, and this gives rise to a great variety of courses of study pre¬ scribed for them; for as the primary schools, on which these advanced schools are based, vary in extent of time, aims, and to a degree also in matter and methods of instruction, so must the schools vary which continue their work. Some of these advanced schools charge tuition fees, others do not. It is interesting to notice what names they assume. In the cantons of Zurich, Berne, Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Glarus, Zug, Basel (city), Yaud, Thurgovia, Neuchatel, and Geneva they are called secondary schools; in the Canton of Freiburg, ecoles regionales; in the cantons of Soleure, Basel (land), and Aargau they are called Bezirksschulen, that is, central schools; in Schaffhausen, Appenzell a. Bln. Appenzell 1. Bh., and St. Gall they are called Bealschulen, that is, realistic schools; in Grisons and Valais they are called Fortbildungsschulen, or continua¬ tion schools; in Tecino one of them is called scuola maggiore, or higher school. A special feature of all these advanced elementary schools is that they teach another language beside the mother tongue. In this they, differ from the American grammar schools, but that difference does not raise these schools to the dignity of the secondary schools in the United States, because a second living language (usually French in German cantons and German in French cantons) is almost a necessity in Switzerland, where German is the mother tongue of three-fifths of the population, French that of nearly two-fifths of the population, Italian that of 155,130, and Bomansch that of 38,387 inhabitants. 5. Secondary schools , called middle schools, as in Austria. These institutions may be grouped, as is done in the following tables, into (1) normal schools for the professional preparation of teachers; (2) preparatory schools, academies, and classical high schools; (3) schools which do not aim at preparation for college or university, yet offer an education of secondary character. The highest classes of some of the 852 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. schools, grouped under advanced elementary or grammar schools, might justly be ranged with the secondary institutions, for there is no clearly defined boundary line between them and the secondary schools; their courses of study often overlap each other. The middle schools, or secondary schools, as that term is understood in the United States, all have the well- understood object of offering an education higher than elementary, giving instruction in either classical or modern lan¬ guages, or both, in higher mathematics, universal history, natural, sciences, and natural history — that is, in the -common high-school branches. To 'these are added special sciences when the school has a professional character — as, for instance, the normal schools, the tech¬ nical. industrial, commercial, and other schools. It may be stated that some of these secondary schools reach into the college course, and are, in fact, called communal colleges. Girls are not found in classical high schools; they attend high schools of their own. Hence we may group the Swiss secondary schools as follows: (1) normal schools; (2) preparatory.schools or classical high schools; (3) girls’ high schools; (4) professional schools, such as technical, industrial, commercial, and agricultural schools. 6. Higher education. — This is represented by one federal poly tech¬ nical institute (at Zurich); five universities (at Zurich, Berne, Basel, Geneva, and Lausanne); two academies of college rank (at Neuchatel and Freiburg); one theological school (at Luzerne), and one law school (at Sitten). The table marked K gives information concerning their attendance. Women are admitted to the universities and to the Academy of Neuchatel. The following are the tables referred to: I. SCHOOLS OF ELEMENTARY GRADE. A. — Kindergartens and maternal schools. Year. Number of schools. Pupils. Total Women teachers. Number pupils to 1 teacher. Boys. Girls. 1 897-98 . 723 17, 153 17, 520 34, 673 978 35 1896-97 . : . 720 16, 701 17, 083 33, 784 962 35 1895-96 . 691 16, 020 16, 399 32, 419 914 35 1894-95 . 669 15, 299 15, 518 30, 747 868 35 1893-91 . 711 14, 951 15, 250 30, 201 881 34 Differences in 5 years . + 12 + 2,202 + 2,270 + 4,472 + 97 + 1 B 1. — Elementary schools — Pupils generally 6 to 12 years. Year. Number of districts. Number of schools. Pupils. Total. Boys. Girls. 1897-98 . 3, 617 4,600 4,413 4,396 242, 017 242, 425 239, 690 484, 442 1896-97 . 3,551 239, 564 479, 254 1895-96 . 3, 539 236, 692 223; 985 470, 677 1894-95 . 3,533 4,392 (?) 236, 006 236, 857 233, 104 469, 113 1893-94 . (?) 234, 866 471, 723 Differences in 5 years . (?) (?) + 5,160 + 7,559 + 12,719 STATISTICS OF THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM, 853 I. SCHOOLS OF ELEMENTARY GRADE— Continued. B '2.— Elementary schools — Teachers. Year. Men. Women. Total. Pupils. Number pupils to 1 teacher. 1897-98.. . 6, 446 3,466 9, 912 484, M2 49 1896-97 . 6, 385 3,370 9, 765 479, 254 49 1895-96 . 6, 359 3, 305 9, 664 470, 677 49 1891-95 . . . 6, 292 3,258 9, 550 469, 110 49 1893-94 . 7 . 6,338 3,261 9,609 471,723 49 Differences in 5 years . + 108 + 205 + 303 + 12, 719 - C. — Advanced elementary or grammar schools — Pupils from 10 to 14 or 15 years. Year. Num¬ ber of schools. Boys. Girls. Total. Number of teachers. Total. Num¬ ber pu- * pils to 1 teacher. Men. Women. 1897-98 . 511 19, 152 15, 713 34, 865 1,146 216 1,362 26 1896-97 . 500 19, 198 15, 557 34, 755 1, 125 217 1,342 26 1895-96 . 484 18, 501 14, 950 33, 451 1, 108 185 1,293 26 1894-95 . 471 18,066 14, 431 32, 497 1,081 208 1,289 25 1893-94 . 486 18, 541 14, 121 32, 662 1, 281 189 1,470 22 Differences in 5 years . . . + 25 + 611 + 1,592 + 2,203 - 135 + 27 - 108 + ^ D. — Continuation or supplementary schools. Obligatory attendance. Voluntary attendance. Adults (army re¬ cruits). Year. Schools. Boys. Girls. Total. Schools. Boys. Girls. Total Total. 1897-98 . 1,898 1 , 821 25, 688 25, 157 25, 688 603 16, 815 4,770 4, 031 4,805 3, 625 3,651 21,585 20, 837 20, 538 19, 278 19, 781 29, 586 28, 914 76, 859 74, 908 71,069 1896-97 . 25, 157 24, 603 582 16; 806 15, 733 15, 653 1895-96 . 1,796 1 , 694 24; 603 23, 788 553 25, 928 1894-95 . 23, 788 17, 132 519 24; 008 20, 792 67, 074 57, 705 1893-94 . 1,049 16, 946 186 565 16,130 Differences in 5 years. + 849 + 8,742 -186 +8, 556 + 36 + 685 +1,119 +1,804 + 8,794 +19, 154 E. — Primary schools and schools for special classes. [Including reform schools, blind and deaf-mute asylums, schools for weak-minded, orphan asylums, village music schools, and missionary schools.] Year. Num¬ ber of schools. Pupils. Teachers. Boys. Girls. Total. Men. Women. Total. 1897-98 . 315 8,710 8, 044 7, 567 7,402 6, 930 7, 342 6,753 16, 277 15, 446 14, 393 14, 850 13, 756 546 437 983 1896-97 . 303 519 411 930 1895-96 . . . : . 282 7, 463 7, 508 7,003 499 381 880 1894-95 . 295 541 412 953 1893-94 . 287 531 361 892 Differences in 5 years. . . . + 28 + 1,707 + 814 + 2,521 + 15 + 76 + 91 851 EDUCATION F.EPORT, 1899-1900. I. SCHOOLS OF ELEMENTARY GRADE— Continued. F. — Summary of elementary education. Year. Number of pupils in — Total. Kinder¬ gartens. Primary schools. Grammar schools. Contin¬ uation schools. Private and special schools. 1897-98 . 1896-97 . 1895-96 . .• . 1894-95 . 1893-94 . Differences in 5 vears . 34, 673 33, 784 32, 419 30, 747 30, 201 484, 442 479, 254 470, 677 • 469. 110 471, 723 34, 865 34, 755 ' 33, 451 32, 497 32, 662 76, 859 74, 90S 71,069 67,074 57,705 16, 277 15, 446 14, 393 14, 850 13, 756 647,116 638, 147 622, 009 614, 278 606, 047 + 4,472 4- 12,719 + 2,203 10, 15-dfc + 2,521 + 41,069 II. SCHOOLS OF SECONDARY GRADE. G. — Normal schools (30 public, 9 private). Year. Students. Teachers. Graduates. • Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. !897_9,s . 1,358 1,384 1, 398 1, 173 1,149 1,055 2, 531 372 105 362 318 680 1896-97 . . . 2, 533 346 88 434 374 286 660 1895-96 . 2, 453 339 72 411 366 340 710 1894 95.. 1, 35 9 1,358 ' 905 2, 264 320 87 407 344 245 589 1893-94 . 938 2, 296 319 64 383 345 284 629 Differences in 5 years . + 235 + 235 + 53 + 41 + 94 + 17 + 34 + 51 The other secondary institutions of learning in Switzerland may be classed into such as prepare for higher seats of learning and such as do not. Hence the division of the next table into H 1 and II 2. II 1. — Secondary schools, preparing for universities. [Variously called lyceums, gymnasia, Realsehulen, industrial schools, commercial schools; but chiefly central cantonal schools, having a classical, a realistic or scientific, and a commercial department.] Year. Number of students. Number of graduates. Number of teachers, men only. 1897-98 . 9, 511 9, 136 9,511 8,931 8,436 670 775 1896-97 . 540 774 1895-96 . 617 800 1894 95 . . . 537 724 1893-94 . (?) 727 Differences in 5 years . -f-1, 0/5 +133 + 48 H 2. — Secondary schools, not preparing for universities. [Variously called burgher schools, Toehterschulen, 6eoles secondaires industrielles, progymnasia, technical schools, colleges, but never cantonal schools.] Year. Number of Number of Number of teachers. students. graduates. Men. Women. Total. 1897-98 . 6, 312 Not stated _ 332 20 352 1896-97 . 5, 656 . do . 15 309 1895-96 5' 600 . do . 291 20 311 1894-95 . 5, 341 . do . 282 13 295 1893-94 . 5; 200 . do . 251 5 256 Differences in 5 years . + 1,112 . do . + 81 + 15 + 96 DEFECTIVE CHILDREN IN SWITZERLAND. 855 II. SCHOOLS OF SECONDARY GRADE— Continued. I. — Summary of students in secondary schools. Year. Normal schools. Girls’ high schools. Boys’ high schools. Indus¬ trial schools. Com¬ mercial schools. Agri¬ cultural schools. Tech¬ nical schools. Total. 1897-98 . 2,531 2, 533 4,206 7, 578 4,751 4, 219 4, 244 4.180 1,196 548 1,697 22, 507 1896-97 . . 4; 165 3,887 3,467 7; 522 1,143 516 1,621 21,719 1895-96 . 2, 453 7,611 7,272 6,911 1,038 1 , 206 604 1,446 21,283 1891-95 . 2, 264 594 1,439 20, 422 1893-94 . 2,296 4,388 4, 204 754 192 2,138 21,183 Differences in 5 years . . +235 -182 +667 +547 +442 +56 -441 +1, 324 IH. HIGHER SEATS OF LEARNING. Iv. — The federal poly lechnicum, 5 universities , 2 academies, 1 theological seminary , and 1 laiv school. Matriculated students. Hearers. Total in attend¬ ance. Nationality of students. Men. Women. Men. Women, Cantonal citizens. Other Swiss. Foreign¬ ers. Summer semester. 1898 . 4,005 474 849 202 5,530 1,055 1,425 1,999 1897 . . . 3,845 396 855 158 5, 254 995 1,367 1,880 1896 . 3, 663 372 888 182 5,105 914 1,337 1,784 1895 . . . 3,603 347 953 144 5, 047 964 1,304 1,682 1894 . 3,472 322 847 98 4,739 941 1,243 1,610 Difference . +533 +152 +2 +104 +791 +114 +182 +306 Winter semester. 1898-99 . 4,019 555 922 382 5,878 1,163 1,465 1,946 1897-98 . . 3, 901 502 948 341 5,692 1,068 1,401 1, 934 1896-97 . 3, 773 391 1,061 337 5, 562 1,028 1 , 371 1, 765 1895-96 . 3, 561 393 988 245 5,187 962 1,327 1,665 1894-95 . 3, 565 362 929 238 5,094 1,023 1,304 1,600 Difference . -1-454 +193 -7 +144 +784 +140 +161 +346 XI. DEFECTIVE CHILDREN OF SCHOOL AGE IN SWITZERLAND. In 1805 the Swiss National Teachers’ Association petitioned the Federal Government to institute an inquiry among the local authori¬ ties of the 25 cantons or states as to the actual number of children of primary school age who may be classed as defective, namely, (a) of weak intellect only, (b) of weak intellect with concomitant physical defects, (c) idiotic, deaf-mute, and blind, (d) morally depraved or neglected. The Government acceded to this request and sent out so-called “census cards ” to all local authorities, especially to teachers, and the results were tabulated and published in the Swiss Yearbook of Educa¬ tion by the secretary of the cantonal school authorities of Zurich. It must be understood that the inquiry referred to children of primary school age on+ — that is, between the ages of 6 and 11 — it being sup¬ posed that such defective children never succeed in reaching the gram¬ mar or the high schools. The total number proved to be 13,155 in a 856 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. total of 463,548 pupils attending primary schools, or 2.8 per cent. Of this number — (1) 5,052, or 39 per cent, were weak-minded to a slight degree. (2) 2,615, or 20 per cent, were weak-minded to a high degree. (3) 1,848, or 14 per cent, were weak-minded in consequence of physical defects. (4) 2,405, or 18 per cent, were idiots, deaf-mutes, blind, etc. (5) 1,235, or 9 per cent, were morally depraved or neglected. 13,155 In order to facilitate the use of these statistics for educational pur¬ poses, the editor of the yearbook takes up the first two items only, leaving the third, fourth, and fifth out of consideration, institutions for such cases having long been established. It is especially the chil¬ dren of weak intellects in the primary schools that impede the progress of entire grades in schools by their want of capacity or inability to keep step with their schoolmates. There are, then, according to the inquiry, 7,667 among 463,548 children between the ages of 6 and 11 who in some degree are weak- minded, but not wholly incapable of receiving school instruction— that is, a proportion of 16^ to every 1,000 children. A similar inquiiy instituted by the Swiss teachers themselves in 1888, without the aid of the federal or cantonal governments, but embrac¬ ing all children of primary and grammar grades, or children from 7 to 14 years of age, had almost the same results: Ninety-six per cent of the weak-minded children found were in primary and only 4 per cent in grammar grades. It is interesting to note how the 7,667 children (items 1 and 2) of weak intellect found are disposed of : (1) 537 children receive instruction in special class rooms. (2) 411 children are in asylums for weak-minded. (3) 104 children are in orphan asylums, where they receive home instruction and special care. (4) 5, 585 children are attending regular schools, but commitment to special asy¬ lums or classes is recommended. (5) 534 children are attending regular schools, but separation from their nor¬ mally endowed classmates is not desired or necessary; and for (6) 466 children the question has been left unanswered. 7, 667 Since the results of the inquiry by the teachers in 1888 and this later inquiry in 1896 are very similar, it may be asserted that the enumeration was taken with great care, and that the instructions given out by the central authority have been obeyed. A further proof of this is the intelligent manner in which the majority of com¬ munities replied to the separate questions proposed. It was particu¬ larly enjoined to state what physical defects the children had, if any, DEFECTIVE CHILDREN IN SWITZERLAND. 857 and the replies enabled the central authority to tabulate the results as follows: Weak-minded children — Weak-minded children of all grades, with or without concomitant defects. Recommended to be taught in separate classes. Already taught in special classes. Recommended to be committed to asylums. Already in asy¬ lums. Number. Percent. Number. Percent. Number. Percent. Number. Per cent. Simply weak-minded . . . 2,665 69. 9 315 55.6 843 48.9 239 58.1 Also with defective hearing . . . 483 12.5 97 17.1 337 19.6 82 20 Also with defective sight 162 4.2 33 5.8 71 4.1 25 6.1 Also with defective speech . 241 6.2 59 10.4 138 8 21 5.1 Also with nervous affec- lions . 46 1.2 24 4.2 57 3.3 12 2.9 Also with physical de- feels . 146 3.8 36 6.4 76 4.4 12 2.9 Neglected or depraved. . 118 3.1 3 .5 202 11.7 18 4.4 Physically defective on iv 2 . 5 Total . 3, 861 100 567 100 1,724 100 411 100 The total in this table does not agree with the foregoing (7,667), but the editor explains certain eliminations from the detailed tables which reduce the number to 6,563. . It is obvious that the number of children recommended for special attention agrees proportionally with that of children who already have that attention, and that the number of cases of concomitant defects runs in the same proportions. The following table gives the percentages with reference to the total number : Number. Per cent. Weak-minded, total . 6,563 100 Recommended to be taught in special classes . 3,861 567 59 Already taught in special classes . 9 Recommended to be committed to asylums . 1,724 26 Already in asylums . . . 411 6 Switzerland has a population of 2,986,818 (census of 1894) and a com¬ paratively large number of physically defective inhabitants, owing to the mountainous condition of the country and other causes of a patho¬ logical nature. But a proof of the care with which the people, accus¬ tomed to self-help, treat unfortunate members of the community, is this late move of ascertaining the mentally defective children, and providing for their proper education in either special class rooms or special asylums. The advice to separate the intellectually weak from normally endowed children and instruct them in special classes, so as to relieve the teacher of elements that impede progress of the schools, originated in Germany. It was hrst advocated in 1875 in the German educational press, and has since been carried out there extensively in 858 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. city school systems. Here in the United States a similar step is taken in some cities, as is seen from an account in the Annual Report of this Bureau, 1896-97, Part I, pages 141-160. In an article on u Prevention of mental diseases, v in the American Journal of Sociology, Prof. Julius Morel gives some facts worth noticing: Dr. Koch, formerly director of the asylum for the insane at Zwiefalten (Wurttem- berg, Germany), has urged many times the necessity of special instruction and edu¬ cation for children of arrested intelligence and has proclaimed the necessity of creating special schools for them. In Germany, England, and the United States this idea has found many partisans, and the results obtained thus far seem to promise well for the new system. If it has been impossible to give to these undeveloped children a moral and intellectual restoration, so that they can receive instruction and learn a trade suitable to their intellectual ability, none the less have they succeeded in improving them to such a degree that they have been able to regain the intellec¬ tual level of other children Avith whom they haA'e been in class and to move forward with these. They have aAvakened dormant qualities Avhich Avith many children do not appear until a certain epoch of existence, but Avhich appear earlier in others who have fortunately met in their Avay intelligent and devoted teachers who understood how to employ special methods of instruction. I)r. Keller, of Copenhagen, has undertaken this noble task in Denmark with gen¬ uine success, as his excellent recent report demonstrates. In England Drs. Shuttle- worth and Beach have obtained brilliant results. In the United States the Avorks published by the National Conference of Charities and Correction prove that such rational educational enterprises for the children of the Avorking people deserA'e encouragement. But in my opinion Germany bears the palm for laborious and incessant labor. During the last four years a journal has been published there for teachers, entitled “Die Kinderfehler — Zeitschrift fiir padagogische Pathologic und Therapie in Ilaus, Schule und socialem Leben.” This periodical is published under the direction of the celebrated alienist, J. L. A. Koch; of Christ. Ufer, director of the Reichenbach schools at Altenburg; Dr. Zimmer, professor of theology at Herborn, and J. Triiper, director of a special asylum for feeble-minded children at Sophienbad, near Jena. This journal counts among its contributors all in the world Avho are interested in this kind of reform for children, and its scientific contents deseiwe to be knoAvn by ail Avho are occupied with social questions. In Belgium, although there are four asylums for backward children in the country, there is only one real specialist, Dr. Jean de Maar, of Brussels, Avho occupies himself seriously Avith this question. Personally, when I Avas attached once to the hospice of Guislain at Ghent, I, as Avell as my predecessor, Dr. B. Ingels, encountered insu¬ perable obstacles in the effort to introduce the new modes of instruction Avith hackAvard children. In brief, it has been established that the results obtained are remarkable, and that governments can not ghTe too much assistance to these schools for back Avar d children, Avho, without them, are sure to descend to degeneration and mental complications. In respect to those Avho remain incapable of such intellectual and moral progress, it Avill be necessary to segregate them for life in special establishments, as I have shown in a Avork published in 1896 in the Journal of Mental Science, “The need of special accommodations for the degenerate.” The unhappy beings are dangerous to society. I have the deep conviction that this would be one of the most hopeful social measures, and Avould contribute to prevent the increase of mental troubles in the degenerate, and at the same time would contribute Arery much to diminish crime. GERMAN SCHOOLS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 859 XII. GERMAN SCHOOLS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. A French report on German schools in foreign countries has recently appeared, written by Prof. J. Roux. It appeared in a serial publica¬ tion entitled u Questions diplomatiques et coloniales,” third year, No. 52, 1899. A writer in the Deutsche Zeitschrift fur auslandisches Unterrichtswesen, No. 1, volume 5, discusses the contents of Roux’s book and adds further information. This review is here reproduced in translation: Since 1871 the French have strained every nerve to strengthen and elevate their country in all departments of learning and skill. Since that year they have made a close study of the German army, as well as of German educational institutions and of the German language, as they credit the victories of Sadowa and Sedan to the German schoolmasters. When rapid economic progress followed upon the German political advance movement, and commerce and industry rapidly developed; when the Germans found new markets for their manufactures, and were encouraged to estab¬ lish colonies of their own so that German emigrants need no longer serve as “cul¬ tural fertilizers for other nations,” so to speak; when they began to give the necessary consideration and support to their many brethren throughout foreign countries, the French energetically followed their example. They have recently also bestowed attention upon the German schools outside of Germany, by the agency of which Ger¬ man colonists and emigrants who so- often, and in a short time, lose their nationality among the citizens of foreign nations, may not only preserve their language, customs, and culture, but influence other people morally and materially to the advantage of .their own mother country. One of the best- versed French authorities on the subject of such schools is Prof. J. Roux, of the faculty of the commercial college at Limoges. His report on “German schools in Constantinople,” published in No. 48 of “Ques¬ tions diplomatique et coloniales,” has been succeeded by a comprehensive treatise on “German schools outside of Germany.” As this work is most interesting from a national standpoint, and contains many a profitable lesson, a few of its chief thoughts are here presented. “German emigration,” the author begins, “which has for a long time been con¬ sidered a cause of weakness, is in my opinion an indirect source of prosperity.” The reviewer says: “Such would be the case if the millions of emigrants preserved their nationality amid their foreign surroundings; but in most cases it is already lost in the second generation.” “ In earlier times, ” the author continues, “the German emigrant quickly forgot his native country, a country which was little known in his new abode, and which could not aid him when in trouble. But a different order of things prevails since 1S70, and Germans abroad unite to promote a patriotic work.” Such actions can not be considered to be of frequent enough occurrence. “To preserve their nationality,” says Professor Roux, “German colonists, bound more closely to their mother country by {he increasing trade of Germany, have founded many societies and schools. Before 1870, the number of the latter was small; those of Antwerp, Valdivia, Osorno, Valparaiso, Rio de Janeiro, and Con¬ stantinople were the only ones mentioned.” The author might have mentioned the oldest German school in South America, Buenos Ayres, established in 1843. Among the foreign German schools in Europe, those of St. Petersburg (Annen school, 1736; Peter’s school, 1762) and Moscow (1838), the many in the Baltic provinces, that of Stockholm (fifteenth century), the four German schools in Copenhagen, those of the Hague (1865), Bukharest (1778), Jassy (1839), Milan (1860), Genoa (1869), Naples 8 GO EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. (1833), and others have been omitted from his list. Since 1870, German schools have rapidly increased in number. Roux makes mention of only 22, while for South America alone the names of 52 others could have been Quoted. The author then refers to the rapid increase of Catholic and Protestant missions, which have more than doubled in number since 1885, and now include 1,580 schools, with 83,000 pupils. In a footnote he states that the French establishments in Asia Minor alone number 70,000 pupils. According to his information, the German Prot¬ estant missions in South Australia support 32 institutions, with 1,200 pupils. Roux furthermore emphasizes that German settlers acted independently in the estab¬ lishment of their schools and did not wait for assistance from the home Government. The schools in Valparaiso, Caracas, Athens, and Johannesburg are cited as admirable examples. To the last two, Germans at home have contributed large sums; 50,000 marks ($12,500) since February, 1898, that is, in eighteen months, to Johannesburg, which amount increased to 80,000 marks ($20,000) at the end of June, 1899, the city of Hamburg alone giving 27,000 marks. That Germans at home now, in contrast to former times, assist their compatriots abroad with large sums of money, and that the membership of the German School Association has recently greatly increased; also that considerable amounts are annually collected by this association for the support of German schools outside of Germany, are facts which give the author occasion proudly to assert that much larger amounts have been collected by the “French alliance,” that instrument of faith, union, hope, and love, created by a handful of good Frenchmen — an association which, as Roux exclaims in his article on German schools in Constantinople, “constitutes for our country an instrument of action and external influence, more powerful, perhaps, than the diplomacy and the arms of our neighboring Empire.” But as the contributions of the German School Association increase from year to year he calls upon his coun¬ trymen: “In this new struggle we must not be outdistanced by our rivals.” The author continues the comment on the support which German schools abroad receive annually from the home Government since the reestablishment of the Empire. He states the reasons which Germany has for lending assistance and enumerates the amounts paid. Roux mentions the fact that the financial report for the fiscal year 1899 contains the petition for raising the fund for the support of schools abroad as well as other patriotic institutions established for common benefit— hospitals and charitable societies — and lie believes that the petition will be granted because of the interest all classes of society take in the expansion of German influence and the exten¬ sion of German nationality. He says: “We Frenchmen desire it, and confidently hope for it. Still, all these sums,” Roux continues, “are far below those which the Italian Government annually expends for its schools abroad, now a million lire (1 lira— 19.3 cents), in 1895-96 only 645,000 lire; while France spends 800,000 francs (1 franc = 19. 3 cents) on its establishments in the Orient and in the Far East. In this work of education abroad competition is becoming more intense, more bitter. * * * France will be called upon for new sacrifices.” That the Bohemian School Association collects more than four times the annual receipts of the National German Association might have been here mentioned in order. In connection with the support given by the German Government, the author speaks of further concessions to be granted under certain conditions, as well as of the zeal of German officials abroad in strengthening existing German institutions in every possible way as well as founding new schools. “Schools,” he adds, “are the true centers of propaganda of German influence, and through them it is hoped to preserve patriotism and fidelity to the Empire in the hearts of emigrants.” After the discussion of the schools themselves the author applies himself to the consideration of the German press, which portion of his expose may be omitted. He then passes on to the defects of German schools abroad, which Germans see disclosed with a feeling of sorrow. In this they seem unlike the French, who would find pleasure in exposing their faults, and showing the deficiencies of national efforts. NUMBER OF HIGHER STUDENTS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 861 Until now we had thought no nation more inclined to grumble or to criticise its own efforts than the German. With respect to the faults the author refers to the incom¬ petent personnel of German foreign schools, especially those of the colonies in Brazil. The “partisans of Germanism” are therefore justified in their petition to the Reich¬ stag for an amelioration of these evils by larger support, by regulation and perma¬ nency of teachers’ positions, and by an acknowledgment of their claim to pensions and other rights and privileges. After these observations Roux concludes with the reference to the real danger that now menaces French influence through foreign German schools, a danger not to be exaggerated since it arises more from emigration than from education abroad. A quarter of a million Germans emigrate in a year, while the French unfortunately do not leave their mother country and are relatively less numerous in foreign countries. “Still, natives,” he continues, “who can cultivate no taste for German (Prussian) discipline and prefer our institutions undertake to represent us, attracted by the familiar and cordial kindness of our race and by the sociability of our ideals.” According to the author’s statement the French school in Madrid numbered in 1898 61 French and 107 Spanish pupils among 181, while in the German school 30 of 45 pupils were Germans. The same percentage is found in almost every case in Spain. In the reviewer’s opinion this is easily understood. The Catholic French school is preferred by the Catholic Spaniards, because they are of similar origin. \ret we read in an article on German colonization in Brazil (Colonial Yearbook XI, 3) that the people of Brazil prefer German schools to their own, because of thoroughness and solidity. In* Rio, for instance, four-fifths of the 250 children in the German school are Brazilian. That the same conditions prevail elsewhere we learn from Dr. Schwatlo, the principal of the German school in Constantinople, who published the “first foreign German school enjoying the privilege to examine for abridged military service” in the German Colonial Gazette, October 5, 1899. The reference reads: “The Imperial Lyceum or Galata-Serai, established under French auspices, has utterly decayed. The French themselves feel much disappointed at the results of schools conducted by orders and congregations, and send their children to German institutions.” The author closes with deductions from his remarks, saying: “ If we are to main¬ tain a prominent position in foreign countries we must double our exertions. The Government must give large support to our institutions abroad and grant generous appropriations to the Alliance Frangaise.” He then calls upon his countrymen, who are, as he observes, united for patriotic purposes, to support the work of the alliance with their money, and defines the duty of the press incumbent upon it for the preservation of French influence in the world. “Undoubtedly,” he concludes, “no Frenchman will forget either our late humiliations or the slow increase of French population in contrast to the fecundity of the Germanic race which makes it so dan¬ gerous for the French. But”— and this is his consolation — “ we shall not forget that the reputation of a nation in foreign countries depends mainly upon its authors and artists, and that in art success is insured by worth and not by numbers.” XIII. ATTENDxiNCE IN HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING OF FOR¬ EIGN COUNTRIES. On preceding pages of this chapter the per capita of expenditures for higher education in the various countries of the civilized world has been stated. That statement is based upon the returns contained in Minerva (Jahrbuch der gelehrten Welt), the editors of which remark, in their preface, that they submitted the items of attendance and expenditure of each institution to the authorities of that institution 862 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. (secretary or treasurer); hence any quotation from Minerva is sup¬ ported by the local authorities of the institutions mentioned. Where the authorities failed to correct the statistics of the previous year, the editors inserted these, rather than to leave a blank. But in every such case, it is indicated to what year the financial statement or the statistics of attendance refer. These explanations are made here to show the reliability of the state¬ ments quoted from that valuable work. The following six tables are compiled from the same source. They show the attendance in (A) the universities and colleges- in fifteen foreign countries, first, of all such institutions from the last reports made by them, then in Table AA of only such institutions as reported their attendance in 1899. Table B gives the attendance in other higher seats of learning', in tech¬ nological, agricultural, mining, forestry, and veterinary institutions, variously called schools, academies, colleges, and institutions; while Table BB shows the attendance of 1899 only of such institutions as reported in that year. Table C combines the first two tables, showing thereby the number of students in attendance upon all higher seats of learning in the fifteen countries, while in the accompanying Table CC the nonreporting institutions are eliminated, so as to obtain the latest possible statements and to establish a true basis for com¬ parison. In order to facilitate the use of the tables, the compiler has stated, in each case, the ratio of increase or decrease. These columns of ratios deserve attention, inasmuch as they plainly show in which countries there is an increase in the number of students and in which a decrease. General deductions from the tables are easily made: (1) The Teu¬ tonic nations are in the front rank, not only in the number of students in higher institutions but also in the ratio of increase. Russia and Italy are also progressing. (2) The increase in technical institutions, such as polytechnic institutes and agricultural and mining schools, shows throughout a larger percentage during the year 1898-99 than in uni¬ versities and colleges. We note, for instance, that while the attend¬ ance in universities in Germany increased 6.5 per cent, that of the technical institutions increased 8.2 per cent. In Austria the increase in universities was 4 per cent, in technical institutions it was 7.8 per cent. In Russia the increase in universities was 1.2 per cent, in tech¬ nical institutions it was 7.7 per cent. Such figures are significant, inasmuch as they indicate that the industries of Europe and America are claiming more thorough and more special preparation than for¬ merly and that the commercial instinct is wide-awake, though it does not seem as though the old ways of classical education required by university study are abandoned, for the increase in attendance in uni¬ versities is much larger than the ratio of annual increase in the popu¬ lation. NUMBER OF HIGHER STUDENTS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 863 Table I. A. — Attendance in universities and colleges, institutions not reporting' in 1890 included. Country.. Num¬ ber of institu¬ tions.. Number of students. Increase. Decrease. Net. Rate of increase. Rate of decrease. 1S98-99. 1S97-98. Per cent. Per cent. flprmmy . 22 39, 901 37,459 2, 595 153 +2, 442 6.5 Austria 12 16, 905 16, 244 812 151 + 661 4.0 Hungary . . 12 7,265 6, 873 392 + 392 5.7 Switzerland. . _ 7 4, 404 4,108 327 31 + 296 7.2 Belgium . 4' 5^ 397 5, 085 312 + 312 6. 1 Netherlands . 5 3,510 3,349 224 63 + 151 5.0 Great Britain and Ire- land . 25 27, 572 27, 757 388 573 - 185 0.7 France . : . . 16 26, 580 26 j 976 367 763 - 396 1.5 Russia . . 19 21,233 20, 979 326 72 + 254 1.2 Spain . 6 9A12 10, 294 582 - 582 5. 6 Italy 31 25, 370 25' 049 724 403 + 321 1. 3 Sweden . 4 3' 004 3' 040 32 68 - 36 1.2 Australia . . 3 1 , 506 1, 489 45 28 + 17 1.1 Canada . 5 3! 522 3,' 489 33 -j- 33 .9 United States . . 51 58, 580 55, 642 3,310 372 -1-2, 938 5.2 AA. — Attendance in universities and colleges which reported in 1890. Country. Num¬ ber of institu¬ tions.. Number o. - students. Increase. Decrease. Net. Rate of increase. Rate of decrease. 1898-99. 1897-98. Per cent. Per cent. Germany . 22 39, 901 37, 459 2,595 153 +2,442 6.5 Austria . 10 15, 084 14,423 812 151 + 661 4. 6 Hungary . 10 7' 052: 6i 660 392 6.0 Switzerland . . 7 4, 404 4, 108 327 31 + 296 7.2 Belgium . 3 4,081 3, 769 312 + 312 8.3 Netherlands . 5 3', 510 Si 349 224 63 + 161 5.0 Great Britain and Ire- land . 13 14,504 14, 689 388 573 - 185 1.2 France . . 16 26, 580 26, 976 367 763 - 396 1. 5 Russia . 8 3, 323 8' 069 326 72 + 254 3. 1 Spain . 9 5, 617 6' 199 582 - 582 9.4 Ttaly . 16 15^ 809 15' 488 724 403 + 321 2.0 Sweden . . . 3 2' 470 2, 506 32 68 — 36 1.4 Australia . 3 l,-506 1, 489 45 28 + 17 1.1 Canada . . 4 2, 452 2,419 33 + 33 1.3 United States . 46 54i 145 51, 207 3, 310 372 +2, 938 5.7 Table II. B. — Attendance in technological, agricultural, mining, forestry, and veterinary schools, including institutions not reporting in 1899. Countries. Num¬ ber of institu¬ tions. Number of stu¬ dents. 1898-99. 1897-98. Germany . 24 15, 912 14, 699 Austria . 10 5, 694 5, 279 Hungary . 6 2,287 2,245 Switzerland . . 1 1,390 1, 336 (?) Belgium . 2 (?) Netherlands . 2 699 537 Great Britain and Ire¬ land . 3 2,087 1,993 France . 15 1, 817 1, 776 7, 114 Russia . . . 15 7, 663 Spain . 3 852 1,084 Italy . . . 6 1, 553 1, 555 Sweden . 1 363 343 Australia . 0 0 0 Canada. . . 1 304 308 United States . . 48 10, 251 9, 747 Increase. Decrease. Net. Rate of increase. Rate of decrease. Per cent. Per cent. 1, 271 58 + 1 213 8.2 415 + 415 7.8 48 6 T- 42 1.9 54 a- 54 4.0 (?) (?) (?) (?) (?) 162 + 162 30. 0 94 + 94 5.0 49 8 + 41 2.3 569 20 + 549 7. 7 8 240 — - 232 21.0 40 42 — 2 .1 20 + 20 6.0 0 0 0 4 4 1.3 779 275 + 504 5.2 8(54 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Table II — Continued. BB. — Attendance in technological, agricultural, mining, forestry, and veterinary schools which reported in 1899. Countries. Num¬ ber of institu¬ tions. Number of stu¬ dents. Increase. Decrease. Net. Rate of increase. Rate of decrease. 1898-99. 1897-98. Per cent. Per cent. Germany . 15, 031 13, 819 1,270 58 4-1.212 9. 0 Austria . 10 5,694 5, 279 415 + 415 7. 8 Hungary . 4 733 '691 48 4- 42 6 0 Switzerland . 1 1,390 1,336 54 + 54 4.0 Belgium . Netherlands . 2 699 537 162 + 162 30.0 Great Britain and Ire- land . 2 1,337 1,243 94 + 94 7.5 France . 4 413 312 49 + 41 13.0 Russia . 10 4,743 4,194 569 20 + 549 13.0 Spain . . 2 753 985 8 240 232 24 0 Italy . 4 1,231 1,233 40 42 9 1 Sweden . 1 '363 '343 20 + 20 6. 0 Australia . 0 0 0 0 0 0 Canada . 1 304 308 4 4 1.3 United States . 43 9, 749 9, 245 779 275 + 504 5.5 Table III. C. — Attendance in all higher institutions of countries mentioned, combination of Tables I and II. Countries. N um¬ ber of institu¬ tions. Number of stu¬ dents. 1898-99. 1897-98. Germany . 46 55, 813 52, 158 Austria . 22 22, 599 21, 523 Hungary . 18 9, 552 9,118 Switzerland . 8 5, 794 5, 444 Belgium . 4 5,397 5,08-5 Netherlands . Great Britain and Ire- 7 4, 209 3, 886 land . 28 29, 659 29, 750 France . 31 28, 397 28, 752 Russia . 34 28, 896 28, 093 Spain . 9 10, 564 11, 378 Italv . 37 25, 370 25, 049 SAveden . 5 3, 367 3,383 Australia . 3 1,506 1,489 Canada . 6 3, 826 3,797 United States . 99 68,831 65, 389 Increase. Decrease. Net. Rate of increase. Rate of decrease. Per cent. Per cent. 3,866 211 +3, 655 7.0 1,237 151 +1,076 5.0 440 6 + 434 4.7 381 31 + 350 6.4 312 + 312 6. 1 386 63 + 323 8.3 482 573 _ 91 0.3 416 771 — 355 1.2 895 92 + 803 2.8 8 822 — 814 7.1 764 445 + 319 1.3 52 68 — 16 .5 45 28 + 17 1. 1 33 4 + 29 .8 4,089 647 +3, 442 5.3 CC. — Attendance in all higher institutions which reported in 1899. Countries. Num¬ ber of institu¬ tions. Number of stu¬ dents. Increase. Decrease. Net, Rate of increase. Rate of decrease. 1898-99. 1897-98. Per cent. Per cent. Germany . 44 54, 932 51 , 278 3, 865 211 +3,655 7. 1 Austria . 20 20, 778 19, 702 i; 227 151 -M.076 5.5 Hungary . 14 7, 785 7, 351 440 6 + 434 6.0 Switzerland . 8 5, 794 5, 444 381 31 + 350 6.4 Belgium . 3 4,081 3, 769 312 + 312 8.3 Netherlands . 7 4,209 3; 886 386 63 + 323 8.3 Great Britain and Ire- land . 17 15, 841 15, 932 482 573 _ 91 0.5 France . 20 26, 193 27, 288 416 771 355 1.3 Russia . 18 13, 066 12, 263 895 92 + 803 6.5 Spain . 4 6, 370 7, 184 8 822 814 11.0 Italy . 20 17,010 16, 721 764 445 + 319 1.9 Sweden . 4 2A33 2, 849 52 68 16 .5 A ustralia 3 1 . 506 1,489 45 28 + 17 1. 1 Canada 4 2, 756 2, 727 33 4 -4- 29 1.0 United States . 89 63i 894 60, 452 4, 089 647 + 3,442 5.7 iO CO INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS IN HUNGARY. 865 XI Y. INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS IN HUNGARY. Contents. — I. Industrial schools. — Introduction and history — Organization — Schools for apprentices — Continuation schools for journeymen — Workshops for schools — Industrial technical schools — State industrial schools — Women’s industrial schools — Industrial drawing schools — Lower trade schools in Temesvar — Manual training and home industry — Industrial museums. II. Commercial schools. — Commercial schools for apprentices — Same for women — Higher commercial schools — The Oriental commercial school in Budapest. The following is a statement prepared by Josef Szterenyi, royal councilor and chief of divison of industrial and commercial education in the department of commerce at Budapest. The statement is a fitting supplement to the statements regarding schools of this kind in central Europe, published in the Annual Reports of this Bureau of previous years, hence its early rendition in English, which is here offered: A. — Industrial Instruction. history. or to Industrial instruction in Hungary — that is to say, instruction tendin to foster industries — reaches back several centuries, to the time when Christianity was introduced into the country. The first beginnings of industrial instruction are found in the con¬ vents, especially in those of the Benedictines, who maintained regular workshops, each of which was the nucleus of a school in which knowl¬ edge of trades, skill in their pursuit, and love for industrial labor were fostered. The first explicit information about these schools reaches as far back as the thirteenth century, in which, among the monks, a number of skilled architects were noted. Several now existing architectural monuments were planned and executed by Benedictine monks. From the convents instruction with industrial tendencies spread to the cities, where in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries severed schools were maintained in which all the branches were taught that were con¬ sidered essential for commercial and industrial life. However, instruction with a decided industrial tendency may be said to have commenced with the introduction of systematic instruc¬ tion in geometry, which took place during the sixteenth century. During the seventeenth century geometry was fittingly supplemented by the introduction of drawing. This branch was particularly pro¬ moted by the order of the Piarists, who already taught architecture and industrial drawing. While during the preceding centuries industrial instruction was chiefly fostered in convents by religious orders, it became general in Hungary during the eighteenth century, and the entire educationaL ed 1900 - 55 86G EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. system was organized chiefly under the initiative^ of Empress Maria Theresa. She gave the impulse to the organization of State institu¬ tions of learning in 1774, but previous to that, in 1770, the Royal Drawing School at Budapest was organized; this is the first secular school of that kind in Hungary. The new school organization was published in 1777. It required that every city should organize a national school in which drawing was to be an obligatory study, but other studies also were to consider industrial and commercial relations; this is plain from the fact that it was ordered to teach arithmetic with applications to commercial and i n dustria 1 pursuit s . In 1779 a first attempt was made in Hungary to establish an indus¬ trial school combined with a workshop; that is, at a time when scarcely any of the Western nations had any, or at least very few, of such insti¬ tutions, though these nations were much further advanced industrial^ and commercially. At the same time humanitarian institutions, such as schools for deaf mutes and blind, promoted industrial pursuits by teaching certain trades, such as bookbinding. In 1783 a noteworthy decree was published by the Government which required of cities the establishment of Sunday drawing schools, making it obligatory for apprentices in workshops to attend them regularly. This decree was accompanied by a detailed course of study in drawing with explanatory remarks. A court decree of 1795 made the one of 1783 more effective. € HP This second decree stated that upon penalty no master was allowed to receive a boy as apprentice unless he had passed through the ele¬ mentary school, and that every apprentice should attend the Sunday drawing school for at least a year, otherwise he could not obtain his certificate of having completed his apprenticeship. Journeymen, also, were obliged to attend these Sunday schools for a year, for without a certificate of attendance upon such a school they could not become master workmen. Heavy penalties were inflicted if a journeyman had been admitted by an}" guild as master without having proved by documentary evidence that he had enjoyed a year’s instruction in drawing. In consequence of this royal decree instruction in drawing became general among apprentices and journeymen, and hence industrial instruction received a uniform organization. This was the status of industrial education during the first half of the nineteenth century. At the close of this period a unique system of lower trade schools was established in Budapest and a few provin¬ cial cities in which apprentices were taught partly on Sundays, partly in the evenings of work days, reading, writing, arithmetic, book- INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS IN HUNGARY. 867 keeping, and drawing. At about the same time the capital city, Budapest, established a higher industrial school, which years after¬ ward developed into the present polytechnicum. The history of the system of special schools in Hungary during the nineteenth century is very rich in changes. The necessity of syste¬ matic instruction for industrial people made itself felt; both the State Government and society felt it. This led in 1872 to the passage of a law which made it a duty of apprentices to attend regularly so-called apprentice schools, and the law of 1884 made it a duty of communities to establish and maintain such schools whenever in any community there are 50 apprentices working in shops or factories; and the masters of trade are obliged to procure their attendance at these schools. But the Government was not satisfied with the inauguration of lower evening and holiday schools. It was found of eminent importance to provide for schools in which foremen and masters of trade should be educated, to whom the special education of apprentices could be intrusted. Several schools of this kind were established for different branches of industry, such as for weavers, wood and metal workers, and for the ceramic industry; these schools furnished a considerable number of experts. But while all industrial schools were at first the result of private initiative they afterward became State institutions with the exception of apprentice schools, which through the law of 1884 were, and remained, communal or local institutions. A glance at the following table will show the great increase in the expenditure on the part of the State for industrial schools. The State paid: Years. Through the depart¬ ment of commerce. Through the depart¬ ment of education. Years. Through the depart¬ ment of commerce. Through the depart¬ ment of education. 1863 . $500 1,500 2,600 2,705 2,450 3,200 9, 400 5, 012 8, 363 8, 230 8, 042 8, 600 8,860 7,792 16, 694 1883 . $22, 345 28, 412 24, 108 26, 408 28, 121 19, 378 20,041 23, 526 32, 592 38, 232 90, 025 127, 701 144, 846 175, 500 242, 500 $57, 093 65, 051 83, 399 83, 911 90, 351 ' 89,507 83,947 80, 421 86, 050 91,043 98, 127 104,863 90, 000 95, 500 37, 700 1869 . 1884 . 1870 . . . 1885 . . . . 1871 . 1886 . 1872 . . . . . 1887 . 1873 . 1888 . 1874 . 1889 . 1875 . 1890.. 1876 . 1891 . 1877 . 1892 . 1878 . . . 1893 . 1879 . $12, 499 12, 710 23, 865 42,002 1894. ... 1880 . 189-5 . 1881 . 1896.... 1882 . . . . 1897 . . . From these data it is seen that the State has increased its expenses, for industrial education five hundred and sixty fold within thirty years. But it should be borne in mind that the State is not the only agency that supports this special education; cities, counties, and towns, and particularly chambers of commerce and industry, pay annually large 868 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. sums for the same purpose. In 1805-96 the apprentice schools alone had cost the communities $254,297, of which sum the State paid nothing. Thus, in the briefest possible outlines, the most important points are stated concerning the history of industrial education in Hungary; but enough has been said to show that the country is doing its duty in the field of special education in the interest of national economy, and a glance at the present conditions may serve to show in detail how these schools are managed and what they attempt. ORGANIZATION. Industrial education is organized in a complete system, all the parts of which are organically connected. Its organization is uniform though it makes allowance for local conditions and needs. It is divided into two main parts: (a) Apprentice schools and (b) technical schools proper. The former are under the control of the department of edu¬ cation, the latter under that of the department of commerce, which latter has a special bureau for industrial education, the chief of which is the royal superior-director. But both departments, that of edu¬ cation and that of commerce, have supervision of all the schools devoted to industrial education. Essential changes in the courses of study can be made only upon agreement of both departments. In order to obtain the best possible advice concerning questions of organ¬ ization, curricula, choice of text-books, and devices for teaching, a board is appointed, called the State Industrial School Board, consisting of 32 members, partly professional industrial teachers, partly manufac¬ turers and merchants, and some professors of the royal polytechnicum. This board is the highest advisory authority for the system of indus¬ trial schools. It is independent of the two departments, and acts under authority of a statute approved by the King. The teachers of apprentice schools are usually teachers of common elementary and high schools, who teach in these evening and holiday schools for a small additional salary. The technical schools proper all have regular faculties, the members of which are regarded as State officers. The professors in schools for woodworkers, weavers, metal workers, and machine builders are graduates of the department of mechanical engineering in the polytechnicum; those in schools for stone- workers and masons are sculptors and architects; those in schools for the ceramic arts are chemists, sculptors, and modelers. Each one of these teachers is sent abroad for a year or more at the expense of the State, before he is appointed definitely, to study his branch in noted schools of other countries, or he is sent to a university to enter as a student of a special branch. The professional preparation of foremen and work superintendents appointed in these schools is provided for in the same way. The department of commerce sends annually a number INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS IN HUNGARY. 869 of these teachers abroad to study the condition of the trades which their schools represent, and to visit schools of similar character, so that every teacher has a year's travel to study after three or four years of work. The system of industrial schools consists of (1) apprentice schools; (2) journeymen’s schools; (3) trade schools; (I) industrial technical schools; (5) higher industrial schools; (6) women’s industrial schools; (7) industrial drawing schools or schools of design; (8) one public lower industrial school; (9) schools of general culture in which some industrial branches are taught; (10) industrial museums. I. — APPRENTICE SCHOOLS. These form the lowest step of the system and are under the control of the minister of education. Attendance at these schools is obliga- tory; it was made so by the law of 1872. Formerly attendance on the pari of apprentices was obligatory only where such schools existed, but since 188-1 the cities and towns having at least 50 apprentices were obliged to establish such schools and make attendance obligatory. Masters of shops and owners of factories failing in their duty to send their apprentices to these schools are liable to fines of 50 florins ($25). The law provides that the city or town councils must establish and maintain apprentice schools; the expenses are to be defrayed from fines and a special tax not exceeding 2 per cent of the State school tax. In cases where these sources are inadequate special subsidies are granted by the minister of education. County funds are established, the interest of which is used to support these schools. In urgent cases, even the capital may be used to establish them. Every trade apprentice is obliged to attend these schools during the entire time of apprenticeship. They have three grades, and a boy may enter at 12 years of age, after having gone through the elemen¬ tary school; but since many boys fail to go through the entire course of the elementary schools, many apprentice schools are obliged to have preparatory classes. The instruction takes place in evening and on holidays, and is given seven hours per week— two hours each on Wo week days, and three hours on Sunday. The three hours on Sunday are exclusively devoted to drawing. The branches of instruction are (1) the mother tongue, (2) geography, history, and nature study, (3) penmanship, (I) arithme¬ tic and bookkeeping, (5) drawing and sketching. The course is given in detail by the central government. If the religious communities desire to have these apprentices taught religion, they may do so, but they must do it at their own expense. In order to make these schools very effective, special courses for teachers are arranged. In 1895-96 Hungary had 366 apprentice (evening and holiday) schools with 72,676 pupils and 2,150 teachers. In places where there are not enough 870 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. pupils (50 to begin with), apprentices are obliged to attend the ele¬ mentary continuation schools till they are 15 years old. The city authorities appoint a special inspector, usually a professional teacher, who reports upon the condition of the apprentice schools to the city council as well as to the State government. The Government inspects the schools through its own functionaries. II. — SCHOOLS FOR TRADE JOURNEYMEN. These schools are advanced apprentice schools; attendance in them is not obligatory, but they are well patronized in cities. Their main¬ tenance depends partly on tuition fees, partly on contributions of cit\r and State governments. The number of such schools is about 20 in the whole State; they have about 1,000 students, and are supervised like the apprentice schools. III. — SCHOOL WORKSHOPS. The workshops for apprentices form the second step of the industrial school system, but the first step of the system of technical education. They belong to the department of commerce. Their object is to sup¬ ply the trades with skilled laborers and particularly aid the industries known as home industries in contradistinction to factory industries. The course is one of three years, except for boys preparing for special branches of work, for whom extra courses are arranged, lasting from three months to one year. The three year courses are both theoreti- ical and practical, chiefly practical, of course. In drawing and design¬ ing much valuable work is done. About ten hours a week are devoted to theoretical instruction and about forty hours a week to practical application. Boys must be 12 years of age to be admitted and have completed the course of the elementary school. These school workshops differ from the manual training schools in this: They teach one or at most two trades, while in our manual training schools no •trades are taught, but the use of tools and material is aimed at. In Hungarian trade workshops no theoretical instruction is given to boys who come to perfect themselves in certain branches of home industry. Beside these workshops conducted as schools, there are a number of factory work schools, maintained by the owners of factories who intend to prepare their own workmen for special work. The work¬ men, chosen by the foremen or owners of the factory for the purpose of attending school, are paid like regular workmen. Beside these, there are school workshops of a peculiar nature called wage work schools. The students of these take material home and bring the completed work to the institution. School workshops are connected with the following industries: (1) Weaving, (2) braiding, (3) stoneworking, (I) toy industry, (5) lacemaking, (6) ceramic industry . INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS IN HUNGARY. 87 1 IV.— INDUSTRIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. These technical schools are the youngest branch of the industrial school system and the most promising type of practical schools. They form the third step of the system, and their chief object is to aid Hun¬ garian industry by preparing well equipped laborers of a high type who can act as master workmen and directors of factories. These technical schools (that, at least, is the intention) are to develop handi¬ crafts by degrees into art industry. This necessitates, of course, a systematic, theoretical, and practical education. Each of these schools is provided with the necessary power machines. The course is one of four years, except in the weaving schools, where it is of two years, and the locksmith’s school, which has* a three }Tears’ course. The theoretical instruction claims from 4 to 8 hours a week, drawing from 14 to 18 hours, and instruction in workshops from 20 to 30 hours, so that the whole number of hours of work per week is from 50 to 52. The theoretical lessons embrace general and tech¬ nical branches, as is seen from the following schedule: Time-table of Hungarian technical schools. Branches. Schools for woodworkers. Schools for metal workers and machine builders. Schools for stone workers and clay mod¬ elers. Schools for tex¬ tile work¬ ers. U c3 CD 4J CO Ph E r—4 Co CD Hi Tp O a 0) m c5 Ph o pH Co CD Hi 4-3 CO pH £ 3 (D Hi R3 O O CD m Ph* r* & Hi rP 3 H U Co CD Hi r~| 4—3 3 o CO • ,-H Ph o> r^H o CD O General branches. Language (mother tongue) . 2 2 i i 4 3 3 1 2 9 Xj 1 1 2 Arithmetic . ' . 2 2 i i 1 , / 3 2 2 1 2 2 Geometry . 2 j 4 1 o 6 .... 12 I o Geometric drawing . 4 f 4 I 3 2 Working drawing! . 6 r8 ) Free-hand drawing . 4 4 4 6 0 6 6 9 4 4 Modeling . 1 . 4 4 4 4 4 Bookkeeping . o 2 2 1 Physics *...T . 2 1 6 2 Chemistry . 2 1 7 9 Penmanship . i .... Technical branches. Construction . 5 6 10 14 12 12 12 6 6 Technology . 5 2 2 2 2 3 3 9 2 1 Architectural geometry . 2 2 Machine construction * . . . 2 9 2 3 Stone lettering . i Chemical laboratory . 1 4 G 3 7 Textile technology . 4 a Decomposition . . 4 4 Note.— To this must be added from 20 to 30 hours shop work per week. The conditions of admission to these schools are as follows: The applicant must have completed his 12th year of age, and either have completed the elementary school course or the two lower grades of a 872 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. high school. In exceptional cases graduates of the apprentice evening schools are admitted. The weaver’s schools admit only boys Id years old. Many of the technical schools are boarding- schools, having- amole dormitories. | At the close of the course the students receive a diploma, which facilitates their employment and enables them, after two years’ practi¬ cal work as journeymen, to become master workmen. State factories and railroad shops prefer to employ the graduates of technical schools. The schools for the building trades differ in essential points of organi¬ zation from those described in the foregoing. They are not indepen¬ dent technical schools, but connected with some other industrial insti¬ tutions. Their courses are either three whole years or four winter semesters, and during the building season the students are engaged in practical work. The graduates are only journeymen in their trades; to become masters in brick or stone masonry, stone cutting, or carpentry several years of practical work are required and a final examination before a trade board of examiners. Students who pass the four years’ course in school may acquire the right to act as masters after another four years of practical work without examination. The following industrial schools are found in Hungary: (a rr\ i Vo State schools for woodworkers in Homonna and Ujpest, in which cabinetmakers, turners, and wood carvers are prepared. Num¬ ber of students in 1895-96, 17 and Id, respectively. (2) Four schools for the wood and metal industry in Arad, Klausen- burg, Marosvasarhely, and Szegedin. Besides the branches taught in (1), there are taught branches for locksmiths, art workers in wrought iron, and machine builders. In one of these schools (Klausenburg) stokers of engines and others are also taught. The d schools have together 318 students. (3) There are 2 schools exclusively devoted to metal work. They are situated at Budapest and Golniczbanya; number of students, 77. (d) There are 2 weaving schools in Kesmark and Nagy-Disznod. The former applies itself to both hand weaving and mechanical weaving; the latter is devoted to wool weaving exclusively ; number of scholars, 23. (5) There are 3 schools for stoneworkers and the ceramic arts in Szekely-Udvarhely, Zalatna, and Ungvar. In these schools stone- cutting, ornamental sculpture, clay pottery, tile making, and stone polishing are taught. The number of students in 1895 was 100. (6) There are 2 watchmakers’ schools at Budapest and Klausenburg; number of students, d7. (7) The leather industry is represented by a school at Nag}T-Szeben, in which chiefly shoemaking and saddlery are taught; number of stu¬ dents, 11. Hence there were in Hungary, in 1895-96, 16 industrial schools, with 616 students. INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS IN HUNGARY. 873 In this connection it may be mentioned that a number of advanced burgher schools have opened workshops in which the boys are induced to occupy themselves with trade work, but though heartily supported by the Government, the idea did not find a like support among the people and with teachers who think that the general education offered in such schools should not be burdened with prosaic, so called, practi¬ cal occupations. At first such shops were established quite numer¬ ously, but of late they have been abandoned, so that in 1895-96 there were only four schools of that kind left. It is generally thought best to let the children obtain a thorough elementary education, and after that induce them to enter practical pursuits in purely industrial schools. V. — STATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. As the highest step of the system of Hungarian industrial schools below the Polyteehnicum at Budapest may be regarded the State industrial schools. They are advanced institutions aiming at a thor¬ ough preparation of foremen and factory owners. Their course is one of three years, but it has been found desirable to increase it to four years. Applicants for admission must have graduated from a burgher school or have passed through the four lower grades of a secondary school. In some of these schools practical experience in shops is required also. The students who pass the examination for graduation are thereby not only entitled to an abridgement of their military service to one year, but also to a preference in the appointment to subordinate offices in postal, telephone, railroad, and customs bureaus. The best feature of these schools is found in the excellent facilities for practical shopwork offered the students. These shops are built on a large scale and contain the latest technical inventions. The organi¬ zation of these schools is uniform except that in their time tables they differ, but only in so far as the local conditions require. Of the 18 to 50 hours per week of instruction, 20 to 26 are devoted to shopwork. Instruction is not gratuitous, but tuition fees are paid. The school at Kassa is chiefly devoted to mechanics and machine construction, but teaches also electro-technique and political economy. The school at Budapest is the largest institution of this kind in eastern Europe, having five distinct departments: (1) Architecture, (2) mechanical engineering, (3) chemistry, (I) metal work, and (5) wTood industry. The theoretical branches taught to the students of all the five departments are: Hungarian language, arithmetic, geometry and algebra, physics, chemistry, free-hand and instrumental drawing, machine construction, political economy, and bookkeeping. Each department of this school has, of course, its own course of study in practical Avork. The following lists will show how thorough that work is. 874 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Course in architecture . — Architecture, architectural drawing, model¬ ing. architectural geometry, materials, foundation laying, surveying, building mechanism, theory of construction, making estimates, bridge and hydraulic engineering, history of architecture, and practical shop work. Course in mechanical engineering. — Drawing from nature, mechanics, technology of wood, machine construction, constructive drawing, technology of metal, agricultural machinery and its drawing, sur¬ veying, railroad machinery, mill building, paper mills, electro-tech¬ nique, and 21 hours a week practical shopwork. Course in chemistry. — Modeling, general chemistry, inorganic chem¬ istry, laboratory practice, organic chemistry, mechanical drawing, inorganic and organic technology. Course in metal industry. — Free-hand drawing from nature, mechan¬ ics, locksmitking, simple iron construction, modeling, heating and ventilation, wells, pumps, lire engines; waterworks, electro-technique, and 24 hours a week shopwork. Course in woodworking industry. — Modeling, drawing from nature, technology of wood, theory of construction, constructive drawing, and 23 hours a week shopwork. The number of teachers in 1895-96 was 232. There were, in addi¬ tion to these day courses, a number of special winter courses, one for the building trades with 143 students, and one for stokers and engi¬ neers for stationary and locomotive engines with 800 students. To these courses are admitted only men engaged in factories and shops. A small State industrial school for joiners is situated in Brasso, the chief subject of studjr of which. is artistic wood carving. VI. — INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS FOR WOMEN. These institutions have the purpose of preparing women for suitable occupations or wage working. Their organization is uniform in essen¬ tials. Admission is granted only to those who have completed an ele¬ mentary school course. In some of these schools for women theoretical instruction is given, which is, however, confined to the three branches language, arithmetic, and bookkeeping. Drawing is taught in every one of these schools for women. The course is one of two years, and tuition fees are charged. There are 11 of such schools, some of which are subsidized by the State, others are private or municipal schools. VII. -INDUSTRIAL DRAWING SCHOOLS. In other countries, notably in the United States, such institutions are called schools of design. This branch of the Hungarian industrial- school system is the most modest of all, comprising only a few institu¬ tions. Their object is exactly that of other schools of this kind in Germany, France, Austria, and the United States, namely, to raise INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS IN HUNGARY. 875 industrial art to the highest possible perfection by inventing new designs and new modes of introducing art into industrial pursuits. In 1895-96 these schools of design had 1,083 students, of which onl}r 91 were women. Till.— LOWER INDUSTRIAL SCIIOOLS. At present there is only one lower school of this kind, it is located at Temesvar. It prepares young boys for entering shops as apprentices. It has 238 students. It is the intention of the Government to raise this school to the dignity of a secondary school as soon as the funds available reach an amount which will permit doing so. IX. — MANUAL TRAINING. Schools of this kind are so well understood in this country that a description of course and organization is not necessary. There were only four of them in Hungary in 1895-96. Separate buildings are used for the boys, who come from their day high schools for a specified number of hours per week to get instruction in cardboard and wood work. X . — INDUSTRI A L MUSEUMS.. 6 These museums are mentioned last because they are not, properly speaking, schools, but aids for all industrial schools of the State. There are four of them — in Budapest, Marosvasarhely, Klausenburg, and Nagy-Szeben. A general exhibition of all industrial arts is open all the 37ear round ; special exhibits of the products and methods of separate trades are arranged for in each of these museums, and lec¬ tures to the workmen, foremen, and masters* of shops and factories are held at certain times, which are well attended. Naturally each indus¬ trial technical school has, if not an extensive museum, certainly the nucleus of such an institution, just as a school has its own library'. B. — Commercial Instruction. The history of commercial schools in Hungary is briefer than that of industrial schools. The oldest statements concerning commercial education date from the beginning of the eighteenth century. They plainly show that there were in existence at that time some commer¬ cial schools, but they were conducted by monks. In the middle of the nineteenth century an agitation took place in favor of commercial preparation which resulted in the establishment of schools for that purpose. But during the decade from 1880 to 1890 the greatest activ¬ ity was shown in that direction, owing to the phenomenal expansion of trade of neighboring nations. While industrial education has become exclusively an affair of the State, commercial education has been left to the initiative of societies and private persons. The State merely 876 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. points the way in which these schools shall develop, and secures that prerogative by State subsidies. The system of commercial schools in Hungary may be said to be divided into three steps or grades: Commercial apprentice schools, commercial courses chiefly arranged for women, and secondary com¬ mercial schools or colleges. Besides, there is an institution of special organization and purpose, the Oriental Commercial Academy. At present all commercial schools are under the direction of the minister of public instruction, who directs them in agreement with the minis- ter of commerce with reference to questions of organization and course of study. There is a motion pending in parliament to place these schools under the exclusive direction of the minister of commerce. -COMMERCIAL APPRENTICE SCHOOLS. These schools are in essentials identical with the industrial appren¬ tice schools. The law which makes attendance obligatory in Indus- trial schools includes also commercial schools. Both are evening' and secular Sunday schools. The vital difference between these two kinds of schools is found in the course of study. The following branches are taught to commercial apprentices: Reading, copying, geography, commercial arithmetic and office practice, banking and correspondence, bookkeeping, physics, knowledge of merchandise, elements of political economy, and penmanship; together, 28 hours a week. In 1895 Hungary had 7-1 commercial apprentice schools, with 311- teachers and 1,699 students. In places where not 50 apprentices are found to establish such a school the apprentices are required to attend the industrial school, where they will receive special attention as com¬ mercial students. II. — COMMERCIAL COURSES FOR WOMEN. These schools are not separate institutions, but connected with city schools, in the upper grades of which special preparation is offered to young women for entering upon accountant’s duties. The courses last ten months each, and are arranged for in different schools every year. The branches taught are commercial arithmetic, bookkeeping, banking, correspondence in Hungarian and German, knowledge of merchandise, commercial geography, and penmanship. In 1896 there were 16 of such courses given, in which 592 girls took part. Like the commercial and industrial apprentice schools, these courses are under the supervision of the minister of education. III. — SECONDARY COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS. A higher step of commercial education is formed by the secondary schools devoted to this purpose. Their course is one of three years. Onlv graduates of burgher schools and students of classical and %J O INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS IN HUNGARY. 877 modern high schools who have passed through the first four grades are admitted. A rigorous examination at the close of the course, conducted under supervision of the two departments — that of educa¬ tion and that of commerce — decides upon graduation and the granting of a diploma, which ranks equally with the diploma of any other State secondary school. This diploma also entitles the holder to one year’s army service, instead of three years. It is instructive to see the dis¬ tribution of time devoted to the various branches of stud}1. The course is given below. During 1897 Hungary had 35 of such secondary commercial schools, with 4,983 students. The total expenditures for these schools amounted to $125,000, of which amount the State con¬ tributed $39,000. Course of study of Hungarian secondary commercial schools. Obligatory studies. Religious instruction and exercises . Hungarian language and literature . German language . *. . . French, English, or Italian . Geography . History . . . Arithmetic . Physics . Commercial arithmetic . Counting-house practice . . . Bookkeeping . Commercial correspondence . History of commerce . Political economy . Commercial law . Chemistry and knowledge of merchandise. Penmanship . Optional studies. A fourth foreign language.. Stenography1 . Chemical laboratory practice Conversational exercises1 .. Gymnastics and sports . Hours per week. First year. Second year. Third yea,r. Total. 1 1 3 3 3 10 3 3 10 3 3 10 2 2 6 2 2 6 2 2 6 2 3 4 11 2 2 5 3 3 6 2 2 6 2 32 34 3 34 3 100 G 1 Time after school hours. IV. — HIGHER INSTITUTION FOR ORIENTAL COMMERCE. There is one higher institution of learning in Hungary (Budapest), the purpose of which is to train young men for independent positions in the commercial world and for administrative offices, consular service, etc. It offers specially fine opportunities for learning oriental lan¬ guages and commercial practice. Its course is one of two years. Admitted as regular students are (1) graduates of any secondary com¬ mercial school, (2) graduates of classical secondary schools, and (3) commercial apprentices who have at least a four years’ practice and can prove that they possess the knowledge of graduates of a secondary commercial school. As a hearer, may be admitted anyone who is 878 EDUCATION REPOST, 1 899-1900. engaged in commerce and proves that he can take part in the studies with profit to himself. The following studies are found in the course: Roumanian, Servian, Bulgarian, Turkish, Modern Greek, and Italian languages. Each of these languages is taught six hours a week, except Italian, to which only four hours are devoted. A regular student must choose at least two of these languages. Besides linguistic branches, the following are taught two hours a week each: Ethnographical and historical descrip¬ tion of the Orient; commercial geography; tariff duties and foreign commerce in connection with legal questions concerning consular serv¬ ice; transportation; the French language, three hours, and special com¬ mercial branches, three hours. The students also undertake, annually, journeys and voyages into oriental countries to study the status and methods of export, and other things necessary for thorough men of commerce and for consuls. The expenditures necessitated by these journeys, as well as all other costs of the school, are borne by the State. XV. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA. During the year 1898 two criminal cases were tried in courts of Prussia in which the defendants were teachers accused of maltreatment of pupils such as pulling out of hair, boxing ears which resulted in the destruction of the child’s eardrum, excessive caning, and other improper punishment of pupils. The defendants were found guilty and fined 150 marks ($35.70) and costs, including expenses for medical treatment of the injured children. The courts in rendering judgment stated that the defendants had acted contrary to law and the regula¬ tions which define the limits within which corporal punishment may be inflicted. The law referred to is merely the common law derived from judicial decisions in the past, and the decisions rested chiefly on departmental regulations which date hack to .1859 and have been sub¬ ject to frequent changes. The most authoritative regulation dates back to 1888. It is similar to regulations in force in American schools, where corporal punishment is not prohibited. The courts further said that as officers of the State, acting “in loco parentis,” these teach¬ ers nad overstepped the limits of their prerogatives, because they had gone beyond that which is allowed a father, and as teachers they had acted unpedagogically and unwisely. The cases referred to assumed an unenviable notoriety, owing to the brutality displayed by the defendants, and they, as well as frequent complaints of other cases of excessive punishment which were not brought before the bar of justice, induced the minister of public CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS. 879 instruction, Dr. Bosse, to issue a new regulation, which, in absence of a state school law, had legal force. It was dated Berlin, May 1, 1899, and read as follows: The supervisory school authorities, as I willingly acknowledge, have hitherto seen to it that excessive corporal punishment in the schools was avoided, for careful inquiries have proved that such cases have been rare in the past, and that few cor¬ rective measures on the part of the authorities have been found necessary. But lately a few cases of cruel punishment have occurred which induce me to call the attention of supervisory school authorities to this matter, and to urge them to use all their power to prevent excessive corporal punishment of children. The prerogative of a teacher to punish his pupils corporally, if necessary, is not questioned. But it should be impressively urged that such punishment is to be applied only in extreme cases, after all other disciplinary means have been exhausted, or in cases of grave misdemeanor, and that in no case should punishment degenerate into maltreatment dangerous to the health of children. It seems desirable to remind teachers of the provision in existing regulations which allows the use of a thin rod or cane in chastising, but excludes the use of rules or blackboard pointers; also that hitting with books, slapping the face or head with the hand, knocking the chest or back with the fist, pulling the hair or ears, or violently shaking the children, and similar acts make teachers amenable to the law. Furthermore, that punishment without cause, frivolous or habitual punishment, especially the application of chas¬ tisement for poor work, lacking talent, or for insignificant faults of children, should be severely dealt with by the authorities. In order to prevent abuse of the teacher’s right to punish in a school at the head of which is a rector (or head teacher), I decree that corporal punishment shall take place only with the latter’s approval. In other schools such punishment shall not be resorted to except with the consent of the district school inspector. Wherever this is made impossible by local circumstances, the inspector shall at once, be notified of cause and kind of punishment in each case. Young teachers, acting only provision¬ ally, must not be placed in positions where they are alone and without immediate authority over them. Under no circumstances shall the right to punish corporally be granted to them. Above all, the abuse of the right to punish and improper application of corporal punishment is best prevented when the teachers manifest their moral influence through instruction and training, and when they adhere to the principle that cor¬ poral punishment (aside from grave but rare infractions) had best be avoided. School children certainly should be trained and kept in good order and discipline; but the means to that end are not found in bodily chastisement; they are rather found in the personality of the teacher, in his moral influence, in his methods of teaching, and in his manner of maintaining external order. Where the ethical character of a teacher, his conscientious discharge of duty, his earnest but amiable treat¬ ment of children, his thorough instruction commands the esteem and awakens the love of the school toward him, experience teaches that the causes of corporal pun¬ ishment disappear, except in rare cases of degeneracy. On the other hand, in schools where corporal punishment is resorted to frequently, the cause is invariably found in the teacher’s grave errors in conduct and official acts, in his instruction and manner of training. I hereby order the provincial authorities to instruct the district school inspectors to discuss this matter with the teachers of their districts' during regular meetings, to warn them not to abuse their right to punish, and to instruct them regarding the proper means of successful school discipline, as well as the correct application of corporal punishment. Teachers found abusing their right to punish should be severely dealt with by the 880 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. supervisory authorities, for parents must not lose the confidence that their children will he saved from improper chastisement, and receive loving parental treatment, though kept under firm discipline. Scarcely had this been published when the teachers were up in arms against the new rules, that the school principal or, in cases of ungraded schools, the school inspector, should be asked for his consent in every case of corporal punishment, and that every such case of pun¬ ishment should be reported to the local supervisory authorities. Fre¬ quent meetings were held, and the new regulations severely criticised. The argument was advanced that they undermined the teacher’s authority, and in times in which, through socialistic agitation, all gov¬ ernmental authority was placed in question it would be hazardous to curtail the teacher’s disciplinary power. It was further argued, both in teachers’ meetings and in the press, that the changed industrial conditions which diminished the parental influence, through the father’s and often, also, the mother’s absence from home, demanded an increase rather than a diminution of the teacher’s prerogatives, who stood “in loco parentis.” Petitions were addressed to provincial gov¬ ernments which set forth the impossibility of the teachers to perform their duties as instructors and educators if the new regulations were strictly carried out. Delegations waited upon those high in authority, and even the minister himself had to listen to protests from teachers. This led to a new publication from the minister, dated July 27, 1899. It reads as follows: My decree of May 1 concerning the application of corporal punishment in ele¬ mentary schools has created doubts which induce me to return to Vise subject. The decree starts with the declaration that the teacher’s right to punish corporally in necessary cases is not questioned. I am chiefly concerned in making provision that this last and extreme means of discipline be limited to cases which absolutely require it, and that every violent and inhuman excess be prevented. The ethical reason for corporal punishment in school rests upon the parental right of education and training transmitted to the teacher, without which right the school could not accomplish its educational task. School discipline should under all circum¬ stances bear the stamp of parental discipline. Viewed from the standpoint of prin¬ ciple, the educational limits for the application of corporal punishment through the teacher are plainly seen in each individual case. The advice that every teacher must, as far as possible, try to make the application of chastisement unnecessary, through the influence of his word and his whole personality, has of late been sadly neglected. Severe bodily punishment is often counted among the requisites of daily school life and as a condition of good class results. While it is certainly true that in cases of innate brutality, unyielding defiance, and confirmed indolence occasional chastisement may not only be beneficial to the individual pupil but serve as a warning example to his schoolmates, it is equally true that habitual application of severe punishment for slight misdemeanors or in cases of want of intellectual capacity, particularly if the application occurs in classes attended by both sexes, will not only not prevent the degeneration of youth, but, by deadening the feelings of the pupils, lower the moral atmosphere of the school. This is especially true among children to whom school is to offer that parental care which is lacking in their homes. Experience confirms the fact that the best teachers CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS. 881 make least use of their right to punish corporally, and that young, inexperienced teachers succumb to the temptation, often clangorous to their oven future, of attempt¬ ing to aid unsatisfactory efforts on the part of the pupils by frivolous and frequent use of the rod. A number of cases of improper and extreme punishment have been recently brought to my knowledge, some in which, owing to sickly conditions of the children, chastisement has led to fatal results, and these cases show the necessity of empha¬ sizing the limits within which the application of corporal punishment is allowable,, to call attention to the portentous responsibility of a teacher in this respect, and to take measures to prevent habitual and frivolous use of the rod without grave cause, as well as application of chastisement in moments of anger or any sudden fit. of emotion. Bat there is one point in my order of May 1 to which serious objection is raised — i. e., the regulation that a teacher should first secure the consent of his principal or school inspector before he resorts to corporal punishment. This point has found incorrect interpretation in public discussions, since it would be entirely within the- limits of the order, if teachers secure the consent of their superiors during a general dis¬ cussion concerning the conditions of their classes, so that they may resort to corporal punishment at once in cases of emergency with degenerate pupils. Such consultations may result in the most ample permit on the part of the superiors to inflict corpora? punishment for cruelty, insubordination, and laziness of certain pupils known to require such treatment at times. In general, however, and as a rule, I should like to see the instructions of my order of May 1 carried out — namely,, that any chastisement made necessary by serious misdemeanor be applied after school hours, and after consultation with the head teacher, principal, or inspector, as has been the rule for many years in the counties of Merseburg (order of April 15, 1863), Koslin (order of February 24, 1868), and Konigsberg (order of April 14, 1860), which rules are found in Schneider and von- Bremen, Volume III, page 244. The views contained in these local regulations are^ essentially the same that I desire to see accepted for the use of corporal punishment in the entire State. In the press cases are reported of parents who made their children acquainted with’ my order of May 1, in a manner calculated to undermine the teacher’s authority in the eyes of those who are intrusted to his parental discipline. I hope that such cases, if they have occurred at all, will remain isolated, and I acknowledge expressly that in so serious a danger to school discipline any teacher shall be unhampered in in the application of his legal prerogative to punish pupils. Any teacher who is confronted with such a case — i. e., in which parents question his legal right to pun¬ ish corporally — may consider himself free from the barrier of a previous consulta¬ tion with his superior, and resort to such punishment. In explaining my order of May 1, the authorities are asked to make this clear to the teachers. If malevolence and indiscretion should thus make it impossible to the department' of education to check excesses of the teachers’* right to punish by occasioning greater evils of insubordination, the department would wish to be free of the responsibility for cases which gave rise to the order of March 1. In general, I have confidence in the self-control and fidelity to duty which the Prussian teachers have so often shown under the most difficult circumstances, and which will also show them the lesson to be learned from the experiences of recent years. As regards provisionally appointed teachers, I repeat that they should not be placed in schools without a principal or rector. If this is unavoidable, it is most desirable to make wise selections and choose only such young teachers as have given special evidence of faithful discharge of duty and of self-control. Such teach¬ ers may then be treated with equal confidence concerning corporal punishment as other teachers. ED 1900 - 56 882 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. This explanation on the part of the minister essentially modified his first order, but it did not satisfy the teachers. To American teachers this would seem strange, but there is a feature of the Prussian school administration not generally understood in this country, which explains the deep-rooted dissatisfaction among the teachers with the ministePs order and subsequent amendment. It is this: The rector or principal of a public school in Prussia is the superior of the other teachers m his school only in formal duties, such as assignment of pupils, collect¬ ing and summarizing reports, representing the school on festive occa¬ sions, and acting as chairman in faculty meetings. He has no right to interfere in the instruction of the teachers, they being to all intent and purposes his equal as educators. The teachers claim that asking for his consent in cases of corporal punishment is equivalent to giving the principal disciplinary power over the teachers, a power which they are unwilling to grant, and which the authorities have hitherto pre¬ vented. The teachers are in professional training and social standing equal to the principal of the school, and may at any time be promoted by the school board to positions as rectors or principals. These considerations led the teachers and the press, both professional and polit¬ ical, to further remonstrances addressed to those higher in authority, and the frequent cases of insubordination and defiance among the pupils in large cities whose parents belong to the socialistic party, one of the chief principles of which is the inviolability of the dignity and integrity of the individual, gave strong emphasis to the remonstrances. In the midst of these contentions came the resignation of the minis¬ ter of education, Dr. Bosse. One of the first acts of his successor, Dr. Conrad Studt, was to rescind the order of his predecessor. He did this by means of the following rescript, dated January 19, 1900: The execution of the orders of May 1 and July 27, 1899, referring to the teachers’ right to punish, contain provisions which have caused such difficulties and objec¬ tions that I feel constrained to rescind these orders, and it is done herewith. The right to punish on the part of men and women teachers and the mode of exer¬ cising this right, are, as heretofore, based upon the legal acts in force and the two orders explaining the legal provisions. Said orders are these of April 3, 1888, and October 22, 1888, in both of which proper instructions are given to teachers concern¬ ing the manner of exercising their prerogative. Teachers who are found guilty of excesses and improper application of the right to punish can not hope to receive mild judgment from me. Like my predecessor, I expect faithfulness to duty of all the supervisory authorities (school councilors, district and local school inspectors, rectors, and head teachers), and that they will insist upon a sober-minded, strictly legal application of the right to punish, a right which is granted for exceptional cases only. I expect that they will relentlessly oppose every misuse of the right in question, and furnish young teachers with proper instruction and advice, so that unjustified and excessive application of corporal pun¬ ishment is obviated. Teachers, both men and women, shall immediately after each lesson enter a mem¬ orandum of each applied chastisement, with a brief statement of its cause or necessity, in a register prepared for the purpose. The supervisory officer, or principal, shall fkoebel’s system of education. 883 countersign this register at every visit to the schoolroom, after having taken cogni¬ zance of the new entries, if there are any. If doubts arise in his mind concerning the propriety of any cases of punishment, or the frequency of their occurrence, he shall discuss the matter with the teacher. Any teacher who fails to make the entries, or who persists in exceeding his legal right by improper or too frequent use, despite the warning he received from his superiors, shall be temporarily or permanently deprived of the right to punish inde¬ pendently. One of the most effective means to accustom young teachers to a conscientious use of the right to punish is found in thorough instruction concerning this point during the normal school preparation. I therefore urge the provincial governments to make it a duty of directors of normal schools to give special care to this subject during the course. It is reasonable to suppose that this last-quoted order of the new minister will be the final word in the matter, though there is still occasional grumbling heard in the educational press of Prussia over the new duty of keeping a “whipping register,55 and “to spend pre¬ cious minutes in making' entries after each lesson.5' XVI. FROEBEL’S SYSTEM OF EDUCATION AND THE SPREAD OF THE KINDERGARTEN. By Bakoness von Bulo w- W endttausen. Note. — The author of the following article recently visited the United States, where she delivered a number of lectures to people interested in kindergartens and FroebeTs System of Education. In reply to certain opponents of the kindergarten in Ger¬ many, she published a statement in the “Dresdner Anzeiger” in which is given an account of the rapid growth and expansion of the kindergarten in different parts of the civilized world. On account of the valuable information it contains, it has been deemed advisable to reprint the article here in English. A more interesting study than that of the development of man can hardly be conceived. That it receives less attention than others is probably due to its not being considered of more importance in the customary course of instruction in history. The history of civilization teaches that the development of man has been one of uninterrupted, progress, but always in one direction or another, never in all directions alike. In this way mankind has been led from one epoch to another. Modern German historv, the history of our civilization during the past 150 years, records the most widely different epochs. A period of research, investigation, and the philosophy of Leibnitz and Kant was succeeded b j one of poetry; Schiller, Goethe, and a host of other writers, exerted their influence on mind and heart. Every chord of feeling vibrated strongly in the anguish of the Napoleonic period, and in the self-sacrificing patriotism and enthusiasm that mark the closing centurv. •/ This powerful exaltation of mind and heart, the inclination toward 884 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. “ deep introspection,” and the delight, verging upon sentimentalism, in all that is spiritual, noble, and beautiful, was followed by a reaction. Comparisons between ideal views and the facts of existence were insti¬ tuted and produced a discord manifested in a discontent with real con¬ ditions, which was heard finally in the confusion and unrest of the middle of the century. Poetry was forced into the background and replaced by a far-reaching materialism. Then, before the change could be realized, a period of sober investigation, invention, and practical effort, a period of machines, and thereby an entirely novel and intensely surprising epoch in the history of civilization, had dawned. The consequences were an increased demand upon the greater capacity of performance, and the attendant necessity of a general and broader education. The demand for more knowledge forced schools to introduce a larger number of studies, and in a short time the men¬ tal strain on children justified the most anxious fears. General over¬ taxation of the mind brought on nervousness, which, with all its evil consequences, and in combination with the new conditions of life, began to fill hospitals and insane asylums. In schools the effort was made to counteract the mental strain hj physical exercise. Gymnastics, games, and manual training were introduced in the courses of study. How¬ ever, the better development of the senses did not greatly manifest itself; intellect, power of observation, and mechanical skill— that is, facility in the use of the hand — were not cultivated to an adequate degree. The capacity of the individual was not brought up to the required level. The disproportion between desire and ability led to the most distressing and alarming conditions of individual and public life; and the struggle for subsistence brought on the despairing egotism from which the present is suffering. To-day, the most opti¬ mistic observer of present conditions can no longer fail to conclude that education and the preparation for the duties of life and labor are insufficient; he must admit that new times demand a new education. History also teaches that every new epoch with its new demands pro¬ duces a prophet competent to teach the world what it needs to know. The prophet of a new system of education was not lacking. Fried¬ rich Froehel was that prophet. Baroness von Marenholtz-Biiiow sa}rs: The genius of mankind descends to earth in an individual almost always unnoticed, and only after his death is his importance recognized. Thus it was with Friedrich Froehel. Unnoticed, he was a genius gifted with all the talents necessary for his mission. Somewhere in a small principality of Thuringia, but in the very heart of Germany, this simple old man inquired into human existence. Into the ebb of insufficiency and the midst of the ever-increasing necessity of higher competency and greater labor capacity he introduced the new system froebel’s system of education. 885 of education which made possible a better development of all human powers or talents, mental as well as physical. Froehel said to himself: “It is not right to consider only the physical development of a child during early youth. As body and mind are born together, both must form the very beginning, and be appropriately assisted in their growth. This assistance must be given in the order of nature. What is natural with a young child? Play.” Further on he says: “If to-day’s neglect can not be made good even the next day, and especially with children, because of the rapid strides of their early development, then, in order to lose nothing, we must begin at once to assist them. But hove can we influence a young child and an infant at the breast ? Only by proper impressions, then by proper play, and later, but long before instruction by word is possible, by the child’s own actions.” Froehel closely watched the being of a child in all its manifestations (impulses); and while studying the history of man’s development, he learned the requirements of the individual’s development. “As the species develops, so also does the individual in plant life, in animal life, in the life of man.” Froehel found the spring of his “new education” in the history of education. Basing his system on the progress of mankind in its infancy, he educates and instructs children by giving them, in the same order of succession, the occupations and manual exercises followed by mankind in its development. Ail development is the result of action, or, as Froehel says, of work. His genius enabled him to discover the law that governs all work. He called it the formative law, and reasoned that man can not work differ¬ ently from nature, as he himself is a product of nature, the highest “spiritually endowed.” When he discovered the law, he ingeniously applied it to education and thereby made it possible for a child to be a “creative power,” as he expressed it, even if onljr in play. In origina¬ tive play, children learn the suitable helps and in their action apply them toward their own development and instruction in the most childish way. These beginnings should be made in the nursery. If a child has so far advanced as to move about freely and joyously as an independent creature, if the first grade of the new education has been passed on his mother’s knee, Froebel offers the places where it can rank among those of its own age as a “member of the whole,” in order to be able to live its own life and develop in its childish way by play¬ ing and by its own action. “Power is won in flight,” says the poet. The places where this is offered and attained Froebel calls “kinder¬ gartens/1 In her Collection of Thoughts, Baroness von Marenholtz- Btilow says: The regeneration of man must commence with the regeneration of children. The dominating egotism of the present must be replaced by true public spirit and an all-embracing love; all labor must be more or less transformed into creativeness 886 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. (Schaffen) by unshackling the inventive power. Creativeness lifts man up to the like¬ ness of God and insures him the greatest possible happiness on earth. * * * Tn the kindergarten, egotism can not easily prevail. Self-denial and sacrifice are volun¬ tarily and without coercion brought by the spirit of love into a community whose very existence demands self-control. The charm of unaccustomed surroundings and a large number of playmates lead to proper behavior. In another place she says : To call that which is beautiful and good into existence is the greatest happiness of man and, at the same time, the highest pleasure of childhood. To give children this happiness, this greatest pleasure, in their earliest youth is the aim of the kindergar¬ ten, followed by the school and youth garden. These words explain the essence and significance of the kinder¬ garten. In 1852 the genius returned to its heavenly home; Froebel died, still unknown, but in full confidence that his doctrine would live on. On his deathbed he exclaimed: u A truth can not die.” He was right. c"5 At the time of his death there were about sixteen kindergartens in the world; now, not fifty years later, these institutions encircle the globe. They are firmly established not only in Europe and America, the two continents representing the highest civilization of the present, but many Mongolian, Malay, and negro children are happy in their kindergartens. How happy we learn best from their own immature judgment. Not long since I heard a child say to its mother: It is too bad that the kindergarten only keeps in till 4 o’clock and is not open on Sundays and during holidays. It ought to keep in always and all the time until we go to bed, and begin again every day early in the morning. Mothers appreciate the value of kindergartens; not lazy mothers, but just those who do honor to their title and are educators of their children in the true sense of the term. Children would not speak so enthusiastically or go to kindergarten so willingly, nor would their mothers extol their educational influence if kindergartens did not offer to children what their innermost nature demands. Unknown — in truth! When Froebel closed his eyes few had any suspicion of the significance of his teaching for educational reform. The ridiculous suppression of kindergartens in Prussia (Froebel, as we know, had been mistaken for his nephew, who was politically com¬ promised) drew attention to kindergartens for a short time; but, says Baroness von Marenholtz-Biilow, their introduction into Germany was thereby made almost impossible. A few prominent men, it is true, supported Froebel and his ideas in speech and the press. But it is an accepted and well-known fact that but for Froebehs enthusiastic disciple, Baroness von Marenholtz-Biilow, a long time would have elapsed before the introduction and spread of kindergartens. We must not forget that 1852 was only the beginning of the era of froebel’s system of education. 887 machinery, and that the greater part of rough labor was still done by hand. It was only during the following decades that a better prepara¬ tion for labor, now general, became a burning question. The publication, Bertha von Marenholtz-Biilow and her Life, gives a detailed account of the introduction of kindergartens, an isolated exam¬ ple of its kind for all times. An upheaval of what had been fixed for centuries, by a novel thought that was to penetrate the development of coming generations and, though acknowledged by all to be a neces¬ sity, still meeting violent opposition, proved the adage: A prophet is not without honor, save in his own countrv. The introduction of the new idea was not to be effected as though “from above” or by ener¬ getic men, but by a woman who herself modestly uttered the com¬ plaint, “Who will believe a woman that it must be so and obey her? ” Froebel met her in May, 1849, at his country seat in Liebenstein, and she at once grasped Ills ideas with unbounded enthusiasm. Dr. Wi chard Lange reports the event in the Kheinische Blaetter, of 1867, in his characteristic style: The moment in which the intellectual baroness crossed his threshold at Lieben¬ stein was a most important one for Froebel and his mission. The moment was decisive for the progress and spread of his work in many ways. A woman- of unusual mind, possessed of a fine and thorough classical education, offered her whole life and being to this mission and formed the never- wavering resolution to devote her whole material and intellectual resources to the carrying out of these ideas. She made the effort to learn all the secrets which lay buried in the soul of the pedagogical genius and to which she so often knew how to give intelligent expression. In another place Lange continues in the same terse language: tV ell equipped, she made her appearance on the great stage of the world, not, at first, as a speaker and writer, not with ostentation and pretension. She drew a sharp line between personality and cause, wanted nothing for herself, no advantages, no honor, no riches. Her name was to remain unpublished and was not to be men¬ tioned when merit was to be won. This timidity which seems to be innate with the best and most excellent women she was forced to set aside later; her friends were not so discreet as herself. The entrance into public life of such a woman for so great a mission did not seem to them an offense against womanly dignity. They recognized in it rather a powerful means toward the general promotion and realization of Froe- bel’s ideas of education. So she spurred and was spurred until, in the end, she was willingly and generally acknowledged the chief representative and actual apostle of the kindergarten cause. Her method of work is above comparison. Intellectual and idealistic, as she was, she never hesitated to move in the lowest strata of society when¬ ever the good of her canse was at stake. Position and birth admitted her to the highest circles; mind and talent fitted her in an eminent degree to move among the first of every nation. She effected just as much by her inspired words as by her personal appearance, practical views, and excellent suggestions. Princes and others in power were forced to speak with her. “ Knights of the intellect” felt it impera¬ tive to argue with her and publicly express their opinion. What can not such a woman attain! Ten men could not have done what she accomplished. The revoca¬ tion of the ban against kindergartens published by a Prussian cabinet is due to her 888 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. alone. Slie carried the fundamental ideas of these institutions into England, France, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy. It seemed almost as though the German thought was destined to be transplanted into foreign soil, there to be first developed and then reintroduced into Germany. Germany, however, did not hold bank; nevertheless, what has been done on native soil is due more to Baroness von Marenholtz-Biilow than to all the other representatives of the Froebel cause. Now, let us trace the growth of the kindergarten. In the year 1854 an exposition of educational material was held in London. Baroness yon Marenholtz-Bfdow exhibited the whole Froebel kindergarten material, together with an explanatory statement. Soon afterwards she visited England herself. During a stay of six months she deliv- ered a number of lectures and interviewed representative men and women to urge them to establish a propaganda for the Froebel cause. The first article on the subject in the English language was written jointly by her and the Countess of Kroekow, and was entitled: Woman’s Edi icational Mission, being an exploration of Friedrich FroebeTs sys¬ tem of infant gardens (Darton, London). Several kindergartens were established at the time; since then they have not onty become a firmly rooted institution in England, but are very much in favor, and kinder¬ garteners are trained in various institutions. Names like Miss Emily Schireff, Miss Eleanor ITeerwari, Mr. Lord, Mrs. Sails Schwabe, Miss Snell, Mrs. Michaelis, Mr. Karl Froebel (Edinburgh) and others are connected with the movement. Kindergarten associations have been formed and many articles explaining the idea published. In January, 1855, we see the baroness in Paris, astonishingly active. The cardinal of Tours. Mgr. Marlot, later archbishop of Paris; the celebrated Marbeau, the founder of protective associations for children; the patriotic counselor of the consistory, M. Martin Pachon, and the philosopher and economist, M. Fourier, with his disciples, were among the many soon won over to her cause. The minister of public instruction was prevailed upon to appoint a committee for the investigation of the method, and the practical demonstration proved altogether satisfactory. Through the philanthropist Jules Mallet the s}Tstem was introduced into different Catholic asylums; schools and convents accepted it. The Empress Eugenie herself became interested. The best representatives of the press considered the question. The editor, M. Riche Gordon, founded a paper, La Science de Meres (moth¬ ers’ science) to further the Froebel scheme. She herself wrote the celebrated pamphlet Les Jardins d'Enfants (the kindergartens), -which, has been translated into many languages, and was at once published in Spanish. She delivered more than a hundred lectures, working early and late. Representative men from the highest to the lowest stratum of society, leading scholars like Edgar Quinet and the histo¬ rian Michelet, whose hundredth birthday was celebrated by the world of letters in every country, became her friends. In the beginning of FROEBEL 8 SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. 889 his beautiful work La Femme (woman), Professor Michelet writes of his first reception of the Froebel idea: It is not enough to promote natural energy (Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Jacotot, Fourier, etc.); it must be encouraged by preparing its course of action. That is what Froe- bel’s genius discovered. When last January, his amiable disciple, Madame von Marenholtz, explained his doctrine to me, at her first words I recognized it to be the education for our times and the only kind with a claim to truth, etc. When the baroness left France, the Froebel system had been intro¬ duced into Paris and many of the smaller cities, and was indorsed by all thinkers who form the widest social circle. (See Labor and New Education, by Baroness von Marenholtz-Biilow and Louis Walt her.) Satisfactory progress was made in France during the next ten years, but at the breaking out of the Franco-German war, France became a child of sorrow to the Froebel cause. This could not pass out of existence, for “a truth can not die.” But the German names kinder¬ garten and Froebel were rejected because of the hatred against Ger¬ mans. Nevertheless, whether the kindergarten continues to exist in the method of Madame Pape- Carpen tier under the name of maternal school, or whether the “method© intuitive” borrows all from Froebel and then impertinently derides his “German sentiment,” the kinder¬ garten remains, though somewhat altered to its detriment. The time will surely come when the inevitable change on earth shall subdue the violent hatred. If I be right, it seems to be already gradually coming. Froebel will then again receive his deserts in France, and his, the only true kindergarten, will again flourish in that country. In the mean¬ time the French Government has twice sent teachers to the Froebel Institute, in Dresden, to become acquainted with its organization and mode of procedure. In 1857, we find the baroness in Belgium, by invitation of the aged President Rogier. Here again she manifests the same energetic spirit for work. Here again the committee of investigation expresses appro¬ bation. The system is introduced into different protective institu¬ tions, schools and convents, even into Jesuit monasteries As early as then, kindergartens were established in Brussels, Ghent, Antwerp, Namur, Nivelles, etc., and normal kindergartens founded. In this countiy, the baroness wrote her popular work, Manuel des Jardins d’ Enfants. Since then kindergartens have continued to flourish in Belgium; compulsory attendance has obtained for thirty or forty years. Leaving Brussels to visit her royal friend, the Princess Henry of the Netherlands, the latter afforded the baroness the opportunity of introducing kindergartens into Holland. In Amsterdam, she spoke before the Society for the Common Weal, and won over to her cause ministers of state Van Rochuszen and Van Thorbecke, besides many prominent and intellectual men and women. The system was at 890 EDUCxVTIOlSr REPORT, 1899-1900. that time introduced into the renowned deaf and dumb institute of Rotterdam; kindergartens were also established in many different places. The interest manifested by Madame van Calcar was most im¬ portant for the cause; she never ceased to exert her influence for its advancement. On a second visit in 1864, when the baroness spoke before the congress of the Society for Social Science, in Amsterdam, Madame van Calcar showed her several well-conducted kindergartens in that city and in The Hague. The institutions have since aroused public interest, and Holland at present boasts of many normal insti¬ tutes and kindergartens in all its cities. The aforementioned congress convened again in 1865, in Berne, Switzerland. The baroness, who was present, aroused an interest in kindergartens. Professor liaoux, of Lausanne, became their zealous advocate; Madame von Portugal! espoused their cause in Geneva, and Miss M. Bachmann worked for them in Berne. For over thirty years kindergartens have been in general favor throughout French and German Switzerland. As early as 1859, the baroness worked for the cause in Alsace. With the assistance of the Kochlin ladies the first kindergarten was founded in Miilhausen. The value of the system for a manufacturing town was easily recognized. Much has since been done for kinder- gartens in Alsace. Madam Loper-Houselle is even now an earnest worker in Strassburg and other cities. The first kindergarten in Spain was established about 1859 or 1860 by a Miss Grafi. Professor del Rios taught Froebel’s ideas at the uni¬ versity, and during the seventies Count Vale de San Juan studied at the Froebel Institute in Dresden, to introduce the system into Spain. Recently several graduates of the Froebel Institute went to Spain; one of them taught the little King, who liked the occupations, espe- pecially plaiting. Spain has the fewest kindergartens, excepting per¬ haps Portugal, which is the only country that has sent no pupils to the Froebel Institute. When, however, we read of the disadvantages under which public schools labor in Spain, and of the misery of their teachers, we cease to be surprised. About 1860, the granddaughter of Professor von Fichte, Miss Johanna Sack, founded the first kin¬ dergarten in Constantinople. Very recently a Macedonian woman studied at the Froebel Institute. In Turkey, as in Arabia, there are kindergartens in the strangers’ quarters. In the beginning of the sev¬ enties several rich Greek women studied at the Froebel Institute, and succeeded in introducing the system into Greece. Among them were Madame Lascardi and Miss Zoto. The kindergarten was enthusiastically received in Italy. When the baroness visited that country in 1873 she found the kindergartens of Mme. Della Vida Levi and Professor Pick established in Venice. She stayed one year in Italy teaching and inspiring. At her request 891 feoebel’s system of education. Minister Correnti secured an appropriation of 20,000 lire (about $4,000). The syndic of Forence, Peruzzi, gave a building and garden, and furnished gardeners and pecuniary aid for the first kindergarten in Florence. To-day we find kindergartens in all parts of Italy; in Rome, Naples, and Udine there are large normal kindergartens. In 1882, on the one hundredth anniversary of Froebeks birthday, an envoy from the Italian Government brought two albums to the baroness in Dresden, containing the expression of thanks of forty cities in Italy in which kindergartens exist. Since then the s}?stem has made rapid progress. Many institutions of humane purposes and protective tend- - encies, such as orphan asylums and schools for the defective, are now directed according to Froebeks ideas. In the Danubian countries, Roumania and Servia, the system was likewise introduced. Professors and ministers of state even paid it the highest honor by becoming students at the Dresden Institute. Bulgaria was most enthusiastic in its praise. Not on hr was the Froebel method declared compulsory from the infant to the youth garden, but fourteen students were sent to Dresden by the Government to be educated as teachers. Kindergartens are also found in Scandinavia and other parts of northern Europe, In the seventies they were established in Helsing¬ fors, and since then in man}? other cities. They are known even in Iceland. In Denmark several graduates from Dresden have been doing good work for a long time. Lately a kindergarten association has been organized for the founding of kindergartens and the prepa¬ ration of directors; it publishes a paper. School Inspector Bagger is at the head of the movement. Russia offers a rich field for the new system of education. Kinder¬ gartens have been in existence there since the sixties, when the Grand Duchess Helena Pawlowna, the great patroness of Baroness von Maren- holtz-Biiiow, sent three Russians to Berlin to study the system. Kin¬ dergartens are found throughout the Russian Empire; in the Baltic provinces, as, for instance, in Riga and Dorpat, as well as in Finland. St. Petersburg numbers several, among others the public kindergar¬ ten of Princess Tenischeff at English Kai, and the kindergarten of Miss yon Werther. Moscow, Odessa, and the Caucasus are not with¬ out them. All, however, have been established by private contribu¬ tion. As yet the Government has done nothing, and until public schools are generally" provided for, the general introduction of kinder¬ gartens in Russia will be reserved for the future. It is quite a well-known fact that for the past twenty-five years kin¬ dergartens have been a compulsory institution in Austria, through the efforts of Minister von Stremeyer. They flourish in all parts of the country, in Bohemia, Moravia, and the Polish crown lands. In Hun¬ gary many women of position, besides Countess Hessenstein, the 892 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. friend of Baroness von Marenholtz-Biilow, interested themselves in the kindergarten cause. In Tyrol, Austria, the first kindergarten was opened during the stay of the baroness, and, with her assistance, by the celebrated Dean Horfarter in Kufstein in presence of the governor, Count Taffe. The kindergarten has since become popular in Tyrol. In many cities of Austria, as, for instance, in Briinn, Prague, and Vienna, normal schools for kindergarteners are found. Before we turn our attention to German kindergartens we must cast a cursory glance over other countries. In none of them is the kindergarten unknown. Kindergartens have been in existence in Aus¬ tralia for a long time; in Sydney and Melbourne there are seminaries for the education of directresses. In Africa the Bishop of Natal, who became acquainted with the baroness in London, established a kinder¬ garten in his see in 1855. In the south we find them in Cape Colony; in the north, in Egypt. The best kindergartens of Asia are found in Japan. There the little children enjoy the Froebel games with as much enthusiasm as those of Europe. In China and India kindergar¬ tens are chiefty confined to the foreign colonies; there are some, how¬ ever, for native children. Inspired by the Dresden kindergartens, a Russian princess founded one even in Persia. The most extraordinary progress has been made in America. The Froebel system is there accepted not only as the foundation of educa¬ tion, but also as the foundation of instruction. Kindergartens con¬ nected with the public-school system occupy veritable school palaces. Mothers know and love them and often attend to see their children play. No teachers’ meeting ever passes over in silence the kindergar¬ ten and Froebel. His method is appreciated and accepted by all, from the highest functionary to the humblest rural teacher. In his preface to the English edition of the aforementioned biography of Baroness von Marenholtz-Biilow, Dr. Y\r. T. Harris, the United States Commis¬ sioner of Education, says: “In 1873 there were 158 kindergartens in the United States. Twenty-five years later, in 1897, there were 200,000.” These figures speak louder than words. Kindergartens flourish in other parts of America, especially in Canada. They have also been introduced into the Argentine Republic. In New York two Spanish editions of Children and Their Being, by Baroness von Maren- holtz-Bulow, were given to me, of which one was intended for the Argentine Republic. Let us turn our attention to Germany. The German Empire ranks next to the United States in its number of kindergartens. There are very few small cities in Germany in which the kindergarten is not represented. Its introduction is unusually interesting in many respects, and is explicitly described in the baroness’s “Life.” We can mention only the most interesting data. In 18G0 the never-idle baroness succeeded in influencino* a new cabL froebel’s system of education. 893 net to revoke the prohibition of kindergartens in Prussia. The way was thereby cleared, and kindergartens began their uninterrupted prog¬ ress in Germ an 30 In 1863 the heart’s desire of the baroness, to make the kindergarten accessible to the lower classes, was fulfilled. With the help of a woman’s society, a kindergarten was established in Ber¬ lin deserving of the title u public kindergarten.” Since then public kindergartens have been established in nearly all large cities, many asylums have opened kindergartens for their pupils, and many factories have now kindergartens for the children of their operatives. The kindergarten has truly become a means for national education. From 1860 to 1870 normal institutes for kindergartens were estab- lished in all large cities of Germany for the purpose of preparing directresses, which were much in demand. The better situated fam¬ ilies are employing kindergarteners and trained nursery governesses for the education and care of their infants. In 1866 the untiring apostle of the cause wrote her first two impor¬ tant German works, Children and Their Being, and Labor and the New Education. These furnished a guide for instruction. Others began to write on the same subject, and a periodical, the Modern Education, the exponent of Froebel thought, founded by her, published numerous articles from her pen and others in support of the cause. During these many years the baroness, with untiring energy, aroused the interest of thinkers in Germany. Many accepted and supported the Froebel idea. Pedagogues like Ad. Diesterweg (Berlin), Wichard Lange (Hamburg), Karl Schmidt (Cothen), School Councilor A. Bertheit (Dresden) ; professors like von Fichte (Tubingen), von Leon- hardi (Prague), Schliephake (Heidelberg), Ahrens (Leipzig), and R. Virchow (Berlin) not only interested themselves in the subject, but advocated its cause. When, with her assistance, the General Educa¬ tion Society was founded in Dresden, 1872, and the kindergarten method was energetically advocated by its branch societies, the move¬ ment made rapid strides forward. Other societies were founded, as, for instance, The Kindergarten Association of Thuringia, The German Froebel Union, with many local branches, and an organ, The Kinder¬ garten. In 1871, Director Bruno Honschmann, the biographer of Froebel, could with truth sa}r, “ Chieffy through her (the baroness’s) compre¬ hensive efforts toward organization, education on the basis of Froebel’ s principles has become one of the most important questions of the day and assured his merits an indisputable claim.” O11 the 21st day of April, 1882, the whole civilized world celebrated the one hundredth anniversary of Froebel’s birth da}u The growth of kindergartens was then f \illj appreciated. Representatives from every district of Germany flocked to Dresden, the central point of interest, being the residence of Baroness von Marenholtz-Biilow and the seat of 894 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. the General Education Society. Dr. Wichard Lange, the editor of the collected works of Froebel and the most illustrious orator of the occasion, dwelled upon the general growth of kindergartens, and amid a storm of applause from the immense assembly thanked Baroness von Marenholtz-Blilow “in the name of humanity.” In 1885 the educational idea of Friedrich Froebel received its phil¬ osophical foundation through Dr. Frosehammer, professor in the Uni¬ versity of Munich, in his work Organization and Culture of Human Society. We refer, likewise, to the article by Dr. F. A. Steglich, of Dresden, on the philosophical foundation given by Frosehammer. W hen we review the present position of the Froebel kindergarten in the German Empire we must acknowledge its general introduction. But is the fundamental idea generally understood ? That is not to be expected so long as kindergartens and normal schools for the training' of directresses are not under State control and supported by State funds, as is the case with the Froebel Institute in Dresden. Mean¬ while, we must rest content with the fact that the municipal govern¬ ment of all cities, even Dresden, has come forward with pecuniary aid for kindergartens and normal institutes, thereby acknowledging their usefulness for national education. In the end the native country of the prophet of “the new system of education” wri!l do him the greatest honor. Germans are slow but sure. During the meetings for the pro¬ motion of manual training in Germany it has frequently been said: “The Froebel method and its formative law is the true principle of labor.” German teachers, too, overburdened as they are now, and therefore difficult to approach, will begin to show a preference for the Froebel kindergarten, and perhaps may soon find the time to learn to know this new education better. We, however, the representatives of the cause, look expectantly into the future. How few years must pass before the Froebel doc¬ trine will be introduced into the curriculum of the upper classes of girls’ schools in Germany and the educators of the future generation will learn the science of greatest importance to them. The kinder¬ garten will then cease to be a mere fragment in the sum total of educational exertions. The new education will then begin at the mother’s knee. Kindergarten training will be continued in school and youth gardens, and in consequence of the better general preparation of children for all studies, the schools will find their duties lighter and gain the time for some important branches of knowledge now excluded for want of time. The time will then have come when man will again be joyfully conscious of the idealistic side of his existence, when he will be able to free himself from the bonds of materialism and egotism, and break their chains by his greater competency and increased labor capacity gained through the better development of his talents. With a new pleasure in life, man will enter upon a new era. CHAPTER XV. PUBLIC PLAY GROUNDS AND VACATION SCHOOLS. About ten years ago public-spirited men and women in Germany, incited by reports of health officers and the advdce of physicians gen¬ erally, came to the conclusion that the city parks might be utilized in a better way than had been the case by being, either entirely or par¬ tially, given over to the children. Public placr grounds might be established in the parks and other available spaces set apart for the same purpose. They were aware of the desirability of offering school children opportunities to fen joy the open air and wholesome surround¬ ings in park groves during summer vacation, and at the same time of protecting them from evil influences of street life and adding to their store of knowledge by awakening the power of observing natural objects and phenomena. The last, but by no means the least of the objects in view was to arrange for public games which would facilitate sociability and a brotherly spirit among all classes of city children. The city fathers were petitioned to designate suitable parts of the city parks for the purpose, particularly parks which were centrally located or not too far from schoolhouses. These requests were readily granted and the park commissions exhibited laudable zeal in selecting pretty, shady, and otherwise desirable places. Societies were formed to procure the necessary funds to buy loads of sand for the little ones, balls, bats, footballs, tennis screens, and other things for games of all kinds, and gymnastic apparatus. Teachers were employed to guide the children in their games, suggest neve ones, decide disp cites, answer questions with regard to things new to the children, and make them¬ selves generally useful without becoming oppressive by exercising school authority. These teachers were paid at first b}r the associa¬ tions, hut later, when the beneficent results became apparent, the city school authorities assumed the payment of salaries of teachers thus engaged in vacation and on holidays. Great care was taken in the selection of suitable persons, for not every teacher is able to act as “playfellow” and guide. The engraving on p. 897 shows the grounds set aside for public games by the city authorities of Dresden, Saxony. They adjoin the “ Grosse Garten ” a centrally located park. Other cities in Germany have similar spaces set aside in their parks. 895 896 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The idea found the active support of influential men, such as mem¬ bers of Parliament, of State legislatures and city councils, provincial, county, and city officials, professional men, especially physicians, and private donations were willingly made. The press favored it heartily. The movement spread rapidly, and to-day there is scarcely a city in Germany and other countries in central Europe in which children's public play grounds are not arranged in prominent and easily accessi¬ ble parts of the parks. Naturally, the proximity of a park to a school or a group of schools brought the children of that locality together, and teachers who were especially gifted in managing children — born organizers — were secured to be on the spot for certain hours of the day and do the best their ingenuity could suggest. In 1897, Mr. E. von Schenkendorf, member of the Reichstag, pub¬ lished his sixth report of “Public playgrounds and open-air plays for children in Prussia.” In that report a summary was given of the movement in tabulated form, from which the following items are culled to show the extent of the movement in Prussia alone. Reports were sent in from city school principals in reply to a circular letter of inquiry. Among the 3,616 schools replying 1,985 had public play and gym¬ nastic exercises combined; 1,272 conducted public plays outside of gymnastic exercises; and 359 had as yet failed to arrange for games. The time devoted to open-air play varied between one and three hours a day, four times a week. The playgrounds were located quite near the school grounds in 2,117 'cases; in 303 cases it was five minutes’ walk from the schoolhouse; in 256 cases between six and ten minutes; in 187 cases between eleven and twenty minutes; in 70 cases the grounds were still more distant. In 291 replies this item was not mentioned. The size of the grounds set aside as public playgrounds varied between 10 ars (1 ar = 100 square meters) and 100 ars; 611 grounds were covered with turf; 1,029 were graveled; 309 were of firm clay; 596 were sandy; and 160 of other or varied soil. The methodical way of doing things in Germany, and the fact that no person there can draw a salary from the public exchequer unless he have a diploma attesting to the fact that he has had the required prepa¬ ration for the work to be performed, induced the authorities to prepare certain teachers especially for the purpose. Hence, teachers’ courses in conducting play have been given in twenty-one cities, and during the five years* from 1890-1895, as many as 795 persons received instruc¬ tion; 568 men were prepared for boys’ games; 227 women for girls’ games. The idea of thus aiding children in the enjoyment of their summer vacation and holidays and adding to their happiness has spread into other countries, notably Austria-Hungary, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, and Switzerland, where similar efforts are now made with varying The new public play grounds in the City Park at Dresden, Germany. PUBLIC PLAY GROUNDS AND VACATION SCHOOLS. 897 ED 1900 - 57 898 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. success. In Sweden, Austria, and Switzerland particularly the public play grounds are becoming very popular. Everywhere in these coun¬ tries the German manner of promoting the idea has been adopted— i. e. , utilizing public parks and preparing suitable teachers. In the United States the idea has also found fertile soil, especially in cities having many tenement houses — such as New York and Phila¬ delphia. Yet “when two do the same thing, it is not the same.” Here the idea has taken another form, as will be seen from an inter¬ esting account of Dr. Ellen C. Putnam, secretary of the committee on public play and vacation schools in Providence, li. I. In that city the feature of offering instruction during the summer months seems to predominate. Miss Putnam’s account is here given in full. VACATION' SCHOOLS AND PLAYGROUNDS IN PROVIDENCE, R. I. 1 The vacation-school and playground movement, already initiated by private effort in over twenty cities of the United States, now entirely under municipal control in Philadelphia and New York, is based upon the following considerations: The environ¬ ment of children living in the poorest wards causes physical, mental, and moral degeneration. It is as much the interest of the Commonwealth to provide wholesome influences during the midsummer months as during the nine months of public schools, the work of which suffers by such intermission, not only among the poorest children, but among those of thriftier classes who remain in the city during the hot season. The movement is a social endeavor to provide, for children who can not otherwise obtain them, certain essential advantages that parents of intelligence and means prefer themselves to control, in vacations, and do not desire from public sources. Accordingly vacation schools should supplement conventional public education by securing a much greater amount of muscular activity; by encouraging a much greater degree of self-expression, self-reliance, and initiative; by presenting the more refining possibilities of environment so attractively as to mold tastes in choosing recreations and occupations. To secure these objects, nature study, manual and art work, and physical exercise are offered under conditions of the greatest freedom compatible with efficiency and, when possible, carried on in the open air. No books are used, and ideas of play and enjoyment are associated with the school events whenever practicable. The commissioner of public schools, the superintendeiit of public schools in Provi¬ dence, the director of drawing, and the principal of the Manual Training High School served in 1899 upon an advisory council with others to aid the citizens’ committee on playgrounds in an experimental vacation school recommended in its report for 1898 as necessary in conjunction with summer school playgrounds. The main features of the best vacation schools elsewhere were adopted in the school opened in the Benefit Street primary school on the first Monday after the Fourth of July, continuing with a session from 8.30 to 12 daily, except excursion days and Sat¬ urdays, for six weeks. Early in the closing week of neighboring public and private schools, circulars descriptive of the proposed entertainments and occupations were given children by their teachers. Later each teacher gave admission tickets to those wishing them who, in her judgment, were suitable, the ticket to be forfeited by three absences. The number was limited to 280, an average of 30 pupils to each vacation teacher. In addition, 310 waiting-list tickets were issued. Applications greatly exceeded the supply. The name, address, age, and grade of each ticket holder were 1 Reprinted from the Rhode Island School Report, 1899. PUBLIC PLAY GROUNDS AND VACATION SCHOOLS. 899 sent to the vacation-school secretary, who classified them Before opening day accord¬ ing to age and sex, this basis being adopted because of its necessity in outdoor gym¬ nasium work, where stature and strength had to be considered for adjustable appara¬ tus. A few cases of exceptional physical development were transferred later. No detriment from this classification was reported in other departments. Class A, ages 12 to 15; Class B, ages 10 to 12; Class C, ages 8 to 10, were each divided into two sec¬ tions of 30 girls and 30 boys. The kindergarten and transition rooms were assigned 100 children, ages 4 to 7, too young to be included to advantage with the other classes in occupations or excursions. Admission was “forfeited by three absences” in 209 cases, about 100 occurring in the first week. Many of these children, some with their parents, came for readmis¬ sion, saying, “We didn’t know it would be so good;” “We didn’t think you meant it.” Their places had been immediately tilled from the waiting list. The remaining 109 forfeitures occurred chiefly among children under 10 years of age for the follow¬ ing reasons in about 70 per cent of the cases (about 30 per cent were not investigated) , given in order of their frequency: Absent first day or two of school from carelessness, third absence unavoidable; visiting other localities and family picnics; for an acci¬ dental reason; wanted to sleep mornings (evenings at shore resorts or in theater service) ; proud, and could not afford shoes in summer. The management encouraged bare feet. The expense of school dress and school cleanliness for an extra six weeks is a consideration in some cases. After the first week the oldest class was practically constant, out of 60 rarely less than 57 being present. The average daily attendance was 213. The children were chiefly of Anglo-American, Jewish, Irish, Swedish, and colored parentage (in order named). Instruction was wholly departmental, 11 special teachers (chiefly from high schools) being secured, and classes passing from room to room with no trouble. Periods of one hour (even on alternating days) enabled departments to accomplish more with less vitality wasted on transit and readjustment of material. The usual weary restless¬ ness from monotonous occupation was not experienced, because of the physical and mental variations in work during the hour. To enable the special teachers to give exclusive attention to technical affairs, a school secretary had charge of class lists and filling vacancies, bells, visitors, and similar routine executive service. By her pre¬ liminary classifying and arranging, the regular class-room work was able to begin as efficiently at 9 a. m. on the first day as on any later day, the opening exercises at 8.30 being omitted in order to read class lists and send sections to their rooms. Each department planned its work, adapting it to the vacation-school idea, in consultation with the specialist in that line who had generously accepted membership in the advisory council for that purpose. The fact that attendance was purely voluntary insured the presence of those only who enjoyed coming. This and the genuine interest in a programme both novel and of a character that always appeals to child nature eliminated the necessity for many of the restraints and observances customary in public schools. The temperament and ability of the instructor were reflected in the behavior of his classes here as elsewhere. Another year even greater confidence should be placed in the children by instituting self-government methods successfully tried elsewhere. Opening exercises, conducted by one of the teachers from 8.30 to 9 o’clock for classes A and B, were planned to teach patriotism, twenty minutes being given to_ reading a story (continued from morning to morning until finished), after which came the flag salute and “America.” E. E. Hale’s A Man Without a Country made a deep impression upon many. Nature stories also were read, as Kipling’s Rikki- tikki-tavi, or Bayard Taylor’s Boys of Other Countries. These, with brief talks con¬ cerning foreign and native animals drawn upon the blackboard to illustrate the stories, held closest attention. The authors. also were spoken of and others of their stories 900 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. suggested to take from the public library. Many library cards were given out. Class C in another room had similar exercises, more juvenile stories being chosen. At 9 o’clock they passed to their several departments. Kindergarten and transition children arrived at 9 o’clock, many mothers being unable to send the youngest earlier. Their attendance was more irregular than that of older children. They were not taken on excursions, continuing their usual pro¬ gramme instead. In other cities children of these ages have been taken on excursions of their own when a relative could accompany the child as care taker. In the kinder¬ garten nature study started from the huckster’s cart (a familiar object), the family it supplied, the farm it came from, the farm animals, utensils, and occupations. Indoor sand boxes were developed into farms, seeds planted and grown during the six weeks. Outdoor boxes permitted freer construction of country objects. Manual work was in clay modeling, sewing, weaving, cutting, and pasting. Nature songs and industrial song games helped the aim “ to develop through play and to interest in the outside world through games.” In the transition room the huckster’s team and farm again formed the basis of nature study. Fruits and vegetables from the cart were modeled in clay, drawn in colors, cut from paper, and talked about. Much was done to develop freedom of expression in the child by free drawing and modeling, free cutting, and construction in sandboxes (outdoor and in ), all to illustrate some story or some special subject. In the daily story telling the child’s interest was held and mental initiative developed by questions until to the child it seemed almost his own creation. Restlessness was immediately relieved by interrupting any story or occupation with perhaps acting out a picnic, running, picking flowers, throwing imaginary bouquets, racing to their seats to escape imaginary showers; or they were rocking chairs, or a train of cars, after which they returned with freshened interest to their “work.” Both these departments should have had their excellent programme supplemented by at least one excursion to a real farm. Each class in manual training was given twenty-four hours. In sloid, 30 boys and 1 girl, ages 12 to 15, had four exercises: Garden stick (pine), footstool (whitewood), pen tray (gum wood), and bread board (gum and bass woods), in which the tools used at carpenters’ benches were marking gauge, two-foot rule, jack plane, try square, knife, sandpaper, plane, three-quarter-inch bit, chisel, tile, hacksaw, cross¬ cut saw, hammer, nails, dividers, gouge, scraper, spokeshave, clamps, and glue. The different woods were interesting and the use of the tools fascinating. The attend¬ ance after the first week was practically constant, and often the privilege of working overtime was begged for. They “worked with a greedy haste, realizing that the time was limited,” and very excellent results were produced by many. The joint¬ ing of five pieces of stock required a considerable degree of mental effort, and they applied themselves to it with commendable patience, persistence, and ability, “those completing it rising considerably in the estimation of their companions.” Mischief offered no greater attraction than the work, and was therefore not indulged in. Whittling exercises for ages from 8 to 12, at desk boards, were six-inch rule, plant marker, yarn and thread winders, flower pin; ages 10 to 12 whittled also letter opener, pencil sharpener, and knitting needle. The material was one-eighth inch basswood, and tools were pencil, knife, rule, compass, square, and sandpaper. Six girls elected this work instead of sewing. Sewing was planned to teach useful stitches in making useful articles. Girls only had it, and it was very popular. Boys should have one utility lesson weekly. Articles made were: Bean bags, individual workbags, pincushions, needlebooks, dusters, towels, and knit face cloths. The older girls planned, cut, and made aprons. A few as a reward used fancy stitches on doilies. Friday was mending day, for which children brought articles from home to be repaired. With windows widely open, PUBLIC PLAY GROUNDS AND VACATION SCHOOLS. 901 the children sitting informally in groups, quietly chatting and intently stitching, varied by frequent trips to the teacher for assistance, no onlooker could doubt their enjoyment and profit during the hour. For the art classes an artistic influence at once began upon entering their class room, decorated with casts, pictures, color, graceful forms in pottery, and various jars of grasses, leaves, and flowers. They were given water colors from the start, and used natural objects exclusively as models. A little work was done with pencil and crayon. Grasses and flowers, mounted butterflies and birds, and the human model, as well as landscape sketching, not only taught them outline and color, but to notice and appreciate the beautiful in the common things around them. Considerable time was given to composition and design. Their interest was decided and improvement remarkable. The color, brush, and composition work done in the schoolroom helped much in the landscape studies, and a glance at the drawings made on the first excur¬ sion, and at those made on the last, is sufficient to show the gratifying progress in outdoor work. The enthusiasm of expert teachers, the strong appeal of color to children, and their interest in such models as these, held their attention from begin¬ ning to end of the course. The outdoor gymnasium, under the direction of a gymnast skillful with children, was used by girls and boys on alternate days, art classes changing in correspondence. On the only two rainy mornings an upper room from which desks had been removed was no less entertaining as a temporary resource. Exercises were adapted to dif¬ ferent strengths and statures. The first half-hour was given to apparatus work, the second to gymnastic games. The apparatus consisted of a frame 12 by 20 feet, with which were 4 climbing poles, 2 pairs flying rings, 2 vertical ladders, 2 adjustable ladders, and 1 combination horizontal and vaulting bar. Files of four upon it at once enabled the director to give individual attention. In addition there was appara¬ tus for running jumps, with sand boxes for mattresses, also bean bags. The appara¬ tus was placed under a wide spreading elm, and was pleasantly shaded at all hours. The janitor sprinkled the gravel twice daily. Each child was too intent on his owm efforts, and comparing others, for discipline to be an effort. Shouts of laughter or applause testified to the keenness of their enjoyment. The gymnastic games, appar¬ ently of inexhaustible variety, had four characteristics — they were competitive; the competition became cooperation by including the whole class; they called out both mental and physical agility; they required vigorous muscular effort, with natural rest intervals. One could not fail to note that along with the development of the vital organs and muscular system there was parallel evolution of mental qualities, such as promptness, intentness, ideas of initiative, cooperation and leadership, fair play and the justice of rules, together with the stimulus of hearty fun and laughter. This hour was physically and mentally invigorating — the ideal for school gymnastics and school recesses. Nature study, as the summer season dictates, predominates in vacation schools. Resourceful teachers who can directly introduce nature to the child without the medium of books are indispensable. An attractive personality, a liberal education as well as pedagogic, and some experience in the special art of teaching children from natural objects and in the fields, are essential to a desirable nature teacher, for the reason that the features and phenomena of the subject taught are everywhere manifest and manifold, and especially stimulating to the childish mind; thus avenues for education spontaneously open that can be utilized only by one considerably versed in science and in the arts of child companionship. The object is to cultivate refining enjoyment of outdoor life by intelligent interest in natural objects and pleasure in scenery — important as preventive of grosser hours in these days of easy access to the suburbs. The features of the department were six pedagogic excursions, a school garden 902 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. and indoor study of flowers, leaves, and plants collected from the garden or fields or on excursions; also study of the vegetable and animal contents of the several window boxes, glass jars, and aquaria. In a sunny lot behind the school each child was given a square yard of garden, which he outlined with closely laid rows of stones. The lot was undoubtedly (and unnecessarily) an eyesore, but the instructors claim that their gardens were most interesting to the owners and that they should be continued. School gardens are numerous in Germany, France, and other countries, and there are a few in America. The children planted the seeds of flowering and of economic plants, such as vegetables, grains, leguminous plants, etc., noted the results of vary¬ ing conditions of soil, moisture, light, and heat, and learned the weeds that were removed. To their great joy the edible roots, such as radishes, were “big enough to eat” at the end of six weeks, but the rest many transplanted and carried home to see the cycle from seed to seed completed. The grubs, worms, and ants discovered in weeding were explained to them; the bees, butterflies, and the interdependence of animal and vegetable life; and they carried to the schoolroom leaves for the moth worms and food for the turtle, frog, lizard, and snake. The excursions, on Tuesday, from 9 to 4 o’clock, were two to Roger Williams Park, one each to Hunt’s Mills, Eagle Park, and Lake Meshanticut by special electric cars, and one to Shawomet Beach by steam cars. Fifteen children were assigned to each teacher, outside volunteer aid coming on these days. At about 11 a. m. classes were exchanged between the art and nature teachers. At noon lunch was eaten, followed by free play until they started for home. It is needless to say that a pedagogic excur¬ sion can not be conducted without special preparation. Assistance was generously given by one of the faculty of the State Agricultural College active in their summer normal school for nature study, and by a special student of the native birds of Rhode Island, also by the curator of the park museum. A preparatory excursion of the teachers and volunteer aids under the leadership of one of these specialists, was taken a few days before each excursion. The resources for the nature classes were studied and sites for sketching chosen. The day before the excursion a blackboard map was used to show the teachers where the different classes were to work or the paths they were to explore, with places for obtaining water, for lunch, play, etc., and written memoranda of places and hours given them. Some details of arrangements were developed as the result of experience on earlier excursions, and unforeseen obstacles arose, all of which another year can better. It is desirable to have a director of excur¬ sions, and it would often be an advantage to divide the children as on the last excur¬ sion, the older going to Shawomet, the younger to the park. The former can thus go greater distances and do better class work, while the latter have a line of nature study more adapted to their capacities. Classes were instructed in the menagerie and museum at the park, and the sketching ground was good. Bird day among the woods and hedges at Hunt’s Mills was an afternoon excursion, as the late afternoon hours were best for finding the birds. This was more valuable and interesting because of the previous week’s class-room work having been upon native birds studied by means of stuffed skins freely handled, an excellent collection being given for the purpose. Insect day at Meshanticut and beach day at Shawomet were similarly prepared for. Flowers that they had especially studied in the class room were greeted in their habitat with the delight of welcoming old friends. The real progress made can be appreciated only by those who were privileged to contrast the pleasures most enjoyed on the last excursion with those most wanted on the first. They learned, not realizing a “lesson,” to respect the comfort and propri¬ eties of public highways by finding that interesting objects to talk about and singing were more fun than tin horns and racket; that cheap drinks and munching cheap candies were nonessentials in a good time; that the beauty of their pleasure grounds should not be disfigured with the debris of lunches. A companionship between teachers and pupils, not possible upon school premises, gave to many the only opportunity of PUBLIC PLAY GROUNDS AND VACATION SCHOOLS. 1)03 their lives to enjoy a country day with a sympathetic, refined, and educated friend, while to all it was a privilege pregnant with valuable influences. On the last day a “lawn party” was given by the children (at their request to help the fund) ; their work was on view and the gymnastic department exhibited for the visiting relatives and friends. In October an exhibition of the art and manual work was made at'the annual meeting of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction and subsequently placed in a window on Westminster street for a few days. It should be mentioned that the principal of the Benefit street primary school reports the children returning in the fall in exceptionally good condition, and that progress along lines influenced by the vacation work has been noticeably rapid during the winter. The cost of this vacation school was about $850, $632 being for salaries. Some essentails to the amount of about $250 were contributed, and tools for sloid were loaned from the Manual Training High School. An open-air gymnasium was conducted afternoons in the vacation school grounds under the same director. One hundred sixty-five tickets were issued to another set of boys (only), ages 9 to 16. The daily attendance was about 100, many of them distinctly gamins who, for the sake of the gymnastic work and games, which they entered into with zest, chose to conform with the playground requirements as to pro¬ fanity, fighting, and obedience to the director. Saturdays their two baseball teams held a series of contests on Lincoln Field before large audiences of their friends. Where school boards have only morning sessions of vacation schools they utilize premises and equipment afternoons as playgrounds; also conducting them in other school yards. The evolution of the summer school playground programme has pro¬ gressed for six years along similar lines in Providence and elsewhere. It is not an easy matter to make the barren yards in the poorest sections continuously attractive to children for whom the variety (and occasional shade) of gutters and sidewalks have a unique fascination. A single fine tree in a yard solves half the difficulty. The majority are graveled wastes confined by high board fences, concentrating the glare and heat of the sun. Two or three adults as leaders in games, while doubling expenses, have not been found to increase the usefulness of the playgrounds propor¬ tionately. But by dividing the entertainments into distinctly separate departments, with an especially qualified person over each, the results have fully justified the out¬ lay. Each of the forty candidates for an appointment was required to present abstracts of three articles on vacation schools and playgrounds appearing in recent numbers of the press, also a paper answering the following questions: 1. Games, without apparatus: (a) What active games (at least six) do you intend playing with children from 7 to 14 years of age? (6) Why do you choose each? (c) What will be its influence upon development: Physical? id) Mental? (e) Moral? (/) What quiet games? (g) Why? (7i) Influence? 2. When will you choose an active and when a quiet game? 3. What amusements or occupation (not games) will you undertake? 4. What inexpensive material (or games) would you like, and for what purpose? 5. How will you use the two sand boxes? (Answer fully and concisely.) 6. What plan (give reasons) have you in mind for the conduct of (a) the first day? (6) The first week? (c) The eighth week? 7. What immoralities do you expect to find, and how will you correct them? 8. How can you make the flag exercises a nucleus for instruction in patriotic, civic, and social relations and duties? 9. What special objects would you have in view in calling at the homes of the children? 10. How would you conduct a mothers’ meeting? Give plans for two meetings. Three playgrounds for children under 16 were opened at Africa street, Charles Street, and Willard avenue primary schools, continuing eight weeks, six days weekly, 904 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. from 8.30 a. m. to 5 p. m. In New York they are open until 10 p. m., their reading rooms being also open Sundays. Two first-floor rooms and the sanitary conven¬ iences of the buildings are used. One room is used for play on rainy days, the other as a reading room, experience having shown the impossibility of children enjoying or properly handling magazines and table games out in the noisy, sunny yard, while every child wishes for periods of interruption of active play by quieter entertain¬ ment. The reading rooms were freely decorated with the national colors in bunt¬ ing; every window ledge filled with large boxes of greenhouse plants, of which some children became loving caretakers; upon the walls a large number of low-hung pictures loaned by friends; and with small chairs and tables the room hardly sug¬ gested remembrances of school. The public library loaned a generous supply of children’s books for neighborhood circulation, and they were in constant use. An abundance of suitable magazines, papers, and picture books were contributed. The public library’s rules for orderliness were observed; but games that would not inter¬ rupt the quiet were allowed, as checkers, various card games, jackstraws, dominoes; also ad regular hours daily the attendant read stories aloud. These attractive, cool reading rooms were very popular. The following is the programme in one of the yards, where a new and desirable feature was introduced: A primary teacher of resourcefulness and ability to handle large numbers of children was in charge of one side of the playground, where an awning 20 by 12 feet gave the only shade. Under it seats were placed for the quieter entertainments— dolls, making dolls’ clothes, story-telling, singing, and games. For more active fun a set of five swings, rolling hoops, ring toss, bean bags, jump ropes, croquet, two sand boxes (10 by 5 feet), with trowels and building blocks, were some of the material. On the other side of the house a skillful turner with the “play temperament” led gymnastic games, which were enthusiastically joined by the older ones — boys and girls alternately using the two sides of the playground. There should have been gymnastic apparatus also. Funds did not permit continuing this arrangement through the summer, but the brief experiment demonstrated that it is a most desir¬ able one, and that it is more worth while to spend 1-250 to make one ground excel¬ lent than 8130 each on several incomplete ones. The average daily attendance was 250; after the gymnast was discontinued, 150. At the close of the summer the contents of the window boxes were given to their faithful caretakers for home decoration. On the last afternoon over one hundred children were taken to the museum and menagerie of the park, after which they lunched in the grove. These playgrounds, concentrating children’s entertainment in limited areas under supervision, are one stage of vacation school work, and not to be confounded with the ideal playground of large open space with abundant opportunity for free play. Millions have been expended upon the school plant for the good of children, and in crowded centers of population, at least, economic considerations should prevent its lying idle one-third of the workdays of the year. The yards are easily accessible — a necessity for the smallest and convenience for the larger children, while the influ¬ ence of the regular school upon the childish mind is only greater when it also becomes the center of their social interests. Classes in whittling, sewing, garden¬ ing, etc., are strong attractions in such playgrounds. CHAPTER XVI. THE OLD SOUTH WORK.1 By Edwin D. Mead. The extent of the obligation of Boston and of America to Mary Hemenway for her devotion to the historical and political education of our young people during the closing period of our century is something which we only now begin to properly appreciate when she has left us and we view her work as a whole. I do not think it is too much to say that she has done more than any other single individual in the same time to promote popular interest in American history and to promote intelli¬ gent. patriotism. Mrs. Hemenway was a woman whose interests and sympathies were as broad as the world; but she was a great patriot, and she was preeminently that. She was an enthusiastic lover of freedom and of democracy, and there was not a day of her life that she did not think of the great, price with which our own heritage of freedom has been purchased. Her patriotism was loyalty. She had a deep feeling of per¬ sonal gratitude to the founders of New England and the fathers of the Republic. She had a reverent pride in our position of leadership in the history and movement of modern democracy; and she had a consuming zeal to keep the nation strong and pure and worthy of its best traditions, and to kindle this zeal among the young people of the nation. With all her great, enthusiasms, she was an amazingly practical and definite woman. She wasted no time nor strength in vague generalities, either of speech or action. Others might long for the time when the kingdom of God should cover the earth as the waters cover the sea, and she longed for it; but, while others longed, she devoted herself to doing what she could to bring that, corner of God’s world in which she was set into conformity with the laws of God, and this by every means in her power, by teaching poor girls how to make better clothes and cook better dinners and make better homes, by teaching people to value health and respect and train their bodies, by inciting people to read better books and love better music and better pictures and be interested in more important things. Others might long for the parliament of man and the federation of the world, and so did she; but, while others longed, she devoted herself to doing what she could to make this nation, for which she was particularly responsible, fitter for the federation when it. comes. The good patriot, to her thinking, was not the worse cosmopolite. The good State fpr which she worked was a good Massachusetts; and her chief interest, while others talked municipal reform, was to make a better Boston. American history, people used to say, is not interesting; and they read about Ivry and Marathon and Zama, about Pym and Pepin and Pericles, the ephors, the trib¬ unes, and the House of Lords. American history, said Mrs. Hemenway, is to us the most interesting and the most important history in the world, if we would only open our eyes to it and look at it in the right way; and I will help people to look at it in 1 Parts of this statement of the Old South Work, in its earlier form, appeared in the Report of this Office for 1894-95, Vol. 2, pp. 1311-17. It is now reprinted as enlarged and brought down to date (1899). 905 906 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, » the right way. Our very archaeology, she said, is of the highest interest; and through the researches of Mr. Cashing and Dr. Fewkes and others among the Zunis and the Moquis, sustained by her at the cost of thousands of dollars, she did an immense work to make interest in it general. Boston, the Puritan city — how proud she was of its great line of heroic men, from Winthrop and Cotton and Eliot and Harvard to Sumner and Garrison and Parker and Phillips! How proud she was that Harry Vane once trod its soil and here felt himself at home! How she loved Hancock and Otis and Warren and Revere and the great men of the Boston town meetings — above all, Samuel Adams, the very mention of whose name always thrilled her, and whose portrait was the only one save Washington’s which hung on the oaken walls of her great dining room ! The Boston historians, Prescott, Motley, Parkman; the Boston poets, Longfellow, Lowell, Emerson, each word of every one she treasured. She would have enjoyed and would have understood, as few others, that recent declaration of Charles Francis Adams’s that the founding of Boston was fraught with consequences to the world not less important than those of the founding of Rome. All other Boston men and women must see Boston as she saw it — that was her high resolve. They must know arid take to heart that they were citizens of no mean city; they must be roused to the sacredness of their inheritance, that so they might be roused to the nobility of their citizenship and the greatness of their duty. It was with this aim and with this spirit, not with the spirit of the mere antiquarian, that Mrs, Hemenway inaugurated the Old South Work. History with her was for use — the history of Boston, the history of New England, the history of America. In the first place, she saved the Old South Meetinghouse. She contributed $100,000 toward the fund necessary to prevent its destruction. It is hard for us to realize, so much deeper is the reverence for historic places which the great anniver¬ saries of these late years have done so much to beget, that in our very centennial year, 1876, the Old South Meetinghouse, the most sacred and historic structure in Boston or in the country, was in danger of destruction. The old Hancock house, for which, could it be restored, Boston would to-day pour out unlimited treasure, had gone with but feeble protest only a dozen years before; and but for Mrs. Hem¬ enway the Old South Meetinghouse would have gone in 1876. She saved it; and, having saved it, she determined that it should not stand an idle monument, the tomb of the great ghosts, but a living temple of patriotism. She knew the didactic power of great associations; and every one who in these twenty years has been in the habit of going to the lectures and celebrations at the Old South knows with what added force many a lesson has been taught within the walls which heard the tread of Washington and which still echo the words of Samuel Adams and James Otis and Joseph Warren. The Old South lectures have proved that our American history can be presented to our young people in such a way as shall awaken their deepest interest and make them want to come again and again for more and more; they have shown to those who have beeai concerned in the management how broad and rich and varied are the fields into which the young students may be led; and they have made all serious people who have attended the lectures feel their important practical bearing, how close the relation of history to politics, and how potent an instrumentality such lectures may be made for the promotion of good citizenship. Not every city has its Old South Meetinghouse, with the wealth of association which, as already said, lends such reenforcement to the impressiveness of the meetings where the names of Winthrop and Franklin and Samuel Adams are upon the tongue; not everywhere can broad subjects be rooted in local history and illustrated by local landmarks as in Massachusetts, and especially in Boston, with their great line of colonial and revolutionary traditions — and the utility of such local interests, their stimulation to the imagination, their provocation to thought, can not be valued too highly; not everywhere can such munificence be hoped for as that which has made THE OLD SOUTH WORK. 907 possible the interesting experiment at the Old South Meetinghouse. But there is no American city where girls and boys and parents and teachers can not be gathered together in some place where the spirit of Winthrop and Adams and Washington and Lincoln will be in their midst; there is no American city which is not a joint heir to our national history, nor whose local history is not ten times more interesting and didactic, ten times more closely connected with broad general movements, than those suppose who do not think about it; and there is no city without citizens quite able to support, and teachers, ministers, and lawyers quite able to prepare, series of lectures which shall do the work which it is the aim of the Old South lectures to do in Boston, of awakening in the young people, who are so quickly to control the nation, a true sense of their indebtedness to the present and the future, by awakening in them a true sense of their indebtedness to the past. The machinery of the Old South work has been the simplest. That is why any city, if it has public spirited people to sustain it, can easily carry on such work. That is why work like it, owing its parentage and impulse to it, has been undertaken in Provi¬ dence and Brooklyn and Philadelphia, in Indianapolis and Madison and Chicago and elsewhere. That is why men and women all over the country, organized in societies or not, who are really in earnest about good citizenship, can do mucli-to promote similar work in the cities and towns in which they live. We have believed at the Old South Meetinghouse in the power of the spoken word and the printed page. We have had lectures, and we have circulated historical leaflets. What is an Old South lecture course like? That is what many teachers and many young people who are not conversant with the work will like to know. What kind of subjects do we think will attract and instruct bright young people of fifteen or sixteen, set them to reading in American history, make them more interested in their coun¬ try, and make better citizens of them? That question can not, perhaps, be better an¬ swered than by giving one or two Old South lecture programmes. We will take the course for the summer of 1894 and the course for 1899. The course for 1894, for in¬ stance, was devoted to “The Founders of New England;” and the eight lectures were: William Brewster, the Eider of Plymouth, by Rev. Edward Everett Hale; Wil¬ liam Bradford, the Governor of Plymouth, by Rev. William Elliot Griffis; John Winthrop, the Governor of Massachusetts, by Hon. Frederic T. Greenhalge; John Harvard and the Founding of Harvard College, by Mr. William R. Thayer; John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians, by Rev. James De Normandie; John Cotton, the Minister of Boston, by Rev. John Cotton Brooks; Roger Williams, the Founder of Rhode Island, by President E. Benjamin Andrews; Thomas Hooker, the Founder of Connecticut, by Rev. Joseph H. Twichell. It will be noticed that .the several subjects in this course were presented by repre¬ sentative men, men especially identified in one way or another with their special themes. Thus Edward Everett Hale, who spoke on Elder Brewster, is certainly our greatest New England “elder” to-day. Dr. Griffis, whose book on Brave Little Holland was being read at the time by so many of our young people, is an authority in Pilgrim history, having since prepared a work on The Pilgrim Fathers in Eng¬ land, Holland, and America. It was singularly fortunate that the Governor of Massachusetts at the time could speak upon Governor Winthrop. Mr. Thayer is the editor of the Harvard Graduates’ Magazine and a special student of John Harvard’s life and times. Mr. De Normandie is John Eliot’s successor as minister of the old church in Roxbury. Rev. John Cotton Brooks is a lineal descendant of John Cotton, and has preached in his pulpit in St. Botolpli’s church at old Boston, in England. President Andrews, of Brown University, was certainly the very best person to come from Rhode Island to tell of that little State’s great founder. Mr. Twichell, the emi¬ nent Hartford minister, was the chosen orator at the celebration of the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the founding of Connecticut, in 1889. With such a list of speakers as this, this course upon The Founding of New England could not help being a brilliant and valuable course; and so it proved. 908 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The year 1899 was the centennial of the death of Washington. The memory of Washington is always kept green at the Old South. Each Washington’s Birthday celebration is made a means of emphasizing anew his services and character, and this celebration, when the Old South prizes are always awarded, is one of the most stirring events of the Old South year; but in this centennial year the entire summer course was devoted to The Life and Influence of Washington, the several lectures being : Washington in the Revolution, by Mr. John Fiske; Washington and the Constitu¬ tion, by Rev. Edward Everett Hale; Washington as President of the United States, by Rev. Albert E. Winship; Washington, the True Expander of the Republic, by Mr. Edwin I). Meftd; Washington’s Interest in Education, by Hon. Alfred S. Roe; The Men who Worked with Washington, by Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer; Washing¬ ton’s Farewell Address, by Rev. Franklin Hamilton; and What the World has Thought and Said of Washington, by Prof. Edwin A. Grosvenor. How admirable a thing it would be if there could be given in every city and town in the country during this Washington centennial time such lectures upon the life and influence of Washington. A hundred towns could do nothing better than adopt bodily this Old South programme. Few places can plan to use these lecturers, although Brooklyn for many years regularly, and other places occasionally, have arranged to have each summer’s course of Old South lectures repeated for their people by the Old South lecturers. Most places will use their own people — ministers, lawyers, editors, teachers — as their lecturers; and it is better that they should. But many should be glad to follow' this Old South programme, and in connection could be used many of the Old South leaflets relating to Washington. The Old South leaflets and lecture programmes, good for us, are also, it is a pleasure to find, meeting needs like ours in a hundred places. It is not for a Boston public only that Ave work. The Old South lectures — thanks to Mrs. Ilemen way’s generosity — still active by proA’ision of her Avill — are entirely free to all young people. Tickets are distributed among the boys and girls of the public schools by their masters — the masters and superintendent of the Boston schools having always been the glad and efficient cooperators in the Old South work in all its branches. Tickets are also sent to all persons under twenty, applying in their own hand Avri ting to the directors of the Old South work, at the Old South Meetinghouse, and inclosing stamp. Older people can come if they wish to, and a great many do come; but these pay for their tickets. It is understood that the lectures are designed for the young people. We tell our lecturers to aim at the bright boy and girl of fifteen, and forget that there is anybody else in the audience. If the lecturer hits them, he is sure to interest everybody; if he does not, he is a failure as an Old South lecturer. We tell them to be graphic and picturesque — dullness, however learned, is the one thing which young people will not pardon; Ave tell them to speak Avithout notes — if they do not always satisfy themselves quite so well, they please everybody else a great deal better; and wre tell them neA'er to speak OArer an hour — Ave pardon fifty-nine minutes, but Ave do not pardon sixty-one. Persons starting Avork like the Old South Avork in other cities would do well to remember these simple rules. Any person looking in upon the great audience of young people Avhich on the Wednesday afternoons of summer fills the Old South Meetinghouse, will quickly satisfy themseWes Avhether American history taught by such lectures is interesting. For the Old South lectures are sum¬ mer lectures — vacation lectures — given at 3 o’clock on Wednesday afternoons. They begin Avhen the graduation exercises and the Fourth of July are Avell behind, in the last or next to the last Aveek in July. Our lectures are not meant for idlers. We do not aim to entertain a crowd of children for an hour in a desultory fashion. Our lecturers do not talk baby talk. The Old South Avork is a serious educational Avork. Its programmes are careful and sequential, making demands upon the hear¬ ers. It assumes that the young people avIio come are students, or want to be; and, by consistently assuming it, it makes them so. Dr. Hale, Avho has addressed these THE OLD SOUTH WORK. 909 Old South audiences oftener, perhaps, than anybody else, remarked at the opening of a recent course upon the notable development in the character of the audiences in these years of the work. It is no longer safe, he said, to say 1603 at the Old South, when you ought to say 1602. The first regular course of Old South Lectures for Young People was in 1883, al¬ though there had of course been much Old South work of various kinds done before that. There have therefore been seventeen annual courses. The subjects of these courses are as follows: Early Massachusetts History, The Makers of Boston, The War for the Union, The War for Independence, The Birth of the Nation, The Story of the Centuries, Amer¬ ica and France, The American Indians, The New Birth of the World, The Discovery of America, The Opening of the West, The Founders of New England, The Puritans in Old England, The American Historians, The Antislavery Struggle, The Old World in the New, The Life and Influence of Washington. The complete programmes of all these courses, giving the subjects of the several lectures, together with the subjects of the leaflets printed in connection, have been published in a special circular, which can be obtained at the Old South. A thought always with us in laying out our programmes is, as has been said, the thought that the programme which serves us well may also serve others well; and this makes them the more carefully considered. We work in the hope and expectation that our lectures may be repeated, if not by our lecturers, then by others taking the same subjects, in other places and that with the lectures may go our leaflets also. The eight leaflets for 1899, accompanying the eight Washington lectures, were: Washington’s Account of the Army at Cambridge in 1775, Washington’s Letters on the Constitution, Washington’s Inaugurals, Washington’s Letter to Benjamin Harrison in 1784, Washington’s Words on a National University, Letters of Washing¬ ton and Lafayette, Washington’s Farewell Address, Henry Lee’s Funeral Oration on Washington. The eight leaflets accompanying similarly the lectures on the The Founders of New England, noticed above, were: Bradford’s Memoir of Elder Brewster, Governor Bradford’s First Dialogue, Win- throp’s Conclusions for the Plantation in New England, New England’s First Fruits, 1643, John Eliot’s Indian Grammar Begun, John Cotton’s God’s Promise to His Plantation, Letters of Boger Williams to Winthrop, Hooker’s Way of the Churches of New England. The Old South Leaflets are prepared primarily for circulation among the young people attending the Old South lectures. The subjects of the leaflets are usually immediately related to the subjects of the lectures. They are meant to supplement the lectures and stimulate reading and inquiry among the young people. They are made up, for the most part, from original pajiers of the periods treated in the lectures, in the hope to make the men and the life of those periods more clear and real. Careful historical notes and references to the best books on the subjects are added, the leaflets usually consisting of about twenty pages. A single instance more will suffice to show the relation of the leaflets to the lectures. The year 1889, being the centennial both of the beginning of our own Federal Government and of the French Devolution, the lectures for the year, under the general title of America and France, were devoted entirely to subjects in which the history of America is related to that of France, as follows: Champlain, the Founder of Quebec; La Salle and the French in the Great West; The Jesuit Missionaries in America; Wolfe and Montcalm; the Struggle of England and France for the Continent; Franklin in France; The Friendship of Washington and Lafayette; Thomas Jefferson and the Louisiana Purchase; The Year 1789. The corresponding leaflets were as follows : Verrazzano’s Account of his Voyage to America; Marquette’s Account of his Dis¬ covery of the Mississippi; Mr. Parkman’s Histories; The Capture of Quebec, from Parkman’s Conspiracy of Pontiac; Selections from Franklin’s Letters from France; 910 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Letters of Washington and Lafayette; The Declaration of Independence; The French Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789. The Old South Leaflets gradually began to attract the attention of teachers of his¬ tory outside of Boston, and ten years ago the publication of a general series was begun, to meet the needs of schools and colleges and literary societies and classes. Every teacher of history from Maine to California now knows, we think, of the Old South Leaflets. They are sold at a price just covering the cost, 5 cents a copy, or $4 for a hundred copies, the aim being to bring them within easy reach of everybody, especially of schools and those wishing to circulate them in connection with lectures, as at the Old South. This series of Old South Leaflets now numbers a hundred.1 * * * These leaflets are also furnished in bound volumes, each volume containing twenty- five leaflets, the one hundred leaflets already published making four volumes. All persons wishing to preserve the leaflets for reference will find this form the best. Each annual series of eight leaflets, illustrating the lecture subjects of the year, is bound in a neat paper cover, and these little collections well serve clubs and classes studying these special subjects. The virtue of the Old South Leaflets is that they bring students into first-hand instead of second-hand touch with history. That, indeed, may describe the Old South work altogether. It has been an effort to bring the young people of Boston and America into original relations with history; and it has been, we think it may prop¬ erly be said, the foremost popular effort of the kind in the country. This is why it has won the attention and commendation, so gratifying to us, of the educators of the country. Our joy in the Old South work has been the joy of being pioneers and the joy of knowing that we were pioneers in the right direction. We should have known this if others had not known it; but we do not deny that the warm words of the historical scholars and teachers of the country have been very grateful and very helpful to us. The Old South work is “in exactly the right direction,” John Fiske has said. It is a pleasant thing to remember that it was at Mrs. Hemen- way’s instance and at her strong solicitation that Mr. Fiske first turned his efforts to the field of American history; and almost everything that appeared in the earlier vol¬ umes of his magnificent series of historical works was first given in the form of lectures at the Old South. “ To Mary Hemenway, in recognition of the rare foresight and public spirit which saved from destruction one of the noblest historical buildings in America, and made it a center for the teaching of American history and the princi¬ ples of good citizenship,” is the dedication of the volume upon The American Revo¬ lution. In this connection, and for the sake of the information which it gives, may be quoted the following words from the preface to Prof. James Iv. Hosmer’s Life of Thomas Hutchinson: “This book, like the lives of Samuel Adams and young Sir Henry Vane and the Short History of Anglo-Saxon Freedom, has been written for the late lamented Mrs. Mary Hemenway — a carrying out of her Old South work. That noble woman’s candor was as remarkable as her patriotic enthusiasm. While stimulating in every way she could interest in and love for our country and the men who brought it into being, she had a kind thought for the foe who honestly stood against them, and she desired to have justice done the victim as well as to have praise rendered the victors.” In Mr. Fiske’s School History of the United States, perhaps the most popular history in the schools, the Old South Leaflets are constantly commended for use in connection. “The publication of these leaflets,” he says, “is sure to have a most happy effect in awakening general interest on the part of young students in original documents.” To the same effect writes Mr. Montgomery, whose text-books in history are so widely used in the schools. James MacAlister, the pres¬ ident of the Drexel Institute in Philadelphia, writes: “I regard the Old South work as one of the most important educational movements of recent times.” Mr. Herbert Welsh, of Philadelphia, wrote a special tract about the Old South work, and spread 1 See list of titles given in an appendix to this chapter, but omitted here to avoid repetition.— Ed. THE OLD SOUTH WORK. 911 it broadcast in Philadelphia. He had been deeply impressed by the Old South work when he came to lecture for us a little while before. “The secret of the success of the Old South plan/’ he said, “ is that it teaches history from a living and most prac¬ tical standpoint. It is the application of the best that our past has given to the brain and heart of the youth of the present.” “ Why should not this simple and effective plan be made use of in Philadelphia?” lie asked; and the next year Old South Work was inaugurated in Philadelphia, the lectures to the young people being given in the Old State House, where the Declaration of Independence was signed and the Con¬ stitution framed. President Andrews, of Brown University; Prof. Herbert Adams, of Johns Hopkins; Professor Hart, of Harvard; Prof. Wroodrow Wilson, Mr. Horace E. Scudder, and others, have written in the same warm wray. Mr. Tetlow, the mas¬ ter of the Boston Girls’ Pligli School, and masters all over the country unite in wel¬ coming the leaflets. “To teach history by the study of original documents,” writes one, “has been the dream of the best instructors; but this dream may now be real¬ ized through the inexpensive form in which these originals are presented.” “The educational world,” writes Miss Coman, the professor of history at Wellesley Col¬ lege, ‘ ‘ is coming to recognize the value of teaching history, even to young people, from the original records rather than from accounts at second or third hand. I rejoice that these documents have been made accessible to the children of our public schools.” “We may talk about such documents all we please,” says Mr. Hiding, the master of the Cambridge High School, “and little good will be done; but, when the pupil reads one of these for himself, he is indeed a dull fellowr if he does not carry awray a definite impression of its place in history.” “ I wish,” writes Mr. Belfield, the principal of the Chicago Manual Training School, who has done more than any¬ body else to promote the Old South movement in the West', “ that the series could be brought to the attention of every school superintendent, high-school principal, and teacher of United States history in the country.” “ The Old South Leaflets,” says Professor Folwell, the professoj of history in the University of Minnesota, “ought to be scattered by millions of copies all over our country.” It is a satisfaction to be able to quote such words from such persons, for they are a great reenforcement of our commendation of this missionary work in good citizenship to the attention of the country. For that is what the Old South work is — a mission¬ ary work in good citizenship — and feeling it to be that we “commend ourselves.” We wish that societies of young men and women might be organized in a thousand places for historical and political studies, and that our Old South Leaflets might prove of as much service to these as they are proving to our Old South audiences and to the schools. The Old South summer lectures are chiefly for the older boys and girls in the schools, the children in the high schools, and the upper grammar grades. For the younger children wre have each spring and autumn a “children’s hour,” a name descending from the earliest days of the Old South work, when such faithful service was rendered by Miss Alice Baker and Mrs. Kate Gannett Wells. The “children’s hour” is filled by varied, simple, and picturesque talks and by music. The autumn “hour” in 1899, the Washington year, had three speeches on the three visits of Washington to Boston and several songs by a great chorus of the children, including the ode composed and sung on the occasion of Washington’s visit in 1789. The Old South Work aims to do more than serve the pupils of the Boston schools. It aims also to serve the teachers. There have been few years since the Old South Meetinghouse was saved when some course of lectures has not been provided espe¬ cially for the teachers. Mr. Fiske’s courses in many successive years were chiefly for the teachers of the city. Dr. William T. Harris and others have similarly addressed the teachers. Rev. Edward G. Porter’s lectures upon Old Boston, first given at the North End in connection with a local work carried on by the directors of the Old South work for several seasons in that section of the city, were of peculiar interest. 912 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. In the spring of 1899 Prof. Albert B. Hart delivered a course on “The Spaniard and the Anglo-Saxon in America.” The Old South Work is not simply a means of doing something for the young people of Boston. It is also a means of getting something from them and setting them to work for themselves. Every year prizes are offered to the graduates of the Boston high schools — graduates of the current year and the preceding year — for the best essays on subjects in American history. Two subjects are proposed each year and two prizes are awarded for each subject, the first prize being $40 and the second $25. The subjects are announced in June, just as the schools close, and the essays must be submitted in the following January. The prizes are always announced at the Washington’s Birthday celebration. The subjects proposed each year for the essays are always closely related to the general subject of the lectures for the year, our aim being to make the entire work for the year unified and articulate, each part of it helping the rest. Thus the subjects for the essays for the year when the lectures were devoted to The Founders of New England were: 1. The Relations of the Founders of New England to the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford. 2. The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut and their Place in the History of Written Constitutions. The subjects for 1899, the Washington year, were: 1. The American Revolution under Washington and the English Revolution under Cromwell: Compare their Causes, Aims, and Results. 2. Washington’s Plan for a National University: The Argument for it a Hundred Years Ago and the Argument To-day. I think that many would be surprised at the thoroughness and general excellence of many of these essays written by pupils just out of our high schools. The first-prize essay for 1881, on The Policy of the Early Colonists of Massachusetts toward Quakers and Others whom they regarded as Intruders, by Henry L. South wick, and one of the first-prize essays for 1889, on Washington’s Interest in Education, by Miss Carolyn C. Steelier, have been printed, and can be procured at the Old South Meetinghouse. Another of the prize essays, on Washington’s Interest in Education, by Miss Julia K. Ordway, was published in the New England Magazine for May, 1890. One of the first-prize essays for 1890, on Philip, Pontiac, and Tecumseh, by Miss Carolyn C. Stecher, appeared in the New England Magazine for September, 1891; one of the first-prize essays for 1891, on Marco Polo’s Explorations in Asia and their Influence upon Columbus, by Miss Helen P. Margesson, in the New England Magazine for August, 1892; one for 1893, on The Part of Massachusetts Men in the Ordinance of 1787, by Miss Elizabeth H. Tetlow, in March, 1895, and one for 1898, on The Strug¬ gle of France and England for North America, by Miss Caroline P>. Shaw, in January, 1900. The New England Magazine, which is devoted preeminently to matters relat¬ ing to American history and good citizenship, has from the time of its founding, ten years ago, made itself an organ of the Old South work, publishing many of the Old South essays and lectures, and always noticing in its Editor’s Table everything relating to the progress of the movement. The young people who have competed for these Old South prizes are naturally among the best students of history in their successive years in the Boston high schools. They now number nearly 200, and several years ago they formed them¬ selves into an Old South Historical Society. Many of the Old South essayists have, of course, gone on into college, and many are now scattered over the country; but more than half of their number, not a few of them teachers in the schools, are to-day within sound of the Old South bell, and the monthly meetings of the society are most interesting. No young people’s society in the country is doing better historical work. There are always some careful historical papers read by members at the meet¬ ings, and there is discussion. There are frequently fresh voices from the outside, some of the most eminent scholars of the country having been guests of the society. THE OLD SOUTH WORK. 913 The present president, Mr. Joseph Parker Warren, is a Harvard instructor, and the secretary, Miss Margesson, is a Wellesley graduate. The society is rapidly becom¬ ing an efficient factor in the general Old South work. It has various active commit¬ tees — a lecture committee, an essay committee, an outlook committee, and others— and its leading spirits are ambitious for ever larger service. The members of the lecture committee assist in the distribution of tickets to the schools and in enlisting- the interest of young people in the lectures. The members of the essay committee similarly devote themselves to enlisting the interest of the high schools in the essays. They also read the essays submitted each year, not for the sake of adjudging the award of prizes — that is in other hands — but that there may always be in the society schol¬ arly members thoroughly cognizant of the character of the work being done and of the varying capacity of the new members entering the society. The office of the outlook committee is to keep itself informed and to keep the society informed of all important efforts at home and abroad for the historical and political education of young people. It watches the newspapers, it watches the magazines, it watches the schools. It reports anything it finds said about the Old South work and about its extension anywhere. At the next meeting, I suppose, it will tell the society about any new school history and about any new text-books in civil government which have appeared. I hope it will tell how much better most of the series of historical readers published in England for the use of the schools are than the similar books which we have in America. It is sure to say something about the remarkable growth? of work like its own among our young people; and it is sure to report such utterances as those of President Clarke and other leaders of the Christian Endeavor movement upon the importance of rousing a more definite interest in politics and greater devo¬ tion to the duties of citizenship among the young people in that great organization.. Especially has it noticed in this time the historical pilgrimage, that interesting educa¬ tional movement which suddenly appeared half a dozen years ago full grown — a move¬ ment which would have enlisted so warmly the sympathies of Mrs. Hemenway, who- felt, as almost nobody else ever felt, the immense educational power of historical associations. It has doubtless told the society what Mr. Stead has written about historical pilgrimages in England, and Mr. Powell and Dr. Shaw and others in America.. The historical pilgrimage arranged and conducted by members of the University Extension Society of Philadelphia in the summer of 1891 commanded much atten¬ tion from the newspapers and from the educational public. It was worthy of atten¬ tion. Eor a large body of thoughtful men and women from twenty States to unite- in a pilgrimage to our historic New England places was something to be noted as a pregnant and potential new educational factor; and from that time the historical pilgrimage became a distinct instrument, and a most useful one, in our life. It was noteworthy, also, as an index of the development of interest in American history in twenty years; for an enterprise like this would not have been dreamed of twenty years before. It was fitting that this first band of American historical pilgrims^ should be received and welcomed publicly in Boston at the Old South Meeting¬ house; for no other place in these years has been the center of such earnest and. fruitful efforts for the development of this popular historical interest. In 1896 the Old South Historical Society took up the matter of historical pilgrim¬ ages practically for itself. It adopted the historical pilgrimage as a regular feature- of its yearly programme, and it has continued it with increasing and noteworthy suc¬ cess. The society may freely claim that no other historical pilgrimages in the coun¬ try are so carefully prepared for and so well carried out, with such distinct educational results, as its own. There have now (1899) been four of these annual pilgrimages — the first to old Rutland, Mass., “the Cradle of Ohio;” the second to- the homes of Whittier by the Merrimac; the third to the King Philip country, Mount Hope, on Narragansett Bay, and the fourth to Plymouth. A full day is given to the pilgrimage. The trip itself is always delightful, a luncheon is served at mid- ed 1900 - 58 914 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. clay, and this is followed by half a dozen bright speeches. The expenses are kept very low. Invitation is given to all young people or others who wish to join, and the later pilgrimages have been made by great parties of 600 people. Care¬ ful circulars and pamphlets are prepared well in advance, outlining the history con¬ nected with the places and discussing the best books; and the historical pilgrimage becomes one of the most educative events of the Old South year, as well as one of the most joyful. In addition to the important annual pilgrimage the members of the society themselves make occasional pilgrimages to interesting historical places near Boston. One of the latest of these was to Brook Farm, and there was much reading in connection about the interesting socialistic experiment identified with that famous place. An idea of the serious and scholarly work being done by these splendid young people can best be given by inserting the programme of the present winter’s work, 1899-1900. The general subject chosen for study is Economic and Social Forces in Massachusetts to 1800, and the outline for the ten monthly meetings is as follows: I. September 26. The Country and the People. Papers: (1) The Indian Tribes. (2) The Physical Geography of Massachusetts and its Effects upon the People. (3) The European Immigrants. II. October 10. Productive Industries. Papers: (1) The Fisheries. (2) Agri¬ culture. (3) Manufactures. III. November 14. Commerce and Communication. Papers: (1) Transportation and Communication. (2) General Survey of Massachusetts Commerce. (3) Trade with Africa and the Indies (including the Slave trade). (4) The Navigation Acts and their Influence upon Massachusetts Commerce. IV. December 12. The Currency of Early Massachusetts. Stereopticon lecture by Mr. Andrew McFarland Davis. V. January 9. Social Life. Mrs. Abby Morton Diaz will be the guest of the even¬ ing, speaking upon the home life of the early Massachusetts settlers. Papers: (1) Homes and Home Life (2) Sports and Amusements. (3) Social Intercourse. (4) The Influence of the Clergy and of the Government. VI. The Influence of Economic and Social Conditions upon Institutions. Febru¬ ary 13. The Church. Papers: (1) History of Congregationalism. (2) Church and State. (3) Sectarian Controversies and Persecutions. (4) Religious Life of the People. March 13. The Government. Mr. William B. Weeden will be the guest of the evening, speaking of the influence of social and economic forces upon the gov¬ ernment in early Newr England. Papers: (1) Town Government. (2) The Gen¬ eral Court and the Colonial Magistrates. (3) The Royal Governor and the Influence of the Crown. VII. April 10. Law and its Administration. Papers: (1) The Common Law in America. (2) Colonial Judicature of Massachusetts. (3) Colonial Legislation of Massachusetts. VIII. May 8. Intellectual Life. Papers: ( 1 ) Schools and Colleges. (2) Learned Professions. (3) Music and the Fine Arts. IX. June 12. Literature. Mr. Edwin D. Mead will be the guest of the evening, speaking upon the intellectual life of Massachusetts during the first two centuries of her history. Papers: (1) Descriptive and Historical Writings. (2) Ecclesiastical Works. (3) The Literature of the Revolution. (4) Newspapers and other Reading Matter. This programme is followed in the society’s circular by several pages of bibliog¬ raphy, most thoroughly and discriminatingly compiled. The outline altogether would do credit to any historical society in the land, and it is entirely the work of the young people themselves. The subject studied with similar thoroughness the year before was the History of the Spanish Power in America, and preceding years had been devoted to the Antislavery Struggle, and the Heritage of Slavery. The young people are constantly lending a hand to other young people needing assistance in historical and political studies. The North End Union, the South End House, and Denison House have all had their help, and a dozen of them carried on classes for an entire season at the Marcella Street Home. Many societies of young people all over the country might well take up such his¬ torical studies as those in which the Old South Historical Society interests itself. They should also interest themselves in studies directly political and social. We have THE OLD SOUTH WORK. 915 in Boston a Good Citizenship Society. This is not a part of the Old South Work, but it is a society in whose efforts some of us who have the Old South Work at heart have been deeply interested, and its lectures were long given at the Old South Meeting¬ house. The lectures have dealt with such subjects as Qualifications for citizenship, Municipal reform, the Reform of the newspaper, the Revival of public spirit in our country towns, and the Better organization of the world. One season the lectures were upon A More Beautiful Public Life, the several subjects being: The lessons of the white city, Boards of beauty, Municipal art, Art in the public schools, Art museums and the people, and Boston, the city of God. These subjects, and such as these, young men and women might take up in their societies with great benefit to themselves and to their communities. Our young people should train themselves also in the organization and procedure of our local and General Government, as pre¬ sented in the text-books on civil government now happily becoming so common in the schools. The young men in one of our colleges have a house of commons; in another college — a young woman’s college — they have a house of representatives. Our Old South Historical Society has talked of organizing a town meeting for the dis¬ cussion of public questions and for schooling in legislative methods. Why should not such town meetings be common among our young people? Why, too, will not our young people everywhere, as a part of their service for good citizenship, engage in a crusade for better music? Good music is a great educator. Bad music is debilitating and debasing. That was a wise man whom old Fletcher quotes as saying, ‘ ‘ Let me make the songs of a people, and I care not who makes the laws.” How many of the young men and women in the high schools have read what Plato says about strong, pure music in education in his book on The Laws? Indeed, it is to be feared that not all the teachers have read it. I wish that a hundred clubs or classes of young people wTould read Plato’s Laws next winter, and his Republic the next, and then Aristotle’s Politics. Do not think they are hard, dull books. They are fresh, fascinating books, and seem almost as modern in all their discussions of socialism, education, and the rest as the last magazine, only they are so much better and more fruitful than the magazine. They make us ashamed of ourselves — these great Greek thinkers — their preaching is so much better than our practice; but it is a good thing to be made ashamed of ourselves sometimes, and we need it very much here in America in the matter of music. We are suffering in our homes, in our schools, in our churches, our theaters, everywhere from music of the trashiest and most vulgar character, and this is said with no failure to recognize the great amount of splendid work that is being done. Let us go to school to Plato;- let us go to school to Germany and England. We aim to do something in behalf of this reform at the Old South. Our large choruses from the public schools at many of our celebrations have sung well. At our last “Children’s hour,” as already mentioned, 200 girls from the Wells School, assisted by good soloists, rendered admirably the old ode composed and sung when President Washington was received in Boston in 1789. But we wish to do a real educational work not only as touching patriotic music strictly, but as touching better music for the people generally. It was an “Old South boy,” the winner of one of the early Old South prizes, who two or three years ago conceived and organ¬ ized the magnificent series of public organ recitals in Boston, given under the auspices of the Twentieth Century Club, which attracted so much attention throughout the country, encouraging similar efforts in other cities, and giving impetus to the interest which has resulted in the Boston municipal concerts. One day we shall have an Old South chorus. We hope some time to have a good organ at the Old South, as we hope to have the old meetinghouse altogether in much better shape in a near future than in the last years. If in some future the ghosts of some of the great Greeks stroll into the Old South Meetinghouse, we hope they may find it the center of influences in behalf of pure and inspiring music which will be as gratifying to them as the devotion to the State which is inculcated there would surely be. 916 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. OLD SOUTH LECTURES AND LEAFLETS. The Old South Leaflets Avere prepared primarily for circulation among the attendants upon the Old South Lectures for Young People. The subjects of the leaflets are immediately related to the subjects of the lectures, and they are intended to supplement the lectures and stimulate historical interest and inquiry among the young people. They are made up for the most part from original papers of the periods treated in the lectures, in the hope to make the men and the public life of the periods more clear and real. The Old South Lectures for Young People were instituted in the summer of 1883, as a means of pro¬ moting a more serious and intelligent attention to historical studies, especially studies in American history among the young people of Boston. The success of the lectures has been so great as to warrant the hope that such courses may be sustained in many other cities of the country. The Old South Lectures for 1883, intended to be strictly upon subjects in early Massachusetts history, but by certain necessities somewhat modified, were as follows: Governor Bradford and Governor Winthrop, by Edwin D. Mead. Plymouth, by Mrs. A. M. Diaz. Concord, by Frank B. Sanborn. The Town Meeting, by Prof. James K. Hcsmer. Franklin, the Boston Boy, by George M. Towle. How to Study American History, by Prof. G. Stanley Hall. The Year 1777, by John Fiske. History in the Boston Streets, by Edward Everett Hade. The leaflets prepared in connection with these lectures consisted of (1) Cotton Mather’s account of Governor Bradford, from the Magnalia; (2) the account of the arrival of the Pilgrims at Cape Cod, from Bradford’s Journal; (3) an extract from Emerson’s Concord Address in 1835; (4) extracts from Emerson, Samuel Adams, De Tocqueville, and others, upon the Town Meeting; (5) a portion of Franklin’s Autobiography; (6) Carlyle on the Study of History; (7) an extract from Charles Sumner’s oration upon Lafayette, etc; (8) Emerson’s poem, Boston. The lectures for 1884 were devoted to men representative of certain epochs or ideas in the history of Boston, as follows: Sir Harry Vane, in New England and in Old England, by Edward Everett Hale, jr. John Harvard, and the Founding of Harvard College, by Edward Channing, Ph.D. The Mather Family, and the Old Boston Ministers, by Rev. Samuel J. Barrows. Simon Bradstreet, and the Struggle for the Charter, by Prof. Marshall S. Snow. Samuel Adams, and the Beginning of the Revo¬ lution, by Prof. James K. Hosmer. Josiah Quincy, the Great Mayor, by Charles W. Slack. Daniel Webster, the Defender of the Constitution, by Charles C. Coffin. John A. Andrew, the Great War Gov¬ ernor, by Col. T. W. Higginson. The leaflets prepared in connection with the second course were as follows: (1) Selections from Forster’s essay on Vane, etc.; (2) an extract from Cotton Mather’s Sal Gentium; (3) Increase Mather’s Narrative of the Miseries of New England; (4) an original account of The Revolution in New England in 1689; (5) a letter from Samuel Adams to John Adams, on Repub¬ lican Government; (6) extracts from Josiah Quincy’s Boston Address of 1830; (7) Words of Webster; (8) a portion of Governor Andrew’s Address to the Massachusetts Legislature in January, 1861. The lectures for 1885 Avere upon The War for the Union, as follows: Slavery, by William Lloyd Gar¬ rison, jr. The Fall of Sumter, by Col. T. W. Higginson. The Monitor and the Merrimac, by Charles C. Coffin. The Battle of Gettysburg, by Col. Theodore A. Dodge. Sherman’s March to the Sea, by Gen. William CogSAvell. The Sanitary Commission, by Mrs. Mary A. Livermore. Abraham Lincoln, by Hon. John D. Long. General Grant, by Charles C. Coffin. The leaflets accompanying these lec¬ tures Avere as follows: (1) LoAvell’s Present Crisis, and Garrison’s Salutatory in the Liberator of January 1, 1831; (2) extract from Henry Ward Beecher’s oration at Fort Sumter in 1865; (3) contem¬ porary newspaper accounts of the engagement between the Monitor and the Merrimac; (4) extract from EdAvard Everett’s address at the consecration of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg, Avith President Lincoln’s Address; (5) extract from General Sherman’s account of the March to the Sea. in his Memoirs; (6) LoAveil’s Commemoration Ode; (7) extract from Lincoln’s First Inaugural Address, the Emancipation Proclamation, and the Second Inaugural Address; (8) account of the sendee in memory of General Grant, in Westminster Abbey, with Archdeacon Farrar’s Address. The lectures for 1S86 Avere upon The War for Independence, as follows: Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry, by Edwin D. Mead. Bunker Hill, and the NeAvs in England, by John Fiske. The Declaration of Independence, by James MacAllister. The Times that tried Men’s Souls, by Albert B. Hart, Ph. D. Lafayette, and Help from France, by Prof. Marshall S. Snow. The Women of the Revolution, by Mrs. Mary A. Livermore. Washington and his Generals, by George M. ToAvle. The Lessons of the Revo¬ lution for these Times, by Rcat. Brooke Herford. The leaflets were as follows: (1) Words of Patrick Henry; (2) Lord Chatham’s Speech, urging the remoATal of the British troops from Boston; (3) extract from Webster’s oration on Adams and Jefferson; (4) Thomas Paine’s Crisis, No. 1; (5) extract from EdAvard Everett’s eulogy on Lafayette; (6) selections from the Letters of Abigail Adams; (7) LoAveli’s Under the Old Elm; (8) extract from Whipple’s essay on Washington and the Principles of the Revolution. The course for the summer of 1887 Avas upon The Birth of the Nation, as folloAvs: IIoav the men of the English Common Avealth planned Constitutions, by Prof. James K. Hosmer. Hoav the American Colonies grew together, by John Fiske. The Confusion after the Revolution, by Davis R. DeAvey, Ph. D. The ConA’ention and the Constitution, by Hon. John D. Long. James Madison and his Journal, by Prof. E. B. AndreAvs. Hoav Patrick Henry opposed the Constitution, by Henry L. SouthAvick. Alex¬ ander Hamilton and the Federalist. Washington’s Part and the Nation’s First Years, by EdAvard Everett Hale. The leaflets prepared for these lectures Avere as folloAvs: (1) Extract from Edward THE OLD SOUTH WORK. 917 Everett Hale’s lecture on Puritan Politics in England and New England; (2) The English Colonies in America, extract from De Tocqueville’s Democracy in America; (3) Washington’s Circular Letter to the Governors of the States on Disbanding the Army; (4) the Constitution of the United States; (5) The Last Day of the Constitutional Convention, from Madison’s Journal; (6) Patrick Henry’s First Speech against the Constitution, in the Virginia Convention; (7) the Federalist, No. IX; (8) Washing¬ ton’s First Inaugural Address. The course for the summer of 1888 had the general title of The Story of the Centuries, the several lectures being as follows: The Great Schools after the Dark Ages, by Ephraim Emerton, professor of history in Harvard University. Richard the Lion-hearted and the Crusades, by Miss Nina Moore, author of Pilgrims am} Puritans. The World which Dante knew, by Shattuck 0. Hartwell, Old South first prize essayist, 1883. The Morning Star of the Reformation, by Rev. Philip S. Moxom. Copernicus and Columbus, or the New Heaven and the New Earth, by Prof. Edward S. Morse. The People for whom Shakespeare wrote, by Charles Dudley Warner. The Puritans and the English Revolution, by Charles H. Levermore, professor of history in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Lafayette and the Two Revolutions which he saw, by George Makepeace Towle. The Old South Lectures are devoted primarily to American history. But it is a constant aim to impress upon the young people the relations of our own history to English and general European his¬ tory. It was hoped that the glance at some striking chapters in the history of the last eight centuries afforded by these lectures would be a good preparation for the great anniversaries of 1889, and give the young people a truer feeling of the continuity of history. In connection with the lectures, the young people were reqxiested to fix in mind the following dates, observing that in most instances the date comes about a decade before the close of the century. An effort was made in the Leaflets for the year to make dates, which are so often dull and useless to young people, interesting, significant, and useful. Eleventh century: Lanfranc, the great mediseval scholar, who studied lav at Bologna, was prior of the monastery of Bee, the most famous school in France in the eleventh century, and archbishop of Canterbury under William the Conqueror, died 1089. Twelfth century: Richard I crowned, 1189. Thirteenth century: Dante, at the battle of Campaldino, the final overthrow of the Ghibellines in Italy, 1289. Fourteenth century: Wyclif died, 1384. Fifteenth century: America dis¬ covered, 1492. Sixteenth century: Spanish armada, 1588. Seventeenth century: William of Orange lands in England, 1688. Eighteenth century: Washington inaugurated and the Bastile fell, 1789. The Old South Leaflets for 1888, corresponding with the several lectures, were as follows: (1) The Early History of Oxford, from Green’s History of the English People; (2) Richard Cceur de Lion and the Third Crusade, from the Chronicle of Geoffrey de Vinsauf; (3) The Universal Empire, passages from Dante’s De Monarchia; (4) The Sermon on the Mount, Wyclif’s translation; (5) Copernicus and the Ancient Astronomers, from Humboldt’s Cosmos; (6) The Defeat of the Spanish Armada, from Cam¬ den’s Annals; (7) The Bill of Rights, 1689; (8) The Eve of the French Revolution, from Carlyle. The selections are accompanied by very full historical and biographical notes, and it is hoped that the series will prove of much service to students and teachers engaged in the general survey of modern history. The year 1889 being the centennial both of the beginning of our own Federal Government and of the French Revolution, the lectures for the year, under the general title of America and France, were devoted entirely to subjects in which the history of America is related to that of France, as fol¬ lows: Champlain, the Founder of Quebec, by Charles C. Coffin. La Salle and the French in the Great West, by Rev. W. E. Griffis. The Jesuit Missionaries in America, by Prof. James K. Hosmer. Wolfe and Montcalm: The Struggle of England and France for the Continent, by John Fiske. Franklin in France, by George M. Towle. The Friendship of Washington and Lafayette, by Mrs. Abba Goold Woolson. Thomas Jefferson and the Louisiana Purchase, by Robert Morss Lovett, Old South prize essayist, 1888. The Year 1789, by Rev. Edward Everett Hale. The Leaflets for the year were as fol¬ lows: (1) Yerrazzano’s Account of his Voyage to America; (2) Marquette’s Account of his Discovery of the Mississippi; (3) Mr. Parkman’s Histories; (4) the Capture of Quebec, from Parkman’s Conspiracy of Pontiac; (5) selections from Franklin’s Letters from France; (6) Letters of Washington and Lafay¬ ette; (7) the Declaration of Independence; (8) the French Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789. The lectures for the summer of 1890 were on the American Indians, as follows: The Mound Builders, by Prof. George H. Perkins. The Indians whom our Fathers Found, by Gen. H. B. Carrington. John Eliot and his Indian Bible, by Rev. Edward G. Porter. King Philip’s War, by Miss Caroline C. Stecker, Old South prize essayist, 1889. The Conspiracy of Pontiac, by Charles A. Eastman, M. D., of the Sioux Nation. A Century of Dishonor, by Herbert Welsh. Among the Zufiis, by J. Walter Fewkes, Ph. D. The Indian at School, by Gen. S. C. Armstrong. The Leaflets were as follows: (1) Extract from Address by William Henry Harrison on the Mound Builders of the Ohio Valley; (2) Extract from Morton’s New English Canaan on the Manners and Customs of the Indians; (3) John Eliot’s Brief Narrative of the Progress of the Gospel Among the Indians of New England, 1670; (4) Extract from Hubbard’s Narrative of the Troubles with the Indians (1677) on the Beginning of King Philip’s War; (5) The speech of Pontiac at the Council at the River Ecorces, from Parkman’s Conspiracy of Pon¬ tiac; (6) Extract from Black Hawk’s Autobiography on the Cause of the Black HaAvk War; (7) Coro¬ nado’s Letter to Mendoza (1540) on his Explorations in New Mexico; (8) Eleazar Wheelock’s Narrative (1762) of the Rise and Progress of the Indian School at Lebanon, Conn. The lectures for 1891, under the general title of The New Birth of the World, were devoted to the 918 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1899-1900. important movements in the age preceding the discovery of America, the several lectures being as follows: The Results of the Crusades, by F. E. E. Hamilton, Old South prize essayist, 1883. The Revival of Learning, by Prof. Albert B. Hart. The builders of the Cathedrals, by Prof. Marshall S. Snow. The Changes which Gunpowder Made, by Frank A. Hill. The Decline of the Barons, by William Everett, The Invention of Printing, by Rev. Edward G. Porter. When Michel Angelo was a Boy, by Hamlin Garland. The Discovery of America, by Rev. E. E. Hale. The Leaflets were as follows: (1) The Cajiture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, from the Chronicle of William of Malmesbury: (2) Extract from More’s Utopia; (3) The Founding of Westminster Abbey, from Dean Stanley’s His¬ torical Memorials of Westminster Abbey; (4) The Siege of Constantinople, from Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire; (5) Simon de Montfort, selections from Chronicles of the time; (6) Caxton at Westminster, extract from Blade’s Life of William Caxton; (7) The Youth of Michel Angelo, from Vasari’s Lives of the Italian Painters; (8) The Discovery of America, from Ferdinand Columbus’s life of his father. The lectures for 1892 were upon The Discovery of America, as follows: What Men Knew of the World Before Columbus, by Prof. Edward S. Morse. Leif Erikson and the Northmen, by Rev. Edward A. Horton. Marco Polo and his Book, by Mr. 0. W. Dimmiek. The Story of Columbus, by Mrs. Mary A. Livermore. Americus Vespucius and the Early Books about America, by Rev. E. G. Porter. Cor¬ tes and Pizarro, by Prof. Chas. II. Levermore. De Soto and Ponce de Leon, by Miss Ruth Ballou Whittemore, Old South prize essayist, 1891. Spain, France, and England in America, by Mr. John Fiske. The Leaflets were as follows: (1) Strabo’s Introduction to Geography; (2) The Voyages to Vinland, from the Saga of Eric the Red; (3) Marco Polo’s Account of Japan and Java; (4) Columbus’s Letter to Gabriel Sanchez, Describing his First Voyage; (5) Amerigo Vespucci’s Account of his First Voyage; (6) Cortes’s Account of the City of Mexico; (7) the Death of De Soto, from the Narrative of a Gentleman of Elvas ; (8) Early Notices of the Voyages of the Cabots. The lectures for 18S3 were upon The Opening of the Great West, as follows: Spain and France in the Great West, by Rev. William Elliot Griffis. The Northwest Territory and the Ordinance of 1787, by John M. Merriam. Washington’s Work in Opening the West, by Edwin D. Mead. Marietta and the Western Reserve, by Miss Lucy W. Warren, Old South prize essayist, 1892. How the Great West was settled, by Charles C. Coffin. Lewis and Clarke and the Explorers of the Rocky Mountains, by Rev. Thomas Van Ness. California and Oregon, by Prof. Josiah Royce. The Story of Chicago, by Mrs. Mary A. Livermore. The Leaflets were as follows: (1) De Neca’s Account of his Journey to New Mex¬ ico, 1535; (2) Manasseh Cutler’s Description of Ohio, 1787; (3) Washington’s Journal of his Tour to the Ohio, 1770; (4) Garfield’s Address on the Northwest Territory and the Western Reserve; (5) George Rogers Clark’s Account of the Capture of Vincennes, 1779; (6) Jefferson’s Life of Captain Meriwether Lewis; (7) Fremont’s Account of his Ascent of Fremont’s Peak; (8) Father Marquette at Chicago, 1673. The lectures for 1S94 were upon The Founders of New England, as follows: William Brewster, the Elder of Plymouth, by Rev. Edward Everett Hale. William Bradford, the Governor of Plymouth, by Rev. William Elliot Griffis. John Winthrop, the Governor of Massachusetts, by Hon. Frederic T. Greenhalge. John Harvard, and the Founding of Harvard College, by Mr. William R. Thayer. John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians, by Rev. James De Normandie. John Cotton, the Minister of Boston, by Rev. John Cotton Brooks. Roger Williams, the Founder of Rhode Island, by President E. Benja¬ min Andrews. Thomas Hooker, the Founder of Connecticut, by Rev. Joseph H. Twichell. The Leaf¬ lets were as follows: (1) Bradford’s Memoir of Elder Brewster; (2) Bradford’s First Dialogue; (3) Winthrop’s Conclusions for the Plantation in New England: (4) New England’s First Fruits, 1643; (5) John Eliot’s Indian Grammar Begun; (6) John Cotton’s God’s Promise to his Plantation; (7) Lettei’3 of Roger Williams to Winthrop; (8) Thomas Hooker’s Way of the Churches of New England. The lectures for 1895 were upon The Puritans in Old England, as follows: John Hooper, the First Puritan, by Edwin I). Mead; Cambridge, the Puritan University, by William Everett; Sir John Eliot and the House of Commons, by Prof. Albert B. Hart; John Hampden and the Ship Money, by Rev. F. W. Gunsaulus; John Pym and the Grand Remonstrance, by Rev. John Cuckson; Oliver Cromwell and the Commonwealth, by Rev. Edward Everett Hale; John Milton, the Puritan Poet, by John Fiske; Henry Vane in Old England and New England, by Prof. James K. Hosmer. The Leaflets were as follows: (1) The English Bible, selections from the various versions; (2) Hooper’s Letters to Bul- linger; (3) Sir John Eliot’s Apology for Socrates; (4) Ship-money Papers; (5) Pym’s Speech Against Strafford; (G) Cromwell’s Second Speech; (7) Milton’s Free Commonwealth; (8) Sir Henry Vane's Defence. The lectures for 1896 were upon The American Historians, as follows: Bradford and Winthrop and their Journals, by Mr. Edwin D. Mead; Cotton Mather and his Magnalia, by Prof. Barrett WTendell; Governor Hutchinson and his history of Massachusetts, by Prof. Charles H. Levermore; Washington Irving and his Services for American History, by Mr. Richard Burton; Bancroft and his History of the United States, by Pres. Austin Scott; Prescott and his Spanish Histories, by Hon. Roger Wolcott; Mot¬ ley and his History of the Dutch Republic, by Rev. William Elliot Griffis; Parkman and his Works on France in America, by Mr. John Fiske. The Leaflets were as follows: (1) Winthrop’s Little Speech on Liberty; (2) Cotton Mather’s Bostonian Ebenezer, from the Magnalia; (3) Governor Hutchinson’s Account of the Boston Tea Party; (4) Adrian Van der Donck's Description of the New Netherlands in 1655; (5) The Debate in the Constitutional Convention on the Rules of Suffrage in Congress; (6) Colum¬ bus’s Memorial to Ferdinand and Isabella, on his Second Voyage; (7) The Dutch Declaration of Inde- THE OLD SOUTH WORK. 919 pendence in 1581; (8) Captain John Knox’s Account of the Battle of Quebec. The last live of these eight Leaflets illustrate the original material in which Irving, Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, and Park- man worked in the preparation of their histories. The lectures for 1897 were upon The Antislavery Struggle, as follows: William Lloyd Garrison, or Antislavery in the Newspaper, by William Lloyd Garrison, jr.; Wendell Phillips, or Antislavery on the Platform, by Wendell Phillips Stafford; Theodore Parker, or Antislavery in the Pulpit, by Rev. Edward Everett Hale; John G. Whittier, or Antislavery in the Poem, by Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer; Harriet Beecher Stowe, or Antislavery in the Story, by Miss Maria L. Baldwin; Charles Sumner, or Antislavery in the Senate, by Moorfield Storey; John Brown, or Antislavery on the Scaffold, by Frank B. Sanborn; Abraham Lincoln, or Antislavery Triumphant, by Hon. John D. Long. The Leaflets were as follows: (1) The First Number of The Liberator; (2) Wendell Phillips’s Eulogy of Garrison; (3) Theodore Parker’s Address on the Dangers from Slavery; (4) Whittier’s Account of the Antislavery Convention of 1833; (5) Mrs. Stowe’s Story of Uncle Tom’s Cabin; (6) Sumner’s Speech on the Crime Against Kansas; (7) Words of John Brown; (S) The First Lincoln and Douglas Debate. The lectures for 1898 were upon The Old World in the New, as follows: What Spain has done for America, by Rev. Edward G. Porter; What Italy has done for America, by Rev. William Elliot Griffis; What France has done for America, by Prof. Jean Charlemagne Bracq; What England has done for America, by Miss Katharine Coman; What Ireland has done for America, by Prof. F. Spencer Bald¬ win; What Holland has done for America, by Mr. Edwin D. Mead; What Germany has done for America, by Miss Anna B. Thompson; What Scandinavia has done for America, by Mr. Joseph P. Warren. The Leaflets were as follows: (1) Account of the Founding of St. Augustine, by Francisco Lopez de Mendoza Grajales; (2) Amerigo Vespucci’s Account of his Third Voyage; (3) Champlain’s Account of the Founding of Quebec; (4) Barlowe’s Account of the First Voyage to Roanoke; (5) Parker’s Account of the Settlement ox Londonderry, N. II.; (6) Juet’s Account of the Discovery of the Hudson River; (7) Pastorius’s Description of Pennsylvania, 1700; (8) Acrelius’s Account of the Found¬ ing of New Sweden. The lectures for 1899 were upon The Life and Influence of Washington, as follows: Washington in the Revolution, by Mr. John Fiske; Washington and the Constitution, by Rev. Edward Everett Hale; Washington as President of the United States, by Rev. Albert E. Winship; Washington the True Expander of the Republic, by Mr. Edwin D. Mead; Washington’s Interest in Education, by Hon. Alfred S. Roe; The Men who worked with Washington, by Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer; Washington’s Farewell Address, by Rev. Franklin Hamilton; What the World has thought and said of Washington, by Prof. Edwin A. Grosvenor. The leaflets were as follows: (1) Washington’s Account of the Army at Cambridge in 1775; (2) Washington’s Letters on the Constitution; (3) Washington’s Inaugurals; (4) Washington’s Letter to Benjamin Harrison in 1784; (5) Washington’s Words on a National Uni¬ versity; (6) Letters of Washington and Lafayette; (7) Washington’s Farewell Address; (8) Henry Lee’s Funeral Oration on Washington. The Old South Leaflets, which have been published during the years since 1883 in connection with these annual courses of historical lectures at the Old South Meetinghouse, have attracted so much attention and proved of so much service that the directors have entered upon the publication of the leaflets for general circulation with the needs of schools, colleges, private clubs, and classes especially in mind. The leaflets are prepared by Mr. Edwin D. Mead. They are largely reproductions of important original papers, accompanied by useful historical and bibliographical notes. They con¬ sist, on an average, of sixteen pages, and are sold at the low price of 5 cents a copy or $4 per hundred. The aim is to bring them within easy reach of everybody. The Old South Work, founded by Mrs. Mary Hemenway, and still sustained by provision of her will, is a work for the education of the people and especially the education of our young people in American history and politics; and its promoters believe that few things can contribute better to this end than the wide circulation of such leaflets as those now undertaken. It is hoped that professors in our colleges and teachers everywhere will wrelcome them for use in their classes, and that they may meet the needs of the societies of young men and women now happily being organized in so many places for historical and political studies. Some idea of the character of these Old South Leaflets may be gained from the following list of the subjects of the first hundred numbers, which are now ready. It will be noticed that most of the later num¬ bers are the same as certain numbers in the annual series. Since 1890 they are essentially the same. No. 1. The Constitution of the United States. 2. The Articles of Confederation. 3. The Declara¬ tion of Independence. 4. Washington’s Farewell Address. 5. Magna Charta. 6. Vane’s Healing Question. 7. Charter of Massachusetts Bay, 1629. 8. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, 1638. 9. Franklin’s Plan of Union, 1754. 10. Washington’s Inaugurals. 11. Lincoln’s Inaugurals and Emancipation Proclamation. 12. The Federalist, Nos. 1 and 2. 13. The Ordinance of 1787. 14. The Constitution of Ohio. 15. Washington’s Circular Letter to the Governors of the States, 1783. 16. Washington’s Letter to Benjamin Harrison, 1784. 17. Verrazzano’s Voyage, 1524. 18. The Constitu¬ tion of Switzerland. 19. The Bill of Rights, 1689. 20. Coronado’s Letter to Mendoza, 1540. 21. Eliot’s Brief Narrative of the Progress of the Gospel among the Indians, 1670. 22. Wheelock’s Narrative of the Rise of the Indian School at Lebanon, Conn., 1762. 23. The Petition of Rights, 1628. 24. The Grand Remonstrance. 25. The Scottish National Covenants. 26. The Agreement of the People. 27. The Instrument of Government. 28. Cromwell’s First Speech to his Parliament. 29. The Discovery 920 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. of America, from the Life of Columbus by his son, Ferdinand Columbus. 30. Strabo’s Introduction to Geography. 31. The Voyages to Vinland, from the Saga of Eric the Red. 32. Marco Polo’s Account of Japan and Java. 33. Columbus’s Letter to Gabriel Sanchez describing the First Voyage and Discovery. 34. Amerigo Vespucci’s Account of his First Voyage. 35. Cortes’s Account of the City of Mexico. 36. The Death of De Soto, from the Narrative of a Gentleman of Elvas. 37. Early Notices of the Voyages of the Cabots. 38. Henry Lee’s Funeral Oration on Washington. 39. De Vaca’s Account of his Journey to New Mexico, 1535. 40. Manasseh Cutler’s Description of Ohio, 1787. 41. Washington’s Journal of his Tour to the Ohio, 1770. 42. Garfield’s Address on the Northwest Ter¬ ritory and the Western Reserve. 43. George Rogers Clark’s Account of the Capture of Vincennes, 1779. 44. Jefferson’s Life of Captain Meriwether Lewis. 45. Fremont’s Account of his Ascent of Fre¬ mont’s Peak. 46. Father Marquette at Chicago, 1673. 47. Washington’s Account of the Army at Cambridge, 1775. 48. Bradford’s Memoir of Elder Brewster. 49. Bradford’s First Dialogue. 50. Win- throp’s Conclusions for the Plantation in New England. 51. New England’s First Fruits, 1643. 52. John Eliot’s Indian Grammar Begun. 53. John Cotton’s God’s Promise to his Plantation. 54. Let¬ ters of Roger Williams to Winthrop. 55. Thomas Hooker’s Way of the Churches of New England. 56. The Monroe Doctrine: President Monroe’s Message of 1823. 57. The English Bible, selections from the various versions. 58. Hooper’s Letters to Bullinger. 59. Sir John Eliot’s Apology for Socrates. 60. Ship-money Papers. 61. Pym’s Speech against Strafford. 62. Cromwell’s Second Speech. 63. Milton’s A Free Commonwealth. 64. Sir Henry Vane’s Defence. 65. Washington’s Addresses to the Churches. 66. Winthrop’s Little Speech on Liberty. 67. Cotton Mather’s Bostonian Ebenezer, from the Magnalia. 68. Governor Hutchinson’s Account of the Boston Tea Party. 69. Adrian Van der Donck’s Description of New Netherlands in 1655. 70. The Debate in the Constitutional Convention on the Rules of Suffrage in Congress. 71. Columbus’s Memorial to Ferdinand and Isabella on his Second Voyage. 72. The Dutch Declaration of Independence in 1581. 73. Captain John Knox’s Account of the Battle of Quebec. 74. Hamilton’s Report on the Coinage. 75. William Penn’s Plan for the Peace of Europe. 76. Washington’s Words on a National University. 77. Cotton Mather’s Lives of Bradford and Winthrop. 78. The First Number of The Liberator. 79. Wendell Phillips’s Eulogy on Garrison. 80. Theodore Parker’s Address on the Dangers from Slavery. 81. Whittier’s Account of the Anti-slavery Convention of 1833. 82. Mrs. Stowe’s Story of Uncle Tom’s Cabin. 83. Sumner’s Speech on the Crime against Kansas. 84. The Words of John Brown. 85. The First Lincoln and Douglas Debate. 86. Washington’s Account of his Capture of Boston. 87. The Manners and Customs of the Indians, from Morton’s New English Canaan. 88. The Beginning of King Philip’s War, from Hubbard’s History of Philip’s War, 1677. 89. Account of the Founding of St. Augustine, by Francisco Lopez de Mendoza Grajales. 90. Amerigo Vespucci’s Account of his Third Voyage. 91. Champlain’s Account of the Founding of Quebec. 92. Barlowe’s Account of the First Voyage to Roanoke. 93. Parker’s Account of the Settlement of Londonderry, N. II. 94. Juet’s Account of the Discovery of the Hudson River. 95. Pastorius’s Description of Pennsylvania, 1700. 96. Acrelius’s Account of the Founding of New Sweden. 97. Lafayette in the American Revolution. 98. Letters of Washington and Lafayette. 99. Washington’s Letters on the Constitution. 100. Robert Browne’s Reformation without Tarrying for Any. OLD SOUTH ESSAYS, 18S1-1898. * * * The subjects of the Old South essays from 1881 to 1899 are given below, in the hope that they will prove suggestive and stimulating to other students and societies. It will be observed that the subjects of the later essays are closely related to the subjects of the lectures for the year. 1881. What was the policy of the early colonists of Massachusetts toward Quakers and others whom they regarded as intruders? Was this policy in any respect objectionable, and, if so, what excuses can be offered for it? Why did the American colonies separate from the mother country? Did the early settlers look forward to any such separation; and if not, how and when did the wish for it grow up? What was the difference between the form of government which they finally adopted and that under which they had before been living? 1882. Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys; or, the early history of the New Hampshire grant, afterwards called Vermont. The town meeting in the Old South Meetinghouse on July 22 and 28, 1774. 1883. The right and wrong of the policy of the United States toward the North American Indians. What were the defects of the “Articles of Confederation ” between the United States, and why was the “ Constitution of the United States ” substituted? 1884. Why did the Pilgrim Fathers come to New England? The struggle to maintain the Massachusetts charter, to its final loss in 1684. Discuss the relation of the struggle to the subsequent struggle of the colonies for independence. 1885. Slavery as it once prevailed in Massachusetts. The “ States rights ” doctrine in New England, with special reference to the Hartford Convention, 1886. The Boston town meetings and their influence in the American Revolution. English opinion upon the American Revolution preceding and during the war. THE OLD SOUTH WORK. 921 1887. The Albany Convention of 1754, its history and significance, with reference to previous and subsequent movements toward union in the colonies. Is a Congress of two Houses or a Congress of one House the better? What was said about it in the Constitutional Convention, and what is to be said about it to-day? 1888. England’s part in the Crusades, and the influence of the Crusades upon the development of English liberty. The political thought of Sir Henry Vane. Consider Vane’s relations to Cromwell and his influence upon America. 1889. The influence of French political thought upon America during the period of the American and French revolutions. Washington’s interest in the cause of education. Consider especially his project of a national university. 1890. Efforts for the education of the Indians in the American colonies before the Revolution. King Philip, Pontiac, and Tecumseh: Discuss their plans for Indian union and compare their characters. 1891. The introduction of printing into England by William Caxton, and its effects upon English literature and life. Marco Polo’s explorations in Asia, and their influence upon Columbus. 1892. The native races of Mexico, and their civilization at the time of the conquest by Cortes. English explorations in America during the century following the discovery by Columbus. 1893. The part taken by Massachusetts men in connection with the Ordinance of 1787. Coronado and the early Spanish explorations of New Mexico. 1894. The relations of the founders of New England to the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford. The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut and their place in the history of written constitutions. 1895. NeAV England politics as affected by the changes in England from 1629 to 1692, the dates of the two Massachusetts charters. The character of Cromwell as viewed by his contemporaries. Consider especially the tributes of Milton and Marvell. 1896. Early historical writings in America, from Captain John Smith to Governor Hutchinson. The Harvard historians, and the services of Harvard University for American history. 1897. The History of Slavery in the Northern States and of Anti-slavery Sentiment in the South before the Civil War. The Antislavery movement in American literature. 1898. The Struggle of France and England for North America, from the founding of Quebec by Champlain till the capture of Quebec by Wolfe. The History of Immigration to the United States from the close of the Revolution to the present time. Consider the race and character of the immigrants in the earlier and later periods. 1899. The American Revolution under Washington and the English Revolution under Cromwell: Compare their Causes, Aims, and Results. Washington’s Plan for a National University; the Argument for it a Hundred Years Ago and the Argument To-day. CHAPTER XVII. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. References to preceding Reports of the United States Bureau of Education, in which this subject has been treated: In Annual Report, 1870, pp. 541, 542; 1871, pp. 66S- 677; 1872, pp. liii-lvii, 820-887; 1873, pp. lxxxviii-xciv, 729-763; 1874, pp. lxxxvii- xcii, 753-793; 1875, pp. civ-cvii, 797-883; 1876, pp. cxxiii-cxxv, 777-779; 1877, pp. cxxxi-cxlii, 583-585; 1878, pp. cxxii, 599-600; 1879, pp. clvii-clyiii, 618-619; 1880, pp. clxvi-clxvii, 738-741; 1881, pp. cci-cciv, 668-671; 1882-83, pp. clxxxv-clxxxviii, 694-699; 1883-84, pp. clxxxiii-clxxxiv, 724-737; 1884-85, pp. ccxxix-ccxxx, 691- 782; 1885-86, pp. 716-719; 1886-87, pp. 901-972; 1887-88, pp. 1031-1039; 1892-93, pp. 575-583, 691-1014; 1893-94, pp. 1503-1504; 1895-96; pp. 339-599; 1897-98, pp. 673-692. See also in each Report statistics of libraries of schools and colleges. Refer also to index in each Annual Report from 1888-89 to 1898-99 for libraries in foreign countries. In special reports and circulars of information: 1876, Public Libraries in the United States of America, their history, condition, and management, Part I, edited by S. R. Warren and S. N. Clark, pp. xxxv, 1187; Rules fora printed Dictionary Catalogue, Part II, by C. A. Cutter, pp. 89; Circular of Information No. 1, 1880, College Libraries as Aids to Instruction, by Justin Winsor and Otis H. Robin¬ son, pp. 27; Circular of Information No. 1, 1881, Construction of Library Build¬ ings, by William Poole, pp. 26; 1881, Library Aids, by Samuel Green, pp. 10; 1886, Statistics of Public Libraries in the United States, pp. 98, reprinted from 1884-85 Annual Report; 1886, Special Report New Orleans Exposition 1884-85, pp. 650-655; 1891, Rules for a Dictionary Catalogue, by Charles A. Cutter, pp. 140; third edition, with corrections and additions, reprinted from the 1876 special report; Circular of Information No. 7, 1893, Statistics of Public Libraries in the United States and Canada (in 1891), pp. 213; 1893, Catalogue of A. L. A. Library of 5,000 volumes, for a popular library, pp. 592; 1896, Papers prepared for the World’s Library Congress, held at the Columbian Exposition, edited by Melvil Dewey, pp.’ 691-1014, reprinted from Annual Report 1892-93; 1897, Statis¬ tics of Public, Society, and School Libraries in the United States, and Library Legislation in the United States, being chapters viii and ix reprinted from the Commissioner’s Report for 1895-96. STATISTICS FOR 1900. The number of public, society, and school libraries in the United States of 1,000 volumes and over is 5,383, according to reports collected by this Bureau in 1900. This shows an increase of 1,357 libraries in less than five years. The number of volumes in the 5,383 libraries was 44,591,851 as compared with 33,051,872 in the 4,026 libraries reported at the beginning of the year 1896, the remarkable increase of 11,539,979 volumes or almost 35 per cent in the five years. 923 924 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. The statistics of libraries for 1900 will be found summarized in tables 1 to 9 and the statistics in detail for each library will be given in the concluding pages of this chapter. Tables 10 to 14 reproduce the most important items in similar tables for 1875, 1885, 1891, and 1896. Table 1 gives the number of libraries, the number of volumes, and the number of pamphlets reported from each State and shows the increase in number of libraries and volumes and the percentage of increase in volumes in each State and geograph¬ ical division. The North Atlantic Division has 2,473 of the 5,383 libraries and a million more than half the number of volumes in the United States. New York alone has 718 libraries with 7,496,509 volumes; Massachusetts, 571 libraries with 6,633,285 volumes, and Pennsylvania, 401 libraries with 3,974,577 volumes. The North Central Division has 1,728 libraries with 11,211,710 volumes. Illinois has 309 of these libraries with 2,472,710 volumes; Ohio, 266 libraries with 2,055,589 volumes, and Michigan, 193 libraries with 1,298,708 volumes. The South Atlantic Division has 421 libraries with 5,303,237 volumes. Maryland has 80 of these libraries with 1,175,253 volumes, and the District of Columbia 74, with 2,504,783 volumes, one million of these being in the Library of Congress. The South Central Division has 374 libraries with 1,886,731 volumes. Kentucky has 76 libraries with 425,729 volumes, and Tennessee, 77 libraries with 392,221 volumes. The Western Division has 387 libraries with 2,779,596 volumes. California has 212 of these libraries with 1,781,858 volumes, and Colorado 54, with 363,866 volumes. The last column of table 1 shows the per cent of increase in the number of vol- urnes in each State since 1896. The per cent of increase for the whole country was almost 35; for the North Atlantic Division nearly 33; for the South Atlantic Division 32; for the South Central Division nearly 39; for the North Central Division almost 40, and for the Western Division about 38. Oklahoma shows the greatest per cent of increase, 379. The following States and Territories show percentages of increase above 100: West Virginia, Arkansas, Indian Territory, Oklahoma, North Dakota, South Dakota, and New Mexico. Table 2 shows that of the 5,383 libraries, 3,036 had 209,412 periodicals in their reading rooms, 3,684 had added 2,156,992 volumes during the year, and 1,455 had added 549,326 pamphlets. The number of volumes issued for home use during the year by 2,405 libraries was 48,410,128, and the number issued for use in 783 libraries was 9,609,632. Table 3 indicates the sources of support and the classification of the libraries report ing. Only 1,040 libraries occupy their own buildings; 592 occupy rented buildings. Of the 3,751 not answering the question in regard to this item, school, college, and other libraries occupying buildings or rooms rent free comprise the greater propor¬ tion. The number of libraries supported by taxation is 2,375 and the number by subscription, 2,870. Only 138 are reported as being supported by both taxation and subscription. The number reported as entirely free to the public is 2,734, the num¬ ber free for reference only 1,735, and the number of subscription libraries 914. There are 447 libraries classed as circulating, 1,148 as reference, and 3,788 as both cir¬ culating and reference. Table 4 shows a general classification of the libraries reporting. There are 1,979 general libraries, 1,725 school, and 689 college libraries. The remaining libraries are divided among 15 classes. In Table 5 the libraries are classified according to size. There are 4 libraries having over 500,000 volumes each, 3 between 300,000 and 500,000, and 47 between 100,000 and 300,000. The number of libraries having below 5,000 volumes is 3,654. Table 6 is a summary of the income of libraries from various sources, their endow* ments, value of buildings, and the amount expended for books during the year. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 925 Very few librarians made complete reports, but the number reporting on each item is given in the table. Of' the 5,383 libraries, 988 received $2,213,715 directly from taxation, 1,016 received $2,349,294 from State, county, or city appropriations, 714 received $1,198,955 from endowment funds, 962 received $448,130 from membership fees and dues, 294 received $50,742 from book rents, 819 received $551,522 from dona¬ tions, and 1,474 received $1,000,048 from sources not stated. The total income of 3,115 libraries was $7,812,406. The aggregate of the endowment funds reported by 645 libraries is $25,267,643, and the value of buildings owned by 710 libraries is $47,083,805. The amount expended for books during the year by 2,972 libraries was $2,056,675. It is shown in Table 7 that there is one library to every 14,118 people in the United States, and that there are 59 books to every 100 population. The North Atlantic Division has a library to every 8,510 persons, and the South Central Division a library to every 37,647 persons. The District of Columbia has 899 volumes to every 100 of population; Massachu¬ setts, 236; New Hampshire, 176; Connecticut, 170; Rhode Island, 163; Nevada, 157; California, 120; New York, 103, and Maine, 101 volumes to each 100 population. Table 8 is a summary of the statistics of 3,878 public, society, and school libraries of 300 volumes and over and less than 1,000 volumes. These libraries have 2,018,658 volumes. The number of libraries free to the public included in the above number is 2,611; free for reference, 684, and subscription, 619. Of the total number, 3,189 are school libraries, 88 college, 382 general, and 219 other libraries. In Table 9 are combined the statistics of Tables 1 and 8. The number of libraries having 300 volumes and over is 9,261, and the number of volumes in these libraries 46,610,509. This is a gain of 2,077 libraries and 12,014,251 volumes since 1896. Tables 10, 11, and 12 are comparable with Table 9, giving the statistics of libraries of 300 volumes and over for 1875, 1885, and 1896. Tables 13 and 14 are comparable with Table 7, giving the statistics for 1891 and 1896. In 1891 the number of volumes to every 100 people was 41, in 1896 the num¬ ber was 47, and in 1900 the number of volumes to the ICO population was 59. Table 15 is comparable with Table 1. It gives the statistics for 1896, showing that from 1891 to 1896 there had been an increase of a little over 27 per cent in the num¬ ber of volumes. Table 1 shows the remarkable increase of nearly 35 per cent between 1896 and 1900. Following the fifteen tables of summarized statistics already mentioned will be found the list of the 5,383 libraries of 1,000 volumes and over reporting to this Office in 1900. It is not claimed that none have been omitted, but certainly every reason¬ able effort was made to obtain a complete list. The Office had a trial list of over 12,000 names of libraries. To many of these libraries a second, third, and fourth request for information was sent, requiring the use of more than 20,000 blank forms. After classifying the returns, it was found that 5,383 libraries had 1,000 volumes or over, 3,878 had 300 volumes and over, but less than 1,000, while several thousand had less than 300 volumes each. From several hundred no information could be obtained. Some libraries printed in the list for 1896 failed to make any report for 1900. In such cases letters of inquiry were addressed to the postmasters, and where- ever the library was found to be still in existence its name was retained in the list and the 1896 statistics repeated. In every Annual Report from 1867-68 to the present year lias appeared information relating to college and school libraries, and periodically the Bureau has published detailed statistics of public libraries. The Annual Report for 1870 contained a list of 161 principal libraries not including college libraries. The Report for 1872 contained a list of 1,080 libraries of 1,000 or more volumes. A special effort was made in 1875 to obtain a list of all the libraries in the United States having 300 volumes and over. The list as printed in the Report for that year included 3,648 libraries, and of 926 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. these 2,039 had 1,000 or more volumes. This list was also published in the great special report issued by this Office in 1876. That report. was a volume of about 1,200 pages devoted to “ Public libraries in the United States of America, their history, condition, and management.” The volume contained 39 chapters by as many as twenty eminent specialists in subjects relating to libraries. In the Annual Report for 1884-85 was published a list of 5,338 libraries of 300 or more volumes; 2,988 of these libraries had 1,000 or more volumes. This list was reprinted in a pamphlet of about 100 pages. A valuable chapter of about 70 pages appeared in the 1886-87 report devoted to “Libraries in the United States.” The statistics of 1,779 libraries were published in seven tables, classified as follows: (1) Free public lending libraries, (2) free public reference libraries, (3) free public school libraries, (4) free corporate lending libraries, (5) libraries of clubs, associations, etc., (6) sub¬ scription corporate libraries, and (7) circulating libraries proper. In 1893 this Bureau published 20,000 copies of a circular of information of 213 pages, giving the statistics of 3,503 public libraries in the United States having 1,000 volumes and over. The statistics collected were for the year 1891. Also in 1893 the Bureau pub¬ lished 20,000 copies of “Catalogue of A. L. A. Library, 5,000 volumes for a public library selected by the American Library Association and shown at the World’s Columbian Exposition.” So great was the demand for this publication that a second edition was printed in 1896. This special report contained about 600 pages. The papers prepared for the American Library Association for its annual meeting held at Chicago in 1893, and read before the World’s Library Congress at the Columbian Exposition, were printed in the Education Report for 1892-93. These papers, which were prepared by about twenty leading members of the association, occupy 324 pages of the above-mentioned Report, pages 691-1014. A small edition of the matter was reprinted in a separate pamphlet. One of the most popular publica¬ tions of this Bureau is Cutter’s Rules for a Dictionary Catalogue, which was pub¬ lished in 1876 as Part II of the special library report of that year. The third edi¬ tion was published in 1891 in a pamphlet of 140 pages. The special report issued by this Bureau in 1886 on “Educational Exhibits and Conventions at the World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, New Orleans, 18S4-S5,” contained much valuable matter in relation to libraries. This report is now out of print, as are all the earlier reports above mentioned. In addition to the statistics of college and school libraries published every year in the Annual Reports of this Bureau since 1870, many of the Reports have contained valuable facts concerning libraries in foreign countries. This is particularly true of the Reports from 1888-89 to 1899-1900. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 927 Increase of population and growth of libraries in 25 years. 928 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Table 1. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries of 1?000 volumes and over in 1900. NUMBER OF LIBRARIES AND NUMBER OF VOLUMES. Inc rease since 1896. States and Territories. Libraries report¬ ing. Volumes. Pamphlets. Libraries. Volumes. Per cent in num¬ ber of volumes. United States . 5, 383 44, 591, 851 7, 503, 588 1,357 11, 539, 979 34. 91 North Atlantic Division . 2, 473 23, 410, 577 5, 303, 237 1, 886, 731 11,211,710 2, 779, 596 4, 368, 247 921,827 298, 820 1,581,921 332, 773 473 5, 762, 854 1, 288, 150 526, 2S0 32. 65 South Atlantic Division . 421 99 32.08 South Central Division . 374 119 38. 68 North Central Division . 1, 728 387 533 3, 194, 930 767, 765 39.85 Western Division . 133 38.16 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 111 701,982 115,915 155, 609 48, 649 18 159, 316 127, 760 29.36 New Hampshire . 143 723, 560 21 21.44 Vermont . 96 481, 551 29 122! 338 34.06 Massachusetts . 571 6, 633, 285 700, 672 1, 547, 667 7, 496, 509 1,150,774 3, 974, 577 126, 647 1, 150’ 277 136, 684 258, 358 1, 803, 828 160, 108 538, 819 22, 363 175, 792 570, 186 37,211 8, 700 77 1, 182', 888 120, 867 21.70 Rhode Island . 82 8 20. 74 Connecticut . 197 43 445, 585 40. 43 New York . 718 146 2, 245! 162 42. 75 New Jersey . 154 60 349, 622 43. 64 Pennsylvania . 401 71 1,009! 816 42, S84 34. 06 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 13 a 1 51.20 Maryland . 80 1 , 175, 253 13 189, 923 19.28 District of Columbia . 74 2, 504, 783 489, 646 19 710, 873 148, 421 39. 63 Virginia . 64 14 43. 50 West Virginia . 23 100, 492 13 54! 355 66, 494 117.81 North Carolina . 57 285, 251 28! 125 17 30.40 South Carolina . 39 256, 571 39, 091 35, 759 4,600 50, 412 69, 711 29, 588 23, 342 7 24; 153 10.39 Georgia . '. 55 296, 855 14 26, 814 9. 93 Florida . 16 67, 739 3 24, 233 55. 70 South Central Division: Kentucky . 76 425, 729 29 107,068 33. 60 Tennessee . 77 392, 221 15 73, 650 79, 184 a 6, 137 40, 246 115,659 94, 284 19, 549 2,777 23.12 Alabama . 43 196, 521 15 67.48 Mississippi . 30 160, 733 al a 3. 68 Louisiana . 40 253, 074 40, 475 41,022 13 18. 91 Texas . 69 216, 881 181,884 24, 706 4, 9S2 30 88. 14 Arkansas . 28 34, 930 5,690 3, 650 11 107. 63 Oklahoma . 8 6 379. 08 Indian Territory . 3 1 125. 94 North Central Division: Ohio . 266 2, 055, 5S9 992, 189 287,210 64 467, 698 337, 538 29. 45 Indiana . 164 67, 559 57 51.56 Illinois . 309 2, 472, 710 1,298,708 987, 729 489, 899 61,082 95 650, 130 35. 67 Michigan . 193 40 323, 677 33.20 Wisconsin . 165 198, 941 63 361,287 224, 496 57.67 Minnesota . 123 691,893 68, 611 48 48.03 Iowa . 170 844, 371 50, 392 142, 344 57 236, 606 38.94 Missouri . 141 934,111 37 247, 156 24, 949 38, 107 70, 948 35.98 North Dakota . 16 48, 631 2,700 10 105. 35 South Dakota . 26 72, 970 *>0. 760 12 109. 30 Nebraska . 51 297, 691 55, 120 9 31.29 Kansas . 104 515,118 137, 303 41 212, 338 70.13 Western Division: Montana . 14 111,919 43, 249 32, 898 1 42, 697 61. 68 Wyoming . 8 6, 900 4 19,464 81. 83 Colorado . 54 363, 866 60, 738 20 62, 876 20.89 New Mexico . 11 27, 732 3, 366 5 14, 459 108. 94 Arizona . 5 27, 414 4, 590 1 9,942 56. 90 Utah . 13 68, 807 19, 694 2 19,225 38.77 Nevada . 6 66, 584 0 16, 595 33. 20 Idaho . g 22; 856 3, 150 4 9, 833 75. 50 Washington . 31 136, 314 39, 666 11 59, 668 77. 85 Oregon . 24 128, 997 1, 781, 858 25. 098 8 38, 807 43.03 California . 212 136, 673 77 474, 199 36.26 a Decrease. 929 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Table 2. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries of 1,000 volume & and over in 1900. VOLUMES AND PAMPHLETS ADDED AND BOOKS ISSUED. States and Territories. Periodicals. Volumes added during the year. Pamphlets added during the year. Books issued for home use. Books issued for use in library. Libraries re¬ porting. Num¬ ber. Libraries re¬ porting. Number. Libraries re¬ porting. Num¬ ber. Libraries re¬ porting. Number. Libraries re¬ porting. Number. United States . . 3, 036 209, 412 3, 6S1 2, 156, 992 1,455 549, 326 2, 405 48, 410, 128 783 9, 609, 632 N. Atlantic Division . 1,352 118,731 1,787 1, 128, 085 580 269, 322 1,347 27, 105, 291 886 3, 979, 467 S. Atlantic Division.. 215 19, 639 265 175,323 122 67. 117 117 1,726, 203 48 802, 769 S. Central Division. . . 191 6,034 202 73, 320 118 29, 914 75 420, 470 44 165, 555 N. Central Division . . 1,010 51,258 1,161 630, 959 508 139, 820 711 15, 358, 076 243 3, 754, 728 Western Division .... 238 13, 750 269 149, 305 127 43, 153 155 3, 800, 088 62 907, 113 N. Atlantic Division: Maine . 67 2,129 83 33,190 22 7, 553 60 708, 105 14 62, 581 New Hampshire . 76 1,937 113 33, 799 29 10, 876 91 840, 533 10 39, 443 V ermont . 46 1,331 61 20, 255 13 1, 545 47 430, 637 4 8, 525 Massachusetts ... 338 62, 869 434 254, 903 115 56, 888 348 8, 014, 899 61 384, 627 Rhode Island .... 45 2,323 62 28, 398 17 5, 344 56 574, 728 13 82, 023 Connecticut . 102 5, 219 125 69, 113 37 17, 973 107 1, 844, 958 13 68, 329 New York . 355 22, 421 537 420, 230 209 106, 421 414 8, 972, 975 IQ 2 1,939,900 New Jersey . 96 4, 369 108 86, 735 34 23, 951 75 1, 727, 574 21 123, 834 Pennsylvania .... 227 16, 133 264 181,462 104 38,771 149 3, 990, 887 58 1,270,205 S. Atlantic Division: Delaware . 8 333 12 5, 244 7 898 5 178, 380 3 40, 839 Maryland . 49 4,370 51 34, 328 20 13, 458 19 903, 512 9 268, 732 Dist. of Columbia 40 10, 059 46 67, 375 23 33, 004 19 249, 164 13 439, 169 Virginia . 38 1,574 41 21, 425 18 2,955 22 129, 152 7 5,186 West Virginia. . . . 14 455 17 8, 400 8 1, 462 8 102, 519 4 19, 318 North Carolina. . . 32 1,128 31 18, 686 14 2, 610 11 30, 726 4 4, 575 South Carolina. . . 22 616 25 10, 313 11 4, 360 12 73,777 1 200 Georgia . 35 935 36 7, 987 IS 8, 185 19 56, 343 6 14, 750 Florida . 7 169 6 1,585 3 275 2 2, 600 1 10, 000 S. Central Division: Kentucky . 31 882 42 17,014 22 3, 422 12 104, 507 7 42, 803 Tennessee . 40 1,413 43 19, 465 21 7, 139 13 82, 771 10 45, 601 Alabama . 23 669 27 6,277 14 3,066 11 30, 412 7 23. 740 Mississippi . 19 426 17 2, 805 10 2, 059 6 5, 552 3 2, 600 Louisiana . 20 931 11 11,547 10 5,116 7 104, 800 5 44,771 Texas . 40 1,105 39 10, 052 23 3, 707 15 65, 371 8 4, 605 Arkansas . 11 328 13 3, 100 11 2, 990 8 28, 082 3 1,375 Oklahoma . 6 230 7 2,892 5 1,765 3 3, 975 1 60 Indian Territory. 1 50 3 168 2 650 N. Central Division: Ohio . 164 8,139 163 142, 109 69 28, 253 99 3, 287. 703 44 1, 113, 854 Indiana . 87 3, 971 111 60, 748 44 10, 394 72 1,303,854 27 423, 515 Illinois . 186 12, 344 214 119, 034 98 31,647 123 3, 073, 590 46 880, 307 Michigan . 99 4,546 131 58, 832 40 7, 504 85 1, 707, 814 36 822, 334 Wisconsin . 97 4,072 125 64, 174 52 21,585 94 1,831,182 15 43, 689 Minnesota . 80 3, 497 81 33, 950 32 4, 821 54 1, 255, 452 17 105, 827 Iowa . 103 3,900 116 43, 207 48 6, 025 77 918, 826 15 65, 013 Missouri . 77 3, 349 86 46, 132 43 10, 065 36 1, 284, 971 17 193, 016 North Dakota.... 7 382 8 3, 557 4 315 1 600 South Dakota .... 15 441 17 5; 098 8 1,521 8 34, 339 3 1,979 Nebraska . 34 2, 445 37 19, 403 18 7,378 18 380, 297 5 46, 947 Kansas . 61 4, 172 ‘ 72 34, 715 52 10, 312 44 279, 442 18 55, 247 Western Division: Montana . 12 1, 397 13 12, 170 7 4. 195 9 285, 342 5 49,416 Wyoming . 5 145 4 3, 279 9 1,075 2 19, 715 2 2, 875 Colorado . 30 2, 080 35 21,128 15 5, 720 18 384, 198 4 101,164 New Mexico . 8 315 9 1,488 4 334 3 16, 736 1 1,000 Arizona. . 4 131 3 ] , 560 2 700 2 7, 800 Utah . 8 532 11 5; 567 8 1,921 3 61,782 4 38, 782 Nevada . 4 108 3 2, 030 2 11,250 Idaho . 5 239 6 L 933 3 475 2 4', 341 2 5, 265 Washington . 19 854 23 15,113 14 5,180 11 249, 952 4 12, 759 Oregon . 15 938 20 7, 858 7 2, 780 10 85, 554 3 878 California . 128 G, 970 142 77, 129 65 20, 773 93 2, 673, 358 37 694, 976 ED 1900 59 930 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900 Table 3. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900. SOURCES OF SUPPORT— CLASSIFICATION. States and Territories. Own or rent build¬ ings. Supported by taxation or* by corporation. Free or subscrip¬ tion. Circulating or reference. Own. o aJ rH Not reporting. By taxation. By corporation. O pn Free. Free for reference. Subscription. c3 O O 0 3 S-e- O e — 1 O P$ Both. United States . 1,010 592 3, 751 2, 375 2, 870 138 2, 734 1, 735 914 447 1,148 3,788 North Atlantic Division ... 612 286 1, 575 1,029 1,329 115 1,417 701 355 251 459 1,768 South Atlantic Division _ 51 23 344 113 302 6 88 233 100 21 128 272 South Central Division _ 44 19 311 94 269 11 85 191 98 14 124 236 North Central Division .... 293 203 1,232 931 793 4 946 486 296 141 341 1,246- Western Division . . . 37 61 289 208 177 2 198 124 65 20 96 271 North Atlantic Division: Maine . . . 34 26 51 4S 59 4 57 26 28 19 76 16 New Hampshire . 47 16 80 91 50 2 115 14 14 27 11 105 Vermont . 33 17 46 25 49 22 47 33 16 15 6 75 Massachusetts . 200 62 309 308 248 15 OOO OOO 205 33 65 81 425 Rhode Island . 23 13 46 43 23 16 56 13 13 7 5 70 Connecticut . 59 21 117 67 128 2 122 39 36 26 43 128 New York . 112 66 540 321 362 35 484 138 96 49 133 536 New Jersey . 40 28 86 51 102 1 95 30 29 19 17 118 Pennsylvania . 64 37 300 75 308 IS 108 203 90 24 87 290 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 6 9 5 A 9 4 2 V 2 4 7 Maryland . 15 6 59 14 66 19 46 15 7 15 58 District of Columbia . . . 4 7 63 45 29 19 47 8 2 41 31 Virginia . 5 2 57 9 50 5 4 42 18 0 0 20 41 West Virginia . 2 21 10 13 10 11 2 1 8 14 North Carolina . 54 11 45 1 7 38 12 2 11 44 South Carolina . 9 3 27 10 29 5 23 11 i 12 26 Georgia . 10 1 44 48 13 19 23 3 11 41 Florida . 2 14 3 13 7 5 4 6 10 South Central Division: Kentucky . 10 5 61 18 58 23 16 4 19 53 Tennessee . / 3 67 6 65 6 11 41 25 2 23 52 Alabama . 5 3 35 11 32 6 18 19 i 12 30 Mississippi . 9 1 20 1 23 11 15 O O 1 10 19 Louisiana . 5 1 34 11 29 6 27 7 2 13 25 Texas . 4 4 61 21 43 5 11 40 IS 16 53 Arkansas . i 24 12 18 9 9 10 4 24 Oklahoma . 1 1 6 6 2 6 9 4 4 Indian Territory . 3 2 1 2 1 8 North Central Division: Ohio . 60 15 191 123 141 2 125 .89 52 18 57 191 Indiana . 23 15 - 126 103 61 107 26 31 7 49 108 Illinois . 55 47 207 154 155 168 78 63 24 72 213 Michigan . 47 SO 116 113 80 117 45 31 28 32 133 Wisconsin . 25 20 120 114 51 126 29 10 22 20 123 Minnesota . 18 13 92 81 42 69 37 17 12 14 97 Iowa . 20 34 116 92 78 87 54 29 6 27 137 Missouri . 21 9 111 53 88 61 50 30 8 34 99 North Dakota . 1 1 14 12 4 6 8 2 1 6 9 South Dakota . 1 25 1 9 13 1 10 11 5 1 6 19 Nebraska . 10 5 36 25 25 1 26 20 5 9 10 32 Kansas . 13 13 78 49 55 44 39 21 5 14 85 Western Division: Montana . 4 3 10 4 12 2 2 12 Wyoming . 1 2 5 5 5 3 2 6 Colorado . 2 ii 41 28 26 . 19 25 10 3 14 37 New Mexico . 2 i 8 7 4 4 4 O 1 2 8 Arizona . 5 r 2 3 1 4 Utah . 2 11 ,4 9 4 8 1 1 4 8 Nevada . i 5 1 5 0 1 2 1 5 Idaho . t. . i 8 6 3 5 3 1 4 5 Washington . o 5 23 14 17 17 7 7 1 8 22 Oregon . 4 17 6 18 8 6 10 5 19 California . 19 34 159 122 88 2 119 62 31 8 54 150 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 931 Table 4. — Summary of statistics of public, society , and school libraries of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF LIBRARIES. ■ r< o to ^ d oS a p 72 States and Territories. d 0) *3 o OQ CD a3 a ’So o a CD a d O CD a £ *o O) o '-H C/2 C/2 .6 -4-> d ^ +-» >-< Sh O £- CD o School b£> o o o to a> To 0 d hi r— ! o H a 'd CD Gri S3 > o 0 d ’ d -h> m a Cfl Young o m d krH aO cu 73 a i — i S-< CD r~] O £ .a>- *o 'r-i o -+-> 72 3 72 Co 0 d CD CD United States . . . 1,979 1,725 689 53 162 120 63 35 43 65 82 19 15 160 83 63 11 16 N. Atlantic Division . . . 1,172 696 117 23 74 57 31 2 6 34 53 3 2 107 41 39 5 11 S. Atlantic Division... G7 120 112 10 17 13 8 28 5 3 8 4 2 10 8 5 1 ... S'. Central Division. . . . 50 137 133 8 8 6 3 1 8 3 4 4 2 5 1 .... 1 ... N. Central Division _ 576 634 276 12 37 38 17 3 18 22 13 4 5 28 25 15 2 3 Western Division . 114 138 51 .... 26 6 4 1 6 3 4 4 4 10 8 4 2 2 N. Atlantic Division: Maine . 69 121 20 5 7 2 2 9 3 1 New Hampshire . . Vermont . 13 3 1 1 1 2 1 69 348 18 3 2 1 3 Massachusetts .... 95 18 2 14 15 10 2 9 6 1 1 22 12 13 1 2 Rhode Island . 57 117 9 2 1 1 1 2 9 4 2 1 Connecticut . 47 3 4 8 2 4 3 3 2 4 New York . 203 74 114 325 32 5 22 13 8 2 1 10 24 1 51 18 4 1 3 New Jersey . 50 6 2 5 5 4 4 1, 2 1 Pennsylvania . 119 45 14 21 12 9 .... i 7 14 1 1 16 11 10 1 5 Sv Atlantic Division: Delaware . 5 1 2 1 2 1 1 Maryland . 13 25 22 o 6 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 District of Colum- bia . 8 13 7 1 4 1 2 27 9 2 6 1 Virginia . 7 21 20 3 2 1 i 1 1 1 2 1 West Virginia . 3 11 7 1 1 North Carolina. . . . 8 22 20 1 2 1 1 1 South Carolina. . . . 8 8 13 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 Georgia . 10 15 16 5 1 1 2 2 2 1 Florida . 5 4 5 1 1 S. Central Division: ... Kentucky . 8 32 20 2 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 Tennessee . 10 27 33 2 1 1 1 1 1 Alabama . 9 14 12 2 2 2 1 1 Mississippi . . . 2 11 14 1 1 1 Louisiana . .. . . 7 11 16 1 1 1 1 1 1 Texas . 7 28 27 2 2 1 1 1 Arkansas . 13 7 i 1 1 1 1 Oklahoma . 2 1 3 1 1 Indian Territory . . N. Central Division: 2 1 Ohio . 85 53 84 48 1 7 12 7 2 2 2 1 4 6 4 1 Indiana . 68 23 4 5 1 1 i 2 1 2 Illinois . 115 97 45 7 6 8 3 2 3 3 1 9 6 3 1 Michigan . 72 86 14 5 1 1 5 1 8 Wisconsin . 71 62 15 2 4 2 3 1 1 1 3 1 Minnesota . 33 63 12 3 4 1 4 Iowa . 62 50 34 O 2 1 1 5 ] 2 2 1 3 3 1 Missouri . 28 57 35 5 4 2 1 2 2 2 1 North Dakota . 4 6 4 2 South Dakota . 3 13 8 2 Nebraska . 19 16 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 Kansas . 31 32 28 1 1 9 1 1 1 2 9 1 1 Western Division: Montana . 8 1 3 1 1 Wyoming . . 4 2 1 1 Colorado". . . 18 17 5 7 1 1 1 9 1 1 New Mexico . 2 3 3 i 1 i Arizona . . i 1 1 i 1 Utah . 3 4 5 i Nevada . 3 1 1 1 Idaho . i 5 2 i Washington. . 8 9 7 9 1 1 1 1 1 Oregon.".. . . 7 5 5 2 1 1 2 1 California . 59 90 18 10 4 4 3 1 1 1 1 7 7 2 2 2 932 1899-1900, EDUCATION DEPORT, Table 5. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries of 1,000 volumes and, over in 1900. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SIZE. Number of volumes to a library. States and Territories. 500,000 and over. 300,000 to 499,999. 100.000 to 299. 9S9. 50,000 to 99,999. 25,000 to 49,999. 10,000 to 24,999. 5,000 to 9,999. 1,000 to 4,999. United States . 4 3 47 so 193 526 866 3,65-1 North Atlantic Division . 3 2 24 53 100 242 429 1,620 South Atlantic Division . 1 5 11 23 60 73 248 South Central Division . 1 3 11 26 46 287 North Central Division . 1 13 18 46 162 262 1.226 Western Division . 4 5 13 36 56 '273 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 2 3 6 25 75 New Hampshire . 2 2 9 16 114 V ermont . i 2 8 10 75 Massachusetts . 1 I 5 15 29 83 129 308 Rhode Island . 1 2 3 7 14 55 Connecticut . 1 6 6 16 37 131 New York . . . 2 1 9 14 29 54 111 498 New Jersey . 1 5 4 12 19 113 Pennsylvania . 7 6 22 47 68 251 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 2 2 2 7 Maryland . 2 3 7 ii 16 41 District of Columbia . i 3 6 7 ii 18 28 Virginia . 1 2 12 8 41 West Virginia . 3 3 17 North Carolina . 2 7 9 39 South Carolina . i i 6 4 27 Georp-ia. _ 2 7 9 37 Florida . . 1 4 11 South Central Division: Kentucky . 1 l i 6 7 60 Tennessee . 2 10 14 51 Alabama . o 1 5 34 Mississippi . i 1 1 27 Louisiana . 3 4 3 30 Texas . 1 3 11 54 Arkansas . l 1 1 2 23 Oklahoma, 3 5 Trwlian Tprriforv 3 North Central Division: Ohio . 9 5 10 33 42 174 Indiana . . . 2 8 15 25 114 Illinois . 1 3 3 6 37 48 211 Michigan . 3 1 4 IS 21 145 Wisconsin . 2 ] 2 14 27 119 Minnesota . i 2 3 6 22 189 Iowa . 2 3 15 22 28 Missouri 2 6 11 24 98 North Dakota 1 2 13 South Dakota, 1 5 20 N ebraska . 1 2 3 7 38 Kansas . 1 2 7 17 77 Western Division: Montana, o i 4 7 W y om i v g i 3 4 Colorado 1 i ii 9 32 T\ aw Ma v i o n 11 \ ri 7nii a. i 1 3 Utah 3 1 9 Nevada i 1 1 3 Idaho 1 1 7 Washi no-ton i 2 5 23 T 'rep-on . 6 ]6 California . . 4 4 6 15 25 158 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 983 Z 0 74, 223 Vo /urn es added 1830 to 1895 , c c p U n- volume GU dded 1885 fo 1890c 6,689, 706 Volumes added 1880 fo' 1885 . \ (^1223,715 Volumes added 1875 fo 18 11487,778 Volumes in 1875. 53 ’ branss there were in 1900 9 44,59 19 851 Volumes , 934 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1899-1900, Table 6. — Summary of statistics of public, society, INCOME FROM VARIOUS SOURCES, States and Territories. From taxation. Appropriations, State, county, or city. From endow¬ ment funds. From mem¬ bership fees and dues. From book rents. Number reporting. Amount. Number reporting. Amount. to 0 Ph O £ Amount. Number reporting. Amount. Number reporting. Amount. United States .... 9S8 82, 213, 715 1,016 $2, 349, 294 714 SI, 198, 955 962 8448, 130 294 850, 742 N. Atlantic Division ... 50S 640, 022 651 1,465,363 505 869, 437 474 242, 936 154 22, 776 S. Atlantic Division . . . 11 13, 292 40 462, 284 31 40, 673 68 32, 349 18 2. 286 S. Central Division... 7 4, 777 36 41, 029 13 13, 650 66 29, 723 11 798 N. Central Division... 390 1, 277, 703 223 294, 133 140 235, 464 286 96, 734 94 22, 545 Western Division . . . 72 277, 921 66 86, 485 25 39, 731 68 46, 388 i/ 2, 337 N. Atlantic Division: Maine . 15 9, 329 38 20, 498 29 24, 702 28 3, 508 13 828 New Hampshire. . . . 5-1 21, 258 36 40, 930 31 21, 763 27 966 13 303 Vermont . 19 7, 575 20 7, 233 28 11, 795 22 1, 586 11 495 Massachusetts. : _ 160 141. 384 140 600, 517 182 248, 724 98 28, 710 29 5, 149 Rhode Island . 4 2,300 44 34, 099 14 32, 639 25 6, 365 4 174 Connecticut . IS 23, 290 50 74, 907 54 81,561 43 8, 175 18 890 New York . 207 267, 085 283 392, 147 88 306, 651 109 118, 193 27 11, 17S New Jersey . . . 16 114, 403 19 18, 361 13 13, 774 35 13, 905 17 1,878 Pennsylvania . 15 53, 398 23 276, 671 66 127, 828 87 61, 52S 22 1,881 S. Atlantic Division: Delaware . 2 6, 894 3 6. 752 8 Maryland . O O 350 5 54; 095 6 23; 150 10 10,196 1 50 District of Columbia 2 2.142 8 374, 610 1 100 0 450 0 15 Virginia . 2 900 4 3, 575 10 2, 666 8 5,235 3 840 West Virginia 9 9,100 9 10, 700 3 300 1 North Carolina .... 4 1, 685 2 135 8 1,929 2 16 South Carolina .... 4 2; 625 4 1,000 7 3; 529 3 258 Georgia . 2 800 3 8,100 4 1, 630 18 7, 060 5 1,075 Florida . 1 50 1 240 4 205 2 32 S. Central Division: Kentucky . 3 3, 450 4 6,950 5 1,535 12 3,301 4 410 Tennessee . 1 107 6 6, S40 3 1, 455 20 8,818 1 3 Alabama . 2 107 2 G5 10 2, 126 9 123 Mississippi . 1 120 6 2,532 1 40 4 ' 644 2 55 Louisiana . 3 9, 265 2 10, 555 O O 1, 177 0 207 Texas . i 700 H 12, 635 12 12, 757 Arkansas . . 1 400 2 875 5 '900 Oklahoma . . 2 1, 825 Indian Territory N. Centi’al Division: Ohio . 57 223. 283 19 34, 870 28 26,429 4-2 19, 551 / 3, 153 Indiana . . 45 167, 045 20 IS, 485 5 6, 770 21 7,624 6 1,146 Illinois . 68 381,969 42 64, 754 20 149, 838 50 21, 319 19 8, 526 Michigan . 54 100, 900 35 34, 248 30 11, SOO 31 6,111 15 677 Wisconsin . 61 115, 759 OA do 27, 667 IS 16, 101 22 2,764 10 M,074 Minnesota . 27 92, 776 23 80, 607 9 9. 528 25 2, 217 2 55 Iowa . 35 66, 848 17 25, 103 xo 6, 086 34 6,470 13 1,716 Missouri . 12 86, 652 7 7,770 5 4, 907 20 19, 037 7 2,211 North Dakota . o 1, 400 2 160 1 45 South Dakota . 4 4, 432 2 898 1 200 3 345 2 318 Nebraska . 9 23, 324 7 22, 979 3 495 14 8, 183 2 8 Kansas . 18 14, 715 15 o0, 34 / 6 3, 260 27 2, 953 10 611 Western Division: Montana 33, 360 2 1, 250 I 60 Wyoming . 1 8 Colorado! . 8 27, 346 8 9,380 5 1,027 10 4, 984 7 1,791 New Mexieo . 2 1,082 i 2, 220 1 65 Arizona, . i 375 1 400 Utah . i 6. 314 i 4.000 2 5, 924 1 900 Nevada, _ 2 1,300 1 1,227 1 500 Idaho . 1 10 1 50 Washington . 5 25, 662 2 1,600 • A 1,710 4 1,524 1 3 Oregon . 2 575 i 175 3 2,104 9 7, 473 1 103 California . 52 183,582 47 65, 675 10 27 , 739 39 30,432 7 432 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AATD SCHOOL LIBRARIES 935 and school libraries of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900. VALUE OF PROPERTY, AND ENDOWMENT. From donations. From sources not stated. Total income. Permanent en¬ dowment fund. Value of library buildings. Expended for books during the year. tSj bi bj) bi bi) bi) £ ft _c £ .a ft PH Ph Ph ft ft ft ft ft CD Amount. o Amount. O Amount. PH Amount. Amount. CD Amount. u u Ph Ph Ph Ph ft ft ft ft ft 3 a a H a p ft ft £ P p & £ £ 5Z5 JZ5 & 819 $551, 522 1,474 $1, 000, 048 3, 115 $7, 812, 406 645 $25, 267, 643 710 $47, OSS, 805 2,972 $2, 056, 675 432 351, 603 783 625, 373 1,566 4, 217, 515 487 13, 275, 230 433 25, 349, 918 1,472 1, 102, 694 40 11,300 70 24, 832 177 587, 016 26 1, 624, 631 42 8, 587, 550 193 171,404 56 10, 990 62 26, 827 156 127, 794 9 236, 550 29 945, 263 149 50, 791 241 165, 007 465 245, 184 993 2, 336, 770 116 9, 820, 832 179 10, 632, 924 934 571,436 50 12, 617 94 77, 832 223 543, 311 7 310, 400 27 1 , 568, 150 224 160, 350 25 43,420 45 13, 174 83 115, 459 35 519, 549 26 596, 328 70 29, 928 22 1,968 54 9, 901 111 97, 089 40 210, 372 34 690, 600 91 26, 745 20 3,726 35 11, 075 69 43, 485 27 344, 583 24 501, 500 61 13, 957 87 53, 588 201 146, 791 379 1, 224, 863 170 5, 363, 487 144 7, 314, 752 360 306, 961 19 14, 853 36 118, 554 60 208, 984 13 325, 268 15 741, 200 50 23, 825 37 13. 176 59 39, 740 122 241, 739 55 1, 573, 656 43 2, 006, 907 109 72, 039 123 159, 167 199 139, 739 450 1,394,160 78 2, 641,805 80 7, 279, 351 463 368, 875 40 16, 366 49 54, 589 88 233, 276 10 262, 600 23 1, 562, 677 73 45, 095 59 45,344 105 91,810 204 658, 460 59 2, 033, 915 44 4, 656, 603 192 215, 269 2 462 5 2, 128 11 19, 681 3 91, 500 6 166, 000 7 5, 065 11 4,094 10 7, 351 25 104. 286 3 1,264,300 8 945, 000 35 44, 173 2 311 8 5, 210 21 382, 838 2 100, 700 3 7, 069, 500 33 69, 236 4 2,369 12 2, 395 28 17, 980 8 52, 631 5 123, 500 27 10, 231 2 200 4 1,230 14 21 , 560 1 6, 000 17 11, 946 6 2,247 8 2; 532 18 8,494 3 5, 500 1 30, 000 21 7, 358 6 1,165 6 755 18 9, 332 4 77, 000 5 18, 750 20 13, 709 7 452 13 2,182 34 21,299 3 13. 000 11 193, 200 26 8, 674 4 1,019 8 1,546 20, 000 2 35, 600 7 1,012 5 1,608 12 5, 263 27 22, 517 3 10, 000 8 404, 000 27 10, 730 13 4, 186 9 2, *836 33 24, 245 3 24, 750 3 82, 413 29 8,685 9 650 7 2, 625 19 5,696 O O 28, 500 16 3,756 4 235 7 4', 017 15 7' 643 1 800 4 73, 750 15 3; 393 5 850 8 2, 845 13 24, 899 1 200, 000 3 148,000 16 8, 258 12 2,226 9 5, 425 32 33, 743 1 1,000 4 168, 600 26 8,649 ' 7 1,085 5 1, 876 12 5, 136 3 10, 000 12 2, 707 i 150 5 L940 5 3' 915 1 30, 000 7 4,538 1 75 . | 47 67, 928 72 42, 854 139 418, 073 24 781,061 37 1, 586, 150 126 96. 662 18 10, 557 40 15, 773 96 222, 400 7 98, 100 14 493, 085 94 45,019 35 37, 396 85 32, 733 172 696, 585 26 6, 360, 962 42 3, 205, 183 163 116,970 21 7,980 53 19, 118 116 180, 834 15 447, 900 24 765, 113 111 59, 448 19 10, 799 45 27, 774 116 204, 938 15 261, 635 16 2, 398, 000 105 59, 452 15 2,762 33 26, 518 74 164, 463 8 1, 596, 574 6 582, 000 78 59, 505 32 5,110 53 13, 527 108 124, 865 6 166, 200 13 334, 000 88 S3, 867 14 2,322 37 58, 310 57 181,209 7 76, 900 11 838, 193 67 46, 322 A 12,750 1 43 7 14, 398 1 11,000 5 2, 649 4 399 4 996 14 7, 588 1 2, 500 9 2' 385 8' 769 13 3,449 29 59, 207 3 13', 000 7 263, 500 31 25; 008 24 6,235 29 4, 089 65 62, 210 4 16,000 8 156, 700 57 24, 119 | o 2,147 10 36, S17 3 17, 000 8 9, 739 i 4, 470 2 4,478 1 2,000 3 4, 382 9 4, 133 15 5, 711 25 54,372 1 2, 500 1 50, 000 25 14, 686 2 105 1 397 4 3,869 7 2, 758 2 1,651 3 2' 426 2 ' 471 3 262 6 15; 491 10 32, 891 1 100, 000 7 4, 429 3 3 527 1 b) 000 3 1 515 2 150 2 1,060 4 1 , 270 1 10! 000 5 1,200 5 394 11 12, 250 17 43' 143 17 13' 057 3 2,057 8 4, 445 17 16, 932 2 156, 850 3 675, 750 15 8, 145 26 5, 516 46 30, 210 128 313, 586 3 51, 050 17 803, 400 132 99, 968 936 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900, Table 7. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries of 1, GOO volumes and over in 1900. DISTRIBUTION OF LIBRARIES AND VOLUMES. States and Territories. Libraries. Volumes. Population, census of 1900. Number of people per library. Books per 100 of popu¬ lation. United States . 5, 388 44, 691, 851 75, 997, 687 14, 118 59 North Atlantic Division . 2,473 23, 410, 577 21,045. 748 8, 510 111 South Atlantic Division . 421 5, 303, 237 10, 445, 486 24,811 51 South Central Division . 374 1.886.731 14, 079, 861 37, 647 13 North Central Division . 1,728 11,211,710 26, 335, 213 15, 240 43 Western Division . 387 2, 779, 596 4, 091,349 10, 572 68 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 111 701,982 694, 466 6, 256 101 New Hampshire . 143 723. 560 411, 588 2,878 176 Vermont . 9G 481,551 343, 641 3, 580 140 Massachusetts . 571 6, 633, 285 2, 805, 346 4, 913 236 Rhode Island . 82 700, 672 428, 556 5,226 163 Connecticut . 197 1, 547, 667 908, 355 4, 611 170 New York . 718 7, 4S6. 509 7. 268, 012 10, 122 103 New Jersey . 154 1,150,774 1 , 883, 669 12, 232 61 Pennsylvania . i01 3, 974, 577 6, 302, 115 15, 715 63 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 13 126. 647 184, 735 14, 210 69 Maryland . 80 1,175,253 1, 190, 050 14, 876 99 District of Columbia . 74 2, 504, 783 2/8, 718 3, 766 839 Virginia . 64 489, 646 1, 854, 184 28, 972 26 West Virginia . 23 100, 492 958, 800 41,687 10 North Carolina . 57 285, 251 1, 893, 810 S3, 224 15 South Carolina . 39 256, 571 1, 340, 310 34, 367 19 Georgia . 55 296. 855 2, 216, 331 40, 297 13 Florida . 16 67, 7o9 528, 542 33, 034 13 South Central Division: Kentucky . 76 425, 729 2. 147, 174 28, 252 20 Tennessee . 77 392, 221 2, 020, 616 26, 241 19 Alabama . 43 196, 521 1, 828, 697 42, 528 11 Mississippi . 30 160, 733 1,551,270 51,709 10 Louisiana . 40 253. 074 1,381,625 34, 541 18 Texas . 69 246, 881 3,048,710 44, 184 8 Arkansas . QQ 181 . 884 1,311,564 46, 842 14 Oklahoma . \) 24, 706 398,245 49, 78.1 6 Indian Territory . O 4, 982 391, 9*0 130, 653 1 North Central Division: Ohio . 266 2, 055. 589 4, 157, 545 15, 630 49 Indiana . 164 992, 189 2, 516., 462 15, 344 39 Illinois . 309 2, 472, 7.10 4, 821, 550 15, 604 51 Michigan . 193 1, 298, 708 2, 420, 932 12, 544 54 Wisconsin . 165 SS7, 729 2, 069, 042 12, 540 48 Minnesota . 123 691,893 1,751,334 14, 239 40 Iowa . 170 844, 371 2, 2B1, 853 13, 129 38 Missouri . 111 934, HI 3. 106, 665 22,033 30 North Dakota . 16 48, 631 319. 146 12, 946 15 South Dakota . 26 72, 970 401,570 15,445 18 Nebraska . 51 297. 691 1,068,539 20. 952 28 Kansas . 104 515,118 1,470,495 14, 139 35 Western Division: Montana . - . 14 111,919 243, 329 17, 381 43 Wyoming . 8 43, 249 92, 531 11,566 47 Colorado . . . 54 363. 866 539, 700 9, 9S4 67 New Mexico . 11 27, 732 195, 310 17, 755 14 Arizona . . 5 27, 414 122, 931 24, 5S6 22 Utah . , . 13 68, 807 276, 749 21,288 25 Nevada . 6 66, 584 42, 335 7, 056 157 Idaho . . S 22, 856 161,772 17, S75 14 Washington . 31 136, 314 518, 103 16, 713 26 Oregon . 24 128, 997 413, 536 17, 231 ‘ 31 California . 212 1,781,358 1,485,053 7,005 120 937 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Chart showing relative number of volumes to each 100 population in 1900. 938 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Table 8. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries of 300 volumes and over and less than 1,000 volumes in 1900. LIBRARIES, VOLUMES, AND CLASSIFICATION. States and Territories. Libra¬ ries. Volumes. Free or subscription. Classification. Free. Free for refer¬ ence. Sub¬ scrip¬ tion. School. College. Gen¬ eral. All others. United States . 3,878 2, 018, 658 2,611 648 619 3, 189 88 382 219 North Atlantic Division .. 1,000 572, 152 592 183 225 729 3 192 76 South Atlantic Division . . 243 121,553 92 53 98 190 20 14 19 South Central Division ... 279 144, 757 65 172 42 209 29 21 20 North Central Division... 1, 526 788, 410 1,124 203 199 1,287 32 127 80 Western Division . 830 391,786 738 37 55 774 4 28 24 North Atlantic Division: Maine . . 40 22. 478 22 10 8 33 5 2 New Hampshire . 58 39, 043 50 4 4 14 41 3 Vermont . 79 44' 481 39 6 34 17 58 4 Massachusetts . 122 64; 274 85 27 10 84 27 11 Rhode Island . 16 8, 335 5 7 4 11 2 3 Connecticut . 73 40, 025 44 7 22 52 1 16 4 New York . 295 180, 322 128 90 77 245 25 25 New Jersey . 120 66. 339 80 22 18 105 1 11 3 Pennsylvania . 197 106, 855 139 10 48 168 1 7 21 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 10 4, 028 5 1 4 6 3 1 Maryland . 31 14, 539 14 10 7 24 2 2 3 District of Columbia. . 16 8, 712 2 8 6 12 1 3 Virginia . . . 38 19. 621 10 9 19 28 5 5 West, Virginia . . 15 9, 158 1 12 2 14 1 North Carolina . 34 16; 285 10 7 17 26 4 1 3 South Carolina, . 31 15, 139 20 11 25 3 1 2 Georgia . 53 25, 892 24 3 26 42 5 5 1 Florida . . . 15 7, 579 6 3 6 13 2 South Central Division: Kentucky . 43 23, 245 15 18 10 27 7 5 4 Tennessee . 57 30, 186 7 46 4 43 5 4 5 Alabama . 20 9, 418 6 11 O to 17 1 1 1 Mississippi . 37 19, 593 13 13 n 27 7 2 1 Louisiana . 18 S, 699 4 12 2 15 2 1 Texas . 77 40; 431 7 6-5 5 61 4 5 7 A rkansas . . 21 10,284 9 7 5 18 2 1 Oklahoma O 1,100 2 1 1 Indian Territorv . 4 i; sol 2 2 1 O 1 North Central Division: Ohio . . . 212 105, 188 171 10 31 179 3 7 23 Indiana . . 157 77, 655 138 19 135 1 15 6 Illinois . 197 106, 058 160 5 32 165 5 13 14 Michigan . 164 87,420 120 31 13 131 1 24 8 Wisconsin . . 144 81, 397 58 78 8 117 2 20 5 Minnesota, _ 92 52, 025 69 15 8 79 8 5 I owa, . 199 101, 203 175 24 180 1 13 5 Missouri . 129 65; 424 76 25 28 105 14 3 7 North Dakota _ _ 23 10, 450 20 1 2 21 1 1 South Dakota _ 20 9, 849 4 16 17 2 i Nebraska . . 78 38; 142 56 18 4 61 2 13 2 Kansas . 111 53, 554 77 4 30 97 2 8 4 Western Division: Montana, _ _ _ 16 S, 647 11 2 3 13 1 2 W yam i n p- . 5 2; 525 1 4 0 4 1 Colorado 28 14, 808 ?*? 1 5 26 1 i N ov M pxi co 1 , 500 1 1 2 4 A ri zona 4 1, 982 2 2 4 Utah . 19 9, 551 5 12 2 12 2 5 N eva rl a. 6 2, 735 4 2 6 Idaho 4 2,000 3 1 3 1 Washington „ . 19 9,187 10 6 3 15 2 1 1 Oregon . 26 13, 868 12 1 13 17 2 2 5 California . . . . „ . 699 323, 983 667 6 26 670 19 10 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 939 Table 9. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries of S00 volumes and over in 1900. NUMBER OF LIBRARIES AND NUMBER OF VOLUMES. States and Territories. Libraries having 1,000 volumes and over. Libraries having less than 1,000 but over 299. Total libraries of 300 volumes and over. Libraries. Volumes. Libraries. Volumes. Libraries. Volumes. United States . 5,383 44, .591, 851 3,878 2, 018, 658 9,261 46, 610, 5C9 North Atlantic Division _ 2, 473 23,-410, 577 1,000 572, 152 3,473 23, S82, 729 South Atlantic Division. . . . 421 5, 303, 237 243 121, 553 664 5, 424, 790 South Central Division . 374 1 , 886, 731 279 144, 757 653 2, 031,488 North Central Division . 1,728 11,211,710 1,526 788, 410 3,254 12, 000. 120 Western Division . . 387 2, 779, 596 830 391, 786 1,217 3, 171, 382 North Atlantic Division: Maine . . 111 701,982 40 22, 478 151 724, 460 New Hampshire . . 143 723, 560 58 39, 043 201 762, 603 Vermont . . . 96 4SI, 551 79 44, 481 175 526. 032 Massachusetts . 571 6,633,285 122 64, 274 693 6, 697, 5&9 Rhode island . 82 709, 672 16 8, 335 98 709, 007 Connecticut . 197 1, 547, 667 73 40, 025 270 1,587,692 New York.. . 718 7, 496. 509 295 189, 322 1,013 7, 676, 831 New Jersey . 154 1,150,774 120 66, 339 274 1,217,113 Pennsylvania . . 401 3, 974, 577 197 106, 855 598 4, 081, 432 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 13 126, 647 10 4, 628 23 131, 275 Marvland . 80 1 , 175, 253 31 14, 539 111 1, 189, 792 District of Columbia . . . 74 2, .504, 783 16 8, 712 90 2, 513, 495 Virginia . . 64 489, 646 38 19, 621 102 509, 267 West Virginia . . 23 100, 492 15 9, 158 38 109, 650 North Carolina . 57 285, 251 34 16, 285 91 301, 536 South Carolina . 39 256, 571 31 15, 139 70 271, 710 Georgia . 55 296, 855 53 25, 892 108 322, 747 Florida . South Central Division: 16 67, 739 15 7, 579 31 75, 318 Kentucky . 76 425, 729 43 23, 245 119 448, 974 Tennessee . 77 392, 221 57 30, 186 134 422, 407 Alabama . 43 196, 521 20 9, 418 63 205, 939 Mississippi . 30 160, 733 37 19, 593 67 180, 326 Louisiana . 40 2o3, 0/4 18 8, 699 58 261, 773 Texas . 69 246, 881 77 40, 431 146 287, 312 Arkansas . 28- 181, 884 21 10, 284 49 192, 168 Oklahoma . 8 24, 706 2 1,100 10 25, 806 Indian Territory . 3 4, 982 4 1,801 7 6, 783 North Central Division.: Ohio . 266 2,. 055, 589 212 105, 188 47S 2, 160, 777 Indiana . 164 902, 189 157 77, 655 321 1,069,814 Illinois.. . 309 2,. 472, 710 197 105, 058 506 2, 578, 768 Michigan . 193 1, 298, 708 164 87, 420 357 1, 386, 128 Wisconsin. . 165 987, 729 144 81.397 309 1,069,126 Minnesota . 123 691, 893 92 52, 025 215 743, 918 Iowa . . . 170 844, 371 199 101, 203 369 945, 574 Missouri . 141 934, 111 129 65, 424 270 999, 535 North Dakota . 16 48, 631 23 10,450 39 59, 031 South Dakota . 26 72, 970 20 9,894 46 82, 864 Nebraska . 51 297, 691 78 38,142 129 335, 833 Kansas- . 104 515, 118 111 53, 554 215 56S, 672 Western Division: Montana . 14 111,819 16 9,647 30 121,566 Wyoming . 8 43, 249 5 2, 525 13 45, 774 Colorado . 54 363, 836 28 14, 808 82 378, 674 New Mexico . 1 i 27, 732 4 1 , 500 15 29, 232 Arizona . 5 27, 414 4 1,982 9 29, 396 Utah . 13 68, S07 19 9, 551 32 78, 358 Nevada . 6 65,584 6 2, 735 12 69,319 Idaho . 9 22, 856 4 2, 000 13 24, 856 Washington . 31 136, 314 19 9,187 50 145, 501 Oregon . 24 128, 997 26 13,868 50 142, 865 California . 212 1,781,858 699 323, 983 911 2, 105, 841 940 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-19C0. Table 10. — Summary of statistics of libraries in 1875 of 800 volumes and over. NUMBER OF LIBRARIES AND NUMBER OF VOLUMES. States and Territories. United States . North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division . North Central Division . Western Division . North Atlantic Division: Maine. . New Hampshire _ V errnont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . New York . New Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division: Delaware . Maryland . District of Columbia Virginia . West Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . Florida . South Central Division: Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama . Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . Arkansas. . . Oklahoma . Indian Territory. . . . North Central Division: Ohio . Indiana . Illinois . Michigan . Wisconsin . . Minnesota . Iowa . Missouri . North Dakota . South Dakota . Nebraska . Kansas . Western Division: Montana . Wyoming . Colorado . . . New Mexico . Arizona . . Utah . Nevada . Idaho . Washington . Oregon . California. . . Libraries having 1.003 volumes and over. Libraries having less than 1,000 volumes. Total libraries. Total volumes. Libraries. volumes. Libraries. Volumes. 2, 039 11,487,778 1,609 841,748 3, 64S 12,329, 526 1,127 6, 714, 765 818 431,357 1,945 7,146,122 223 1, 776, 099 128 65, 708 351 1,841,807 138 580, 179 142 70, 654 2S0 650, 833 482 2.015,797 455 240. 527 937 2, 286, 324 69 370, 938 66 33,502 135 401,440 47 211,644 38 21 , 136 85 232. 780 54 190, 146 32 15,607 86 205, 753 33 119, 483 32 14, 815 65 134,298 307 2, 128, 734 146 78, 405 453 2, 207, 139 34 210, 063 22 13, 073 56 223,138 67 394, 750 58 29, 496 125 424,246 310 1, 980, 445 307 167, 229 617 2, 147, 674 53 262, 693 38 17,938 91 280, 931 222 1,216,507 145 73, 658 357 1, 290, 165 f 7 / 41,300 11 5, 740 18 47. 010 47 366, 634 30 15, 707 77 882.341 46 756, 288 11 4, 645 57 760. 933 44 236, 955 19 10, £01 63 247, 256 9 32,000 14 6, 575 23 38, 575 25 113,507 12 6, 200 37 119,707 16 107, 679 10 5,782 26 113, 461 26 109, 230 18 9, 108 44 118,344 3 12, 500 3 1,650 6 14, 150 34 184, 505 38 19, 710 72 204,215 37 125, 212 34 17, 533 71 142, 745 19 55, 090 12 5, 525 31 60, 615 10 31,929 13 6, 581 23 88, 510 20 126,812 11 5, 066 31 131,878 15 48, 607 27 13,024 42 61, 631 2 7,024 4 1,625 6 8, 649 i 1,000 3 1,590 4 2, 580 119 578, 736 104 56, 463 223 635, 199 55 200, 527 78 40, 342 133 240, 869 98 424, 231 79 42, 147 177 466, 378 43 185, 854 46 25, 861 89 211,715 41 169, 004 32 15,710 73 184, 714 16 59. 359 23 13,471 39 72, 830 42 121,500 37 18, 760 79 140, 260 47 242, 614 40 19, 738 87 262, 352 | 1 1,900 3 1,983 4 3,383 7 24, 264 7 2.9S6 14 27, 260 13 37, 808 6 3,056 19 40, 884 1 1,250 1 550 2 1,800 1 3,011 2 1,475 3 4, 488 5 10, 9S7 3 1,257 8 12, 254 1 4, 500 3 1,485 4 5,985 1 2, 600 2 628 3 3, 228 2 9, 253 3 1,600 5 10, 853 3 15, 000 3 1,100 6 16, 100 i 1 , 846 i 1,846 i 6, 45S 1 500 2 6,959 6 25, 292 8 3,650 14 28, 942 47 290. 730 40 21,257 87 311,987 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 941 Table 11.- — Summary of statistics of libraries in 1885 of 3G0 volumes and over. NUMBER OF LIBRARIES AND NUMBER OF VOLUMES. States and Territories. United States . North Atlantic Division South Atlantic Division South Central Division . North Central Division . Western Division . North Atlantic Division: Maine . New Hampshire .... Vermont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . New York . New Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division: Delaware . Maryland . District of Columbia. Virginia . West Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . Florida . South Central Division: Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama . Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . Arkansas . Oklahoma . Indian Territory. . . . North Central Division: Ohio . Indiana . Illinois . Michigan . Wisconsin . Minnesota . Iowa . Missouri . North Dakota . South Dakota . Nebraska . Kansas . Western Division: Montana . Wyoming . . Colorado . New Mexico . Arizona . Utah . Nevada . Idaho . . . Washington . Oregon . California . Libraries having 1,000 volumes and over. Libraries having less than 1,000 volumes. Total libraries. Total volumes. Libraries. Volumes. Libraries. Volumes. 2,988 19,401,199 2, 350 1,321,194 5,338 20, 722, 3S3 1,545 10, 722, 466 960 525, 646 2, 505 11,248,112 289 2, 753, 420 155 80, 622 444 2, 834, 042 200 846, 838 159 163, 778 359 1, 010, 616 815 4, 129, 203 911 469. 759 1,726 4, 598, 962 139 949, 272 165 81,389 394 1,030,661 74 353, 549 62 35, 062 136 38 8, 611 78 328, 606 51 25, 837 129 354, 443 42 204, 317 33 18,120 75 222, 437 426 3, 489, 159 143 80, 536 569 3, 569, 695 65 387, 157 13 7,873 78 395,030 98 663, 070 81 44, 089 179 707, 159 397 2, 959, 798 383 208, 504 780 3, 168, 302 74 436, 581 52 27, 081 126 463, 662 291 1,900,229 142 78, 544 433 1, 978, 773 12 60, 562 6 3.758 18 64, 320 62 600, 544 27 14, 950 89 615, 494 53 1,197,169 13 6, 587 66 1, 203, 756 45 307, 235 29 14, 612 75 321, 847 6 SO, 000 13 6, 138 19 36, 138 35 145, 685 22 12, 365 57 153, 050 28 170, 679 12 5. 884 40 176, 563 42 219,446 24 11, 768 66 231,214 5 22, 100 9 4,560 14 26, G60 54 255, 856 45 24, 654 99 280, 510 44 180, 614 28 14, 572 72 195, 186 23 85, 083 18 10, 220 41 95, 303 23 89, 140 14 6, 932 37 96, 072 23 130, 858 19 89, 001 42 219, 859 22 57, 521 20 10, 221 42 67, 742 8 43, 500 8 4, 643 16 48, 143 3 4, 266 7 3, 535 10 7,801 153 S98, 821 132 71,438 290 1, 070, 259 82 371,759 88 42, 569 170 414, 328 172 853, 624 145 75. 776 317 929, 400 103 475, 934 236 116, 226 339 592, 160 62 363, 882 52 23, 901 114 390, 783 36 155, 544 46 23, 397 82 178, 941 63 288, 938 52 30, 3S2 120 317, 330 69 380, 521 77 37, 385 146 417, 906 } 7 10,830 11 5, 720 18 16, 550 19 80, 718 29 15, 626 48 96, 344 39 150, 632 43 24, 329 82 174, 961 2 12, 200 4 2,200 6 14, 4G0 1 10, 000 3 1,892 4 11,892 17 56, 377 13 7, 351 30 63, 728 4 13, 470 2 900 6 14, 370 2 7, 456 2 1.200 4 8,656 7 23, 499 7 4, 035 14 27, 534 5 25, 977 2 850 7 26, 827 3 7,000 3 1,800 6 8, 800 7 12, 436 11 6, 126 18 18, 562 11 44, 789 10 5, 051 21 49, 840 80 736, 068 108 49, 984 188 786, 052 942 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Table 12. — Summary of statistics of public , society, and school libraries in 1896 of 300 volumes and over. NUMBER OF LIBRARIES AND NUMBER OF VOLUMES. States and Territories. Libraries having 1,000 volumes and over. Libraries having less than 1,000 but over 299. Total libraries of 300 volumes and over. Libraries. Vol umes. Libraries. Volumes. Libraries. V olumes. United States . 4,026 33, 051, 872 3, 158 1, 544, 386 7, 184 34, 596, 258 North Atlantic Division . 2,000 17, 647, 723 912 496, 441 2, 912 18, 144, 164 South Atlantic Division . 322 4, 015, 087 176 84, 832 498 4, 099, 919 South Central Division . 255 1, 360, 451 242 115, 504 497 1, 475, 955 North Central Division . 1, 195 8, 016, 780 1,043 510, 154 2,238 8, 526, 934 Western Division . 254 2, Oil, 831 785 337, 455 1,039 2, 349, 286 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 93 542, 666 34 19, 145 127 561,811 New Hampshire _ _ 122 595, 800 75 40, 176 197 635, 976 Vermont . 67 359, 213 33 16.039 100 375, 252 Massachusetts . 494 5. 450, 397 136 76. 041 630 5, 526, 438 Rhode Island . 74 580, 305 16 8, 807 90 589, 112 Connecticut . 154 1,102, 082 63 32, 487 217 1,134,569 New York . 572 5. 251, 347 28'z 160, 124 854 5.411,471 New Jersev . 94 801, 152 116 60, 684 210 861, 836 Pennsylvania . • 330 % 964. 761 157 82, 93S 487 3, 047, 699 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 14 83, 763 7 4,174 21 87, 937 Maryland . 67 985, 330 26 12. 817 93 998, 147 District of Columbia. . 55 1,763,910 9 4, 913 64 1, 798, 823 Virginia . 50 341, 225 37 17, 490 87 358, 715 West Virginia . 10 46, 137 18 9,428 28 55, 563 North Carolina . . 40 218, 757 22 10.157 62 228, 914 South Carolina . . 32 232, 418 18 8,100 50 240, 518 Georgia . 41 270, 041 31 13, 842 72 283, 883 Florida . 13 43, 506 8 3, 913 21 47, 419 South Central Division: Kentucky . 47 318, 661 48 22, 657 95 341.318 Tennessee . 62 318, 571 51 23, 897 113 342, 468 Alabama . 28 117, 337 19 9. 178 47 126, 515 Mississippi . 31 166, 870 30 13. 744. 61 180, 614 Louisiana . . . . . 27 212, 828 14 6, 900 41 219, 728 Texas . 39 131. 222 51 26, 257 90 157, 479 Arkansas . . 17 87, 600 22 9, 806 39 97, 406 Oklahoma . 2 5, 157 1 600 3 5. 757 Indian Territory . o 2, 205 6 2, 465 8 4, 670 North Central Division: Ohio . 202 1, 587, 891 144 68, 529 346 1,656,420 Indiana . 107 654. 651 88 41,258 195 695, 909 Illinois . . 214 1, 822, 580 134 66, 992 348 1,889,572 Michigan . 153 975, 031 127 66, 241 280 1,041,272 Wisconsin . 102 626, 442 87 43, 416 189 669, 858 Minnesota . .- . 75 467, 397 79 41, 539 154 508, 936 Iowa . 113 607, 765 139 65, 550 252 673, 315 Missouri . 104 686, 955 108 50, 924 212 737, 879 North Dakota . 6 23, 682 17 7, 463 23 31, 145 South Dakota . . 14 34, 863 12 5. 425 26 40, 288 Nebraska . 42 226. 743 36 18. 495 78 245, 238 Kansas . 63 302, 7c0 72 34, S22 135 337, 102 Western Division: Montana . 13 69, 222 9 5, 790 22 75, 012 Wyoming . 4 23, 785 i 450 5 24, 235 Colorado . 34 300, 990 21 10, 071 55 311,061 New Mexico . 6 13, 273 ci 2, 237 10 15, 510 Arizona . 4 17,472 2 1,272 6 18, 744 Utah . 11 49, 582 13 6, 427 24 56, 009 Nevada . 6 49, 989 2 600 8 50, 5S9 Idaho . 5 13, 023 2 900 7 13, 923 Washington . 20 76. 646 10 4, 973 30 81,619 Oregon . . 16 90. 190 22 10, 091 38 100, 281 California . 135 1, 307, 659 699 294, 644 834 1, 602, 303 943 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Table 13. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries of 1,000 volumes and over in 1891. DISTRIBUTION OF LIBRARIES AND OF VOLUMES. States and Territories. Libraries. Volumes. Population, census 1890. Number of people per library. Books per 100 of popula¬ tion. United States . 3,503 25, 977, 643 62, 622, 250 17, 877 41 North Atlantic Division . 1,769 13, 75-4, 092 3, 400, 818 1,122,366 6, 259, 810 1,440, 557 17,401,545 8, 857, 920 10, 972, 893 22, 362, 279 3, 027, 613 9,837 29,138 79 South Atlantic Division . . '304 38 South Central Division . 229 47; 917 10 North Central Division . . . 1 , 020 21, 924 16, 727 28 Western Division . . . 181 48 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 86 661,086 7. 687 66 New Hampshire . 87 415, 930 273, 511 376, 530 4', 328 73 82 Vermont . 51 332', 422 6, 518 Massachusetts . 462 4, 452; 771 467, 233 2, 238; 943 345, 506 4, 846 5, 157 5,923 12, 734 16, 055 15, 982 12, 035 16, 037 4, 607 36, 800 127, 132 199 Rhode Island . . 67 135 Connecticut . 126 885', 429 746; 258 119 New York . . 471 3, 961, 848 641 , 686 2, 220, 306 68, 533 842, 174 1,493,055 310, 539 5, 997; 853 1,444, 933 66 New Jersey . . 90 44 Pennsylvania . 329 5, 258, 014 42 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 14 168, 493 1, 042, 390 230, 392 1,655, 980 762, 794 1, 617, 947 1,151,149 1,837,353 391, 422 41 Maryland . 65 143 District. of Columbia _ _ _ 50 648 Virginia . 45 21 West Virginia . 6 34, 980 5 North Carolina . . . . 38 166' 241 42, 578 10 South Carolina . . 31 184, 482 37; 134 44, 813 16 Georgia . 41 223, 833 12 Florida.. . 14 46-; 981 314, 737 222, 462 27, 959 12 South Central Division: Kentucky . 59. 1, 858, 635 1, 767, 518 1,513,017 1,289,600 1,118.587 31 , 502 17 13 Tennessee . 49 36, 072 65, 783 44, 469 39, 950 82, 797 Alabama . 23 96, 166 6 Mississippi . 29 127, 314 179, 218 86, 603 92, 1G0 10 Tunisian a . 28 16 Texas . 27 2, 1 35, 523 4 Arkansas . 11 1. 128', 179 61, 834 102; 562 8 Oklahoma . Indian Territory . 3, 766 1,258,436 524, 826 1,641,129 North Central Division: Ohio . 173 3, 672, 316 21,227 34 94 Indiana . 98 2; 192; 404 3, 826, 351 2,093,889 1, 686, 880 1,301,826 1,911,896 2, 679, 184 182 719 22; 371 18, 849 15, 510 21,086 24, 563 21,482. 28, 808 91, 360 Illinois . 203 43 Michigan . 135 726, 266 447,903 35 Wisconsin . 80 27 Minnesota . 53 299, 763 431, 695 23 Iowa . 89 23 Missouri . 93 527,510 20 North Dakota 9 7, 880 4 South Dakota . . 9 20, 586 168, 251 205, 565 21,139 19, 300 328, 808 1, 058, 910 36, 534 6 N ebraska . 29 36; 514 16 Kansas . 56 1,427,096 25; 484 14 Western Division: Montana . . 5 132. 159 26, 432 20, 235 17, 922 16 W voming . . 3 23 60 ; 705 32 Colorado . 122; 067 11,154 15, 000 24, 726 38, 215 6, 000 412, 198 153, 593 30 New Mexico . 5 30, 719 7 Arizona . 3 59, 620 19, 873 25 Utah . 6 207, 905 34, 651 12 N evada . . . 6 45, 761 84, 385 349, 390 313, 767 1,208,130 7; 627 84 Idaho . 2 42; 193 38, 821 7 Washington . 9 41 ; 006 65, 544 12 Oregon . 15 20, 918 11,617 21 California . 104 1,076; 406 89 944 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Table 14. — Summary of statistics of public , society , and school libraries of 1, GOO volumes and over in 1896. DISTRIBUTION OF LIBRARIES AND OF VOLUMES. States and Territories. Libraries. Volumes. Estimated population in 1895. Number of people per library. Books per 100 of popula¬ tion. United States . 4,026 33, 051, 872 69, 9.54, 000 17,376 47 North Atlantic Division . . . 2, 000 17,647,723 IS, 318. 000 9, 659 91 South Atlantic Division . 322 4, 015, 087 9, 436, 000 29, 305 43 South Central Division . 255 1, 350, 451 12,091,000 47, 416 11 North Central Division . 1,195 8, 016, 780 25, 234, 000 21,116 32 Western Division . 254 2,011,831 3, 875, 000 15,256 52 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 93 542, 666 666, 000 7. 161 81 New Hampshire . 122 595, 800 391,000 3,205 152 Vermont . 67 359, 213 333,000 4, 970 109 Massachusetts . 494 5, 450, 3S7 2, 675, 000 5, 415 204 Rhode Island . 74 580, 305 382, 0G0 5,162 152 Connecticut . 154 1,102,082 821,000 5. 331 134 New York . 572 5, 251, 347 6, 557, 000 11,463 80 New Jersey . 94 801, 152 1,632,000 17,362 49 Pennsylvania . 330 2, 964, 761 5, 861, 000 17, 731 51 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 14 83, 763 180, 000 12, 857 47 Maryland . 67 985, 330 1, 095, 000 16, 343 90 District of Columbia . . . . 55 1,793,910 284, 000 5, 164 632 Virginia . 50 341,225 1,722,000 34, 400 20 West Virginia . 10 46. 137 835, 000 83, 500 6 North Carolina . 40 218, 757 1, 690, 000 42, 250 13 South Carolina . 32 232,418 1,195,000 37, 344 19 Georgia . 41 270. 041 1.960,000 47. 805 14 Florida . 13 43,506 475, 000 36,538 9 South Central Division: Kentucky . 47 318, 661 1, 955, 000 41,536 16 Tennessee . . 62 318, 571 1,890,000 30, 484 17 Alabama . 28 117, 337 1,625,000 58, 036 7 Mississippi . . 31 166, 870 1,350,000 43, 548 12 Louisiana . 27 212, S28 1, 190, 000 44, 074 18 Texas . 39 131,222 2, 445, 000 62, 692 5 Arkansas . 17 87, 600 1, 290, 000 75, 882 7 Oklahoma . 2 5, 157 145, 000 72, 500 4 Indian Terri torv . 2 2, 205 201, GOO 100, 500 1 North Central Division: Ohio . . . 202 1, 5S7, 891 3, 882, 000 19,218 41 Indiana . 107 654, 651 2, 290, 000 21, 402 29 Illinois . . 214 1, 822, 580 4, 200, 000 19, 626 43 Michigan . 153 975, 031 2, 350. 000 15, 360 42 Wisconsin . 102 626, 442 1, 939, 000 19, 010 32 Minnesota . 75 467, 397 1, 660, 000 22, 133 28 Iowa . 113 607, 765 2, 025, 000 17,920 ,30 Missouri . 104 686, 955 2, 970, 000 28, 558 23 North Dakota . 6 23, 682 316, 000 52, 667 7 South Dakota . . 14 34, 863 522, 090 37, 286 7 Nebraska . . 42 226,743 1,490,000 35. 476 15 Kansas . 63 302, 780 1,590,000 25, 238 13 Western Division: Montana . . 13 69, 222 217. 0C0 IS, 692 32 Wyoming . . 4 23, 785 91, 000 22, 750 26 Colorado . . 34 300, 990 546, 000 16, 059 55 New Mexico . 6 13, 273 173, 000 28. 833 8 Arizona . 4 17,472 67, 000 16, 750 26 Utah . 11 49, 582 255, 000 23, 1S2 19 N evada . : . 6 49, 989 45, 000 7, 500 111 Idaho . - 5 13, 023 126, 000 25, 200 10 Washington . . 20 76, 646 575, 000 28, 750 13 Oregon . 16 90, ISO 3S8, 000 24, 250 23 California . 135 1 , 307, 659 1,392,000 10, 311 94 945 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Table 15. — Summary of statistics of public , society, and school libraries of 1,000 volumes- and over in 1896. NUMBER OF LIBRARIES AND NUMBER OF VOLUMES. Increase from 1891 to 1896. States and Territories. Libraries report¬ ing. Volumes. Pamphlets. Libraries. Volumes. Per cent in num¬ ber of volumes.. United States . 4,026 33,051,872 5, 444, 788 523 7, 074, 229 27. 23- North Atlantic Division . 2, 000 17,647,723 2,801,270 231 3, 893, 631 28. 31 South Atlantic Division . 322 4,015,087 966, 999 18 614,269 18. 06- South Central Division . 255 1,360,451 215, 856 26 238, 085 21.21 North Central Division . 1,195 8,016,780 1,250,342 175 1,756,970 28. 07 W estern Division . 254 2, 011,831 210, 321 73 571,274 39. 66- North Atlantic Division: Maine . 93 542, 666 100, 443 7 107, 288 24. 67' New Hampshire . 122 595, 800 108, 887 35 179,870 43. 25- Vermont . 67 359, 213 13,827 16 85, 702 31. 33- Massachusetts . 494 5, 450, 397 1,231,953 32 997, 626 22. 40 Rhode Island . 74 580, 305 95, 950 7 113, 072 24.20- Connecticut . 154 1,102,082 214, 405 28 216, 653 24. 47 New York . 572 5, 251, 347 563, 914 101 1,289,499 32.55 New Jersey . 94 801,152 116,327 4 159, 466 24. 85- Pennsylvania . 330 2, 964, 761 355, 564 1 744, 455 33. 53-- South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 14 83, 763 985, 330 15, 264 0 15, 230 22. 22: Maryland . 67 127, 660 2 143, 156 17. 00- District of Columbia . 55 1, 793, 910 735, 231 5 300, 855 20. 15’ Virginia . 50 341,225 31,550 5 686 .20- West Virginia . 10 46, 137 7,548 4 11,157 31. 90* North Carolina . 40 218, 757 16, 192 2 52,516 31. 59 ’ South Carolina . 32 232, 418 9,372 i 47, 936 25. 98 - Georgia . 41 270, 041 19, 262 0 46, 208 20. 64 Florida . 13 43, 506 4,920 a 1 a 3, 475 a 7. 40 ' South Central Division: Kentuckv . 47 318, 661 27, 739 a 12 3, 924 1.25 Tennessee . 62 318, 571 29, 436 13 96, 109 43. 20 Alabama . 28 117,337 35, 121 5 21,171 22. 02 Mississippi . 31 166, 870 23,915 2 39, 556 31. 07 Louisiana . 27 212,828 46,431 a 1 33,610 18. 75 Texas . 39 131,222 13,804 12 44, 619 51.52 Arkansas . 17 87, 600 37, 502 6 a 4, 500 a 4. 82’ Oklahoma . 2 5, 157 2,205 1,200 708 2 5,157 a 1 , 561 Indian Territory . 2 «1 a 41. 45 North Central Division: Ohio . 202 1,587,891 205, 754 29 329, 455 26. 18' ■ Indiana . 107 654, 651 53, 357 9 129, 825 24. 74 Illinois . 214 1,822,580 447, 168 11 181,451 11.06 Michigan . 153 975, 031 70, 455 18 248, 765 34. 25 Wisconsin . 102 626, 442 132, 224 22 178, 539 39. 86- Minnesota . 75 467, 397 46, 364 22 167, 634 55. 92 Iowa . 113 607, 765 56, 339 24 176, 070 40. 79 Missouri . 104 686, 955 115, 355 11 159, 445 30. 23 North Dakota . 6 23, 682 3,100 4 15, 802 200. 53 South Dakota . 14 34, 863 10, 564 5 14, 277 69. 35 Nebraska, . . 42 226, 743 26, 093 13 58, 492 34. 76- Kansas . 63 302, 780 83, 569 7 97, 215 47. 29 Western Division: Montana . . . 13 69, 222 9, S92 8 48, 083 227. 46- Wyoming . 4 23, 785 3, 200 1 4, 485 23. 24 Colorado . 34 300, 990 20, 318 11 178, 923 146. 58 New Mexico . 6 13. 273 3, 200 1 2,119 19. 00 Arizona . 4 17, 472 2-50 1 2,472 16. 48 Utah . 11 49, 582 18, 002 5 24, 856 100. 53 Nevada . 6 49, 989 2, 240 0 11,774 30.81 Idaho . 5 13, 023 10, 230 3 7,023 117.05 Washington . 20 76, 646 19, 380 11 35, 640 86.91 Oregon . 16 90, 190 6,628 1 24, 646 37.60 California . 35 1,307,659 116, 981 31 231, 253 21.48 ED 1900 60 a Decrease. 943 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public , society , and school libraries in the United [T, taxation; C, corporation; B, both; S, subscription; Location. Name of library. Date of founding. 1 1 3 ALABAMA. 1 Abbeville . Southeastern Alabama Agri- cultural Schooi. 2 Anniston . St. Michael and All Angels 1897 Parish library. 3 Auburn . Alabama Polytechnic Insti- 1872 tute. 4 Birmingham . Public Library . 1888 5 . do . Taylor School . 6 . do . Washington Library (col- 1898 ored). 7 . do . Zelosophian Academy . 8 Crews Depot . Trideka College . 9 Cullman . Polytechnic College . 1894 10 Demopolis . Marengo Female Institute . . . 11 East Lake . Howard College . 1841 12 Eufaula . Union Female College* . 1893 13 Florence . State Normal College . 1855 14 Greensboro . Southern University . 1860 15 Huntsville . Garresonia Library . 1870 16 Marion . Judson Institute . 1840 17 Mobile . Academy of the Visitation . . 1833 1 18 . do . Mobile Library . 1874 19 . do . Y. M. C. A. Public Library . . . . 1895 20 Montgomery . St. Mary’s of Loretto Acad- 1S73 emv. 21 . do . State Board of Health . . . 1880 22 . do . State and Supreme Court Li- 1828 1 brary. 23 N ormal . Agricultural and Mechanical 1875 ' College. 24 St. Bernard . St. Bernard’s Monastery Li- 1892 brary. 25 Selma . Alabama Baptist Colored 1878 University. 26 . do . Dallas Aeademy . 1S83 27 . do . Library Association . 1895 28 Spring Hill . Spring Hill College . 1836 29 . do . Students’ Library . 1854 | 30 Talladega . Alabama Academy for the Blind. 31 . do . Talladega College . 1869 1 32 . do . Theological Library . 1877 33 Troy . State Normal College* and 1888 Alcyone Literary Society Library. 34 Tuscaloosa . Pierson Library (Alabama Insane Hospital). 35 . do . Stillman Institute . 1870 j 36 . do . V erner’ s Institute . 37 Tuskegee . Alabama Conference Female College. 38 . do . Currer Bell and Ad Astra 1881 societies. 39 . do . Tuskegee Normal and In- dustrial Institute. 40 Union Springs. . . . Public Library . 1895 41 University . University of Alaba^ma . 1831 42 Walnut Grove .... Baptist Institute . 43 Wetumpka . Wetumpka Academy Public 1890 Library. * Statistics of 1S95-96. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sch . T. F. B. 1,503 Gen . O. C. Fr. B. 2, 237 Col . C. S. B. 14, 257 Gen . .... T. Fr. B. 6, 630 Sch . c s B. 1. 500 Gen . .... T. s B. 1,159 Sch . .... C. Fr. R. 1,200 Sch . c. s. B. 1,200 Col . c. Fr. B. 1,000 Sch . c. s. B. 1,800 Col . c. Fr. B. 1,500 Col . c Fr B. 2, 000 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,000 Col . c. S. R. 4,000 Gen . 0. c. s. B. 1,200 Gen . c s B. 3, 000 Sch . CL s. R. 3, 650 Gen . R. cl S. B. 8,000 Y.M.C.A. ..... c. F. B 3,000 Sch . c. s. B. 1,000 State . T. F. R. 3,000 State . T. F. R. 30, 652 Col . T. S. B. 2,973 Col . e. Fr. B. 3, 400 Col . c. S. R. 1 , 200 Sch . c. S B. 1,600 Gen . R. c. s. B. 1,200 Gen . . . . . c. Fr. R. 25, 650 Col. Soc. . . O. c. S. R. 4, 500 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,500 Col . C. F. B. 6,000 Theo . n Fr. B. 6, 500 Gen . c. Fr. B. 1,214 Asy . TL Fr. C. 1, 100 Theo . c. Fr. R. 1,500 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 Col . c. Fr. R. 5. 000 Col. Soc... e. s. R. 1,000 Sch . c. Fr. B. 4,200 Soc . R. c. s. B. 2, 000 Col . O. T. Fr. R. 26, 000 Sch . c. s B. 1, COO Sell . 0. T. F. B. 2,496 947 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900. F, free; Fr, free for reference; O, own; R, rent.] 0. Receipts. r* o s Pamphlets. Volumes added du the year. Books issued durinj year for home u; From taxation. Appropriations — i State, county, j or city. Total income. Sr2 -*-’2 Q -4-* 0 as 0' Value of library b ings. Name of librarian. 10 11 12 13 11 15 1G 17 18 677 500 Edwin Ball, jr . 1,000 858 8 064 $1, 518 332 Walter L. Fleming . 350 402 7,922 J.H. Phillips, superintendent 15 246 85 J.H. Phillips, superintendent Rev. J.H. B. Hall . | . 100 150 75 0 Miss Florence Felter . S. J. Ansley,A.M . 200 0 ‘248 0 M. C. Wilson, president . 200 50 500 0 D. P. Christenberry 30 0 ....100 0 Anne Kirtley .« . 150 Sister M. Ligonri Fox . 100 1,700 Miss Addie C. Moses . 0 1, 000 A. C.Harte, general secretary Sister Mary Bornomeo... . 50 50 25 W. R. Brassell . 1,500 1,028 800 0 J. M. Riggs . 56 $90 108 Edythe M. Kelly . 270 Rev. P. Benedict, O. S. B . E. W. Knight . SOO 52 0 25 0 200 1, 500 0 200 R. E. Hardaway . . 200 3, 000 0 488 0 E. W. Brown . . . 8, 255 3, 000 250 James D. Potter . . 100 1,800 75 $7, 500 A. E. Ejelds, S. J . 70 F. H. Manning, superin¬ tendent. Rev. Wm. E. Hutchison, professor in college. J. M. P. Metcalf . 1, 000 200 115 2, 000 1,928 80 250 100 200 0 . Miss Julia Bowles . J. T. Searcy, superintendent. Rev. D. Clay Lilly, secretary. . 100 40 85 Miss Mary A. Caller, teacher. Lizzie Bavtop . 297 2,405 50 J. M. Sanders, superintend¬ ent. Amelia G. Gorgas . 6, 000 1,507 500 0 20, 000 600 100 25 17 107 J"1 o o o IJ. H.Golson . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 948 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-19C0 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. 1 ARIZONA. 44 Phoenix . 45 Tempe . 46 Tucson . 47 . .do . 48 Yuma . ARKANSAS. 49 Arkadelphia . 50 . do . 51 Batesville . 62 Clarksville . 53 Conway . 54 Fayetteville . 55 Fort Smith . 56 . do . 57 . do . 58 Gentry . . 59 Greenwood . 60 PXelena . 61 Hot Springs . 62 . do . 63 Little Rock . 64 . do . 65 . do . 66 . do . 67 . do . 68 . do . 69 Marianna . 70 Pine Bluff . 71 Rogers . 72 Searcy . 73 Southland . 74 Spielerville . 75 Sulphur Rock .... 76 Woodberry . CALIFORNIA. 77 Alameda . 78 . do . 79 Artaca . 80 Bakersfield . 81 . do . 82 Belmont . 83 Benicia . 84 . do . 85 Berkeley . 86 . do . 87 . do . 88 . do . 89 . do . 90 Bolinas . Name of library. Date of founding. W m ci 5 Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. 5Q Q a 3 C > 2 3 4 5 (> 7 8 9 Territorial Library . 1870 Law . T. F. B. 15, 000 Arizona Territorial Normal 1898 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,000 School. Free Public Library . 1886 Gen . T. F. B. 3,480 University of Arizona . 1891 Col . T. Fr. B. 5, 000 Territorial Prison Library _ 1888 Asy . T. Fr. C. 1,934 McLanchom Library . 1890 Col . C. Fr. B. 1 000 Ouachita College Library.... 18S6 Col . .... C. s. B. 4,000 Arkansas College . 1872 Col . .... c. Fr. B. 3,900 Arkansas Cumberland Col- 1891 Col . c. S. R. 10, 000 lege. Hendrix College . 18°8 Col . c. s. B. 5, 800 University of Arkansas . 1871 Col . T. Fr. B. 8,000 Fortnightly Public Library.. 1892 Gen . .... C. S. B. 3, 500 Public High School . 1885 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 875 Public School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 2,200 Hendrix Academy . 1898 Sch . 0. C. s B. 1,100 Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,500 Women’s Library Association 1889 Gen . 6. C. S. B. 3,580 Central High School . Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 Public School . 1894 Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 Arkansas School for the Blind 1870 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 Arkansas State Library . 1840 State . T. F. B. 75' 000 Arkansas Supreme Court 1836 Law . T. F. R. 30, 000 Library. Grand Lodge Library . 1881 Masonic . . c. Fr. B. 1,000 Marquand Library . 1886 Y.M.C.A. R. C. S. B. 3,500 Philander Smith College .... Col . C. S. B. 1,000 Male and Female Institute .. Sch . TL F. B. 2, 500 Branch Normal College . 1873 Gen . T. F. R. 3' 129 Rogers Academy . 1882 Sch _ _ _ C. s B. 1,800 Speers-Langford Military In- Sch _ ... c. S. R. 1,500 \stitute. Southland College or Nor- Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,200 mal Institute.* New Subiaco Abbey Library. 1878 Theo . 0. c. Fr. B. 4, 000 Arkansas Normal School .... Sch . T. Fr. B. 3, 500 Woodberry Normal Institute. Sch . . c. Fr. B. 1,300 Free Public Library and 1879 Gen ...... T. F. B. 23, 589 Reading Room. School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 District School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1 , 563 Beale Memorial Free Public 1900 Gen ...... 0. T. F. B. T450 Library. Kern County High School... 1893 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,000 Belmont School . 1885 Sch . C. Fr. R. 2,000 District School Library . 1856 Sch . T. F. B. 1,670 Public High School . 1867 Sch . T. F. B. 1.770 Boone’s University School _ 1884 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,500 Head’s (Miss) School . 1888 Sch . C. Fr. B. 2,000 Institution for Deaf and Blind 1886 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2, 405 Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. 7,500 University of California . 1869 Col . O. T. Fr. B. 79, 417 Bay District School . 1866 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 * Statistics of 1895-96. 949 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 15 IB 17 18 1,000 C. H. Akers . 44 ' 200 400 300 $400 0 A. J. Matthews . 45 160 7, 500 $375 526 Mrs. .T. H. Batte . 46 2, 000 1,000 1,500 M. M. Parker, president . 47 1, 390 48 200 300 G. C. Jones . 49 400 250 J. W. Conger, president . 50 1,800 475 C. F. Bizzell . 51 1,500 60 50 J. T. Perigo, president . 52 5, 000 600 1,000 0 375 A. C. Miller, president . 53 7,499 465 375 775 C. E. Houghton . 54 100 Mrs. T. W. M. Boone, vice- 55 president. •800 375 1, 185 ' 175 B. W. Torreyson . 56 10; 203 500 J. L. Holloway, superin- 57 tendent. 200 50 35 $500 58 59 4,080 0 1,076 0 9,000 Miss Elizabeth Cave . 60 61 500 300 3, 000 250 Miss Lottie Schultice . 62 500 M. F. Sheroweeke . 63 Alex. C. Hull, secretary of 64 state. 10, 000 250 $400 1 , 050 P. D. English . 65 4,000 15 10 0 Fay Hempstead, grand sec- 66 retary. " 30 3,304 E. P. Beers . 67 200 68 69 1,031 160 300 500 500 J. C. Corbin, president . 70 1,600 M. Weimer, principal . 71 72 73 200 20 500 Rev. P. Luke Hess, O. S. B ... 74 75 76 2, 057 1,123 131, 718 6, 410 6,410 F. B. Graves . 77 198 438 Eva M. Fabens, assistant sec- 78 retary. 0 159 50 135 L. K. Grimm, principal . 79 2,610 1,800 1,800 8,000 S. E. Bedinger . 80 100 0 C. C. Childress . 81 125 82 300 30 2, 418 50 50 E. H. Mosher, principal . 83 300 150 2', 500 70 50 170 Allyn O. Taylor, M. A . 84 P. R. Boone," principal . 85 200 250 Edith Bridge . 86 205 $1, 000 Wm. A. Caldwell . 87 400 1,144 58, 349 5,931 5, 931 D. R. Moore . 88 13, 000 3; 476 40 ; 000 9,940 12, 940 50, 000 50. 000 J. E>. Layman, assistant li- 89 brarian. 0 34 100 . 50 50 F. J.Gundry . 90 850 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 (> 7 8 9 CALIFORNIA — COn. 91 Centerville . Grammar School . 1850 Sch . F. B. 1 300 92 Chico . Chico Library and Free Read- 1879 Gen . R. B. S. B. 1,722* ing Room. 93 . do _ State Normal School . 1890 Sch T Fr. B 8 500* 94 Claremont . Pomona College . Col . C. S. B. 3 300 95 College Park . University of the Pacific _ 1852 Col . C. F. B. 5’ 691 96 Colton . District School Library . 1880 Sch . T. F B. 1 184 97 . do . San Salvador District School. 1866 Sch . T. F. B. 1 045 98 Colusa . Public School Library . Sch . T. Fr. C. 1 000 99 Coronado . Coronado Beach Library _ 1895 Gen . T. S. B. 1 600 100 Dixon . Public School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1 ^00 101 Eureka . Free Library . ! . 1879 Gen . R. T. F. C. 3,600 102 Fresno . . do . 1892 Gen . R. T. F. B. 5, GOO 103 . do . Public High School . 1S91 Sch . T. F. B. 1,032 104 . do . Teachers’ Library of Fresno 1892 Gen . C. Fr. R. 1 000 County. 105 Gilroy . Public School Library . 1888 Sch . T. F. B. 2 000 106 Golden Gate . . do . 1 . . Sch _ T. Fr. B. 1,000 107 Grass Valley . Public High School . 1856 Sch _ T. Fr. B. 2,000 108 Hanford . Free Public Library . 1891 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1 000 109 Hayward . Laurel District Library . Sch _ T. F. B. 2,400 110 Healdsburg . Healdsburg College . Sch . 1 _ C. Fr. B. 1.000 111 . do . Public Librarj7- . 1896 Gen . . T. F. R. l' 575I 112 . do . Public School Library . 1860 Sell _ T. Fr. B. 1,200 113 Hollister . Free Public Library. . . 1875 Gen . O. B. S. B. 2, 085 114 Hueneme . Public and School Library... 1894 Sch . T. F. B. 1,600 115 Livermore . Free Public Library . 1S96 Gen . O. C. F. B. 4,016 116 . do . Public School Library . 1875 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 117 Long Beach . Public Library . 1896 Gen . s B. L 870 118 Los Angeles _ Historical Society of South- 1883 Hist . c. Fr. R. 1,350 ern California. 119 . do . Law Library of Los Angeles 1S91 Law . c. S. B. 8,000 County. 120 . do . Los Angeles Military Acad- 1883 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,587 emy. 121 . do . Occidental College Library . . 1896 Col . c. F. B. 2,000 190 . -do . Public High School . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1,342 123 . do . Public Library . 1872 Gen . T. F. B. 54, 535 124 . do . St. Vincent’s College . 1870 Col . c. Fr. R. 3, 050 125 . do . State Normal School . 1882 Sch . T. Fr. B. 8, 856 126 Los Angeles Uni- University of Southern Cali- 1884 Col . C. Fr. B. 4,300 versity Station. fornia. 127 Los Gatos . Public Library . 1898 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,200 128 Martinez . Novitiate of the Brothers of Sch . C. Fr. B. 5; 000 the Christian Schools. 129 Marysville . City Library . 1859 Gen . O. T. F. B. 6, 788 130 . do . College of Notre Dame . 1856 Col . C. S. B. 1,200 131 Mills College . Sage Library, Mills College . . Col . 0. F. B. 5, 600 132 Modesto . Public School Library* . Sch . T. F. B. 1,205 133 Mount Eden Eureka School District . Sch . T. Fr. B. ■ 1,000 134 Mount Hamilton . Lick Observatory . 1888 Scien . C. F. R. 9,100 135 Murphys . Public School Library . 1855 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 136 Napa . Central District School Li- Seh . T. F. B. 1,000 brary. 137 . do . Free Public Library * . 1885 Gen . T. F. B. 5.092 138 National City . Public Library . 1896 Gen . T. F. B. 1,900 139 Nevada Citv . Odd Fellows’ Library . 1858 Gen . C. Fr. B. 3,000 140 New Almaden. . . . Hill District School . Seh . T. F. B. i;iei 141 Nordhoff . George Thacher Memorial 1893 Gen . O. C. F. B. i; 230 Free Library. 142 . do . Public School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 143 Oakland . Bay School District . Sch . T. F. B. 1,400 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 951 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — - Continued. bJ) *Ph tsoA Receipts. 0 A Pamphlets. Volumes added du the year. Boohs issued durin year for home us From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or oity. Total income. Permanent em ment fund. Value of library b ings. Name of librarian. 10 11 12 13 14 15 1«> 1 7 18 180 400 $50 $50 H. W. Lynch, principal . 67 1,178 180 386 Mary P. Hendricks, superin¬ tendent. 236 500 500 850 1, 025 F. A. Bissell . W. A. Augrom . . . Joseph P. Jackson, superin¬ tendent. Kate Sullivan . 130 20 60 21 21 50 591 35 35 John E. Hayman . 190 9, 850 600 360 485 Mrs. C. M. Crandall . 0 25 50 James E. Zumwalt . 100 13, 410 38, 678 1,547 2, 209 1 54? W. G. Bonner . 710 150 2,922 340 500 165 120 C. L.McLane . 150 200 200 Theo. Madson, deputy superintendent. A. L. Jones, principal . 100 2,000 300 50 20 70 50 50 200 1,500 4,000 600 800 Laura A. Lemon . 400 350 350 Wm, M. Greenweli . 1 . . | 1,250 300 323 5, 009 1 , 216 560 571 H. R. Bull, secretary . 100 . do . 1,104 95 1,382 180 304 Miss Elizabeth Bowden . . . . 40 Chas. F. Blackstock, princi¬ pal. Mrs. S. .T. Harp . 19 9, 640 800 0 530 $500 70 50 50 II. C. Petray, principal . 174 95 5, 580 90 Lila G. Castle . 4,656 15, 000 582 65 0 150 J. M. Guinn . 600 4, 625 T. W. Robinson . S. A. Hooper, headmaster . . . Guy W. Wadsworth, presi¬ dent. Gertrude Henderson . 500 1,000 20 12 5 185 192 5, 842 385, 218 26, 007 I, ot>3 28, 581 Mary L. Jones . . 600 Rev. J. A. Linn, president... Elizabeth H. Fargo, assist¬ ant librarian. Mrs. D. A. Crowell 200 832 21, 436 1,000 1,000 6,800 1,500 165 5,000 435 435 F. W. Hazen . Brother Edward 273 Mary F,. Rubers . . 200 Sisters of Not.re Damp. 500 105 39 39 Frank DeTinis, clerk 260 5,500 50 James E. Keeper, director. . . W. D. Spencer . . . 60 1,369 50 150 6.014 591 632 500 75 1,500 J. C. Rich 49 49 E. T. Tregoning, clerk _ Tallin, n F, Soule . 90 1,530 200 400 144 50 Clara TT Smith 100 80 70 50 50 J. A. Verqon . 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 108 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 ill 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 13S 139 140 141 142 143 952 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 183 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 CALIFORNIA— Con. Oakland . Birdie Bell, Boys and Girls’ 1898 Soc . O. C. F. B. 1,000 Library. . do . California College Library... 1887 Col . C. Fr. B. 3 280 I . do . Conyent, of Our Lady of the 1868 Sch . c. S. B. 1,444 Sacred Heart. . do . Free Public Library . 1868 Gen . O. T. F. B. 30, 000 . do . Gilson’s Normal and Special 1888 Sch . c. F. R. 1,100 Training School. . do . Pacific Theological Seminary 1869 Theo . c. F. R. 7 580 S . do . St. Mary’s College * . Col . c. s B. 10, 000 Ontario . Public Library . 1889 Gen . c. s. B. 1, 624 . do . Public School Library* _ Sch . T. F. B. 1 404 Orange . District School Library . 1886 Sch . T. Fr. C. 1, 000 . do . Free Public Library . 1885 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2,476 Oroville . Public School Library . 1870 Sell . T. F. B. 1,349 Oxnard . San Pedro District Library. Seh . T. F. B. 1, 200 Palo Alto . Free Public Library . 1897 Gen . R. C. F. B. 1,587 Pasadena . Classical School for Bovs... Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 . do . Classical School for Girls .... 1890 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1 , 192 . do . Public High School . 1888 Sch . T. Fr. R. 3,249 . do . Public Library . 1883 Gen . O. T. F. B. 15, 500 . do . Throop Polytechnic Institute 1891 Gen . C. F. B. 2,000 Penryn . District School Library . 1870 Sch . T. F. c. 1,000 Petaluma . . do . Sch . T. F. B. 1,070 . do . Free Public Library* . 1867 Gen . T. F. B. 6', 835 Placerville . Neptune Library . 1854 Gen . C. Fr. R. 1,500 Pomona . .. . . . Public High School . 1890 Seh . T. F. B. 1,000 . do . Public Library . 1887 Gen . R. T. s. B. 5, 500 Portola . School District Library Sch . T. F B. 1,000 Red Bluff . Academy of Our Lady of 1884 Sch . C. F. R. L000 Mercy. Redlands . A. K. Smiley Public Library. 1894 Gen . O. T. F. B. 5,532 . do . Lugonia Public School Sch . T. F. B. 1,250 . do . School District Library . 1885 Sch . T. F. B. l’ 402 Redwood City .... . do . . . 1880 Seh . T. Fr. B. T 500 Riverside . Free Public Library . 18S9 Gen . R. T. F. B. 11, 164 . do . Riverside County Law Li- 1893 Law . T. Fr. R. 1,000 brarv. Rocklin . School District Library . 1860 Sch . T. F. B. 1,440 Ross . Ross Landing District School. 1880 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 Sacramento . California State Library . 1852 State . T. F R. 113, 600 . do . . Free Public Library . 1857 Gen . O. T. F. B. 28 j 095 . do . Sacramento Institute Library 1876 Sch . C. F. R. 1, 500 St. Helena . Free Public Library . 1879 Gen . T. F. B. 1, 770 Salinas . i... District School Library* Sch . T. F. B. 1,042 . do . Odd Fellows’ Library . 1888 I.O. O. F.. C. S. C. 4,500 San Anselmo . San Francisco Theological 1871 Theo . C. Fr. R. 11,815 Seminary. San Bernardino . . Public Library . 1891 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4,814 San Diego . Free Public Library . 1880 Gen . O. T. F. B. 15, 892 . do . Puolic High School _ 1885 Sch . T. F. B. 1,125 . do . San Diego County Law Li- 1892 Law . rn F. R. 2, 893 brarv. ~ . do . School District Library . Sch . R. T. F. B. 4,600 . do . State Normal School . 1898 Sch . T. F. R. 2,078 San Francisco _ Astronomical Society of the 1889 Scien . C. S. B. 1,116 Pacific. . do . Bancroft Library . Hist . O. C. Fr. R. 50, 000 . do . Bar Association of San Fran- 1884 Law . R. C. S. R. 5, 500 cisco. . do . Bibliotheque de la Ligue Na- 1876 Soc . R. c. s. B. 21, 635 tionale Franqaise. * Statistics of 1895-96. 953 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. From taxation. _ Appropriations — o State, county, 2. or city. 21 1 C/2 • 1 Total income. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. 1 0 1 1 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 400 125 $250 . $2, 000 Marietta L. Stow . 300 65 315 75 J. T. Wallace . 31 50 Sister M. Symphorosa, secre- tary. 151,000 SI 7, 141 17,751 70, 000 Charles S. Greene . 46 50 J. C. Gilson . _ 249 R. R. Lloyd . . 72 4, 654 352 K. A. Monroe . . 325 50 50 - • Lewis Grubb . 291 10, 237 400 474 . . Anna O. Field . o 124 770 $62 62 . ! George E. Springer . 145 300 125 125 R. B. Havdock . 508 12, 158 220 1, 124 Julia R. Gilbert, chairman .. Adele Roth, teacher . 50 274 150 150 Jas. J). Graham, supervising principal. 500 2, 000 85, 162 7, 063 7, 410 30, 000 Miss N. M. Russ. . . 200 Mrs. Theo. Coleman . 50 200 N. B. Lardner, trustee . Chas. E. Putnam, principal. 500 F. F. Barss . 500 50 2,000 300 84 384 Frank H. Hyatt, supervising principal. 1,700 250 18, 956 1,500 1 , 800 E. P. Bartlett . Mary E. Shine, teacher . 20 Sisters of Mercy . 735 380 31, 646 2,630 2,889 30, 000 Antoinette M. Humphreys. . 100 1,000 50 50 102 Prof. D . C. Reed _ * _ . . . _ 2, 000 60 50 110 F. A. Wagner . 0 140 3' 470 50 50 F. S. Rosseter, principal _ 692 59, 426 3, 804 3,804 Grace Mansfield, acting li- brarian. 300 500 1,100 James Mills, secretary . 118 50 50 P. J. Freeman, trustee . 50 25 •235 50 50 Margrette M. Curran, teacher 4,395 44, 693 44, 693 ,T. L. Gillis . 1 . ! 3,800 1,697 86, 354 7, 834 8i 088 12, 500 L. W. Riplev . 300 60 Brother Veilesian . 3,912 484 503 Miss Louisa Thompson . 1,000 100 1, 300 260 W. H. Clark . 3, 500 87 257 Prof. Thos. F. Day . 425 26, 055 1,465 2, 270 Miss Carrie S. Waters . 1 , 200 1,051 78 j 597 5, 851 6,321 50, 000 Mary E. Walker . 50 R000 90 90 Katherine Lynch . 43 445 445 R. H. Sheldon, secretary _ 100 200 200 F. P. Davidson, superintend- ent. 300 1,248 1,393 1,393 Samuel T. Black, president. 74 F. R. Zeil . A . Paul Bancroft . Geo. J. Martin . 1,600 500 15, 702 1,621 Maurice Raimond . 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 1.55 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 954 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public, society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 (3 7 8 9 CALIFORNIA — COn. 19(3 San Francisco _ B’nai Brith Library . 1865 Gen . B c. Fr. B. 10, 525 197 . do . Bohemian Club Library . 1872 Gen . B. c. S. R. 5, 801 198 . do . California Academy of Sci- 1853 ' Scien . c. Fr. R. 10, 100 ences. 199 . do . California State Mining Bu- 1880 State . B. T. F. R. 6,000 reau. 200 . do . Chamber of Commerce . 1850 Mer . B. c. F. R, 1 , 600 201 _ do . College of Notre Dame . Sch . c. Fr. R. 2, 000 202 . do . Cooper Medical College . Med . c. F. R. 3, 7* >3 203 . do . First New Jerusalem Church. 1853 Theo . c. F. B. i ; 5oo 204 . do . Geographical Society of the 1881 Scien . B. c. S. R. 4,580 Pacific. 205 _ do . Girls’ High School . Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,474 206 . .do _ Grand Lodge, F. and A. M _ Masonic . . c. 8. R. 2, 000 207 . do . Hahnemann Hospital Col- 1S99 Med . C. Fr. R, 2; 000 lege. 208 do . Hamlin School . Sch . c. Fr. B. L000 209 . .do . Irving Institute . 1877 Sch . B. C. F. B. 18' 023 210 . do . Ladies’ Sodality of St. Igna- 1870 Soc . c. F. c. 3, 000 tius Church. 211 . do . Law Library, Southern Pa- Law . B. c. Fr. R. 12, COO cific Company. 212 . do . Mariners’ Free Beading Gen . c. F. R. 1,000 Boom. 213 .do Mechanics’ Institute . 1855 Gen . 0 c. S. B 100, 170 214 . do . Medical Department of the 1S97 Med . c. F. R. 1,762 University of California. 215 . clo . Medical Society of San Fran- Med . B. c. F. R. 1,247 cisco Countv. 216 . do . Mercantile Library . 1852 Mer . c. s. B. 75, 000 217 . do . Mills Building Law Library . 1892 Law . c. Fr. R. 10, 000 218 . do . Notre Dame College . Col . c. g. B. 1,600 219 San Francisco Presidio Post Library . Gar . T. F. B. L000 (Presidio). 220 San Francisco _ Public School Teachers’ Li- Sch . T. Fr. B. 3, 000 brary. 221 . do . Sacred Heart Academy . 1887 Sch . C. Fr. R. 3,000 9.99. . do . Sacred Heart College . 1872 Sch . c. S. B. 2, 000 223 . .do . St. Ignatius College . 1857 Col . c. s. R. 30, 686 224 . do . St. Vincent’s School . 1854 Sch . c. Fr. C. 2,000 225 . do . San Francisco Law Library. . 1865 Law . c. S. R. 38, 000 226 . do . San Francisco Microscopical 1872 Scien . R. c. s. It. 2,000 Society. 227 . do . San Francisco Public Library 1879 Gen . T. F. B. 126, 274 228 . do . San Francisco Verein Library 1852 Soc . C. Fr. B. 3,500 229 . . .do . Society of California Pioneers 1880 Soc . c. Fr. B. 4, 900 230 . do . Supreme Court Librarv . 1868 Law . B. T. Fr. B. 18, 000 231 . do . Sutro Library . . Sc-ien . R. C. Fr. T> 200,000 232 . do . Theosopliical Society of San Scien . R. C. F. B. 2, 000 Francisco. 233 . do . W ells-Fargo Library Associa- 1S90 Soc . C. Fr. B. 3, 100 tion. 234 . do . West’s (Miss) School for Girls. Sch . C. F. R. 1 , 355 235 . do . Young Men’s Christian Asso- 1853 Y.M. C. A. C. S. R. 2,000 ciation. 236 San J ose . College of Notre Dame . 1851 Col . C. S. B. 7,000 237 . do . Free Public Library . 1880 Gen . T. F. B. 13, 559 238 . do . St. Joseph’s Academy . 1886 Sch . C. F. B. 6,000 239 . do . San Jose Law Library . 1876 Law . T. S. B. 3,500 240 . do . State Normal School . 1862 Sch . T F. B. 7,000 241 San Juan . Free Public Librarv . 1896 Gen . T. Fr. B. 1,000 242 San Luis Obispo . . . do . 1894 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,800 243 San Mateo . Church Divinity School of 1893 Theo . C. Fr. R. 3,000 the Pacific. 244 . do . Public Library . 1S99 Gen . T. F. B. 4, 878 955 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. bo P o> £ Receipts. o ^5 P Pamphlets. Volumes added di the year. Books issued durir year for home u From taxation. Appropriations— State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent en ment fund. 3 . Fh <73 rQ bo *r~] r« <4— l o p p > Name of librarian. 10 11 12 13 14 15 1G 17 18 24, 000 81, 750 87 T. J. Aschhem, secretary _ 41. B. Rathbone, assistant 3,000 29 373 secretary. E. A. Mclllriach, assistant secretary. Van W. Jacobs . 500 30 95 E. Scott . 5, 000 100 789 David M. Belfrage . A. W. Manning . 5,770 0 43 0 T. F. Trenor . “ . 759 1,000 Elisha Brooks, principal .... 100 20 James W. Ward, M. D., dean. Sarah D. Hamlin . 500 20 542 Rev. Ed. B. Church, A. M., principal. P. M. A. Maussang . 0 300 1,082 S. McBirney . 15 H. F. Eden . 3, 748 153, 613 26, 776 $300, 000 Frederick J. Teggart . 800 350 ' 700 Philip N. Jones, M. D . 15 1,433 George H. Evans . 25, 000 W. R. Williams . 3, 632 130 100 50 Cant. F. D. Evans . 100 100 100 403 Brother Florinus . . . 7, 927 533 600 H. Jmoda, S. J . Sister Eugenia, principal. . . . 1,003 $3, 240 9,987 450 James H. Peering . 200 '200 0 Wm. E. Lov, secretary . 5,000 10, 315 638, 250 53, G09 55, 791 George T. Clark . . . 150 25 J. I. Spear, secretary . 700 Benj. Edson . 5 100 H. H. Somers . 150 19,142 2, 150 J.B. Storall . 45 20 Mary B. West . 0 0 F. A. Jackson, assistant sec¬ retary. Sister M. Bernardine . 200 200 340 971 74, 748 4,831 4, 927 Nellie Egan . C. A. Barchi, S. J . $600 600 Ruth Royce . 125 219 Lottie B. Regan . 3,160 265 8, 223 703 751 Mrs. Frances M. Milne . 500 James Otis Lincoln . 606 4,878 5, 430 472 266 1,507 C. H. Kirkbride . 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 203 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 956 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2, 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 CALIFORNIA — COn. 245 San Mateo . Public School Library . Sch . T. F. R. 2,000 246 . clo . St. Matthew’s School . 1866 Sch . C. F. B. 1,000 247 San Quentin . Prison Library . Asy . T. F. C. 4 000 248 San Rafael . Dominican College Library.. 1889 Col . C. F. R. 5,500 249 .do . Free Library . 1887 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4,138 250 Santa Ana . Free Public Library . 1891 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3,341 251 . do . ' . Orange County Teachers’ Li- 1889 Sch . T. F. B. 2,100 brarv. 252 . do . Public High School Library. . Sch . T. F. B. 3,532 253 . . .do . Santa Ana School Library . . . 1888 Sch . T. F. B. 2,300 254 Santa Barbara. . . . Free Public Library . 1882 Gen . O. T. F. B. 13, 190 255 _ .do . Public High School . 1892 Sch . T E. B. 1,000 256 . do . Santa Barbara School . 1891 Sch . T. F. B. 3,000 257 . do . Society of Natural History . . . 1876 Soc . C. Fr. B. 3,000 258 Santa Clara . Santa Clara College . 1851 Col . c. Fr. R. 17, 000 259 Santa Cruz . Free Library . 1870 Gen . R. T. F. B. 15, 000 2C0 . do . Public School Library . Sch . T. F. R. 1,250 261 Santa Monica .... Public Library . 1890 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4,768 262 Santa Rosa . Free Public Library . Gen . T. F. B. 9,050 263 . do . Pacific Methodist College. . . . 1862 Col . C. F B. 2,000 264 . do . Public School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 2,750 265 Sausalito . District School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 266 Sierra Madre . Public Library . 1886 Gen . O. C. S. B. 1,400 267 Soldiers’ Home _ Pacific Branch, N. H. D. V. S. . 1890 Gar . C. F. B. 2,656 268 Sonoma . Sonoma Valley Union High 1891 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 School. 269 South Pasadena .. Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1 900 270 Stanford Univer- Stanford University Library . 1892 Col . O. C. F. R. 35, 000 sity. 271 Stockton . Free Public Library . 1880 Gen . O. T. F. B. 30, 642 272 _ do . Public High School . Sch . T. F. R. 8,000 273 . do . San Joaquin County Law Li- 1894 Law . T. F. R. 2, 000 brary. * 274 Tom ales . District School Library . Sch . T. F. R. 1,000 275 Truckee . Public School . 1892 Sch . T. F. R. 1,000 276 Tulare . Free Public Library . 1882 Gen . T. S. B. 2, 893 277 . do . Public High School Library. . Sch . TL F. B. 1,460 278 Tustin . Public School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,117 279 University . University of Southern Cali- Col . C. E. R. 4; 000 fornia. 280 Vacaville . District School Library . Sch . T. S. B. 1,150 281 Vallejo . Free Public Library . 1885 Gen . R. TV F. B. 4, 000 989 . do . Public School . Sch . T. Fr. B. l' 391 283 Ventura . Free Public Library . 1872 Gen . O. T. Fr. R 3,110 284 Waterman . Preston School of Industry . . 1895 Gen . C. Fr. B. l’ 200 285 Watsonville . District School Library . Sch . T. F. R. 1,123 286 . do . Public Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. Fr. B. 2,369 287 Whittier . Whittier State School . State . T. Fr. B. 2,600 288 Woodland . Free Library . 1892 Gen . T. Fr. B. 5, 000 COLORADO. 289 Aspen . Miners’ Athletic Association . 1895 Gen . R. C. S. C. 1,038 290 . do . Public High School . 1885 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 291 Boulder . McKenzie Library . 1890 Sch . C. Fr. R. 1,547 292 . do . Public Library arid Reading 1895 Gen . R. C. S. B. 1,000 Room. 293 . do . University of Colorado, 1877 Col . T. Fr. B. 22, 200 Buckingham Library. 294 Canon City . Ladies’ Library Association. . 1886 Gen . O. C. F. B. 5, 000 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 957 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. U) 0 O) r~j +■* o3 too cc Receipts. o T3 2 Pamphlets. Volumes added di the year. Books issued durin year for home u From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent en ment fund. pO Cw & w O 0> 0 > Name of librarian. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 500 100 1,000 $50 $100 Geo. W. Hall, principal . ' 100 VV. A. Brewer, "rector . 500 24, 000 A. Drahms, chaplain . Mother Louis.." . . 251 18, 949 21,829 421 $1,996 1,188 2, 028 Albert N. Boyen, secretary. . Kate I. Garnett . 243 136 l' 261 100 314 446 J. P. Greeley, superintend¬ ent. H. R. Gardner . 0 280 1,232 269 100 239 J. C. Templeton . 496 41, 317 3,400 3,400 $12, 000 Mrs. M. C. Rust . 0 2,000 1,000 1,000 William A. Wilson, superin¬ tendent. I). Gregorson, secretary . 2,500 650 20 16 45 400 James M. O’Sullivan . 1,500 1,000 60,000 3,000 3,250 D. C. Clark, secretary . 100 D. C. Clark, principal . 572 27, 281 1,675 1,708 Elfie A. Mosse _ "..... . 162 1,890 1,890 Anna Bertha Ivumli . 500 50 G. H. Wilkinson, Ph. B., 400 president. E. M. Cox, supervising prin¬ cipal. .Tames B. Davidson, teacher. John Geo. Blumer, president W. G. Wheeler . 125 50 $50 50 80 119 3, 000 18, 108 25 . Benj. Weed, principal . 250 8, 344 896 901 Nellie E. Keith . 10, 000 5,000 15, 000 8, 188 457 150,000 A. V. Babine . 3,285 1,266 89, 982 7,248 75, 000 W. F. Clowdslev . 146 311 James A. Barr, "city superin¬ tendent. F. E. Dunlop, secretary. . 600 50 .... 50 0 50 600 50 50 C. F. McGlashan, trustee _ J. Wolf rom, secretary . 500 4 3,563 660 944 78 359 50 50 C. N. Mills, principal . 3, 000 0 27 400 50 50 D. Jeannette Levings _ .... 0 100 20, 000 1, 565 1,630 A. S. Halliday . 0 131 J. J. Rippetoe, supervising principal. F. Vandeveer . 10, 183 1,742 0 871 10, 000 250 D. S. Hirshberg, superin¬ tendent. Irving Townsend, principal. Belle M. Jenkins . 50 210 50 109 250 226 14, 603 951 988 0 0 0 Mabel Smith . 500 7, 500 1, 000 677 682 Mrs. A. Wallace . '8 17 Henrv Gilbert . 42 17 F. J. Brownscombe, super¬ intendent. Theo. C. Hamm . 0 113 366 110 50 3,000 600 670 0 Mrs. Clara II. Savory . 5, 000 Alfred E. Whitaker . 150 12, 580 344 Mrs. H. C. Webster . 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 958 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. ! Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 COLORADO — cont’d. 295 Canon City . . Penitentiary Librarv * . Asv . T F. C. 3,043 296 . do . Public High School Library. . 1870 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,000 297 Colorado City . Woods Free Library . Gen . R. T. S. B. 1,415 298 Colorado Springs . Colorado College, Cobprn 1880 Col . O. C. S. B. 25, 000 Library. 299 . do . Free Library and Reading 1885 Gen . R. T. F. B. 6,000 Room Association. 300 . do . Public High School Librarv.. Sch . T. Fr. B. 5,000 301 Del Norte _ Presbvterian College of the 1883 Gen . c. Fr. R. 2, 600 Southwest. 302 Denver . College of the Sacred Heart.. 1885 Col . C. Fr. R. 10, 000 303 . do . Colorado Scientific Society. . . 1882 Soc . R. C. F. R. 2,000 304 . do . Colorado State Library . 1861 State . T. F. R. 15, 000 305 . do . Denver Law School Library. . 1893 Law . C. F. R. 3,000 306 . do . Diocesan Library, Mat- 1872 Theo . c. F. R. 10, 000 thews Hall. 307 . do . Equitable Life Assurance Law . C. F. B. 6,500 Society’s Law Library. 308 . do . Ernest and Cranmer Law 1S90 Law . c. T"1 B. 10, 000 Library. 309 . do . Manual Training High 1894 Sch . T. F. R. 2,000 School Reference Library. 310 Denver High- North Side High School . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1,600 lands Station. 311 Denver . Northwestern Library Com- Gen . T. Fr. B. 10, 000 pany. 312 . do . Public High School (Dis- 1874 Sch . T. Fr. R. 3,000 trict No. 1). 313 . do . Public High School (Dis- Sch . T. Fr. R. 2,871 trict No. 2). 314 . do . Public Library of the City 1886 Gen . E. T. F. B. 75, 000 of Denver. 315 . do . Schleier Law Library . 1897 Law . C. S, B. 7,000 316 . do . State Historical and Nat- 1879 Hist . T. Fr. B. 9, 000 ural History Society of Colorado. 317 . do . Supreme Court Library . 1861 Law . T. F. R. 12, 000 318 . do . West Denver High School . . . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. 5, 000 319 . do . . . Wolfe Hall . T . Sch . C. F. B. 1,200 320 . do . Young Men’s Christian As- 1880 Y.M.C.A. R. c. S. B. V250 sociation. 321 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library, Denver 1891 Y. M.C.A. R. c. S. B. 1,400 and Rio Grande R. R. De- partment. 322 Durango . Ladies’ Library Association.. 1890 Gen . c. Fr. B. 2,000 323 Fort Collins . Agricultural College . 1880 Col . c. Fr. B. 9,972 324 . do . Public High School Library . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 325 . do . Public Library and Reading 1900 Gen . R. T. Fr. R. 1,105 Room. 326 Golden . State School of Mines . 1876 Col . T. F. B. 4,400 327 Grand Junction .. Public High School Library . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 328 Greeley . Public Library . 1885 Gen . C. S. B. 3,500 329 . do . Colorado State Normal School 1891 Sch . T. Fr. B. 15, 000 330 Idaho Springs .... Public High School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,100 331 . do . . . Public Library . 1898 Gen . C. S. C. 1,349 332 La Junta . Young Folks’ Library . 1888 Gen . c. F. B. 10, 000 333 Leadville . Public School Library . Sch . T. Fr. R. 2,000 334 Monte Vista . Library Association . 1884 Gen . C. S. B. 2,000 335 Ouray . Lincoln Memorial Public Li- 1897 Gen . C. Fr. B. 1,200 brarv. 336 Pueblo . Central Block Law Library.. 1892 Law . C. F. R. 2,540 337 . do . Grand Opera House Law Li- 1892 Law . C. Fr. B. 1,900 brarv . 338 . do . McClelland Public Library.. 1890 Gen . R. T. Fr. B. 12, 161 * Statistics of 1895-96. 959 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 1 5 1G 17 18 500 1,000 F H. Clark, superintendent. 300 L. D. Lucas . .• . 25, 000 1,400 14, 600 $1, 650 $50, 000 Wm. F. Slocum, president . . . 1,000 35, 694 $2, 700 3,361 Mrs. Susan T. Dunbar . 200 3, 500 3, 629 Margaret McV ety . 100 100 0 James E. Weir . 800 Alex. Dreane, S. J . 1,400 Thomas L. Wilkinson . 3,000 500 '500 Hattie E. Stevenson . 1 , 500 250 0 Lucius W. Hoyt, secretary. . . 1,000 400 0 $2, 500 John F. Spalding, bishop _ Alex. W. Miller, manager . . . 200 H. Whitaker . 250 900 720 Chas. A. Bradley . J110.W. Yeoman . 700 $350 350 Wm. IP. Smiley, principal . . . 6,000 3, 000 265, 070 26, 946 27, 514 Charles R. Dudley . Mary L. Gregory . . Will C. Ferrel, curator . 1,000 0 2, 200 0 Horace G. Clark . . 1,000 400 ' 760 D. C. Greenlee _ _ _ _ M. Kerr, principal . 0 25 G. S. Bilhimer/. . . . 100 1, 600 1,540 2, 704 Le Roy Burdick . 200 150 1,500 354 0 Mrs. B. W. Ritter . 8,000 58 Marguerite E. Stratton . 28 1, 105 873 80 462 1,000 300 E. G. Moody, regent . 500 M. M. Bulkier . 700 350 12, 179 400 505 Mrs. Ettella W. Meeker . 2,000 2, 500 16, 082 1, 364 Joseph F. Daniels . . 3,000 200 Mrs. Nellie G. Hanehett . 700 300 12, 000 Mrs. Laura Leib . 0 250 350 Edward Elliott, superin- tendent. 50 60 500 Mary E. Conant . 300 110 1,800 50 Frances A. Kimball, presi- dent of Woman’s Club. 51 O. W. Mallaby . 1,000 50 1, 200 5V. Keeling . 1,537 3, 500 3, 551 J. W. Chapman . 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 007 OO/ 338 960 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Strdes Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 COLORADO — cont’d. 339 Pueblo . Public High School (Dis- Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,767 trict No. 1) . 340 Salida . Public School Library, Tues- 1894 Seh . T. Fr. B. 1,500 day Evening Club Library. 341 Trinidad . Free Public Librarv . 1882 Gen . R. T. F. B. 8,308 342 University Park . . University of Denver Library . 1864 Gen . C. Fr B. 15, 000 CONNECTICUT. 343 Abington . Social Library . 1793 Gen . O. C. F. C. 1,053 344 Andover . Public Library . 1895 Gen . T F. B. 2,100 345 Ansonia . Ansonia Memorial Librarv . . 1891 Gen . O. T. F B. 6,374 346 . do . Public School Library . 1885 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 500 347 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library ..." . 1886 Y.M.C. A. R. C. S. B. 1,440 348 Berlin . Free Librarv . Gen . O. C. F. B. 2,050 349 Bethlehem . Librarv Association . 1857 Gen . c. S. C. 1,600 350 Black Hall . Black Hall School (Boys) Sch . c. Fr. B. 1, 000 Library. 351 Branford . James Biackstone Memorial 1893 Gen . O. c. F. B. 10, 234 Library. 352 Bridgeport . Park Avenue Institute . Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,500 353 . do . Public High School Library.. 1881 Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,150 354 . do . Public Library and Reading 1881 Gen . O. T. F. B. 34, 870 Room. 355 . do . Sea Side Institute Library ... 1887 Gen . O. c. Fr. B. 1,000 356 . do . University School Library ... 1892 Sch . R. c. Fr. R. 1,000 357 Bristol . Free Public Library . 1892 Gen . O. T. F. B. 8,048 358 . do . Public High School . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. l' 262 359 Brooklyn . Town Librarv Association . . . 1890 Gen . T F. B. 1,863 360 Canaan . Douglas Library . 1821 Gen . O. T. F. B. 4,000 361 Chester . Public Library . 1895 Gen . T. F. C. 2, 405 362 Clinton . Morgan School . Sch . C. Fr. B. 2, 000 363 Colchester . Library Association . 1879 Gen . R. C. S. B. 3' 000 364 Columbia . Free Library . 1882 Gen _ _ _ O. B. F. B. 4,000 365 Cornwall . Library Association . 1869 Gen . C. S. C. 2, 795 Cromwell . Belden Library Association.. 1S89 Gen . T. S. R. R 169 367 Danbury . . . Danbury Library . 1869 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 14^ 411 368 Danielson . Free Public Library . 1892 Gen . R. T. F. B. b, 000 369 . do . Killingly High School . 1880 Sch . T. F. R. R100 370 Derby . Allis’ Circulating Library. . . . 1856 Gen . C. S. C. 4, 100 371 Durham Center . . Durham Public Library ..... 1894 Gen . R. T. F. B. R874 372 East Hartford .... Public Library . 1897 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 3,053 373 . do . Raymond Library . 1885 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 5; 857 374 East River . Fast River Library Company. 1873 Gen . C. s. B. R430 375 East Windsor . Library Association . 1849 Gen . T. s. B. 1,000 376 Ellington . Ellington Library . 1897 Gen . R. C. F. c l’ 490 377 Essex . Public Library . . Gen . 0. C. s. B. Lioo 378 Fairfield . Memorial Library . 1876 Gen . c. F. B. 2, 373 379 . do . Mill Plain Circulating Li- 1871 Gen . c. F. c. i; 556 brary. 380 Falls village . David M. Hunt Library . 1889 Gen . 0. c. S. C. 2,200 381 Farmington . Porter (Miss) and Dow’s Sch . c. F. B. 3; 000 (Mrs.) School Library. 382 _ do . Village Librarv . 1890 Gen . c. i? B. 3,850 383 Granby . Public Library . 1887 Gen . c. F. C. 1, 725 384 Greenwich . Greenwich School . 1894 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,550 385 . do . Reading Room and Library 1876 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 5,500 Association. 386 G riswold . 1 Coit Library Association . 1879 Gen . R. c. F. B. 1,800 387 Groton . Bill Memorial Library . 1888 Gen . c. F. B. 3,630 388 Guilford . Circulating Library . 1872 Gen . c. S. C. 1,267 389 Hampton . Free Public Library . 1896 Gen . T. F. B. 1,700 390 Hartford . American School for the Deaf 1817 Sch . c. F. B. 2,000 961 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBKABIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. to B CD to CZ3 Receipts. £ o d "d Pamphlets. rcs -d % CD'Cj 'd Cj 0) tBrd a d 3 > Books issued durin year for home u From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. j Total income. Permanent en ment fund. rQ c3 s « jh oo MH O 0) 3 > Name of librarian. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 495 50 H. M. Kart . 100 150 $260 Edgar Kesner . Thomas Winsor . 1,500 450 970 508 D. E. Phillips, Ph. D., chair¬ man of library committee. 100 1, 500 100 $1,000 Mrs. Wm. Ingalls . . . 60 1,200 50 $50 2, 500 E. M. Yeomans, secretary _ Anna Hadley . 1, 371 33,836 3,100 25 $1, 000 57, 000 100 30 W. A. Smith, superintendent F. C. Downs, general secre¬ tary. Emily Brandegee . 40 600 90 125 4, 206 150 700 970 G. G. Stone, secretary . * Mrs. Adeline Bartlett Allyn, teacher. T. F. Hammer, treasurer _ 300 1,517 35, 822 13, 875 200, 000 500, 000 0 19 22, 509 22, 509 15, 000 H. D. Simonds, principal _ Agnes Fills . 2,545 134, 209 15, 000 150, 000 Miss C. B. Wheeler . 1,000 100 Vincent C. Peck, head mas- 150 774 34, 822 3,000 3,593 0 10, 000 ter. C. L. Wooding . 111 111 C. A. Gornberg . 158 3, 586 5,500 4,689 100 285 3, 200 2, 300 Preston B. Sibley . 200 304 439 2, 000 156 200 216 Mary E. Denison . 300 73 5, 041 2,300 1,121 1, 013 44, 402 21, 656 138 322 Abby G. Willard, secretary . . A. H. Fox . . 300 85 175 1. 500 2.500 800 384 95 112 Mary J. Whitney . Mrs. Alice M. Peuniman . 252 5, 385 1, 100 40, 000 2, 000 3,000 30, 000 IT. T. Hoyt, secretary . . 285 1,000 Miss Emma C. Hammond 150 A. P. Somes . 0 50 George C. Allis . . 3,800 14, 874 300 300 Gertrude L. Hart. . 482 300 100 400 Jessie W. Hayden . . . 100 432 14', 676 900 300 100 959 10, 000 7,000 9, 000 . do . . . 30 338 Sarn’l H. Chittenden, secre- 6 50 tary. Mrs. S. T. Bissell . 40 147 4, 949 | Elizabeth L. Kibbe . 90 101 J. F. Allison . 100 Emma S. Nichols . 0 13 800 15 Loretta B. Perry . 138 20, 000 10, 000 C. Belle Maltbie . 254 8,490 2, 433 485 2, 970 Lillian E. Root. . 59 123 Mrs. A. E. Edwards _ 0 100 78 Newton B. Hobart, principal 773 13, 678 100 900 25, 000 3,000 10, 000 Charles F. Morgan . 222 6,188 525 Abbie M. Clarke . Shepard fr. Fowler . 75 2, 250 50 50 100 Kate A. Thomnson . Job Williams, principal . ed 1900 - 61 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 363 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 962 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 CONNECTICUT — COn. 391 Hartford . Case Memorial Library of 1834 Theo . 0. C. F. C. 75, S92 Hartford Theological Sera- inary. 392 . do . Connecticut Historical Soc.i- 1825 Hist . c. F. R. 25, 000 ety. 393 . do . Connecticut State Library . Law . T. F. R. 25, 000 394 . do . Good Will Club for Bovs . 1881 Gen . c. F. B. 1 , 800 395 . do . Hartford Bar Library Associ- 1886 Law . c. Fr. T> 3, 500 ation. 39G . do . Hartford Hospital Medical 1859 Med . c. F. R. 2,000 Library. 397 . do . Hartford Medical Society. . . . 1875 Med . c. F. R. 1,500 398 . do . Hartford Retreat for the' In- 1824 Asy . c. Fr. R. 2, 000 sane. 399 . do . Mount St. Joseph’s Seminary. Sch . c. Fr. B. 3,800 400 . do . Public High School . 1847 Sch . T. F. R, 5,000 401 . do . Public Library . 1892 Gen . T. F. B. 67,000 402 . do . State Board of Education.... 1866 Ped . T. F. R. 2, 500 403 . do . Trinity College Library . 1823 Col . c. F. B. 40 ! 736 404 . do . Watkinson Library of Refer- 1858 Gen . 0. C. F. R. 52, 117 ence. 405 . do . Woodside Seminary . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,200 406 Ivory ton . Circulating Library . . . 1871 Gen . . o c S. B. 1,150 407 Jewell City _ Stater Library . 1884 Gen . 0. c F B 3, 515 408 Lakeville. . . . Hotchkiss School . 1892 Sch . c. F. B. 1, 207 409 Lebanon . Buckingham Pastoral Library 1864 Theo . o c Fr R. 1,600 410 _ do . Jonathan Trumbull . 1897 Gen . o T F B L 500 411 Led vard _ _ _ Bill Library . 1867 Gen . 0. c F R 3,470 412 Litchfield . . Center High School . Sch . T Fr. B. 1,050 413 . do . Circulating Library . . . 1870 Gen . c. S. C. 3, 700 414 . do . Wolcott Library . . . 1868 Gen . c. s. B. 1,090 415 Manchester . Public Library . 1895 Gen . . R 0. E. B. 1,259 416 Meriden . Connecticut School for Boys. 1870 Sch . c. F. C. 1,500 417 . do . Public High School . 1885 Sch . T. Fr. R. 3, 000 418 . do . Public Library . 1889 Gen . R. t! F. B. 2, 885 419 _ do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1866 Y.M. C.A. c. s. B. 8^ 000 420 Middlefield . Levi E. Coe Library Associa- 1893 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 2,720 tion. 421 Middletown . Berkeley Divinity School Li- 1854 rrfieo . c. Fr. B. 30, 000 brarv. 422 . do . Connecticut Hospital for In- 1875 Asy . T. F. C. 3, 347 sane. 423 . do . Connecticut Industrial Asy . TL Fr. R. 1,500 School for Girls.* 424 . do . Russell Free Library . 1875 Gen . c. F. B. 13, 950 425 . do . Wesleyan University Library 1833 Col . o. c. s. B. 58. 000 426 Milford . Taylor Library . 1894 Gen . o T. F. B. 9,200 427 Moodus . East Haddam Public Library. 1888 Gen . R. B. F. B. 4,730 428 Moosup . . Aldrich Free Public Library. 1895 Gen . 0. 0. F. B. 1,495 429 Mvstic . Mvstic and Noank Library/. . 1892 Gen . c. S. C. 5, 000 430 . do . Mystic Valley English and 1868 Sch . c. F. C. 1,000 Classical Institute. 431 Naugatuck . Howard Whittemore Memo- 1SS8 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 6,760 rial Library. 432 New Britain . New Britain institute Library 1853 Gen . R. c. S. B. 19, 598 433 . do . New Britain Normal School . Sch . T. F. B. 7, 398 434 . do . Public High School . Sell . T. F. R. 1,050 435 New Canaan . Circulating Library . 1885 Gen . T. F. B. 2,088 436 New Haven . American Oriental Society _ 1842 Soc . C. Fr. B. 5, 700 437 . do . Free Public Library . . 1886 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 48, 950 438 . do . Hill house High School . 1856 Sch . T. Fr. R. 3, 500 439 . do . Hopkins Grammar School . . . Sch . C. Fr. R. 1,000 * Statistics of 1895-96- 963 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRAEIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. From taxation. Appropriations— g State, county, S or city. "5" Total income. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. io 11 12 13 14 1 5 16 17 18 39, 355 3,921 4, 532 $2, 418 $100, 000 Alfred T. Perry . 25, 000 749 0 $1,000 2, 7S6 $17, 035 Albert C. Bates . 1,223 4, 200 4,200 Geo. S. Godard, assistant State Librarian. 40 Miss PI. M. Bundy . 8300 300 1,700 J. W. Wolven . . . . . B. S. Gilbert . 50 F. .T. Simpson . . 2(4 300 5, 000 H. P. Stearns, M. L> . 100 Katherine Burbank . 5, 692 207, 695 10, 500 . 15, 317 Caroline M. Plewins . 26, 335 1,054 744 2,000 28. 100 Wm.N, Carlton . . . 1,463 5, 800 94; 834 100, 000 Frank B. Gay . Sara J. Smith . . . ... 200 960 200 Mrs. Samuel Cheney, super- intendent. 27 7,164 5 Mary Young Brown . H. G. Bu chler . 50 1,300 1,000 Rev. Stephen Smith . 200 230 4,000 100 100 250 Rev. R. E. Turner, president. 22 I. Marion Gray . . . T . Geo. A. Smith, principal . 95 . 200 Mrs. M. J. Buell . " . 1,000 25 58 103 2, 500 . do . . 195 264 0 20(4 5,000 20 20 M. O. Edson . . . . . 250 500 W. .T. Prouty. A. M . 0 633 35, 180 1,000 1,216 Corinne A. Deshon . 200 25 500 C. Hamilton Sarr, general secretary. 235 250 2,906 100 269 5, 000 L. A. Rockwell . 8,000 1, 552 500 Samuel Hart, acting libra- rian. 940 97 550 Chas. W. Page, superintend- ent. 741 37, 000 700 960 20 000 Laura F. Phil brook . 2, 900 7, 045 3 186 54' 000 40 000 Wm J. James . 200 '289 32^ 873 1,000 100 1,169 1, 171 24, 000 W. S. Chase . 440 135 5, 830 300 600 Nellie E. Chaffee . 161 665 6,000 Daniel H. Grover . 216 749 A. A. Murphy . 550 50 '200 75 John K. Bucklyn . 18, 735 2 400 60 000 60 000 Ellen Soencer . 587 667 43, 150 0 0 8,084 100, 000 75, 000 Anna G. Rockwell . 245 Mary E. Goodrich . A lice. A . Belden . 198 7, 800 100 100 220 Miss Martha Silliman. . 4, 000 95 Adrian Van Name . . 5, 874 301, 425 14, 000 17, 840 68, 000 110, 000 Willis K. Stetson . 75 200 200 Blanche E. Thompson . 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 393 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 42S 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 964 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 CONNECTICUT — Con. 440 New Haven . New Haven Colony Histori- 1863 Hist . C. Fr. R. 5,000 cal Society. 441 . do . State Board of Health . 1880 Scien . c. F. B. 1,460 442 . do . State Normal Training School 1893 Sch . T. Fr. R. 8, 493 443 . clo . Yale University Library . 1700 Col . 0. C. Fr. B. 285, 000 444 . do . Classical Club Library . . . Sch . C. Fr. R. 2, 500 445 . do . Dwight Hall Library . Sch . C. fa * Fr. R. 1,000 446 . do . Historical Library of For- 1891 Hist . C. Fr. B. 7, 000 eign Missions. 417 . do . Law School Library . Law . c. TTt* R. 10, 000 418 . do . Linonian Brothers . Soc . c. Fr. R. 22, 000 449 . do . Lowell Mason (church Soc . c. Fr. R. 4, 000 music). 450 . do . Peabody Museum . Gen . c. Fr. R. 7,000 451 . do . Sheffield Scientific, School Scien . c. Fr. R. 5,' 000 452 . do . Theological Department. Theo . c. Fr. R. 12, 000 453 . do . Trowbridge Reference Li- 1870 Theo . 0. c. F. R. 3; 000 brarv. 454 . do . Other departments and Sch . c. Fr. R. 2, 000 seminary libraries. 455 . do . Y. M. C. A. Railroad Depart- 1900 Y.M.C. A. c. F. C. 1,033 ment. 456 . do . Young Men’s Institute . 1826 Gen . 0. c. s. B. 22, 074 457 Newington . Public Library . 1894 Gen . T. F. B. l’ 328 458 New London . New London County Hist or- 1870 Hist . T. S. B. l’ 500 ical Society. 459 . do . Public Library . 1882 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 21 , 000 460 New Milford . Public Library . 1898 Gen . 0. T. F B. 3' 361 461 . do . Rectory School . 1894 Sch . C. F. R. L 000 462 Newtown . Newtown Library . 1876 Gen . R. C. S. R. 3^ 098 463 Norfolk . Public Library . 1889 Gen . O. C. F. B, 11,000 464 Northfield . Gilbert Library . 1892 Gen . C. F. C. 3,200 465 North Granby .... Frederick H. Cossitt Library. 1890 Gen . O. C. F. B. 3; 230 466 North Haven . Memorial Library . 1884 Gen . C. F. B. 2,061 467 Norwalk . Meads (Miss) School for Girls. Sch . C. F. B. 2, 300 468 . do . Public Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. F. B. 6* 136 469 . do . Young Ladies’ Institute . 1882 Sch . C. Fr. R. l’ 200 470 Norwich . Norwich Circulating Library* 1871 Gen . R. C. s C. 8,000 471 . do . Otis Library . 1850 Gen . O. T. F. B. 24' 457 472 . do . Peck Library of the Norwich 1858 Sch . C. Fr. B. ll' 930 Free Academy. 473 Oakdale . Raymond Library . 1884 Gen . O. c. S. B. 2,800 474 Oxford . Oxford Library . 1883 Gen . R. c. F. B. L000 475 Plainville . Free Public Library . 1894 Gen . c. F. C. 2, 030 476 Plymouth . Library Association . 1871 Gen . R. c. Fr. B. 2, 175 477 Pomfret . Pomfret Library . 1882 Gen . c. S. B. 3, 500 478 Portland . Buck Library . 1895 Gen . O. c. F. C. 2,500 479 . do . Central School Library . Sch . T. F. R. l’ 022 480 Putnam . . . Public Library . 18S6 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2, 568 481 Ridgefield . Library Corporation . 1871 Gen . C. S. B. 3,034 482 Rockville . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. lj 500 483 . do . Public Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. F C. 6, 035 484 Roeky Hill _ Library Association . 1794 Gen . O. C. S. B. l’ 374 485 Salisbury . Scoville Memorial Library _ 1894 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 6, 063 486 Saybrook . Acton Library . 1854 Gen . 0. T. S. B. 7,500 487 Scotland . Free Public Library . 1895 Gen . 0. T. F. B. i;i47 488 Seymour . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,200 489 . do . Public Library . 1895 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 2, 000 490 Sharon . Hotchkiss Library . 1893 Gen . C. S. B. 3, 657 491 Shelton . Plumb Memorial Library .... 1892 Gen . 0. T. Fr. B. 4,100 492 Simsbury . Free Library . 1874 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 6,400 * Statistics of 1895-96. 965 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1, GOO volumes and over in I960 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. d .o cZ M +-> a 0 1 m -t-> a pi 2 3 ■•d 0 CS O •f— 1 • ^ 21 2 a3 " in P O < O a 0 0 cZ O H io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 8, 000 1,000 $1, 725 $3, 000 Dwight E. Bowers . 81 213 13, 500 C. A. Lindsley, secretary _ Arthur B. Morrill . 100, 000 43, 000 34, 500 308, 000 $170, 000 Addison Van Name . 2, 000 Prof. George E. Day . 15, 000 160 300 6, 000 20, 000 Frank C. Porter . 1, 033 768 188 800 42, 734 2, 771 2.235 4.235 225 W. E. Fenno, secretary . 50, 000 Wm. Alanson Borden . $125 Lizzie A. Root . Mary E. Benjamin . 2,600 1,500 349 120 150 500 200 72, 183 13, 076 50, 000 20, 000 Mary A. Richardson . Charles H. Noble . 900 1,610 15, 198 100 II. E. Taylor, head master . . . Abbie L. Peck . 2, 175 15, 468 4,400 3,229 400 87 500 25, 000 Harry D. Atwood, assistant librarian. 250 29 400 5,800 3,500 Flora A. Cushman, assistant librarian. Clara E. Bradley . 3, 000 . Mrs. M. E. Mead, principal . . 873 1,363 31,134 2,500 2,737 Miss Cornelia F. Baird, prin- : cipal. 2, 000 800 1,599 89, 559 4,500 6, 412 750 320 57, 923 12, 000 7,000 20, 000 Jonathan Trumbull . It. W. Kent . 160 2,500 Lucy P. Schol field . Wm. W. Hughes . 12 6, 918 3, 500 1,000 200 0 100 183 242 175 297 55 532 555 Grace E. Matthews . 14 3,400 100 2, 500 A. S. Beardsley, president . . . Miss Louise Hoppin, assist¬ ant librarian. Robert S. Mitchell . 75 700 0 0 222 0 0 0 $100 100 55 500 6,000 M. W. Griffin, principal . o 5,075 Emma J . Kinney . . Miss J ennie Smith . 344, 27, 680 40 1,500 42 18,234 201 1.100 500 1,567 503 20, 000 Florence P. Davis . 1,200 Adelaide W. Wright . Della E. Parsons . 125 100 235 125 150 454 183 1,366 750 1,700 300 187 4; 053 25 150 Lisa K. Fuller . L. A. Camp, secretary. . 0 191 3, 054 249 4, 715 400 15, 000 650 6, 400 100 Minnie B* Cotter . Mrs. Florence A. Rvan . 1,300 32, 000 .T Tomlinson, secretary . E. J. McRoy . . 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 965 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. O 4-> o m o XU Sh O o CD Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 CONNECTICUT — COn. 493 Simsbury . . . McLean Seminary . 1876 Sch . C. F. R. 1 300 494 . do . Westminster School . Sch . C. F. R. l' 300 495 South Coventry .. Hale Donation Library . 1804 Theo . c. F. R. l 400 49G . do . Library Association . 1880 Gen . 0. c. S. C. 2, 500 497 South Manchester Free Librarv . 1871 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 5, 552 4S8 . do . Public School, ninth district. . Sch . T. F. B. 7,000 499 South Norwalk _ Public Library and Reading 1891 Gen . T. F. B. 4,336 Room. 500 . do . Roth and Goldschmidt Free 18S7 Gen . C. F. B. 1,500 Library. 501 Southport . Pequot Library . 1894 Gen . O. c. F. B. 18 000 502 Stafford Springs . . Stafford Public Library . 1873 Gen . O. G. F. B. 2, 850 503 Stamford . The Ferguson Library . 1882 Gen . O. c. S. B. 10 358 504 . do . Public High School . 1890 Sch . T Fr. B. 1, 0°2 505 Stonington . Free Library . 1887 Gen . O. C. F. B. 4 145 506 Storrs.- . Connecticut Agricultural 1884 Col . c. F. B. 7, 000 College. 507 Stratford . Librarv Association . 1885 Gen ... o. T. F. B. 7 400 508 Sufiield . Connecticut Literarv Institu- 1832 Sch . C. F. B. 2 000 tion. 509 . do . Free Public Librarv . 1884 Gen ... . 0. T F. B. 4 999’ 510 Talcottville . Talcott Free Library . 1882 Gen . 0. c. F. B. l’ 600 511 Terryville . Free Public Library . 1895 Gen . T. F. B. 1 850 512 Thomaston . Laura Andrews Free Library 1880 Gen . F. R 3, 419 Association. 513 Thompson ville _ Enfield Free Public Librarv. . Gen . T. F. B. 2 351 514 . do . Enfield Public High School.. Sch . T. F. B. 1 800 515 Torrington . Public Hivh School Librarv. . Sch . T. F. B. 4,000 516 . do . Torrington Library Associa- 1865 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 5; 286 tion. 517 Wallingford . Public Library . 1882 Gen . . . 0. T. F. B. 4 870 518 Warehouse Point . Library Association . Gen . C. S. B. 1,000 519 Warrenville . Babcock Library . 1865 Gen . R. c. F. C. 3,700 520 Washington . Reading Room and Circulat- 1880 Gen . c. F. C. 2, 870 ing Library. 521 Waterbury . Convent of Notre Dame . Sch . c. Fr. R. 6,425 522 . do . . . Silas Bronson Library . 1869 Gen . . . 0. c. F. B. 57, 580 523 Watertown . Library Association . 1865 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 8,476 524 Wauregan . Village Library Association. . 1861 Gen . c. S. B. 1,046 525 Westbrook . Public Library . 1895 Gen . T. F. B. l’ 540 526 West Hartford. . . . . do . 1883 Gen . T F. B. 2, 592 527 Westport . Staples High School . 1884 Sch . c. S. R. 3^ 000 528 Westville . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1, 000 529 Wethersfield . Connecticut State Prison . Asy . T. F. C. si 000 530 . do . Free Public Library . 1894 Gen .... C. F. R. 3, 1661 531 Willimantic . Dunham Hall Librarv . 1878 Gen . o. c. F. B. 5, 000 532 . do . Free Public Librarv . Gen . R. T F. B. 5,070 533 . do . State Normal Training School 1889 Sch . T. F. 5, 156 534 . do . Windham High School . Sch . T. F. B. L 500 535 Windsor . Public Library Association _ is88 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,816 536 Winsted . Beardsley Library . 1874 Gen . T. F. B. 8i 500 537 . do . Gilbert School Library . 1895 Gen . C. F. B. 5, 000 538 . do . Y.M.C. A. Library ...'. . 1887 Y. M.C.A. c. F. B. 1, 500 539 Woodstock . Library Association . 1898 Gen . c. S. C. 2, 990 DELAWARE. 540 Dover . Delaware State Librarv . 1S75 Law . T. F. R. 30, 000 541 . do . Scott Literarv Society of 1872 Sch . C. Fr. B. 3, 375 Wilmington Conference Academy. 542 Milford . Milford Librarv . 1882 Gen . R. C. S. B. 1,450 543 Newark . Delaware College . 1834 Col . C. Fr. B. 12, 000 544 . do . Delta Phi Literary Society 1833 Col. Soc. .. O. T. S. R. 1,000 967 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES, of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 I o> 14 15 1-3 17 18 1 000 80 . ! . J. B. McLean, principal . . . W. L. Cushing" . *. . 100 20 $40 $11,000 Rev. H. R. Hoisington . J. M. Isham . 312 14, 636 41 Fred A. Verplanck, superin- . tendent. 20, 755 $1,300 1,433 Angeline Scott . Geo. W. Carroll . 1,841 13, 272 3, 499 37, 000 $75, 000 Josephine 8. Heydrick . 780 ' no 5’ 861 $300 '628 900 8' 000 B.L.'Heald . 1 . 734 15, 696 3,986 28, 237 Elizabeth Van Hcevenberg. . Wilmot R. Jones . 289 8, 677 20, 000 K. Hahn . 1,070 Jessie S. Bowen . 21,188 800 lbO 1, 455 4, 000 20, 000 Frances B. Russell . H. L. Thompson . 1, 557 25, 000 50, 000 Miss Lillian M.Stedman _ 10, 000 John G. Tal’cott . 110 3,950 7c 75 162 Gertrude E. Ells . . 135 8' 603 210 F. I. Roberts, secretary . 170 13, 246 100 494 Nellie M. Killam . E. 11. P'arkman . Edwin H. Forbes, principal . 34S 20, 537 490 Louise T. Mason . 465 16, 287 500 200 1 , 454 20, 000 Emma Lewis . 200 27 1,900 90 . Wm. J. Brewster . ISO 120 3,000 Peter Platt . 14 3, 445 8, 462 1,289 11, 693 235, 350 66, 000 H. F. Bassett . 202 9', 374 1,042 20, 000 16, 000 N. E. Bronson . 0 J. A. Atwood, secretary . 140 3, 842 100 100 214 C. E. Moore . 50 4, 470 250 426 1, 000 Elizabeth S. Elmer . 25 65 Carrie S. Bradley . 45 8,000 25 25 50 23! 000 300 300 Rev. L. J. Hall, chaplain . 166 6, 821 300 375 Elisabeth P. Andrews, di- rector. 200 162 8, 400 J. A. Ford . 230 12,067 500 500 A. Hell Carpenter . 300 George P. Rhenix . A. E. Peterson . principal _ 94 6,370 300 334 Grace M. Bla.ke . 400 465 23' 922 750 200 1,619 6, 300 Louise M. Carrington . 150 480 9,000 J. E. Clarke . . Wm. Wells . 273 175 75 J. T. McClellan, secretary _ ] 5, 000 200 300 300 Thos. W. Jefferson . 150 2 330 oc . A rt.h u r M . Ga tes 50 . 132 650 W. H. Bishop 500 25 2,500 Herman L. Wright . 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 968 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 56S 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 Location. Name of library. bi .2 p o «+H o (D Oj ft Class. ; Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 d DELAWARE— COnt’d. Newcastle . Library Company . 1812 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 7,000 Odessa . Corbit Library . 1847 Gen . C. F. B. 3, 362 Wilmington . Brownson Library Association 1886 Gen . 0. c. s B. L 178 . do A . German Library Association. 1873 Soc . 0. c. S. c. 5, 3 < 0 . do . Historical Society of Bela- 1868 Hist . R. c. F. R. 3,000 ware. . do . Law Library Association of 1875 Law . c. S. R. 15, 000 Newcastle County. _ .do . Shields Library Association. . 1863 Y. M. C. A. O. T. s. C. 4,000 . do . Wilmington Institute Free 1788 Gen . O. T. F. B. 39, 912 Library. DISTRICT OF CO- LTJMBIA. Washington . Academy of the Holy Cross.. 1876 Sch . c. F. R. 4,000 . do . Army and Navy Club . 1890 Soc . C. S. B. 1.980 . do . Bar Association of the Dis- Law . c. S. R. S, 000 trict of Columbia. . do . Bureau of American Repub- 1890 Govt . T. Fr. R. 6,120 lies. 1 . do . Carroll Institute . 1873 Gen . s~\ Fr. B. 5, 100 Washington Catholic University Library . 1889 Gen . c. Fr. R. 35, 000 (Brookland). Washington . Central High School . 18«0 Sch . T. F. B. 6,000 . do . Colored High School . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. 1,400 . do . Columbian University . 1821 Col . C. Fr. R. 15, 000 . do . Cosmos Club Library” . Gen . O. c. F. R. 2,000 . do . Daughters of the American 1896 Hist . R. c. F. R. 1,095 Revolution. . do . Eastern High School . 1891 Sch _ T. F. B. 2, 106 . do . Executive Mansion Library . Govt _ 1 _ T. Fr. R. 2,000 . do . Fairmont Seminary . ” . . Sch . c. F. R. 2, 000 Washington (Ken- Gallaudet College.' . 1867 Col . C. Fr. B. 4, 500 dall Green). Washington . Georgetown College, Riggs 1789 Col . c. Fr. R. 80, 000 Memorial Library. . do . Georgetown University 1885 Law . c. Fr. B. 2,000 Law School. . do . Georgetown University 1846 Scien . c. p r. R. 1,800 Observatory. . do . Senior Students’ Read- 1845 Col . c. s. B. 4,500 ing Room and Library. . do . Gonzaga College . Col . T. Fr. B. 1,200 . do . Government Hospital for the 1855 Gen . T. Fr. R. 4, 000 Insane. . do . Grand Lodge F. A. A. M . 1849 Masonic . . c. Fr. C. 3,200 . do . Howard University . 1869 Col . T. Fr. B. 17’ 000 Washington (Sun Interstate Commerce Com- 1894 Govt . R. T. Fr. R. 5, 500 Building). mission. Washington . I. O. O. F. Library . 1860 Gen . C. Fr. B. 6, 000 . do . . . Library of Congress a . 1800 Govt . O. T. Fr. R. 1,000'000 . do . McDonald Ellis School Li- Sch . C. Fr. R. 2; 000 brary. . do . Medical Society of the Dis- Med . C. Fr. R. 1,000 trict of Columbia. . do . Metropolitan Club Library . . 1882 Soc . C. S. R. 6,000 . do . Mount Vernon Seminary . . . . 1876 Sch . c. S. B. 2, 000 . do . Peabody Library, Curtis 1873 Sch . c. F. B. 9; 000 School. . do . Public Library of the District 1898 Gen . R. T. F. B. 18, 513 of Columbia. . do . Saint Cecilia’s Academy . 1868 Sell . c. Fr. B. 1,246 . do . St. John’s College . 1870 Col . c. Fr. B. 4,000 . do . School of Notre Dame . 1873 Sch . c. S. B. 5, 000 a On June 30, 1900, the Library of Congress contained about 1,000,000 printed books and pamphlets, 27,300 manuscripts, 55,700 maps and charts, 294,000 pieces of music, and upward of 84,800 photographs, 969 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, ANT SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations— State, county, or city. 6 a 0 0 c3 O EH 10 11 IS 13 14 15 16 17 18 $403 $7, 500 R. A. Challenger . . 545 850 74 900 104 $1,150 James L. Gibson, clerk . 546 363 10 742 580 15, 000 P. J. Ryan, assistant librarian 547 136 950 375 350 10, 000 Paul Steinke . 548 4, 000 300 900 Henry C. Conrad . 549 100 650 David J. Reinhardt . 550 1, 500 500 1,260 18,000 John R. Riley . 551 3,197 175, 458 $6, 594 14, 941 90, 000 115, 000 Enos L. Doan . 552 553 14 Alfred B. Horner . 554 350 555 7, 795 William C. Fox. chief clerk . 556 400 265 1,345 Wm. FI. Leplev . 557 7,728 360 Achille Delenie . 558 30 1,429 145 Laura N. Man n . . 559 125 500 900 R. IF. Terrell, principal . 560 Chas. W. Holmes . 561 F. R. Lane, registar . 562 390 116 0 50 Julia Ten Evck McBlair .... 563 3, 568 6 8,000 40 H. M. Johnson, principal _ 564 565 566 ioo E. M. Gallaudet, president. . . 567 Francis Barnum, S. J . 568 569 570 75 100 250 Richard A. Fleming, S. J _ 571 100 572 25 60 I. W. Blackburn, M. D . 573 103 510 Wm. R. Singleton . . 574 3, 000 230 3,947 900 910 Flora L. P. Johnson . 575 200 500 Edward A. Moseley, secre- 576 tarv. 1,000 75 1 , 200 $142 142 E. H. Pearson, secretary . 577 36, 014 17; 898 340, 580 340, 580 6, 932, 000 Herbert Putnam . 578 579 5S0 P. Lee Phillips . 581 59 Miss Anne Seymour Ames . . 582 583 2,445 122, 493 6, 720 8,196 Weston Flint . 584 720 45 Mother M. Augusta . 585 100 200 Brother Atdas . 586 . i . 5 Sister Mary Ephrasia . 587 prints, engravings, and lithographs. The law library of 103,200 volumes, which remains at the Capitol, is included in the above. 970 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. DISTRICT OF CO¬ LUMBIA — con. 58S Washington . 589 . do . . . 590 . do . 591 . do . 592 . do . 593 . do . 594 . do . 595 . do . 596 . do . 597 . do . 598 . do . 599 . do . 600 . do . 601 . do . 602 . do . 603 . do . 604 . do . 605 . do . 605 . do . 607 . do . 608 . do . 609 . do . 610 . do . 611 . do . 612 . do . 613 . do . 614 . do . 615 . do . 616 . do . 64 7 . do . 618 . do . 619 . do . 020 . do . 621 . do . 622 . do . 623 . do . 624 . do . 625 . do . 626 . do . Name of library. Date of founding. m m rS 5 Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. U2 o> rj 3 > 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Supreme Council, 33° A. A. 1880 Masonic . . 0. C. Fr. B. 75,000 S. R. of Freemasonry, S. J., U. S. A. Teachers’ Library . 1895 Pea . C. Fr. B. 4, 000 “Tolle Lege” Library . 1888 Then . R. c. s. B. 3,308 United States Bureau of 1879 Govt . R. T. Fr. R. 12, 000 American Ethnology. United States Commission of 1871 Scien . T. F. R. 8, 000 Fish and Fisheries. United States Department of 1869 Govt . T. Fr. R. 68, 000 Agriculture. United States Weather 1871 Govt . T. Fr. R. 18, 000 Bureau. United States Department of 1859 Gen . T. Fr. B. 15, 000 the Interior. Bureau of Education _ 186S Govt . T. Fr. B. 81,872 General Land Office . Govt . T. Fr. R. 6^ 000 Geological Surrey . 1882 Scien . T. Fr. R. 46^ 000 Scientific Library of Pat- 1836 Scien . T. Fr. R. 74| 140 ent Office. United States Department of Law . R. T Fr. R. 30, 000 Justice. United States Department of 1885 Govt . T. Fr. R. 7, 051 Labor. United States Department of 1789 Govt . T. Fr. B. 63, 000 State. United States Government 1S98 Govt . T. Fr. C. 2,500 Printing Office. United States House of Rep- Govt . T. Fr. R. 198, 000 resen tatives. United States National Muse- 1881 Govt . T. Fr. R. 25, 000 urn. United States Navy Depart- 1882 Govt . T. Fr. B. 33, 635 ment. Nautical Almanac Office. Govt . T Fr. R. 2,200 Naval Museum of Hy- 1882 Govt . T. F. R. 11, 969 giene. Naval Observatory . 1845 Govt . T. F. R. 20, 000 United States Post-office De- 1862 Govt . T. Fr. R. 12,000 partment. United States Public Docu- 1895 Govt . T. F. R. 32, 141 ments. United States Senate . 1868 Govt . T Fr. R. 125, 000 United States Soldiers’ Home. 187S Gen . O. T. Fr. R. 6, 444 United States Treasury De- Govt . T. Fr. B. 22, 000 partment. Bureau of Statistics . 1868 Govt . R T. Fr. R. 6,000 Coast and Geodetic Sur- 1832 Govt . T. Fr. R. 16; 405 vev. Light-House Board . 1852 Tech . T. Fr. R. 5, 000 Marine-Hospital Bureau. 1872 Med . T. Fr. R. 1,400 Office of Solicitor of the 1830 Law . T. Fr. B. 6, 700 Treasury. United States "War Depart- isoo Govt . T. Fr. B. 40, 000 ment. Military Information Di- Govt . T. Fr. B. 7,400 vision,. Adjutant-Gen- eral’s Office. Ordnance Department, 1832 Govt . T. Fr. B. 5, 000 U. S. A. Surgeon-General’s Office. 1870 Med . T. F. B. 135, 058 Volta Bureau Library . 1890 Scien . c. F. R. 6,000 W ashington College for Sch . C. Fr. R. 1,200 Young Ladies. Western High School . 1891 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,100 971 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBEAKIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. bo .5 'u 0 rd Receipts. O "3 '3 Pamphlets. Volumes added di the year. Books issued durir year for home u From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent en ment fund. Value of library t ings. Name of librarian. - 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 $100, 000 Frederick Webber . 588 2,000 200 Mina Goetz . 589 218 700 $700 590 4,000 14, 000 1,000 W. J. McGee, ethnologist in charge. Ebenezer Ellis . 591 251 592 4, 000 500 $11, 860 $11, 860 500 W. P. Flitter . 593 5,000 0 W. F. R. Phillips, medico- climatologist. Mary Ream Fuller _ _ 594 0 35, 500 2,680 595 140, 004 0 3, 052 100 H. Presnell . 596 ‘ 200 S. A. Clarke . . . . 597 74, 727 1,985 1,721 1,000 Charles C. Darwin . . 598 1, 500 2, 750 1,500 2, 750 Howard Prince . . . 599 . James A. Finch . „ . 600 4, 454 2,500 601 $2, 000 2,000 Andrew IT. Allen . . 602 400 21, 840 Frank E. Elder . 603 2,000 604 30, 000 1,005 Cyrus Adler . 605 614 606 2, 500 100 607 125 C. IT. White . 608 4,000 550 2,800 Wm. D. ITorigan . . 609 6,000 Miss L. A. Henley . . 610 611 3, 554 75 •Tames W. Baker . . 612 126 12, 962 37,500 Eugene Sigrist . 613 3,000 6, 600 50 Emma V. Triepel . 614 5, 000 96 Jos. N. Whitney, chief clerk. Edw. L. Burchard . . 615 6,178 965 616 300 300 617 B. S. Warren . . 618 76 300 Hiram Michaels . . . . 619 2,000 1,200 5,000 James W. Cheney, A. M . 620 621 2,000 A. B. Buffington, brig, gen., Chief of Ordnance. .T. C. Merrill . 622 229, 546 5, 000 3,186 25 10, 000 10, COO 623 100, 000 John Hitz, superintendent.. 624 625 3* 110 A. M. Robinson, teacher - 626 972 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society, and school libraries in the United States 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 6o9 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 1 G 7 8 9 FLORIDA. De Funiak Springs Ladies’ Library Association . . 1886 Gen . 0. C. 1 S. B. 1,770 De Land . J thn B. Stetson University, 1886 Gen . 0. c. Fr. B. 10, 000 Sampson. J acksonville . Library Association . 13S3 Gen . c. Fr. B. 3 500 Jasper . Jasper Normal Institute . 1890 Sch . c. S. R. 1 500 Lake City . Florida Agricultural College. 1884 Gol . c. F. R. 4 500 Leesburg . Florida Conference College* . 1892 Col . c. s B. 4, 500 Milton . Santa Rosa Academy, Public 1874 Sch . T. F. B. 5, 000 Library. St. Augustine . Free Public Library . 1874 Gen . c. F. B. 4,000 . do . St. Joseph’s Academy . 1870 Sch . c. F. B. 1 650 St. Leo . St. Leo Militarv College . 1889 Col . c. F. R. 2, 700 Tallahassee . Florida State Library . State . T F. R. 9 500 . do . Seminary West of Suwanee Col . C. Fr. R. 1,000 River. . do . Supreme Court Librarv* . 1845 Law . Fr R. 7, 119 . do . University Librarv A ssocia- 1883 Gen . c. S. B. 6, 000 tion. White Springs.... Florida Normal Training Col- Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 Winter Park lege. Rollins College . 1885 Col . c. F. B. 3, 000 GEORGIA. Abbeville . Georgia Normal College and 1S98 Col . c. S. B. 2,000 Business Institute. Americus . Library Association . 1878 Gen . c. S. B. 2,760 Athens . Branson Library of City 1888 Sch . c. F. B. 4, 854 Schools. . do . Lucy Cobb Institute . 1858 Sch . c. S. B. 2,000 . do _ .* . University of Georgia . 1802 Col . c. s. B. 25' 000 Atlanta . Atlanta Baptist College . 1S70 Col . c. Fr. B. 2,500 . do . Atlanta University, Graves Col . c. Fr. B. 11 j 135 Library. . do . Carnegie Library of Atlanta. 1867 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 18, 000 .do . Georgia College of Eclectic Med . c. Fr. R. 1,000 Medicine and Surgery. . . .do . . Georgia State Library . 1847 Law . T. F. R. 25, 000 . . do . . Maiion Librarv . 1879 Sch . C. Fr. B. 4, 753 . do . Morris Brown College . 1881 Col . c. F. B. L 500 . .do . . Spelman Seminarv, Quarles Sch . c. F. B. 3, 536 Librarv. A libiirn . Perrv-Rainev College . Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,000 Augusta . Medical College of Georgia . . 1835 Med . c. Fr. R. b, 000 . . do . . Summerville Academy . Sch . c. Fr. R. R500 . . .do . Young Men’s Library Asso- 1848 Soc . c. S. B. 8; 904 ciation. Bowdon Bowdon College . Col . c. Fr. R. 1,200 Cave Sprint Georgia School for the Deaf . Asy . T. Fr. B. 1,200 Cedartown . Samuel Benedict Memorial 1896 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 School. Columbus . Public Library . 1880 Gen . T. S. B. 16, 500 Crawford ville .... Stephen’s High School . Sch . C. Fr. R. 2,000 Dahlonega . North Georgia Agricultural 1871 Col . 0. T. S. B. 2,500 College. . do . Decora Palaestra Society. 1880 Col. soc . . . C. Fr. B. 2,000 Decatur Agnes Scott Institute . 1891 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,300 Gainesville Brenan College . 1878 Col . c. S. B. 3, 500 Hawkinsville . Public School . 1896 Sch . - - -- T. F. R. 1,000 * Statistics of 1895-96. 973 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. bo .9 a> A P cu bo C Q Receipts. £ o 'd ^6 Pamphlets. T3 h 0) c3 'O P oi to -d Books issued durin year for home c From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent en ment fund. t-i Sh & bD «+-4 o O > Name of librarian. 10 11 12 13 14 1 5 10 17 18 100 1,600 $42 $600 35, 000 Alice Fellows, secretary .... C. Palmer . i . 660 1,000 692 $20, 000 1,000 200 500 525 Chas. H. Smith, secretary . . . W. B. Cate, assistant prin¬ cipal. Lucia McCulloch . 100 60 300 2C0 E. L. McDaniel . $50 50 Frances L. Wilson, manager and treasurer. Sisters of St. Joseph . 500 25 10 1 37 Father Benedict, ’O. S. B . John L. Crawford, secretary of state. 2,000 500 100 130 Elizabeth C. Cotten . Miss Nathalie Lord, secre- tary of faculty. 1,000 500 4,000 75 600 W. A. Little, principal . 94 3, 402 6,749 256 Mary C. Granberry . 23 100 100 G.G. Bond, suoerintendent. . M. A. Lipscomb, principal. . . Sarah Frierson . 500 3, 689 1, 200 . 500 50 150 George Sale, president . 1,386 116 2, 582 255 6,000 E. Jean Stenabaugh . 5, 000 5, 000 125, 000 Anne Wallace . A. G. Thomas, president . 500 3,000 3,000 303 James E. Brown . 514 L. M. Sergeant . 500 125 2,000 375 Rev. James M. Henderson, 180 400 52 A. M., M. D. , president. Clara H. Denslow . . . 1,200 12, 500 500 George E. Benedict, presi¬ dent. 200 40 700 G. B. Chipley, assistant li¬ brarian. 1,000 200 7,000 J. S. Stewart, president . 1,000 65 W. M. Smith . 150 A. I. Young . 500 200 400 400 A. W. Van Hoose, chairman $500 1,000 of faculty. N. E. Ware . 627 C28 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 974 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Public , society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. : Class. Own or rent building. 1 Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2, 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 GEORGIA— cont’d. 670 La 2: rail ere _ _ Southern Female College .... 1896 Col . c. Fr. B. 2,000 G71 Lithonia . H. Parmalee Library Com- 1890 Gen . c. S. C. 1,000 pany. G72 Macon . Ballard School . 1890 Seh . 0. c. F. B. 2 000 673 Mercer University . 1837 Col . c. Fr. B 15 000 674 . do . Ciceronian Society Li- 1832 Col. soc . . . c. S. B. 6,000 brarv. 075 . do . Phi Delta Society . 1830 Col. soc . . . c. s. T> 4,400 G7G . do . Public Library and Histor- 1874 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 8,000 ical Society. 677 . do . Saint Stanislaus Society . 1874 Col . c. Fr. R. 6, 860 678 . do . Wesleyan Female College. . . . 1838 Gen . c. s B. 5, 000 679 Marietta . Clarke Library . 1893 Gen . 0. c. S. B. 5,000 6S0 Mill edge ville . Georgia Normal and Indus- 1891 Col . c. F. B. 1,600 trial College. 681 . do . Middle Georgia Agricultural 1880 Sch . c. F. B. 2,000 College. 682 . do . State Sanitarium Library .... 1887 Asy . T. Fr. C. 5,256 683 Oxford . Emory College . Col . C. s. B. 18, 360 684 . do . Few Literary Society _ 1838 Col. soc ... 0. c. Fr. C. 3,000 685 ... .do . Phi Gamma Society . 1838 Col. soc . . . 0. c. S. B. 2,500 686 Rome . . Shorter College . 1877 Col . c. S. B. 5,000 687 . do . Young Men’s Library Asso- 1S80 Soc . R. c. s. B. 3,000 ciation. 688 Savannah . Georgia His-torical Society... 1839 Hist . O. c. s. B. 22, 821 689 South Atlanta _ Clark University . 1870 Col . c. Fr. B. 1,000 690 . do . Gammon Theological Semi- 1883 Theo . O. c. S. B. 12, 000 nary. 691 Thomaston . R. E. Lee Institute . 1900 Sch . c. s. B 1 000 692 Thomasville . Thomasville Library . 1876 Gen . O. c. s. B. 2,000 693 Valdosta . Institute Library . Sch . c. F. B. 1,200 694 . do . Public Library . 1897 Gen . c. S. B. 1,000 695 Washington . Mary Willis Library . 1889 Gen . c. F. B. 3, 216 696 . do . St. Joseph’s Academy . 1879 Sch . c. S. B. 2,000 697 Young Harris .... Young Harris College . Col . c. F. R. 1,000 IDAHO. 69S Boise . . Free Reading Room and Cir- 1894 Gen . c. S. B. 2,456 culating Library, 699 . do . . Idaho State Law Library .... 1863 Law . T. F. R. 15, 000 700 . do . Public High School . 1881 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 701 Caldwell . College of Idaho . 1891 Col . c. F. R. 1 , 600 702 Hailey . Public High School . 1887 Sch . T. F. B. 1 ’ 600 703 Lewiston . State Normal School . 1895 Seh . T. F B. 3,000 701 Moscow . Public High School . 1889 Sch . T. Fr. R. L 000 705 . do . University of Idaho and 1889 Col . T. Fr. R. 6^ 000 Agricultural College . 706 Preston . Oneida Stake Academy . 1887 Sch . O. c. Fr. B. 1,200 ILLINOIS. 707 Abingdon . . Hedding College . . 1855 Col . c. S. R. 1 , 500 708 Addison . Seminary Library. . I860 Col . c. F. R. 2,500 709 Albion . Southern Collegiate Institute 1891 Sch . c. S. B. 1,350 710 Aledo. . Public High School . 188- Sch . c. F. B. 1,025 711 Alton . Jennie D. Hayner Library 18C6 Gen . O. c. S. B. 12, 000 Association. 712 Anna . . Illinois Southern Hospital _ 1876 Asy . T. F. C. 1,403 713 . do . Union Academy . . . 1886 Sch . 0. C. S. R. 1,540 714 Atlanta. . . Public Library . Gen . T. F. B. 1, 000 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 975 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1000 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. .Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 11 I 5 IB 17 18 . 1,000 200 $100 Rev. G. A. Nunnally, pxesi- dent. 0 275 F. F. Wesley . . . 500 . $400 Geo. C. Barrage, principal _ 1,000 500 550 T.G. Pollock . 25 25 R. W. Eubanks . 300 57 115 W. M. Mills . . 500 150 1,000 750 8,000 W. A. Fuff . . 1, 090 90 635 A. Locke Maureau, S. J _ _ _ 200 J. W. Roberts . . 300 30 2,000 275 . 2,200 Miss Kate S. Winn . 500 24 J. Harris Chappell, presi- . dent. 500 50 Wm. E. Reynolds, president. 6, 392 79 3,572 . Robt. A. Triope . . . . 5' 700 1,640 3,500 . H. H. Stone V. . '300 '400 20 300 W. P. Jones . 100 25 500 100 300 Leroy Pharr, first assistant librarian. 1,000 125 225 J. H. Simmons, professor of English. 1 , 000 50 150 Mrs. John C. Printup . 5, 161 376 9,434 2,673 30, 000 Wm. Harden . .... 200 C.M. Melden, president. . ... . 5,000 150 1,000 100 $500 12, 000 J. W. F. Bowen . 600 65 2,000 Miss Etta Alston Reid . 300 . . . Camilla Stevens . . 250 250 Miss Susie Talbot . . 344 . 10, 215 . 1 150 25 25 Sisters of the Sacred Heart. . . 600 258 3,941 Ella C. Reed . Mrs. C. A. Gainer . . John W. Daniels, superin- tenclent. 125 160 Wm. j . Boone . 200 H. L. Talkington . . 250 800 ' _ $10 10 J. C. Muerman . . 1,700 1,000 1,000 Margaret B. McCollie. . 600 50 400 100 10, 000 W. II. Horner, jr . . 1,200 150 0 • 110 Harry M. Beloit, janitor . 85 0 0 100 Fred Lindermann . 125 15 Frank B. Hines, president _ 80 110 1,200 $90 140 J. W. Collins, superintend- ent. 350 9, 261 Florence Dolbee . 1,200 1, 200 W. A. Stokes, superintendent 400 0 0 1,000 Thaddeus H. Rhodes, prin- cipal. 80 2.100 100 106 Alta B. Chenoweth . G70 G71 G72 673 G74 675 676 677 678 G79 680 681 682 6S3 684 685 686 687 688 6S9 690 691 692 693 694 695 6S6 697 698 699 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 14 976 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public , society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. | Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 V ILLINOIS — cont’d. 715 Aurora . Aurora College . 1892 Col . b. C. F. R. 1,600 716 . do . East Aurora. High School .... Sch . T. Fr. R. 1, 500 717 . do . Public Library . 1882 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 15, 939 718 Austin . Hisrh School . Sch . T. Fr. R. R 230 719 Barry . Public Library . 1876 Gen . R. T. F C. 2, 075 720 Batavia . . do . 1873 Gen . R. T. F. B. 7' 521 721 Board stown Central High School . 1893 Sch . C. F. B. 1,200 722 Belleville . Public Librarv . 1883 Gen . O. T. F. B. 18, 584 723 Belvidere . Ida Public Library . 1884 Gen . T. F. C. 8, 932 I'lA Bement . Woman’s Club . 1899 Soc . C. s. B. 1 ’ 145 725 Bloomington . Chicago and Alton Library 1879 Soc . 0. C. S. B. 4,859 Association. 726 . do . Illinois Wesleyan University. 1850 Col . C. F. B. 8,000 727 . do . Public High School . 1867 Gen . T. F. B. 1,000 728 do . Withers Public Library . 1894 Gen .... 0. T. F. B. 22,115 729 Bourbonnais . St. Viateur’s College . 1870 Col . C. s. B. 10, 000 730 Braidwood . Public Library . 1876 Gen . 0. C. F. C. 1,721 731 Bunker Hill . Bunker Hill Military Acad- 1882 Sch . C. Fr. B. 2, 000 emy.* 732 . do . Public Librarv . 1897 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2, 397 733 Cairo . . do . 1882 Gen . O. T. F. B. 9, 500 734 . do . Public School Library . 1869 Sch . c. F. B. 1,001 735 Cambridge . Township Public Library. . . . 1878 Gen . O. T. F B. 5' 200 736 Canton . Parlin Library . 1894 Gen . O. T. F. B. 5' 139 737 Carbondale . Library Association . 1876 Gen . R. C. S. B. U 600 738 . do . Southern Illinois State Nor- 1874 Sch . O. T. Fr. B. 15i 166 mal University. 739 Carlinville . Blackburn University . 1870 Col . C. Fr. B. 3, 200 740 . do . Carlinville Librarv . 1870 Gen . c. s. C. 3, 500 741 . do . Public School . 1894 Sch . T F. B. 1,200 742 Carmi . Public School Library . Sch . C. F. B. 1,000 743 Carpentersville. . . Literary and Library Asso- 1881 Gen . O. c. F B. 1,500 ciation. 744 Carrollton . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 3,230 745 Carthage . Carthage College . 1870 Col . c. s. R. 3,345 746 . do . Free Public Library . 1894 Gen . c. F. B. 3,378 747 Centralia . Public Library . 1873 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4, 650 748 Champaign . . do . 1876 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 7,780 749 Charleston . Eastern Illinois Normal Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,600 School. 750 . do . Public Library . 1899 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,000 751 . do . Union High School . . Sch . O'. F. B. U 050 752 Chenoa . Public School . 1897 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,500 753 Chester . Tecumseh Public Librarv _ 1891 Gen . R. C. S. C. 1, 800 754 Chicago (197 N. Academy of the Sacred Heart. 1870 Gen . C. Fr. R. 1,200 State st.). 755 Chicago (15th st. Acolythical Library * . ...... Soc . .... C. S. C. 1,257 and Wabash ave.). 756 Chicago . Armour Institute Library. . . . 1893 Col . c. F. B. 14, 555 757 . do . Art Institute of Chicago . 1879 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2' 263 758 . do . Aurora Turn Verein . 1864 Gen R. c. g. C. l'ooo 759 . do . Bibliothek des Germania 1891 Hist . c. S. R. lj 500 Mannerchor. 760 Chicago (Lincoln Chicago Academy of Sciences 1858 Scien . 0. c. Fr. R. 9,729 Park). 761 Chicago (465 State Chicago College of Pharmacy 1859 Col . R. c. F. R. 1,700 st. ). 762 Chicago . Chicago College of Phvsi- 1895 Mel . c. Fr. R. 5, 127 ciansand Surgeons (Quine Library). 1 1 * Statistics of 1895-96. 977 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. b/) .9 r-i Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. £ o ■d dj 3 Pamphlets. Volumes added di the year. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent en ment fund. Value of library t ings. Name of librarian. iO 11 12 1 3 14 15 16 17 18 35 156 Thos. B. Allen, president _ W. C. Hazzard . 200 $250 6,215 $250 800 82, 088 $5, 090 11,520 $13, 000 James Shaw . Flora A. Crouch . 1,000 48 196 5 201 Margaret Neubauer . 358 19, 231 1, 354 77 1,406 Mrs. Margaret R. Twining. . . H. J. Jokisch, superintend¬ ent. F. J. Staufenbiel . 50 156 11,713 2,421 340 19, 981 25, 387 1,996 6,547 7, 500 7 , 555 55, 000 272 1,000 1, 073 95 Irving Terwilligre . 27 Mrs. Tacy M. Holland . 700 300 250 1,200 M. C. Fenton . A. F. Caldwell . 200 E. L. Boyer, principal . 1,282 1,698 93, 912 6,025 7, 842 30, 000 Nellie E. Parham t . 1,000 50 E. L. Rivord, D. D . 1,744 150 ‘ 1,093 Samuel Barnett . 500 91 4,003 18, 500 763 300 310 Mary Turk . 10, 000 800 2,671 0 7,750 536 25, 000 Lizzie L. Powell . '200 73 Taylor C. Clenbenon . 0 375 3,909 522 528 2,800 17,389 Mrs. M. E. York . 527 526 29; 089 600 1,654 2,438 Mrs. Josephine H.Resor . 500 50 Miss Mary E. Hull . 6781 3, 000 1,500 1,500 40, 000 Bessie M. Thompson . 600 40 Walter II. Bradley, chair¬ man of faculty. Elbe M. Keas . 500 O o cd 200 200 J. E. Wooters, superintend¬ ent. Clara L. Craig . 200 50 2, 669 360 8, 000 G. F. Arvedson, secretary _ 908 165 244 Robert J. Titus . 490 10, 800 200 760 Mrs. E. E. Pennock . Maude S. Sisson . 440 27, 529 2, 500 5, 000 3, 243 $10, 000 35, 000 Anna L. Le Crone . 2, 600 5, 000 Florence M. Beck . 1 20 1,200 1, 225 Lizzie F. Purtill . 0 200 150 450 J. H. Browning, superin¬ tendent. Marv R. St. Vrain . . 160 300 40 Madame A. Donnellv, re- cording secretary. 2, 000 546 6,800 871 500, 000 Jessie S. Van Vliet . 923 Jessie L. Forrester . 49 468 100 Max L. Wolff . 100 25 Carl B. Roden . . . . 1, 111 Wm. K. Higley, secretary... W. D. Day . 200 15 1,186 500 800 300 Grace W. Bryant . 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 785 736 737 >700 > OO 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 743 749 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 753 759 760 761 762 ED 1900 -62 978 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation . Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 3 I 5 6 7 8 9 ILLINOIS — cont’d. 763 Chicago (142 Dear- Chicago Historical Society... 1856 Hist . O. C. S. R. 25, 0C0 born aye. ) . 764 Chicago (2714 Ken- Chicago Homeopathic Med- 1883 Med . C. Fr. R. 1,700 more ave.). icaltollege. 765 Chica go (18 Crilly Chicago Institute . 1S99 Sch . R. T. F. B. 10, 000 place). 766 Chicago (68th st. Chicago Normal School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 14, 000 and Stewart aye.). 767 Chicago (43 War- Chicago Theological Semi- 1856 Theo . O. C. Fr. B. 19, 802 ren ave.). nary (Hammond Library). 768 Chicago (4949 In- Chicago Training School for 18S5 Theo . c. Fr. R. 1 , 024 diana ave.). City" Home, and Foreign Missions. 769 Chicago (31 Wash- Circulating Library . 1898 Mu . K. c. S. C. 1, 700 ington'st.). 770 Chicago (35th st. De La Salle Institute . 1893 Col . c. s. B. 5,000 and Wabas li ave.). 771 Chicago . Englewood High School . 1872 Sch . c. F. B. 3, 076 772 . do . Field Columbian Museum _ 1894 Scien . c. F. R. 10, 393 773 Chicago (2815 Cot- Hahnemann Medical College Med . c. F. B. 1,500 tage Grove ave.). 774 Chicago . Hyde Park High School . 1874 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,700 775 Chicago (112 Illinois College of Law . 1897 Law . R. C. S. R. 1 , 200 Clark st.). 776 Chicago . John Crerar Library . 1894 Scien . R. c. F. R. 59, 817 777 . do . John Marshall High and 1894 Sch . c. F. R. 1,400 Grammar School. 778 Chicago (214 S. Joseph Medill High School .. 1S95 Sch . T. F. B. 1,165 Howard ave.). 779 Chicago . Kenwood Institute . Sch . c. Fr. R. 1 . 000 780 Chicago (40 Scott Kirkland School . 1875 Sch . c. F. R. 1,000 781 st.). Chicago . Lake View’ High School . 1873 Sch . T Fr. B. 3, 185 782 Chicago (414 Law Ins titute . ". . 1857 Law . C. s. B. 36, 129 Court-House). 783 Chicago . Lewis Institute Library . 1896 Sch . c. Fr. R. 6,965 784 Chicago ( 320 Ash- Loyal Legion Library. . 1881 Soc . R. c. S. R. 1,873 land Block). 785 Chicago (326 Bel- McCormick Theological Sem- 1825 Theo . O. c. Fr. B. 20, 000 den ave.). inary (Virginia Library). 786 Chicago (12th and Married Ladies’ Sodality Li- 1889 Soc . c. F. B. 5,000 Way sts.). brarv.* 787 Chicago . Newberry Library . 1S87 Gen . c. F. R. 157, 131 788 . do . Parmelee Library Company. . 1897 Gen . c. S. C. ROOD 789 . do . Public Library . 1872 Gen . O. T. F. B. 258, 498 7S0 . do . Pullman Public Library . 18S3 Gen . R. c. S. C. 9,000 791 . do . St. Francis Xavier’s Academy 1874 Sch . c. Fr. B. 5,000 792 Chicago -(413 W. St. Ignatius College . 1870 Col . c. Fr. B. 24, 000 12th" st. ) . 793 . do . Students’ Free Library... Col. Soc... c. F. R. 3,000 794 Chicago (135 S. St. Patrick’s Academy . 1874 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,686 Desplain'es st.). 795 Chicago (W. Div. St. Stanislaus College . 1895 Col . c. Fr. B. 1,000 and Holt sts.). 7S6 Chicago . Seminary of the Sacred Heart Sch . c. Fr. B. 2, 000 797 . do . South Chicago Hisrh School.. Sch . T. F. R. 1 , 149 798 . do . South Division High School . . 1875 Sch . T F. R. 3,534 799 Chicago (3912 Starrett’s (Mrs.) School for Sell . C. Fr. R. 2,000 Vincennes Girls. ave.). * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 979 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 10 17 18 50, 000 $180, 000 Charles Evans . - . 800 400 0 $135 Lorenzo N.Grosvenor, M. D . . 2, 500 $2, 000 2, 000 Irene Warren . 20, 000 Helene Louise Dickey . 600 3, 582 1 , 400 $34, 500 210 1,040 J. S. Meyer, superintendent . 0 1,200 15,000 2,300 R. P. Haves . 3, 150 356 Brother Abban . 12, 175 395 Elsie Lippincott, assistant librarian. 1,000 O. Le Boy Smith . 500 200 300 200 51 5 i Howard N. Ogden, presi- dent. 0 13, 877 139. 944 3 350 000 Clement W. Andrews . L. J. Block . . . 2,000 E. C. Rosseter . 10 Emma S. Adams, principal. . 1,000 1, 195 12, 285 Julius Rosenthal . 1,900 8S0 1,932 Laura E. W. Benedict . 100 114 $500 500 Roswell H. Mason, recorder. 2, 736 Miss Keta B. Parker, acting librarian. 100 63, 588 • 200 Mrs. V. M. Babcock. . 48, 103 12, 911 al, 749, 775 263, 397 272, 790 12, 000 2, 000, 000 Frederick H. Hild . 1,000 Bertha L. Ludlam, assistant librarian. 0 500 0 500 George R. Kister, S. J . 300 L. A. O’Connor, S.J . 176 65 676 Brother Lorian . 100 50 St. Stanislaus College . Mrs. Helen F.. Starrett, prin- . cipal. 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 7S7 78S 789 790 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 a The library has 60 free-deliyery stations, of which many are located near schools. 980 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ILLINOIS — cont’d. 800 Chicago (1311 Theological Seminary of the 1891 Theo . c. F. C. 4, 500 Sheffield ave. ). Evangelical Lutheran Church. 801 Chicago (94 Dear- Union Catholic Library As- 1868 Soc . c. s. B. 2, 500 born st. ). sociation.* 802 Chicago . Union League Club Library . 1880 Gen . 0. c. Fr. R. 4, 000 803 . do . University of Chicago . 1892 Col . o. c. s. B. 329, 778 804 Chicago (4638 University Settlement Li- 1895 Gen . c. F. B. 1,000 Ashland ave.). brary. 805 Chicago . West Division High School .. Sch . T. F. R. 1 000 806 . do' . Western New Church Union 1886 Theo . c. F. B. 1,500 Library. 807 Oh ioa.gn fl 737 Western Society of Engineers. Scien R. o F R 3, oOC Monadn'oc k Block). 808 Chicago . Western Theological Semi- 1885 Theo . c. F. B. 4,000 narv. 809 . GO . Young Ladies’ Sodality . 1870 Gen . c. S. C. 3,000 810 Chicago (153 La Y. M.“C. A. Library (central Y. M.C. A. c. s. R. 1,585 Salle st.). department). 811 Chicago (200 Y. P. S. C. E. of Third Presby- 1880 Soc . c. s. C. 2,300 Adams st.).' terian Church. 812 Chicago (1422 Zymotechnic Institute . 1880 Gen . c. F. R. 2, 200 Montana st.). 813 Chicago Hei edits Public High School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,200 814 Clinton Public School . Sch . T. Fr. R. 2,053 815 Cordova . . Public Library . 1879 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,500 816 Danville . do . 1883 Gen . R. T. F. B. 9, 940 817 . do . . . Public School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 818 Decatur . . Free Public Library . 1875 Gen . R. T. F. B. 18, 338 819 . do . Public High School . 1865 Sch . . . T. F. B. 1,010 820 . do . R. R. Y. M. C. .4 . Library . 1899 Y.M.C. A. O. c. S. B. 1,000 821 De Kalb . Northern Illinois State Nor- 1899 Sch . T. F. B. 8; 000 mal School (Haish Library). 822 Delavan .... Public School . 1S70 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 893 Dixon Dixon Hose Company . 1872 Gen . C. s. B. 3,500 824 . do _ Northern Illinois Normal 1S81 Sch . T. F. B. 3, 000 School Library. 825 . do . Public Library . . . 1895 Gen . o. T. F. B. 3, 360 826 . .do . . Steinmann College . 1S82 Col . c. Fr. R. 1 \ 200 827 Dundee. . Public Library . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 2,029 828 Earlviile . do . 1865 Gen . T. E. B. 2, 745 829 East St. Louis . Public Library and Reading 1892 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 12; 475 Room. 830 Edward sville. . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,260 831 . .do . . Public Library . 1879 Gen . c. S. B. 3,000 832 Effingham Austin College . 1S91 Col . c. Fr. B. 4, 000 833 . do . ; Ladies’ Library Association . 1883 Soc . R. C. Fr. C. 1, 400 834 Elgin . Gail Borden Public Library . 1872 Gen . O. T. E. B. 21 , 728 835 ...“do . Illinois Northern Hospital 1872 T. Fr. B. 2; 000 for Insane. . do . Public High School . Sell . T. Fr. B. 2,000 837 . .do . . Y. M.C. A. “Library . 1885 Y.M.C. A. C. S. R. 1,000 838 Elmhurst . . . Elmhurst Public School . 1S90 Sch . T. F. B. 1,500 839 . do . Mensch Society of the Elm- 1877 Col. Soc. . . C. s. B. 2, 252 i hurst College. 840 Elmwood . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 841 Eureka . Eureka College . 1855 Col . c. s. B. 4,000 842 Evanston Free Public Library . 1870 1 Gen . T. F. B. 24, 736 843 . do . ! Garrett Biblical Institute .... 1857 1 Theo . C. Fr. B. 12, 000 * Statistics of 1885-96. 981 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AHD SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. w +3 o 3 Ph a <3 Ps Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow- ' ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. d o c3 X a o Ph 1 £ 03 g C 2 £ +3 o .2 ° -r1 _ g T. s. R. 1,248 Room. 873 Hinsdale . Public Library . Gen . R. T. F. B. 3, 000 874 Homer . Homer Library . 1897 Gen . R. C. s. B. 1, 040 875 Hoopeston . Public Library . 1898 Gen .... T. F. B. 2, 173 876 Jacksonville . Illinois Central Insane Hos- 1847 Asy . T. F. C. 2, 000 pital. 877 . do . Hlinois College . 1S29 Col . o. C. F. B. 10,000 878 . do . Phi Alpha Literary So- 1843 Col. Soc . . . 6. C. S. B. 2,100 ciety. 879 . do . Sigma Pi Literary So- 1843 Col . Soc C. T7’-*. B. 2, COO ciety. 880 . do . Illinois Institution for Edu- 1847 Sch . T. Fr. B. 4,000 cation of the Blind. 881 . do . Illinois Institution for Edu- 1S70 Sell . m Fr. B. 11,861 cation of Deaf and Dumb. 882 . do . Illinois Woman’s College .... Col . . . C. F. B. 1,000 883 . do . Public Library . 1890 Gen . . . R. T. F. B. 11, 956 884 . do . Rhodes Memorial Library of Gen C. Fr. B. 2, 000 Congregational Church. 885 Joliet . Illinois State Penitentiary. 1872 Gen C. Fr. B. 15,000 886 . do . Public Library . 1875 Gen . R. T. F. B. 15 | 118 887 . do . St. Francis Academy _ 1874 Sch . C. 6. B. 1,000 8S8 Kankakee . Public Library . 1895 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 6, 169 889 Kenilworth . Rugby School . 1892 Sch . c. s. R. 2,000 890 Kewanee . Public Library . 1875 Gen . R. T. TT B. 9, 000 891 Knoxville . . d o * . Gen . T. s. B. 3, 841 892 . do . St. Alban’s School . . Seh . C. s. R. 1,000 * Statistics of 1895-96. 983 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. fcJD & •fi © 6 Receipts. O "d 2 '3 Pamphlets. L 0) d 0) >>> d a; a) +-■ 3 d o i> .5 s H © it 'd & P f-< a? O 00 «w iS ^ M a; §~ cq ri 0 4-^ c3 X c3 -♦-> 3 0 f-< Ph 1 c a 0 3 '43 O d 0 © .id ^ ^ u O, -d j. P. CC 0 < O) 3 0 O £ O Eh a . © rj- 4-4< £ (D ns fH a> On rO >> 3 0 bo S.g 0 © d > Name of librarian. iO 11 12 13 14 15 10 17 18 27,000 2,899 7,736 $121, 536 $100, 545 Lodilla Ambrose, assistant 1,000 200 librarian. G. W. Hon "b, director . 35 $.200 $200 115 Henry L. Bolt wood . 1, 200 1,000 50 J. A. Leavitt, president . 200 $50 50 C. E. De Butts . 100 A. E. Gil pin, superintendent. P. S. Stevenson . . . 300 56 100 885 63, 262 3,448 3,602 Harriet Lane . . . 300 25 8,000 J. E. Bittenger, president _ G. W. Wallet . 175 250 250 1,833 616 19, 560 1,190 1,274 Annie E. Felt, secretary . 150 Mary Scott, assistant treas¬ urer. C. Ellwood Nash, president. . Adda R. Robertson, secre¬ tary. Anna F. Hoover . 50 2, 200 700 1 , 587 158 52, 607 6,000 11,337 50, 000 79 F. U. White, superintendent. Emma M. Chapin . 300 87 10, 000 11, 500 1,425 1, 452 1,070 10, 000 185 1,050 Kate Burton /. . 30 2; 988 65 550 S. Marian Watkins . 200 O. L. Dudley . Harriet N. Haskell . 200 30 Wilson T. Hogue, A. M., president. Lizzie S. Coland . . . 75 1,152 2,760 15 290 75 300 300 Miss Lizzie E. Stone . . . 300 800 12, 300 600 650 M. P. Wilkin . . 75 28 H. P. Davidson . . 637 251 4, 369 373 436 Bertha Welge . 186 700 700 Mrs. Flora N. Candce . 50 10 219 Miss J. Stengle . 289 893 13, 606 608 1,044 500 300 500 F. C. Winslow, M.D., super¬ intendent. H. W. Milligan . 2, 000 100 200 ISO 4, 500 24, 000 2, 000 75 Clayton J. Barber, president. 1,000 200 Frank H. Hall, superintend¬ ent. Miss Helen Kennedy . 4, 176 254 5, 992 500 500 Joseph R. Harker, president John H. Woods . 3, 276 1,130 40, 533 3,500 3,620 1,000 719 1,200 4,362 Thomas C. Matlack . 63, 277 4, 000 Kate A. Henderson . 100 Sister M. Stanislaus . 1,034 34, 407 . 3.000 3,000 20, 000 Mrs. Alice It. Hamlin, secre¬ tary. Hugh Cooke . 75 A, 250 2, 250 R. P. Parrish, president . 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 857 858 859 8S0 861 862 863 864 865 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 8S1 SS2 883 884 885 8S6 887 888 889 890 891 892 984 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ILLINOIS— cont’d. 893 Lacon . Union High School . 1892 Sch . c. F. B. 1 250 894 La Grange . Lyons Township High School 1888 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1 200 895 Lake Forest . Lake Forest University . 1857 Col . O. C. S. B. 15 385 896 . do . Public Library . 1898 Gen . T. F. B. 1,797 897 La Salle . La Salle Public Library . 1899 Gen . C. S. B. 1 800 898 . do . Peru Township High School. 1898 Sch . T. F. R. 1, 100 899 Lebanon . McKendree College Library. 1838 Col . 0. C. F. B. 8, 000 900 . do . Philosophian Society .... 1837 Col. soc. . . C. S. B. 1,625 901 . do . Platonian Literary* So- 1S51 Col. soc... T. S. B. 1,058 cietv. 902 Lincoln . Lincoln University . 1865 Col . C. F. B. 2 500 903 . do . Public Library . 1873 Gen . T. F. B. 7,500 904 Litchfield . Free Public Library . 1882 Gen T. S. B 3 264 905 Lombard . Free Library . 1882 Gen . C. F. B. 2,313 906 Macomb . Free Public Library . 1882 Gen . T F. B. 8,540 907 Mattoon . . do . 1893 Gen . T. F B. 3,983 908 . do . Public High School . 1886 Sch . T. F. B. 1,826 909 Maywood . Public Library . 1887 Gen . T. F. B. 2,700 910 Menard . Southern Illinois Prison . Asv . T. F. C. 3' 500 911 Mendota . Graves Public Library . 1870 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 5,190 912 . .do . Mendota College . 1893 Col . C. S. R. 1,200 913 Moline . . . Public High School . Sch . T F. B. 1,560 914 . .do . Publ i c Library . 1872 Gen . 6. T. F. B. 12,330 915 Monmouth . Monmouth College . 1856 Col . C. F. R. 6, 500 916 . do . Warren County Library and 1S70 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 19; 637 Reading Room Association. 917 Morgan Park . George C. Walker Library . . . 1889 Gen . 0. c. S. B. 5,300 918 Morris . Public High School . 1898 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 919 Morrison . Literary and Scientific Asso- 1877 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 5; 000 ciation. 920 Mount Carroll .... Frances Shimer Academy _ Sch . c. F. B. 1,030 921 . do . Public Rich School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 922 Mount Morris .... Mount Morris College . 18S3 Col . C. S. B. 20, 000 923 Mount Sterling... Mount Sterling Library . 1881 Gen . R. c. s. B. L000 924 Mount Vernon _ Appellate Court of Illinois Law . T. Fr. R. 8,970 "(Fourth district). 925 Nanerville . Graded School Library . 1870 Sch . T. F. B. 1,190 926 . do . Nichols Library . 1897 Gen . 0. T. F. B. V 507 927 . do . Northwestern College . 1862 Col . c F R. 5, 200 928 Normal . Illinois Soldiers’ Orphans’ 1869 State . T. Fr. R. 2, 800 Home. 929 . do . Illinois State Normal Uni- 1857 Col . T. F. B. 11,300 versify. 930 . do . Public High School . 1857 Sch . T. F. B. 1,575 931 Nunda . Nunda and Crystal Lake 1883 Sch . T EL B. i;ooo Union School. 932 Oak Park . Public High School . 1S99 Sch . T. F. B. 1,200 933 . do . Scoville Institute . 1888 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 13/212 934 Olney . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,200 935 . do . Public Library . . . 1886 Gen . R. T. F. B. e; 476 936 Onarga . Grand Prairie Seminary . 1863 Sch . c. s R. 1,000 937 . do . Public Library . 1873 Gen . O. T F. B. 4, 175 938 Oregon . . do . 1872 Gen . R. T. F. C. 2, 400 939 Ottawa . Appellate Court Library . Law . T. Fr. R. 9; 000 940 . do . Odd Fellows’ Library . 1865 I.O.O.F.. R. C. S. B. 1,000 941 . do . Reddick’s Public Library _ 1888 Gen . O. C. F. B. 9, 580 942 . do . Township High School .... 1879 Sch . T. F. B. 1,481 943 Paxton . Public High School . 1897 Sch . T. F. B. 1,300 944 Pekin . . do . Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,100 945 . do . Public Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3; 000 946 Peoria . Bradley Polytechnic Insti- 1897 Col . O. C. Fr. B. 10, 000 tute. 947 . do . Peoria Law Library . 1879 Law . C. S. R. 6, 500 985 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, ATsTD SCHOOL LIBKAEIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. bn n o A iiP ui Receipts. £ o 'd 2 •rH Pamphlets. Volumes added di the year. Books issued durir year for home u From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent en ment fund. Value of library t ings. Name of libraria • io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 300 D. B. Burrows, superintend¬ ent of schools. E. R. Cole . . 50 $1,000 2, 466 $500 $35, 000 H. M. Stanley . 670 7, 772 $1, 446 Parmalee J. McFadden, sec- 200 1, 000 30, 000 740 2, 500 retary. 230 $700 700 Chas. A. Farnam, principal . . James C. Dolley, A. M., pro¬ fessor of Latin. E. C. Chamberlin . 3, 000 100 84 200 15, 000 57 1,121 79 225 Fred W. Reinhardt . 1,000 150 103 Miss Kate Brown . 1,500 565 27, 635 1,420 2,013 567 Ida M. Webster.... . 19 3,124 2,418 25, 319 500 89 69 Josiah T. Reade . 573 800 800 MissMahala Pheios. . 72 309 27, 196 1,345 1,426 . Miss Helen T. Bennett . 14 Bess Donnell. . . 200 557 9,000 6,000 500 500 O.H. Clark . 1 225 20i 183 1,500 300 15 37 M. L. Gordon, president . 328 955 38, 757 2,280 3, 221 12, 000 H. L. Hanson, secretary _ 1,500 200, 000 41, COO J. N. Swan . . . . 546 22, 123 17,315 17, 000 10, 000 Thos. H. Rogers, superin¬ tendent. Sarah E. Mills . 175 350 4, 573 0 100 200 . P. K. Cross, superintendent . 100 4,600 591 6,690 1,000 30 Wm. P. McKee, dean . i 50 100 80 Ada M. Griggs, superintend¬ ent. J. S. Rover . 1 300 • 100 305 1,250 203 S.R. McIntosh . 1 0 175 1,000 1,000 Frank W. Havill . 350 50 30 30 R. F. Bunnel . q ,1 6,992 600 100 720 10, 000 Hannah M. Ditzler . 600 200 200 S. L. Umbaeh . 200 300 300 Ella Barlow . 4,600 300 500 20, 900 525 . . ICO 200 5, 000 W. C. Smith . 75 100 250 250 John C. Hanna . 2, 000 58, 000 5,500 25, 0C0 82, 049 E. L. Moore . . 100 9, 669 800 1, 350 Miss Nettie Kitchell . . 30 100 350 Charlotte M. Ammerman . . . 500 100 250 250 W. H. Guilford . 500 500 C. C. Duffy . 200 L. A. Williams . 610 27, 590 600 4, 764 N. D. Nash . 100 J. O. Leslie, principal . 102 3, 982 75 O. J. Rani mum . O. A. Schotts . 268 14, 000 1,002 1,002 150 B. P. Schenck . 2, 000, 000 E. T. Wyckoft, acting libra¬ rian. Harriet M. S turns . 893 894 895 898 897 898 839 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 826 927 928 929 930 331 932 833 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 842 943 944 945 946 947 988 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. • Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2, 3 4 5 6 7 8 i) ILLINOIS — cont’d. 918 Peoria . Public High School . Sell . . T Ft R 2 500 949 . do . Public Library . 1880 Gen 0. T F B 70 ’ 342 950 Peru . St. Bede College . 1891 Col . c Fr R. 5 000 951 Pinckney ville . . Public High School . . Sch . f. Fr. R. 1000 952 Pittsfield . . Public Library . 1879 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1 967 953 Polo . Buffalo Free Public Library. 1871 Gen . O. T- E. B. 3, 175 954 Pontiac . Illinois State Reformatory _ 1875 Asy . T. F. C. 6,273 955 Princeton . Matson Public Library. ...... 1885 Gen . T. Fr. B. 5, 526 95G . do . Princeton High School . 1868 Sch . T. F. B. 2,250 957 Quincy . Chaddock College Library... 1857 Col . c. F. B. 2, 000 958 . do . Free Public Library and 1887 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 23, 069 Reading Room. 959 . do . St. Francis Solanus College.. 1870 Gen _ C Fr. B 4 600 960 River Forest _ River Forest Institute* . 1879 Sch . . C. Fr. R. 1, 200 961 Riverside _ .. _ Public High School . 1897 Sch . . T. F. R. 1, 100 962 Rochelle . Flag Township Public Library 1891 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 350J 963 . do . Public High School . 1869 Sch . rp F. R. 1, 000 964 Rockford _ . do. . A . 1885 Sch . T. F. B. 1,523 985 . do . Public Library . 1872 Gen . R. T. F. B. 35, 026 966 . do . Rockford College . 1849 Col . c. Fr. R. 6,300 967 Rock Island _ A ugustana College and Theo- 1862 Col . c. F. B. 12, 000 logical Seminary. 968 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1 , 600 969 . do . Public Library . 1872 Gen . R. T. F. B. 14, 262 970 . do . Visitation Academy Library. Sch . C. F. B. 1,500 971 Rockton . Taleott Free Library . A 1888 Gen . O. T. EL B. 3, G06 972 Rushville . Library Association * . 1878 Gen . c. s. B. 2A00 973 St. Charles . Library Association . 1889 Gen . R. C s. C. 1 ' 500 974 . do . Public High School . 1897 Sch . T. F. B. i'soo 975 . do . Public Library . 1889 Gen . R. C. S c. 1 ’ 756 976 Sandwich . Public High and Graded Sch . T. F. B. L000 Schools. 977 Savanna . Public Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2, 017 978 Sparta . Public High School . 1878 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1; 100 979 Springfield .... Academe of Our Lady of the Sch . C. S. B. i'ooo Sacred Heart. 980 . do . Bettic Stuart Institute . 1868 Sch . . O. c. s. R. 2, 00Q 981 . do . Concordia College . 1875 Theo . c. Fr. B. 8' 000 982 . do . Illinois State Historical . 1889 Hist . F. R. 9.000 983 „ .do . . Illinois State Library . 1889 Sta te . T. F. R. 50, 000 984 .c.do . Illinois State Museum of Nat- 1858 Scien . T. Fr. R. 2, 000 urai History. 985 „ . .do . . Public Library . 1887 Gen . R. T. V B. 42, 148 986 . do . St. Joseph’s Ursuline Acade- 1857 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,500 my. 987 . do . Supreme Court . Law . T. Fr. R. 14, 000 988 Spring Valiev . . Public Library . 1893 Gen . T. F. c. 1,800 989 Sterling . . do . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 9,493 990 Streator . Public High School . Sch . TL F. B 1,450 991 . do . Public Library . 1899 Gen . R. T. F. B. 6, 571 992 Sycamore . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 993 . do . . Public Library . 1891 Gen . R. T. F. | B. 2, 850 994 . .do . . Waterman Hall . 1889 Sch . 0. C. Fr. R. 2,300 995 Teutopolis . '. . St. Joseph’s College . 1861 Col . O. c. F B. 5, 000 996 Tuscola . Public Library . 1898 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,488 997 Upper Alton . Shurtleff College . 1827 Col . O. C. Fr. R. 8, 000 998 . . .do . . . Sigma Phi Society * . 1853 Col. Soc. . . c. S. B. i; 500 999 . do . Western Military Academy . . 1878 Sch . c. s. R. 1, 000 1000 TTrhana, . Champaign County Teach- 1882 Sch . c. s. B. 2,564 ers and Pupils’ Library. 1001 . do . Free Library . 1872 Gen . T. F. B. 8, 497 1002 . do . Illinois State Laboratory and 1878 Scien . T. Fr. R. 3,888 Natural History. * Statistics of 1895-96. PtTBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 987 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 13 948 4,019 4, 400 167, 951 $14, 679 $15, 808 $86, 000 E. S. Wilcox . 949 600 Rev. A. Grass, secretary . 950 951 75 67 $200 280 J. H. Barber, secretary . 952 211 5, 899 675 684 $500 800 E. Frances Barber . 953 284 F. L. Mallory . 954 293 19, 209 1,420 15, 5C0 3,000 955 50 D. O. Barto, principal 956 500 200 200 8, 000 A. M. Danely . . 957 1,674 990 64,567 5,000 5,286 40, 000 Margaret Ringier . 958 300 Rev. Theo. Richardt . 959 960 400 40 75 1,000 Joel O. Harley, principal 961 150 1, 500 350 350 Mrs. F. Simon" .1 . ‘... 962 200 100 40 40 C. F. Philbrook . . 983 140 58 320 350 • 400 Florence M. Foster . 964 2,023 106, 217 7,604 7,992 Win. L. Rowland . 965 87 966 5, 000 82 300 3, 500 C. O. Granere _ .• . 967 200 215 300 J. F. Darby, principal . . 968 632 45, 158 3, 826 3, 999 Ellen Gale / . *. . 969 400 Sisters of the Visitation. . . . . 970 434 500 650 4, 000 E. S. Waite . 971 972 123 Miss G. Lewis . 973 100 432 974 138 177 Miss G. Lewis . 975 450 275 W. W. Woodbury . 978 41 306 13, 301 726 785 Emma L. Bowen . 977 50 25 l’ 600 135 L. J. Sexton . 978 979 Mrs. A. M. Brooke, principal. 980 200 30 200 100 J. Herzer . . 981 3,000 3 100 3, 100 Mrs. Jessie P. Weber. . 982 3, 200 1,200 1,200 983 1,000 C. H. Grants, curator 984 4,113 96, 084 6,027 6. 266 James P. Bryce . . 985 300 Sister M. Paul . 985 0 A. D. Cadwallader 987 250 7,000 600 600 Mrs. Annie Lyng . 988 326 21 ' 700 1,300 1, 300 Miss R. F. Murphy . . 989 26 T ooo S. B. Hursh, principal . 990 1,502 1,475 30,415 1, 875 1,971 R. Williams, president of li- 991 brary board. 10 992 115 12, 969 500 572 Fiom J. Dow . 993 B. T. Fleetwood . . 994 300 50 15, 000 Rev. Christopher Guithuer, 995 O.F.U. 994 200 9,413 600 964 Lillie Hostetler . 998 2,000 100 850 5, 000 8, 000 L. A. Abbott, secretary . 997 '263 998 300 50 700 50 Geo. D. Eaton . 999 323 2,668 218 Geo.R. Shawhan, county su- 1000 perintendent. 534 22, 584 950 953 Ida B. Hanes . 1001 8, 987 1,430 H. C. Forbes . 1 . 1002 988 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Public , society , and school libraries in the United Siates Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ILLINOIS— cont’d. 1003 Urbana . University of Illinois . 1867 Col . 0. T. F. B. 42, 314 1004 Vandalia . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,000 1005 Warsaw . Free Public Library . 1872 Gen . R. c F. B. 5 049 1006 Watseka . Watseka Public Library . 1898 Gen . R. T F. B. 2, 188 1007 Waukegan . Public High School . . . . . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1,600 1008 Westfield . Westfield College . 1865 Col . C F. B. 3,000 1009 Wheaton . Adams Memorial Library _ 1891 Gen . O. C. F. B. 3, 365 1010 . do . Wheaton College . 1860 Col . C. F. B. 3, 600 1011 Whitehall . Public School . 1875 Sch . T. Fr. B. L 050 1012 Winnetka . Free Public Library . 1885 Gen . T F. B. 3, 100 1013 Woodstock . Library and Literary Asso- 1877 Gen . T. F. C. 3,000 ciation. 1014 . do . Todd’s Seminary. . 1848 Sch . O. c F. B. 1, COO 1015 Yates City . School and Public Library. . . 1878 Gen . c. V B. 1,912 INDIANA. 1016 Albion . Public Higli School . 1890 Sch . T F. R. 1,092 1017 Anderson . . do . . 1895 Sch . t! E. B. 4,000 1018 . do . Public Library . 1894 Gen . R. T. F. B. 7,275 1019 Attica . Ladies’ Library Association.. 1883 Gen . O. c. S. B. l' 500 1020 Auburn . Public High School . 1885 Sch . T F. B. L021 1021 Aurora . Public Library . 1882 Gen . c. S. C. 4, 000 1022 Bedford . . do . 1898 Gen . O. T. F. B. 5, 000 1023 Bloomingdale . Public School . Sch . T. F. B. 2, 000 1024 Bloomington . . Indiana University . 1820 Col . c. F. R. 37' 000 1025 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 2, 000 1026 Bluffton . . do . Sch . . . . . T. F. B. 2,500 1027 . do . Public Library . 1893 Gen . T. F. B. 3' 008 1028 Borden . Borden Institute. . Sch . .... c. S. R. 4, 000 1029 Brazil . . Public Library Association . . 1880 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2, 000 1030 Brookville . Township Library . Sch . T. F. R. 1,000 1031 Cambridge . Public School . Sch . T. F. F>. 1,200 1032 Cannelton . Public High School . 1890 Sch . a1 Fr. B. 1,600 1033 Charlestown . . do . Sch . T. Fr. B. 2, 511 1034 . do . Townshin Library . 1871 Gen . R. T. F. C. 1.300 1035 Collegeville St. Josenh’s College . 1892 Col . C. Fr. R. 1,300 1036 Columbia City _ Public School . Sch . .... T. F. B. 5, 033 1037 Columbus . Public High School . 1887 Sch . T. F. R. 5, 000 1038 . do . Public Library . 1899 Gen . T. F. B. 3, 035 1039 CorTTdon . Ohio Valley Normal School.. 1896 Sch . C. Fr. B. 3, 574 1040 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 1041 Crawfordsville . . Public Library . 1899 Gen . R. T B. 2,700 1042 . do . Wabash College . 1832 Col . O. c. Fr. B. 36, 000 1043 Crownpoint . Public School . 1870 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 500 1044 Danville . Central Normal College . 1876 Col . 0. F. R. 2, 500 1045 Decatur . Public School (The Jefferson) 1890 Sell . T. F. B. 2,000 1046 Delphi . Public High School . . Sch . T. F. B. 2, 000 1047 . do . Public Library . 1S96 Gen . T. F. B. 2,000 1018 Dublin . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,500 1049 Elkhart . Public School Library . 18S4 Sch . T. F. B. 3, 471 1050 El wood . Public Library . 1899 Gen TL F. B. 1, 254 1051 Evansville . Evansville Law Library . 1892 Law . c. s R. 2,250 1052 . do . Public Pligh School . Sch . .... T. F. B. 2, 500 1053 . do . Vanderburgh County Library Gen . T. F. c. 3, 500 1054 . do . Willard Library . 1885 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 27, 000 1055 Fairmount . Fai rm ount A cademy ( Iredell 1880 Sch . 0. c. Fr R. 1,000 B. Rush Library). 1056 Fort Wayne . Concordia College . 1839 Col . c. S. R. 4,360 1057 . .do Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 2,500 105S . do . Public Library . 1893 Gen _ _ _ 0. T. F. B. 12, 0001 989 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1000 — Continued. be r-H 0 r*j be 0 Receipts. > G rrt Pamphlets. "d rd Ow O a 0 o > Books issued durin year for home us From taxation. Appropriations— State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent em ment fund. Jh c3 . rn rO be ^.5 O 0 c3 Name of librarian. io ii 12 13 14 15 1G 1 7 ] 8 2, 484 100 19, 058 $1, 495 $1, 495 50 $150, 000 Katharine L. Sharp . $50 G. T. Turner, secretary of board of education. John W. Marsh . 1,500 385 73 12, 357 12,605 250 652 $5, 000 550 550 Lillian Barnes . 500 100 90 W. S. Reese, principal . 74 9,881 35, 000 Katharine S. Adams . 81 70 E. Whipple . 500 100 25 57 C. E. Joiner, superintendent. Grace E. Sloate . 281 7,744 15, 000 849 1 , 849 200 600 600 T. E. Richards, president board of directors. Noble Hill . 500 120 37 1,800 1,127 59 W. F. Boyes, principal . 340 263 100 100 W. A. Fox, superintendent . . J. W. Carr, superintendent . . Kate Chipman . 500 500 500 200 2,135 100 35, 343 43, COO 43, 100 215 1,500 Mrs. Charles R. Milford . 160 75 100 100 50 199 Jno. A. Con well, treasurer. . . Thos. J. Brooks, president . . . 200 500 35, 550 900 200 1, 275 2,500 2, 200 1,000 2,500 43, 000 13, 100 . 13, 100 Geo. F. Danforth . 17 14, 114 450 478 Bertha Craven . 100 150 450 J. D. Strachan, secretary _ Max Baker, trustee _ .' . . 150 TOO 100 . Paul Wilkie . 100 250 50 300 O. R. Robinson, superintend¬ ent. - 100 3, 500 71 71 James M. Be Mar . B. Boebner, president . 189 2, 325 50 C. L. Hottel , superintendent . John A. Carnogey . 1,300 26, 958 490 1,386 k 1,479 Jennie Elrod. L .”. . 2,150 114 ' 190 E. S. Hallett, president . 105 700 77 Jesse W. Biddle, superin¬ tendent. Susan Beck . IS, 831 1, 950 1,950 15, 000 900 H. S. Wedding . '200 50 200 200 Frank F. Heighway, super¬ intendent. C. A. Hargrave, secretary _ Arthur D. Suttles . 100 400 1,500 450 450 1,000 156 3,600 2,260 10, 000 15, 400 227 239 A. E. Bradshaw, treasurer . . . Virginia, Stubbs . 80 80 5, 000 40 . 100 500 500 D.W. Thomas, superintend¬ ent. A. II. McKenzie, president Library Association. James T. Walker . . 177 1,200 100 200 1,000 63, 000 Harry Stinson . 500 6, 377 61, 635 Otilda Goslee . 400 15 TV. C. Goble . Jos. Schmidt . Clara M. Greer . 1,726 49, 164 7,901 8,056 Margaret M. Colerick . 1003 1001 1005 1006 1007 1003 1009 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1023 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1038 1039 1040 1041 1042 1043 1014 1045 1046 1047 1048 1049 1050 1051 1052 1053 1054 1055 1056 1057 1058 990 EDUCATION KEPOBT, 1899-1900, Public , society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 a 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 INDIANA — COnt’d. - 1059 Port Wfl.ynp _ . Public School . 1S66 Sch . T. Fr. R. 2,000 1060 . do . . Railroad Department Y. M. 1884 Y. M. C. A . 0. C. S. B. 2, 000 C. A. 1061 Frankfort Public High School . 1S92 Sch . T. F R. 1,500 1062 do . . Public Library . 1880 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 000 1063 Franklin Franklin College . 1844 Col . C. Fr. B. 12,288 1064 Gosh on . . Public High School . 18S0 Sch . T. F. B. 4,340 1065 Green pastle De Pauw University . 1840 Col . c S R 24, 500 1066 do . Public High School . Sch . T. F B. 6,824 1067' do Public Library . 1891 Gen . R. T. F. B. 6, 624 1068 Greenfield . . do . 1899 Gen . T F R. 2 , 105 1069 H ammond . Public School . 1887 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 10*4) IT n,n over . . Hanover College . 1828 Col . c. S. B 14, 000 1071 do Philalathean Society .... 1833 Col. Soc. . . c. S. s. R 2 000 1012 .do . Union Literary Societv. . . 1834 Col. Soc. . . c. R. 1,300 1073 Hartford . Public High School . 1898 Sch . c. F. B 1,050 1074 Him tin edvn rg _ . do . 1830 Sch . T. Fr B 1 000 1075 Huntington . . do . 1874 Gen . T Fr. B. 11,000 1076 Tn d i an a pol is . . Central College of Physicians 1879 Med . c. Fr. R 2,000 and Surgeons (Clark Li- brary) . 1077 . do . Central Indiana Hospital for 1848 Asy . T. Fr. R. 2,506 Insane. 1078 .do . . Indiana Historical Society... 1830 Hist . c. F R 1 500 1079 . .do . Indiana Institution for the 1847 Sch . T. Fr R. 1,000 Blind. 1080 . . .do . Indiana Industrial School 1873 Gen . c. Fr B. 2, 737 for Girls. 1081 . do . Indiana State LavvT .Library . . 1867 Law . T. F. R. 33, 000 1082 . do . Indiana State Library . 1825 State . T. F R 31, 000 1083 . do . Indianapolis Bar Association . 1878 Law . C. S. R. 8, 000 1084 . . do . . Institution for Education of Sch . C. Fr. B 3,349 Deaf and Dumb. 1085 . do . Knickerbocker Hall . Sch . C s R 1 500 1086 . .do . . Manual Training TTivb School 1895 Sch . T F It 3 000 1087 . do Marion County T library . 1844 Gen . C F B 5' 200 1088 . do . Public Library . 1873 Gen . O. T. F B 95, 007 1089 . do . . Shortridge High School . 1880 Sch . C. F R 5, 000 1090 Irvington . Butler College . Col . C. F R 10, 000 1091 J effersdnville . Indiana Reformatory Library Asy . T F* B. 3.000 1092 . do . Township Library . 1870 Gen . R. T. F R 2,500 1093 Kendallville . Public School . 18S0 Gen . T. F B 1,500 1094 Knightstown . Indiana, Soldiers and Sailors’ 1885 Gen T. Fr. B. 2, 312 Orphans’ Home. 1095 Kokomo . Public Library . 1885 Gen . R. T. F B 7, 225 1096 Lafavette . Public High School . Sch . T. F R 14, 000 1097 . do . Public Librarv.. 1882 Gen T. F B 17, 230 1098 . do . Purdue University . 1875 Col . c. Fr. B. 10, 050 1099 Laporte . Public High School . 1867 Sch . T. F B. 5, 000 1100 . do . Public Library . 1897 Gen . O. T. F B. 7,322 1101 . do . St. Rosis Academy . Sch . C. S R 1,000 1102 Lawrenceburg. . . . Public High School . Sch . TL F B 1,500 1103 Lebanon . . do . Sch . T. F B. 1,000 1104 Lima . Howe School . Sch . O- c. F B 1,200 1105 Madison . Public Librarv . 1888 Gen . R. c. F. B. 8,000 1106 Marion . Marion Normal School . 1890 Sch .... c. F R. 1,562 1107 . do . Public Librarv . 1888 Gen R T. F B. 7,500 1108 Martinsville . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 1109 Merom . Union Christian College . 1860 Col . C. F. B. 3,000 1110 Michigan City . . . . Indiana State Prison . Asy . T. Fr. C. 2,000 111.1 . do . Public Library . 1897 Gen . O. T. F. B. 6, 557 1112 . do . St. Mary’s Academy . 1885 Sch . C. S. B. 2,000 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 991 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 15 id 17 18 Clara M. Greer . ' . 200 100 1,500 J. W. Burns, general secre- tary. 500 150 $75 Jno. J. Mitchell . 150 30 12 000 $300 325 Miss Cora A. Cooper . 500 992 782 W. T. Stott, president . . 50 365 10, 568 350 650 J. F. Rieman, superintend- ent. 450 $58 00 1,225 Martha B. Longden. . . . 102 26, 055 720 500 1,220 Belle S. Hanna . . . . . 109 9,435 900 912 Minnie Hughes . „ 3 000 300 1,800 450 D. W. Fisher, president . ’ 100 1 0 10 J. F. Giboney . . . .... 80 A. K. Reischauer . 300 250 Grace L. Home . 500 50 200 40 John Owens, superintendent 578 26, 052 1, 200 1‘260 Lyle Harter . . . 1, 000 25 Samuel E. Earp, dean .... _ . . J. P. Dunn, secretary . 200 300 400 George S. Wilson, superin- tendent. Sarah F. Keely, superin- tendent. 1,500 2,000 7, 000 H.N. McClain . . . 1,000 6,020 6, 020 W. E. Henry . Paul C. Hendricks . Richard O. Johnson . 275 450 Chas. E. Emmrich, principal 100 1,250 150 207 $2, 000 L.R.Blaich . 7, 462 271, 374 47, 500 48, 400 $152, 750 Eliza G. Browning . . '800 1. 000 Arthur J. Taylor . 816 '550 D. E. Marchus Brown . 1 700 500 500 C. E. Endicott, superintend- i ent. 50 300 1,400 900 900 Isaac Phipps . . | 50 75 LOGO 30 50 D.A. Lambright, acting li- brarian. 200 4,056 300 300 Andrew H. Graham, super- intendent. 200 167 1,366 1,381 F.va, M. Fitzgerald . . 600 1 , 334 77, 571 3, 500 3,-500 Mrs. Virginia Stein . 2,300 l’ 200 4, 812 Elizabeth Day Swan . . '300 700 4, 000 120 120 John A. Wood, superintend- ent city schools". 600 12, 856 1,269 1,275 10, 000 Emily A. Vail . . 200 50 125 James R. Hart . . 2, 000 S. R. C Roberts 200 15, 422 Nellie G. Harper 1,683 47, 301 2, 083 2, 125 Mrs. Ida Gruwell 750 25 140 Daniel B. Atkinson . 500 600 31, 200 500 500 Hanv L Henderson, chap- tain. 1, 154 36, 053 2,276 2 784 2,100 35, 000 IVfarilla W Freeman 500 100 M. Agninala, superioress _ 1059 1060 1061 1062 1063 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 10S2 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1034 1095 1096 1097 1098 1099 1100 1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110 1111 1112 992 EDUCATION EE POET, 1899-1900. Public , society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library 1 . Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 (> 7 8 9 INDIANA— COnt’d. 1113 Mishawaka . Public High School . 1882 Sch . T. F. B. 1 632 1114 Mitchell . Southern Indiana Normal 1880 Col . C. Fr. R. 2, 500 College. 1115 Moores Hill . Moore’s Hill College . 1856 Col . c S. B. 3 000 1116 M ount Vernon .... Alexandrian Public Library. 1895 Gen . c. S. B. 3, 000 1117 Muncie . City Public Library7 . 1875 Gen . T. F. B. 13, 000 1118 . do . Eastern Indiana Normal Uni- 1899 Col . c. Fr. C. 2, 000 versitv. 1119 . do . Workingmen’s Public Library 1900 Gen . R. c. F. B. 1,000 1120 New Albany . De Pauw College . Col . c R. 2, 500 1121 . do . Public Library . 1883 R. t! F. C. 10, 513 1122 New Harmony _ Workingmen’s Institute . 1838 Gen . O. c F. B. 11, 000 1123 Noblesville . Public Library . 1900 Gen ... . T F. B. 1 400 1124 Notre Dame . St. Mary’s Academy . 1852 Sch . C. F. R. 7, 000 1125 . do . University of Notre Dame 1856 Col . c. F. R. 60, 000 (Lemonnier’s Librarv). 1126 Oakland . Oakland City College . Col . c Fr. B. 4 000 1127 Oldenburg . I mmaculate Conception 1870 Sch . c. S. R. 2,500 Academv. 1128 Peru . Public Library . 1897 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2, 700 1129 Plainfield . Central Academy . Sch . c S. B. 1, 000 1180 . do . Indiana Reform School for 1868 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,491 Bovs. 1131 Plymouth . City Library . 1880 Gen . T. F. B. 6,480 1132 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 5, 980 1133 Portland . Public Library . 1900 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,100 1134 Remington . Public School Library . 1890 Sch . t! E. B. 1,000 1135 Rensselaer . Jasper Public Library . 1899 Gen . T F. B. 1, 552 1136 . do . Public School Library . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. 1,800 1137 Richmond . Earl ham College . 1847 Col . O. c. F. B. 8,000 1138 . do . Ionian Society . 1871 Col. Soc _ c. Fr. R. 1,500 1139 . do . Phoenix Society . 1878 Col. Soc. . . c. Fr. R. 1,000 1140 . do . Morrison-Reeves Library _ 1864 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 27', 000 1141 . do . Public High School . Sch ....... T. F. R. 1,000 1142 . do . Richmond Law Library . 1897 Law . T s R. si 500 1143 Ridgeville . Ridgeville College . 1867 Col . c. F. R. 3, 000 1144 Rochester . Rochester Normal University 1895 Col . c. Fr. B. 1 i 050 1145 Rockport . Ohio Townshin Library . Gen . T. F. B. 1, 050 1146 Rockville . Public High School . 1888 Sch ....... T. F. B. li 200 1147 Rushville . F. B. Johnson & Co.’s Library. 1898 Gen . R. C. S. B. 1,500 1148 St. Marys . St. M ary’ s A cademic Institute 1840 Sch . c. s. B. 3, 000 1149 St. Meinrad . St. Anselen’s Library . 1853 Gen . O. c. s. B. 15, 000 1150 Seymour . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 1151 . do . Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. T. s. B. 1,400 1152 Shelbyville . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 3, 000 1153 . do . Public Library . 1897 Gen . T. F. B. 3, 566 11 54 Sheridan . Public School Library . 1885 Sch . T. F. R. 1,100 1155 South Bend . Northern Indiana Historical 1895 Hist . C. F. R. 2, 092 Society. 1156 . do . Public Pligh School . 1881 Sch . m F. B. 1,900 1157 . do . Public Library . 1889 Gen . O. T. E. R. 8,750 1158 . do . St. Joseph County Teachers’ 1884 Gen . T. S. B. 1,100 Library. 1159 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1883 Y.M.C. A. 0. C. S. B. 1,000 1160 Spiceland . Spiceland Academy Library 1870 Gen . c. S. R. 1,500 Association. 1161 Terre Haute . Indiana State Normal School . 1889 Sch . 0. T. s. B. 27, 684 1162 . do . Public High School . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1, 000 1163 . do . Public Library . 1882 Gen . 0. T. F B. 29, 854 1164 . do . Rose Polytechnic Institute .. 1874 Col . 0. C. Fr. B. 10, 000 1165 Union City . Stone Library . Sch . '.. T. F. B. 1,112 1 993 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBKABIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. to .2 CD Us Receipts. o ’3 Pamphlets. Volumes added di the year. Books issued durir year for home u From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent en ment fund. rO Jh • cA ifl «4H o 0) > Name of librarian. io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 400 78 $75 $85 B. .T. Bogue . 1113 2,000 20 G. W. Dunlayy, president _ Charles W. Lewis, president Mrs. M. Alexander . 1114 2, 000 2,000 50 1115 1,000 503 3,200 100 $9, 000 1116 22, 470 $213 6,377 R. A. Wilson . 1117 Mrs. Mary K. Emerick . 1118 1,000 114 2,000 Casper Orebaugh, secretary. C. A. Campbell . 1119 1120= 406 49, 685 2, 287 2,308 3, 200 Walter G. "Harrison . 1121 2,600 1,000 1,400 3,200 81, 500 $25, 000 Arthur D. Marsfield . 1122 Raymond Aldred . 1123 1124 2,500 350 Jos. J. Sullivan . 1125 1126 100 10 Sister M. Clotilda . 1127 167 13, 657 500 500 Martha G. Shirk . 1128 1129 400 12 642 T. J. Charlton, superintend¬ ent. R. A. Chase . llob 1,165 700 3,887 250 250 1131 G32 50 1,100 200 4, 313 2, 500 2, 632 564 Elma Bolten . 1133 W. R. Murphy . 1134 152 20 327 Stella A. Parkinson . 1135 200 118 118 W. H. Sanders, superintend¬ ent. Harlow Lindley . 1136 150 1,200 1137 25 500 . do . . . 1138 25 500 . do . 1139 1,000 47, 621 6,583 6,872 100 35, 000 J. W. Tingle, treasurer . 1140 25 12 100 D. R. EllaBoger, principal . . . Henry C. Fox, president _ H. C. Garvin, president . 1141 180 1142 2, 000 1143 '300 500 W. H. Banta . . . 1144 Josiah Haines, trustee . 1145 500 75 2,542 36 J. F. Thornton, superintend- 1146 100 ent. 1147 1148 300 400 400 35 6, 000 Rev. Frances de Salles 1149 Schoeppnor, O. S. B. 1150 200 4, 800 475 535 Miss Lucy G. Boake . 1151 1152 25 1,321 65 12, 368 1,400 1,436 90 Ida A. Lewis . 1153 57 . C. L. Mendenhall . 1154 2, 210 782 201 Geo. A. Baker, secretary . 1155 55 3, 407 38, 548 30 1156 984 4, 205 4, 295 32, 000 Evelyn C. Humphrey . 1157 60 30 40 William Clem, superintend¬ ent. Miller Guy, general secre¬ tary. Bertha Butler . 1158 2,100 6 70 1159 230 972 100 1165 1,200 3,406 57, 482 8, 570 75, 000 Arthur Cunningham . 1161 1162 1,000 54, 253 13, 540 13, 590 10, 000 Wm. H. WTiley, superintend¬ ent. Albert A. Faurot . 1163 2,000 491 1,200 1164 300 12 400 H. W. Bowers, superintend¬ ent. 1165 ed 1900 - 63 994 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 O O O 4 5 G 7 8 9 INDIANA — COnt’d. 1166 Union Mills . Union High School . Soh . T. F. R. 1, 000 1167 Upland . Taylor University (Moony 1893 Col . C. F. B. 5,000 Library). 1168 Valparaiso . Normal School Library . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. 10, 000 1169 . do . Public High School . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 026 1170 Vincennes . Public Library . 1889 Gen . T. F. B. 5, 000 1171 . do . St. Francis Xavier’s Cathe- 1834 Theo . O. C. Fr. It. 8,000 dral Library. 1172 . do . Vincennes University . 1806 Col . 0. c. S. B. 5, 835 1173 Wabash . Public High School . Sch . rn F. B. 4,000 1174 . do . Public Library . 1900 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 3,500 1175 . do . Wabash City Library* _ 18S9 Soc . c. s. B. 1, 500 1176 Warsaw . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 3, 500 1177 . do . Public Library . 1885 Gen . T. F R. 6, 000 1178 Washington . Public High School . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 050 1179 Winchester . Randolph County Law Li- 1883 Law . c. S. R. 3, 000 brary. INDIAN TERRITORY. 1180 Muscogee . Henry Kendall College . 1894 Col . c. Fr. R. 1 200 1181 Tahlequah . Cherokee National Library .. Gen . T. F. R. 1, 906 1182 . do" . Cherokee National Male 1866 Gen . T. F. R. 1,876 Seminary. IOWA. 1183 Algona . Free Public Library . Gen . R. T. F. B. 2,049 1184 Ames . Iowa State College . 1869 Col . TL Fr. B. 13, 500 1185 Anamosa . Penitentiary Library . 1874 Gen . T. Fr. B. 4, 300 1186 Atlantic . James K. Powers Memorial 1889 Gen . c. S. B. 2,129 Library. 1187 *4 udubon . Columbian Library . 1883 Soc . C. S. B. 1,200 1188 Boone Free Public Library . 1889 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 5,510 1189 . do . Public School . 1879 Sch . T. Fr. R. 2, 100 1190 Brooklyn _ Public High School . 1893 Sch . TL F. B. 1 ’ 000 1191 Burlington . Free Public Library . 1868 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 18, 450 1192 . do . Public High School . 1883 Sch . T. F. R. 2 , 000 1193 Carroll . Public Library . 1894 Gen . R. T. F. B. l’ 050 1194 Cedar Falls. Free Public Library . 1878 Gen . R. rr F. B. 6' 118 1195 . do . Iowa State Normal School . . . 1876 Sch . T. F. B. 10, 530 1196 Cedar Rapids Coe College . 1881 Col . C. F. B. 3' 500 1197 _ do . Free Public Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. F. C. 5, 400 1198 . do . Iowa Masonic Library . 1844 Masonic . . O. C. F. B. 18; 500 1199 . .do . Washington High School _ Scl) . T. Fr. B. 1,000 1200 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . Y.M.C. A. ... C. F. B. 2; 500 1201 Centerville . Library and Reading Room . 1895 Gen . R. C. S. B. 2,200 1202 Chariton Free Public Library . 1898 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,005 1203 Charles City . Charles City College . 1890 Col . C. S. B. U200 1204 . do . . . Free Public Library . 1886 Gen . R. T. F. B. 20, 000 1205 Cherokee . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1, 575 1206 . do . Public Library . 1899 Gen . rV T. F. B. 2,099 1207 Clarinda . State Hospital for Insane Li- 18S8 Asy . T. F. C. 1,180 brary. 1208 Clear Lake . Public Library . 1889 Gen . R. c. s. B. 1,103 1209 Clinton . Public School . 1885 Sch . R. T. F. B. 7,708 1210 . do . Wartburg College . 1864 Col . C. F. R. 2,440 1211 Colfax . Public Library . 1892 Gen . C. S. B. 1,118 1212 College Springs _ Amity College . I860 Col . C. F. B. 2, 500 1213 Council Bluffs .... Free Public Library . ]882 Gen . R. T. F. B. 22, 592 1214 . do . Iowa School for the Deaf _ 1878 Sch . O. T Fr. B. 3,480 1215 . do . St. Francis Academy . 1873 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 1216 Creston . Creston Library . Gen . T. F. B. 2; 028 1217 Davenport . Davenport Academy of Nat- 1867 Scion . O. C. Fr. It. 39, 102 ural Sciences. * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 995 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. : Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations— State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 200 25 500 W. Bert Siders . 1166 400 568 50 $500 Lillian St. John . 1167 3,000 O. P. Kinsey . 1168 0 179 3,421 43 C. H. Wood . 1169 250 20, 040 $763 763 Myrtle M. Ruddy . 1170 L. Gueguen, rector . 1171 1,577 539 415 Maude Lemon . 1172 1173 12, 000 500 600 $45, 000 Mrs. A. H. Zeigler . . . 1174 1175 1176 2, 000 ■ 380 10, 000 418 426 Noble Harter, superintend- 1177 ent. 200 100 5,756 200 279 W. F. Axtell . 1178 1, 000 100 . 600 A. O. Marsh, circuit judge _ 1179 500 50 A. Grant Evans . 1180 1,000 28 J. T. Parks, secretary . 1181 2, 150 90 . do . .‘. . . . 1182 450 149 9,587 393 401 0 E. P. McElrov . 1183 3, 000 900 $1, <800 1, 800 Vina E. Clark . 1184 0 573 29, 000 1,300 i; 300 E. G. Beyer, chaplain . 1185 1,243 40 W. B. Martin . . . 1186 50 20 1,837 440 Laura A. Hurd . 1187 400 835 10, 314 1,066 3,600 4, 694 10, 000 Bessie Moffatt . 1188 300 Geo. t. Miller . 1189 100 120 55 Eugene Henry, superintend- 1190 ent. 6,000 750 57, 368 5,100 6,100 75, 000 Philip M. Crapo, president . . 1191 250 45 Hr. E. Poppe _ V. . 1192 43 60 5, 011 325 344 Mrs. M. H. Bangs . . 11 S3 600 370 7, 455 795 795 Eunice C. Overman . 1194 1,313 918 23, 950 1,000 1,000 1195 350 186 50 0 Ida M. Dodd . 1196 . 3, 300 5,261 5,35b Harriette L. McCrony . . . 1197 3,700 465 2, 500 35, 000 N. R. Parvin . j . 1198 100 A. S. Abbott, principal . 1199 500 20 800 . A. M. Clem ence, secretary _ 1200 272 Mrs. E. J. Shirey, secretary . 1201 25 125 13, 555 0 0 365 Margaret W. Brown . 12 02 20 75 Frederick Schaub . 1203 375 11, 562 47 Mrs. H. N. Samson _ 1204 1205 480 507 Mrs. M. Wakefield , secretary 1°06 86 Max E. Witte, superintend- 1207 ent. 75 2, 500 0 0 300 0 Hannah Bowers . 1208 138 9, 303 Mrs. O. P. Bostwick 1209 207 '250 199 349 ProL H. Kuhlmann 1210 100 98 1,279 50 Miss Etta Ogan . 1211 50 Prof. Geo. M Reed 1212 362 63, 310 4,106 4,228 Mary E. Dai lev 1213 410 200 200 Henrv W.R.othert superin- 1214 tendent. 150 45 Sister M. Antonia, . 1215 100 127 2, 000 0 255 260 Mrs. Gertrude Jay . 1216 1,570 0 0 900 $9, 500 20, 000 W. H. Barres, curator . 1217 996 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , ancl school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. _ A _ Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2- 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 iowa — continued. - 1218 Davenport . Davenport Turngemeinde . . . 1855 Gen . c. F. B. 3, 000 1219 . do . Immaculate Conception Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,200 Academy. 1220 . do . James Grant Law Library ... Law . c. S. R. 12 000 1221 . do . Library Association . 1852 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 9 000 1222 . do . Public High School . 1885 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 000 1223 . do . St. Ambrose College . Col . c. Fr. R. 5 000 1224 . do . St. Katharine’s Hall . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,200 1225 . do . Soldiers’ Orphans’ Home .... 1866 Sch . 0. T. F. C. 2, 124 1226 Decorah . Decorah Institute . 1874 Sch . . C. S. B. 1 000 1227 . do . Norwegian Luther College... 1861 Col . C. B. 8,918 1228 . do . Museum Library . 1895 Hist . C. F. R. 1, 500 1229 Denison . Public School . 1873 Sch . R. T. F. B. 2,100 1230 Denmark . Denmark Academy . 1858 Sch . c. F. B. 2, 560 1231 Des Moines . ... Des Moines College . 1865 Col . c. Fr. R. 3 500 1232 . do . Drake University . 1881 Col . c. F. B. 7,000 1233 . .do _ Grand View College . 1895 Col . c. Fr. B. 3 000 1234 . . . do . Highland Park College . Sch . c. Fr. B. 5, 000 1235 . do . Iowa State Library . 1838 State . T. F. R. 65, 093 1236 . .do . . Public Library . 1867 Gen . R. T. F. B. 26, 391 1237 . do . State Board of Health . 1880 Med . T. Fr. R. 2,000 1238 . do . State Historical Library . 1882 Hist . T. Fr. R. 7,000 1239 . do . State Horticultural Library.. 1880 Seien . C. F. R. L 200 1240 . do . West High and Industrial Sch . T. F. R. 1, 200 School. 1241 Dewitt . Public Library . 1897 Gen . R. C. s. B. 1, 193 1242 Dubuque . Convent of the Visitation _ Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,000 1243 . do . German Theological Semi- Theo . C. F. R. 4, 500 narv of the Northwest. 1244 . do . Public High School . 1896 Sch . T. F. B. 1,225 1245 . do . St. Joseph’s College . Col . C. Fr. B. 2, 500 1246 . do . Wartburg Seminary . 1854 Theo . C. Fr. B. 5, 800 1247 . do . Young Men’s Library Associ- 1856 Gen . R. C. S. B. 17, 500 ation. 1248 Dunlap . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 1249 East Des Moines.. East Side High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. U 600 1250 Eldora . Iowa Industrial School . Sch . T. Fr. B. L 850 1251 . do . Public Library . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 3^ 500 1252 Emmetsburg . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,127 1253 Epworth . . Epworth Seminary . 1883 Sch . C. S. B. 2,000 1254 Estherville . Free Public Library . 1897 Gen . R. T. F. B. L 300 1255 Fairfield . . do . 1892 Gen . O. T F. B. 16' 200 1256 . do . Parsons College . 1875 Col . C. Fr. B. 5' 000 1257 Fayette . Upper Iowa University . 1858 Col . C. F. R. 5; 000 1258 Fort Dodge . Free Public Library . 1874 Gen . R. T. F. B. 10, 000 1259 Fort Madison . Cattermole Memorial Li- 1894 Gen ...... O. T. F. B. 2 ' 500 brary.* 1260 . do . . Iowa State Penitentiary Li- Asy . T. Fr. B. 8,047 brary. 1261 Glenwood . Iowa Institution for Feeble- Asy . T. Fr. B. 1,000 Minded Children. 1262 . do . Public School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 1263 Greene . Library Association . 1875 Gen . R. C. S. B. R500 1264 Grinnell . Free Library . 1894 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 341 1265 . do . Iowa College . 1848 Col . C. Fr. B. 26; 650 1266 Hamburg . Public High School . 1894 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,090 1267 Hampton . Public Library . 1891 Gen . T. F. B. i; 461 1268 Hopkinton . Lenox College . 1859 Col . C. S. B. 2,800 1269 Hull . Educational Institute . 1885 Sch . c. F. B. L500 1270 Humboldt . Humboldt College . Col . c. Fr. B. 5, 000 1271 Ida Grove . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. l'l81 1272 Independence. . . . Free Public Library . 1873 Gen . O. T. F. B. 5, 218 * Statistics of 1895-96. 997 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. 5j0 B 'f-i d CD rP Receipts. > *> o s Pamphlets. r^J ^ ci CD a 'o > Books issued durir year for home u From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent en ment fund. rO t> i fH d . ^ w tuO u-< O 0 d t> Name of librarian. io 11 12 13 14 15 1« 17 18 75 1,787 Ludwig Berg, correspond¬ ing secretary. 1,000 300 0 0 0 $559 1,996 Louis Block . 285 16, 495 $30, 000 S. C. Billen . 150 100 700 3 W. D. Wells, principal . Henry Maniett, O. P . Mary F. Buffington, princi¬ pal. M. T. Gass, superintendent . . Gilbert Holtan . 225 3, 588 600 $275 0 275 600 50 o 93 0 53 4,252 0 0 614 $200 Chr. A. Naeseth . 1,500 600 Haldor Hanson, curator . 100 100 G.W. McClellan . 6 15 Chas. Hancock, treasurer . . . Carrie E. Laird . 1,260 . 300 Mary A. Carpenter . 20 25 Prof. R. R. Vestergaard . 2,830 5, 000 7,000 12, 793 Johnson Brighand . 1, 361 133, 840 $12, 337 . Ella, M. McLonev . . 50 J. F. Kennedy, secretary _ 2,000 6,000 6,000 75 50 Wesley Green . 0 80 . W. O. Riddell, principal . 0 206 2,548 442 Delia Reilly, secretary . 1,600 150 A. C. Kroesehe . 300 180 800 95 250 F. T. Oldt, superintendent . . 44 0 0 100 0 Prof. Max Fritschel . 228 26, 710 78 3, 285 Miss C. Wilder . . 200 250 15, 000 763 701 701 Clara Esterbrook . 36 84 H. E. Blackmar, superin¬ tendent. Helen I. Hanna . 500 20 91 . 200 200 9,160 700 0 700 0 Tillie Siilge . 800 200 0 0 1,347 0 40, 000 H. M. Dysart . 2, 000 1,000 100 G. D. Gable, secretary . 500 0 0 250 0 B. Fink . 175 800 21, 539 1,641 1,641 0 W. H. Johnston . 600 A. H Jessup, chaplain . F. M. Powell, superintend¬ ent. Jessie C. Nutting* . 100 75 85 Walter Y. Greene . 153 251 10, 670 716 756 0 Mary E. Wheelock . 1,282 250 900 M. H. Douglass . 2,639 8,147 65 125 J. C. King“ . 0 273 500 508 S. M. Jones . 1,300 500 100 105 A. G. Wilson, president . 50 A. R. Chase, principal . J. P. Peterson . 130 130 . E.T. Sheppard, superintend¬ ent. D. S. Peering, secretary . 351 15, 567 882 895 15, 000 1218 1219 1220 1221 1222 1223 1224 1225 1226 1227 1228 1229 1230 1231 1232 1233 1234 1235 1236 1237 1238 1239 1240 1241 1242 1243 1244 1245 1246 1247 1248 1249 1250 1251 1252 1253 1254 1255 1256 1257 1258 1259 1260 1261 1262 1263 1264 1265 1266 1267 1268 1269 1270 1271 1272 998 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899=1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. 1 2 iowa — continued. be c "3 c 1273 Indianola . 1274 . do . 1275 Iowa City . 1276 . do . 1277 . do . 1278 . do . 1279 Iowa Falls . 1280 . do . 1281 Keokuk . 1282 . do . 1283 . do . 1284 . do . 1285 Keosauqua . 1286 Knoxville . 1287 . do . 1288 Lamoni . 1289 Legrand . 1290 Lemars . 1291 . do . 1292 Lyons . 1293 . do . 1294 Manchester . 1295 Maquoketa . 1296 Marshalltown _ 1297 . do . 1298 . do . 1299 Mason City . 1300 Missouri Valley . . 1301 Mount Pleasant . . 1302 . do . 1303 . do . 1304 . do . 1305 Mount Vernon . . . 1306 Muscatine . 1307 Nevada . 1308 Newton . 1309 Onawa . 1310 Orange City . 1311 Osage . 1312 . do . 1313 Oskaloosa . 1314 . do . 1315 . do . 1 31 6 . do . 1317 Ottumwa . 1318 Oxford . 1319 Panora . 1320 Pella . 1321 Perry . 1322 Redoak . 1323 Rockford . 1324 Rock Rapids . 1325 Sabula . 1326 Sheldon . 1327 . do . 1328 Shenandoah . 1329 Sibley . 1330 Sigourney . 1331 Sioux City . Public Library . Simpson College . Public Library . State Historical Society . State University of Iowa . Law Library . Ellsworth College * . Public Library . I. O. O. F. Library . Keokuk Bar Association Li¬ brary.* Public High School . Public Library . I. O. O. F. Library . Home for the Blind . . Public High School . Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Palmer College . . . Public Library . Western Union College . German Association Library* Young Men’s Association Li¬ brary. Free Public Library . Boardman Library Institute. Iowa Soldiers’ Home Library. Public Library . Public School . Public Library . Free Public Library . German College . Iowa Hospital for Insane .... Iowa Wesleyan University.. Ladies’ Library Association.. Cornell College . P. M. Musser Library . Public Library . Public School . _ do . Rapelye Library . Cedar Valley Seminary . Sage Public Library . City School . . . Oskaloosa College . Penn College . Public Library . Public High School . Masonic Library . Guthrie County High School. Central College . Normal School . Public High School . - do . Free Public Library . Public High School . Public Library . Public School . Western Normal College . Public High School . Keokuk County Educational Library. Morningside College . 1884 1867 1897 1857 1856 1868 1890 1896 1888 1893 1850 1865 1885 1900 1860 1863 1885 1887 1898 1888 , 1881 j 1874 j 1855 1872 1854 1897 1876 1880 1895 1877 1875 1867 1874 1895 1892 1876 1853 1893 1882 1893 1895 1882 1895 Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 4 5 6 7 8 9 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3,817 Col . C. F. B. 2,860 4,097 Gen . R. T. F. B. Hist . R. T. F. R. 20, 500 Col . O. T. F. B. 55, 000 Law . C. Fr. R. 9, 650 1,200 Col . O. C. Fr. R. Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,266 I.O.O.F.. .... C. Fr. C. 2,400 Law . C. S. R. 1,000 1,200 13, 134 Sch . T. Fr. R. Gen . O. T. F. B. I.O.O.F.. .... C. Fr. R. 1,000 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 2,000 1,739 Sch . T. Fr. B. Gen . C. F. B. Col . C. Fr. B. 2,000 3,500 1,650 1,100 Gen . T. F. B. Col . C. Fr. R. Gen . 0. C. S. B. Gen . R. c. S. B. 4, 945 Gen . T. F. B. 3, 845 3,394 Gen . R. C. S. B. Gen . T. F. B. 1,690 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4,891 Sch . T. F. B. 5, 527 2, 225 Gen . O. T. F. B. Gen . T. F. B. 1, 895 1,000 Col . C. Fr. B. Asy . T. Fr. B. 3; 085 Col . C. S. B. 8, 000 6,467 Gen . R. C. S. B. Col . c. F. B. 18, 330 1,200 5, 000 1,200 1,200 3,000 3,000 3,000 Gen . T. Fr. B. Gen . T. F. B. Sch . T. F. B. Sell . T. F. B. Sch . c. Fr. B. Sch . c. Fr. R. Gen . O. T. F. B. Sch . T. F. B. 2, 000 3, 000 3,000 2, 134 Col . C. TTY B. Col . c. Fr. R, Gen . R. T. F. B. Sch . T. F. B. 1,077 1,300 1,000 4, 000 1,200 Masonic . . C. S. B. Sch . T. Fr. B. Col . C. S. B. Sch . R. C. S. B. Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 1,200 2,285 1,010 1,000 Sch . T. Fr. B. Gen . T. F. B. Sell . T. B. Gen . R. T. F. B. Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 1,500 1,000 1,000 Col . C. F. B. Sch . TL Fr. B. Sch . T. Fr. R. Col . C. S. B. 2,000 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBBAKIES 999 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. h/D .s 0) Receipt s. r' O d d Pamphlets. d d jh‘ O c3 rrt O q DC CD +■=» a 3 O K- Books issued durir year for home u From taxation. • Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total "income. Permanent en ment fund. JO QO 0 Name of librarian. io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 500 7,742 $900 $952 84 Hannah M. Babb . 1,980 0 $38 Martha Stahl . . 1,137 28, 494 3,500 3,500 1,000 Adelaide C. Lloyd . '325 1,000 $1, 000 M. W. Davis, secretary . 5, 650 150 300 109 265 8, 758 600 443 0 645 0 Mrs. Florence Anders . 550 50 80 E. C. Cobb . _ 1 _ Bertha R. Craig . . . . 1,211 0 60, 927 25 2,000 3, 066 $10, 000 Nannie P. Fulton . 0 Chas. F. Henry . 160 45 i Harlan Updegraff, superin¬ tendent. F.E. Cochran . 400 362 26 150 10, 000 1,000 1, 050 0 Ira T. Martin, president . Rev. H. II. Thoren, president. 270 1,000 0 0 598 Jeannette F. Balch . 12, 140 476 476 Mrs. Jennie Jones . 90 5; 284 3,600 700 5, 000 Ida M. Simpson . 146 146 E. L. Lunt . . 600 790 34, 455 1,560 1,777 0 M. M. Battis . . 241 Olive A. Zug . 1,020 190 14, 694 1,500 226 1,127 1,289 3, 000 Anna H. Chapin . Estelle Turner . 100 E. S. Hovighorst, president . . Frank C. Hoyt, superintend¬ ent. A.L. Eaton . 1,000 150 75 900 109 1,769 11,889 0 0 452 Ida Van Hon . 1, 118 510 May L. Fairbanks . Mrs. Emma L. Makin . 200 250 8, 643 800 875 0 W. P. Payne, oresident . 200 E. J. K. Beard . . 100 320 125 250 1 . A. F. Styles, superintendent. Phil. Sonlen . 400 50 500 25 1 100 125 500 Alonzo Abernethy . 132 10, 541 550 Ella M. Stacv . 450 300 300 S. J. Linley, superintendent. John M. Stoke . . 50 Rosa E. Lewis . 322 5, 641 520 361 0 W.S. Lacv . 50 39 42 Calla M. Hand . 500 100 200 W. H. Poole . 75 126 B. E. Finley . 30 200 0 0 120 Martha Firth . . 300 W. M. Tarr . 100 160 0 W. F. Chevalier . 0 290 2, 500 247 0 295 Mrs. Anna Manning . 3, 520 293 299 Mrs. G. W. Roth . W. J. Simpson . 50 J - M. Hussey, president . 1,000 100 150 F. H. Garver, secretary . 1273 1274 1275 1276 1277 1278 1279 1280 1281 1282 1283 1284 1285 1286 1287 1288 1289 1290 1291 1292 1293 1294 1295 1296 1297 1298 1299 1300 1301 1302 1303 1304 1305 1305 1307 1308 1309 1310 1311 1312 1313 1314 1315 1316 1317 1318 1319 1320 1321 1322 1323 1324 1325 1326 1327 1328 1329 1330 1331 1000 1332 1333 1334 1335 1336 1337 1338 1339 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 1345 1346 1347 1348 1349 1350 1351 1352 1353 1354 1355 1356 1357 1358 ! 1359 1360 1361 1382 1363 ' 1364 | 1365 1366 1367 1368 1369 1370 1371 1372 1373 1374 1375 1376 1377 1378 1379 1380 1381 1382 1383 1384 1385 1386 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date oT founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 iowa — continued. Sioux City . Public Library . . 1877 Gen . O. T. F. B. 14 750 Sptmcer . . do . 1880 Gen . O. T. F. B. 3, 509 Storm Lake . Buena Vista College . 1891 Col . C. S. B. 2,500 . do . Public School . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. 1,250 Tabor . Tabor College . 1866 Col . C. Fr. B. 11,500 Tama . Woman’s Club Library . 1885 Gen . R. C. S. C. 1,013 Toledo . Western College . *. . 1856 Col . c. s. B. 3, 100 Trenton . Henry County Institute of 1870 Scien . O. c. S. C. 1, 560 Science. Vinton . Iowa College for the Blind... Asy . T. F. B. 1,500 . do . Til ford Collegiate Academy. . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,500 Washington . Free Public Library . 1877 Gen . O. T. F. B. 5, 241 Waterloo . . do . 1897 Gen T. F. B. 4,239 W averly . Public Library . 1894 Gen . II. T F. B. 1,870 . do . Public School Library . 1884 Sch . T. F. B. 1, 200 . do . Wartburg Teachers’ Seminary 1879 Col . C. F. B. 1,100 Webster City . Kendall Young Library . 1898 Gen . O. C. F. B. 3, 930 Westbranch . Scattergood Library . 1890 Gen . c. Fr. R. 1/200 West Liberty . Public Library . 1S95 Gen . R. T. F. B. l’ 050 West Union . . do . 1896 Gen . R. C. S. B. l’ 500 Wilton Junction.. Wilton German-English Col- 1894 Col . c. Fr. R. i'soo lege. Winterset . Free Public Library . 1891 Gen . R T. F. B. 3,220 KANSAS. Abilene . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,200 Anthony . Public Library . 1897 Gen . T. F. B. 1,200 Atchison . Daughters of Rebekah, I. O. 1873 I. O.O. F.. c. S. B. 2', 000 O. F. . do . John A. Martin Memorial Li- Gen . c. Fr. B. 1,000 brary. . do . Midland College . 1887 Col . c. Fr. B. 5, 000 . do . Public Library . 1879 Gen . c. S. B. 6,548 . do . St. Benedict’s College . 1858 Col _ ... c. Fr. B. 14, 600 . do . Western Theological Semi- 1895 Theo . c. Fr. B. 1 ' 800 nary. Baldwin . Baker University . Col . c. s. B. 7,000 Belleplaine . Public High School . 1887 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 Beloit . . . do . Sch . T Fr. B. R 500 Blue Rapids . Ladies’ Public Library . 1875 Gen . O. C. S. B. 3,168 Burlingame . Public School . 1868 Sch . T. F. B. 1, 800 Burlington . Free Public Library . 1884 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,800 Cawker City. Public Library . 1883 Gen . O. c S. B. 1,860 . do . * . Public School . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 . do . Woman’s Hesperian Library 1883 Gen . O. C. S. B. 1, 872 Club. Chanman . Dickinson County High 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 000 School. Columbus . Public High School . 1884 Sell . T. F. B. 1, 650 . do . Public School . 1885 Sch . T. Fr. B. l’ 715 Concordia . Library Association . 1892 Gen . C. S. C. l’ 300 . do . Nazareth Academy . Sch . c. Fr. B. 2, 000 . do . Public High School . 1893 Sch . T. F. B. i'ooo . do . St. Aloysius School . 1884 Sch . C. Fr. B. 2, 000 Dodge City . Soule College . 1894 Col . c. F. R. l’ 300 Effingham . Atchison County High School 1892 Sch . T. F. B. l’ 200 Emporia . College of Emporia (Ander- 1885 Col . C. Fr. B. 5j 000 son Memorial Library). . do . Free Library . 1884 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4,500 . do . Railroad Library . 1898 Gen . C. F. B. 8,000 . do . State Normal Sehool . 1865 Sch . T. Fr. B. 14; 302 Eureka . Southern Kansas Academy.. 1887 Sch . C. F. B. L432 Fort Leavenworth Post and Lyceum Library. . . . Gar . T. Fr. B. 2; 250 . do . U. S. Infantry and Cavalry 1881 Govt . T. F. B. 8; 000 School. Fort Scott . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 2, 658 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 1001 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. pp a <3 Ph bo d "A d 'C 'd £ 6 bX)&! d 0 L a> Z, O 'd x: S p-i Ec.Q Receipts. 1, 274 250 750 591 1,000 50 100 50 12 Ph 13 55, 165 1,200 0 $4, 778 c3 Pi £ C £ •-3 o ^ d ~ SS O Q) a o o a 'cj O Eh 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 (3 17 18 Mrs. S. E. Munday . 2,000 $8, 000 360 2, 000 400 355 100 16 $500 Rev. M. A. Higgins, S. J Rev. I. W. Cooper, president. Rev. D. V. Byers, president . . G. W. Thighen . 3, OuO 133 2, 000 J. L. Westbrook, secretary. . . 1,150 43 Lawrence Justin . 3, 250 40 88, 000 $8, 500 11,993 150 40, 000 Wm. Beer . . . 2, 000 Richard Lambert . . Sophie B. Wright . 2,046 300 26 . 7, 500 $200, 000 100, 000 Wm. Beer . . . 950 93 1, 650 Mrs. E. P. Randolph . Annie Hurwitz . 20, 000 1,200 0 0 0 1,300 Benj. R. Forman . Alice L. Lusher . 0 500 25 150 100 50 1, 800 E. Suydam, principal . 0 0 40 100 L. Y. Adkinson, D. D . 6,000 Eveline A. Waldo . 108 1,250 34 2,000 Geo. Soule, principal . Mrs. A. T. Getz . 650 802 Albertine F. Phillips . E. C. Little, treasurer . 5,000 1,500 1,200 Sister St. Helen . J. C. Jackson, general secre¬ tary. E. F. Gayle, principal . W. C. Robinson . 639 50 1,200 115 131 180 246 75 1,250 680 2, 322 154 23 400 394 1,041 50 4, 150 Nellie F. Walters . Sam M. Came . James E. Hewey . 500 1,540 A. R. Savage . 34, 290 1, 500 Annie Prescott . 2, 000 Chas. E. Nash . F. A. Small . 188 34, 306 1, 200 2,480 24, 000 50, 000 Julia M. Clapp . 1536 1537 153S 1539 15!®- 1541 1542 154S- 1544 1545 154® 1547 154S- 154® 155® 1551 1552 1553 1554 1555 1556- 1557 1558 155® 156® 1561 1562 1563 1564 1565 1566 1567 1568 1569 1573 1571 1572 1573 1574 1575 1576 1577 1578 1579 1583 1010 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. _ Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Maine— continued. 1581 Augusta . Maine Insane Hospital 1860 Gen . C. Fr. c. 2, 090 ( Black Library) . 1582 . do . Maine State Library . 1861 Gen . T F. B. 60, 000 1583 Bangor . Bangor Theological Seminary 1814 Theo . 0. c. Fr B. 21, 311 1584 . do . Penobscot Bar "Library Asso-" Lawr . T. F. R. 2,800 ciation. 1585 . do . Public Library . 1883 Gen . R. C. Fr. R. 46, 837 1586 Bar Harbor . Village Library . Gen . 0. c. Fr. B. 6,000 1587 Bath . Patten Free Library . 1890 Gen . 0. X. F. B. 9' 398 1588 Belfast . Free Library . 1887 Gen . 0. C F. B. 9, 614 1589 Biddeford . Public High School . 1850 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 1590 . do . Public Library . 1862 Gen . T. F. B. 6, 500 1591 Bridgton . . do . . 1895 Gen . 0. C. S. B. L075 1592 Brunswick . Bowdoin College . 1794 Col . 0. c. Fr. B. 67, 164 1593 . do . Public Library . 1883 Gen . T. F. B. 8, 340 1594 Bucksport . Buck Memorial Library . 1807 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 3,717 1595 .....do . East Maine Conference Sem- 1850 Gen . 0. C. Fr. B. 5, 000 inary. 1586 . do . Public School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 6,000 1597 Calais . Free Library . 1892 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 7' 520 1598 Camden . Public Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2, 643 1599 Castine . Eastern State Normal School. 1S68 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 1600 . do . Town Library . 1856 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3' 500 1601 Charleston . Higgins Classical Institute 1890 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,450 (Tibbetts Library). 1602 Cherryfield . Public Library . 1837 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,200 1603 Clinton . Brown Memorial Library _ 1899 Gen . O. C. F. B. 2, 500 1604 Corinna . Stewart Free Library . 1898 Gen . O. T. F. c. 3' 429 1605 Cornish . Library Association . 1867 Gen . R. rr\ s B. l'453 1606 Cumberland Mills Cumberland Mills Library... 1879 Gen . o. C. F. B. 3,048 1607 Damariscotta . Skidompha Library . 1887 Gen . R. c. S B. 1,203 1608 Deering . Westbrook Seminary (Frost Col . C. Fr. B. 3,500 Library) . 1609 Dexter . Town Library . 1881 Gen . O. T. F. B. 5, 929 1610 East Machias . Public Library Association . . 1874 Gen . c. s. C. L 300 1611 Eastport . . . Public Library . 1894 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 7, 000 1612 Ellsworth . City Library . 1870 Gen . o. T. F. B. 3' 850 1613 Farmington . Abbott Family School (Lit- 1844 Sch . C. Fr. B. 3, 000 tie Blue Library) . 1614 . do . Public Library . 1891 Gen . R. c. s B. 6,555 1615 . do . State Normal School . 1864 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2, 600 1616 Fort Fairfield .... Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. T. F. C. T 101 161? Frankfort . Waldo Peirce Reading Room. 1892 Gen . R. c. F. B. 1,000 1618 Gardiner . Public Library . 1874 Gen . rr. F. B. 6; 801 1619 Gorham . . . . do . 1882 Gen . R. T. S. B. 3i 500 1620 . do . 1879 Sch . TL F. B. 2’ 672 1621 Hallowell . . Hubbard Free Library . 1842 Gen . O. c. F. B. 9, 000 1622 Hebron . Hebron Academy (Hamlin Sch . c. F. B. 1,700 Library). 1623 Houlton . Ricker Classical Institute _ Sch . c. F. B. 1,000 1624 Kennebuuk . First Congregational Parish 1831 Gen . .... C F. B. 3, 000 Library. 1625 . do . Free Library Association . 1881 Gen . 0, T. F. B. 3, 300 1626 Kents Hill . Maine Wesleyan Seminary. . . 1830 Sch . c. F. B. s; 000 1627 Kittery . Rice Public Library . 1875 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 5; 610 1628 Lewiston . Bates College . 1863 Col . C. Fr. B. 18, 766 1629 . do . Cobb Divinity School .... 1840 Theo . c. s B. 4, 150 1630 . do . Manufacturers and Meehan- 1861 Gen . c. s B. 7; 840 ics’ Library Association. 1631 Machias . Porter Memorial Library .... 1892 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 4,231 1632 . do . Washington County Law Li- Law . T. Fr. R. 1, 535 branU 1633 Madison . Public Library . 1866 Gen . R. T. P. B. 4,052 1634 New Gloucester .. . do . 1889 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 3,000 1635 New Sharon . Town Library . Gen . 0. T. F. B. 2,000 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 1011 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Beeeipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 0 17 18 0 40 0 0 $160 $3, 000 Dr. H.B. Hill . 3, 000 2,800 $4, 300 4,300 1,000 L. D. Carver . 610 ' 600 12; 000 $10, 000 .John L. Crosby . 520 M. S. Clifford . 9,860 1,425 44, 174 5, 769 112, 000 Mrs. Mary H. Curran . 0 300 9, 939 $100 100 Miss A. M. Bunker . 416 25, 786 1, 375 2, 065 10, 000 19, 000 F. H. Low, treasurer . 24, 026 1, 836 47; 844 Elizabeth M. Pond . Harry H. Burnham . 30 220 16, 600 800 885 Emma Hatch . 90 3,000 172 2, 500 2, 059 6, 509 0 0 2, 965 30, 000 50, 000 George T. Little . 21 24, 000 1,000 100 F203 Mary G. Gilman . 9, 500 Alice B. Gardner . 1,000 8,000 S. A. Bender . * 0 576 20, 067 1, 103 1,297 5, 750 10, 000 Rev. Chas. G. McCullv . 147 11 \ 945 500 50 '823 0 E. C. Fletcher, treasurer . 25 50 Albert F. Richardson . 300 10, 000 197 19 223 . Edward E. Philbrook . 300 300 '300 60 1,000 H. W. Foss . 57 57 Rebecca Burnham . 3,630 6, 000 12, 000 Grace L. Weymouth . 150 15; 429 100 14 121 65, 000 J. H. Winchester . 50 99 0 36 Mary I. Marr . 288 5,280 Lucy S. Anderson . 125 2, 000 0 . 0 180 Wm. Keene Hilton . 337 20, 558 750 75 849 6,000 30, 000 F. S. Springall . 30 1,800 0 0 45 Josiah Harris . 393 15, 050 660 808 700 10, 000 Mrs. Charlotte Wood . 97 800 86 886 Adelaide True . 10, 000 336 0 0 470 Mrs. Flora A. Brooks . '400 75 120 120 Geo. C. Parington . 107 5, 742 200 223 C.E. Hoit, jr.I . Si 285 365 S. L. Peirce, director _ 85 9, 306 770 804 10, 000 Chas. O. Wadsworth . . 10$ Hattie M. Files. . 700 100 500 950 W. J. Corthell, principal . . 240 11,280 1, 133 25, 0C0 30, 000 Annie F. Page . 60 1,000 30 500 Lucia H. Morrill . 100 2, 000 95 1. 550 F. P. Hall, treasurer . 175 10, 000 200 632 1,500 2,000 F. P. Hall . . . 7,000 300 5, 000 0 0 352 1,000 J. Orville Newton . 500 200 10,869 1,626 30i 000 18, 000 M. A. Safford , president . 3, 339 8; 174 0 1,050 41 i 075 Caroline A. Woodman . 500 250 159 2,000 Prof. H. R. Purinton . 15, 000 0 0 665 Geo. W. Yoss, treasurer. . 142 8, 254 400 40 575 13,000 Mary O. Longfellow . 56 515 P. H. Longfellow. . 300 150 200 302 C. O. Small . 250 325 333 He! ert A . M osel ey . . 25 16 16 Nellie C. Neal. . ."' . 1581 1582 1583 15S4 1585 1588 1587 1588 1589 1590 1591 1592 1593 1591 1595 1593 1597 1598 1599 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1606 1607 1608 1609 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 1616 1617 1618 1619 1620 1621 1622 1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 1630 1631 1632 1633 1634 1635 1012 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. ~J2 Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Maine — continued. 1636 North Bridg ton .. Bridgton Academy . 1811 Sch . C. F. B. 1 525 1637 Norway . Public Library . Gen . R. T E. B. 5, 000 1638 Oakland Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1 000 1639 Old Orchard . Free Public Library . 1898 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1, 800 1640 Old town . Public Library . 1892 G-en . fT\ F. B. 2, 470 1641 Orono . University of Maine . 1868 Col . rP Fr. B. 17, 200 1642 . do . W. C. T. LT. Free Public Li- Gen . R. C. F. C. 2, 000 brary. 1643 Oxford . Freehand Holmes Library.... 1S73 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,200 1644 Paris . Paris Kill .Academy . 1891 Sch . C. F. R. 2,500 1645 Phillips . Free Public Library . Gen . R. T. F. C. 2, 056 1646 Portland . Clark’s Circulating Library.. 1877 Gen . C. c. 5. 000 1647 ...do . Greenleaf Law Library . Law . T. R. 8’ 000 1648 . do . Maine Charitable Mechanic 1815 Gen . O. c. B. 14, 000 Association Library. 1649 . do . Maine Genealogical Society. . 1884 Hist . C. & R. 2, 097 1650 . do . Maine Historical Society . 1822 Hist . C. Fr. It. 13, 500 1651 . do . Portland Society of Natural 1S43 Scien . O. 0. Fr. R. 3; 426 History. 1652 . do . Post Library, Fort Preble _ 1867 Gar . o. T. F. B. 2,412 1653 . do . Public High School . 1872 Sch . Fr. R. 2.010 1654 . do . Public Library . 1867 Gen . o. B. E. B. 47, 500 1 655 . .do Rossini Club Library * . 1869 Ron R c s c. 1656 . do . State Reform School (Bovs Sch . rr F. B. 2, 100 Library). 1657 Presque Isle . Library A ssociation . 1870 Gen . B. s C. 1.600 1658 . do . Public Library . 1885 Gen . R. B. s C. 1,800 1659 Richmond . Library Association . 1867 Gen R. c. s. 0 4' 898 1660 Saco . Dyer Library Association _ 1881 Gen . 6. c. F. C. 12; 090 1661 . do . Thornton Academy (Sweet- 1889 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,821 ser School) . 1662 . do . York Institute . Gen . 0. c. Fr. R. 3, 000 1603 Searsoort . Sears Public Library . 1883 Gen . R. T. F. C. 1, 700 1664 Skowhegan . Free Public Library . 1867 Gen . 0. C. s B. s', 000 1665 South Berwick _ Berwick Academy (Fogg 1895 c. F. B. 4, 356 Memorial Library) . 1666 Thomaston . Maine State Prison Library.. Gen . T. T? c. 1,954 1667 .... do . Public Library . 1898 Gen . R. T. F. B. 5; 021 1668 Togus . National Soldiers’ Home Li- 1866 Gen . O. C. F. B. 9,465 brary. 1669 Va ssa l boro . Oak Grove Seminary . 1S56 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 1670 Waterville . Coburn Classical Institute ... Sch . c. Fr. B. 2, 510 1671 . do . Colby College . 1818 - Col . 0. c. s B. 35, 700 1672 . do . Waterville Woman’s Associ- 1887 Gen . R. c. s. B. 2, 000 ation Library. 1673 Westbrook . Memorial Library . 1894 Gc-n . 0. T. T? B. 7,400 1674 Winterport . Free Library Association .... 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,300 1675 . do . Ladies’ Circle Library . 1865 Gen . 0. C. S. c. 1, 650 1676 Winthrop . Public Library . 1889 Gen . R. c. s. C. 2,300 1677 Wiscasset . Lincoln Law Library* . 1824 Law . .... c. F. R. 1,000 1678 . do . Social T ibrarv * . 1799 Soc . c. F. R. 1.300 1679 Wood fords. Leering Library . Gen . c. C. I,' 800 1680 . do . Westbrook Seminary . Sch . c. Fr. B. S. 000 1681 Yarmouth . North Yarmouth Academy .. 1894 Sch . c. S. B. 2, 300 1682 Yarruouthville . Hillside Library . 1 jsqo Gen . c. s B. 1,175 1683 York Harbor . York Library . 1881 Gen . 0. c. s. C. 3, 000 MARYLAND. 1684 Ammendale . Ammendale Normal Insti- Sch . c. Fr. B. 5, 000 tute. 1685 Annapolis Maryland State Library . 1827 Gen . T. F. R. 40, 000 1680 . do . . St. John’s College . 1872 Col . 0. C. Fr. B. 10, 000 1687 . do . United States Naval Acad- 1845 Col . 0. T. Fr. B. 39, 538 emy. * Statistics of 1895-96 1013 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. V olumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 0 100 950 C. 0. Spratt, principal . 300 300 2,500 $50 $50 A. E. Monahan . 975 525 6, 616 $200 83 311 Mrs. M. W. Means . 293 12, 898 350 37 437 Charlotte Folsom . 7, 500 2,409 4, 875 0 0 4,973 Ralnh K. Jones . 70 25 275 Addie L. Harvey . . 200 50 50 Geo. H. Jones . Geo. M. Atwood . . 91 200 20 240 Mrs. A. M. Greenwood . 500 834 Edward Woodman, treasurer 10, 000 1, 554 $3, 000 $50, 000 Russell G. Dyer . 2,160 157 337 1, 150 Joseph P. 'Thompson . 17, 500 250 650 10,000 H. W. Bryant . 3,230 400 50 427 3, 500 8, 000 Joseph P. Thompson . 0 24 200 30 1,500 Chas. R. Lawson . . 0 25 A. E. Chase . 2, 700 99, 145 6,600 15, 143 98, 815 50, 000 Alice C. Furbish . E. P. Wentworth, superin- tendent. 125 100 250 Fred. H. Blake . 125 5, 000 100 325 . do . Wm. H. Stuart . 1,000 26, 000 0 0 46 25, 000 John Haley . 0 ' 200 3; 130 0 0 500 10, 000 Henrietta Moody . . 5,000 0 0 0 382 20, 000 W. S. Dennett . 0 45 0 0 25 Jennet B. Rice . 1 , 000 13, 042 12, 000 17, 000 Clara A. Morrison . 100 ' Til 5, 262 0 0 363 18, 000 Ella W. Ricker . . 0 100 0 50 379 C. A. Plumer . 2, 000 1,549 16,609 0 515 721 11,490 Annie O. Gerry . . 0 '235 30, 108 10,328 A. L. Smith, treasurer . „ 100 20 500 0 0 35 Arthur M. Charles . 725 246 3, 124 0 0 350 3,000 F. W. Johnson, principal _ 20, 000 752 7,000 0 0 430 7,000 50, 666 Edward W. Hall . 73 6, 175 0 0 146 Miss L. E. McLain . 579 24, 345 1,690 2,290 10, 000 25, 000 Eliza M. Atkinson . 200 200 3,000 100 10 '210 250 Amos F. Carleton, president.! 50 1,050 John A. Stanley . | 20 Mrs. A. R. Huston . 100 20 100 10 O. H. Perry, president . 150 126 220 25- . Rev. B. P. Snow, principal _ 0 30 5, 107 7! _ Ellen S. Mitchell . 125 3, 000 300 Sarah M. Varrell . 3,000 1,500 L. H. Drehnen . 1,000 '700 1,000 150 10, 000 Francis E. Daniels . 1,058 Si 325 0 2, 000 2, 000 25, 000 Prof. Arthur N. Brown . 1636 1637 1638 1639 1640 1641 1642 1643 1644 1645 1646 1647 1648 1649 1650 1651 1652 1653 1654 1655 1656 1657 1658 1659 1660 1661 1662 1663 1664 1665 1666 1667 1668 1669 1670 1671 1672 1673 1674 1675 1676 1677 1678 1679 1680 1681 1682 1683 1684 1685 1686 1687 1014 EDUCATION EEPOST, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States 1 Location. Name of library. Date of founding.,' j Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 O 3 4 O 6 7 8 9 MA R Y LAND — C OD . 1688 Baltimore . Academy of the Visitation * . 1838 Sch . C. Fr. B. 4 000 1689 . 00 . Archbishop’s library . 1808 Theo . C. Fr. R. 29, 000 1690 . do . Baltimore City College . Col . T. Fr. B. 8^ 000 1691 . do . Baltimore Law School . 1900 Law . c. Fr. n 1,000 1692 .....do . Baltimore Monthly Meeting Sch . c. jb r. B. 4, 000 Library, Friends’” School. " 1693 . do . Baltimore Normal School for Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 Training of Colored Teach- ers. 1694 . . .. .do . Baltimore and Ohio Em- 1885 Gen . 0. c. F. C. 14, 000 ployees Free Circulating Library. 1625 .... .do . Baltimore Polytechnic In- 1890 Sch . T Fr. B. 2,000 statute. 1696 . do . Boys’ Home . 1871 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 1697 . do . Brvn Mawr School . 1885 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1 . 320 1698 . do . Calvert Hall College . 1891 Col . c. Fr. B. 4,990 1699 . do . City Library . 1875 Gen . T. F. R. 17' 000 1700 . do . Enoch Pratt Free Library. . . . 1882 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 202; 118 1701 Baltimore (Wal- Epiphany Apostolic College . 1889 Col . .... C. F. R. 1,000 brook). 1702 Baltimore . Germania Turnverein Li- 1880 Gen . R. C. Fr. B. 1,000 brary. 1703 . do . Girls’ Latin School . 1895 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,226 1704 Baltimore, St a- House of Refuge . 1855 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2, 600 tion D. 1705 Baltimore . I. O. O. F. Library . 1840 I. O.O. F.. C. S. T) 4>. 22, 541 1706 . do . Johns Hopkins Hospital Li- Med . c. Fr. B. 5, 200 brary. 1707 . do . Johns Hopkins University ... 1876 Col . O. c. Fr. B. 93, 000 1708 . do . Knapp’s Institute . * _ i860 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2, 850 1709 . do . Knights of Pvthias Library.. 1878 Soc . c. F. C. 7, 500 1710 . do . Library Company of the 1840 Law . c. S. B. 16; 759 Baltimore Bar. 1711 . do . Lovola College . 1852 Gen . c. Fr. R. 35, 000 1712 . do . Maryland Diocesan Library. . 1879 Theo . O. c. F. B. 25; 000 1713 . do . Maryland Historical Society7. 1844 Hist . O. c. S. B. 34, 000 1714 . do . . . Maryland Institute for the 1850 God . c. Fr. B. 20, 123 Promotion of the Mechanic Arts. 1715 . do . Maryland Penitentiary- Li- Asy . T. F. B. 3,000 brary. 1716 . do . Maryland School for the 1853 Sch . T. Fr. R 2, 148 Blind. 1717 . do . Maryland State Homeopathic Med . T. Fr. B. 1,000 Medical Society. 1718 . do . Maryland State Normal 1865 Sch . T. Fr. R. 4, 200 School. 1719 . do . Masonic Library Association. Masonic .. C. Fr. C. 3,000 1720 . do . Medical and Chirurgical Fac- 1830 Med . 0. c. S. B. 13, 000 ulty of Maryland. 1721 . do . Morgan College . 1867 Col . c. Fr. B. 5, 000 1722 Baltimore, Sta- Mount St. Joseph’s College. . . 1876 Col . c. F. B. 6, 100 tion 1). 1723 Baltimore . New Mercantile Library . 1888 Gen . R. c. S. B. 67, 540 1724 . do . Notre Dame of Maryland . 1896 Col . c. Fr. B. 8, 000 1725 . do . Peabody Institute of Balti- 1857 Gen . O. c. F. R. 137,000 more. 1726 . do . Red Men’s Library . 1858 Gen _ c. S. B. 7,000 1727 . do . St. Joseph’s Seminary . l.v-9 Then . c. Fr. B. 4,500 1728 . do . St. Mary’s Seminary of St. 1791 Theo . c. Fr. B. 30,000 Sulpice. 1729 . do . Samuel Ready School (The). Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,154 1730 University- of Maryland Law 1884 Col . c. S. R. 1,100 School.” * Statistics of 1895-96. 1015 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. From taxation. Appropriations — g State, county, & or city. Total income. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. 10 11 1*2 13 14 15 1(3 IT 18 1,000 200 Rev. Wn. T. Russell . Howard Bryant, secretary . . 38, 000 A. M. Irving . 500 0 300 W. R. King, U. S. N., nresi- dent. 0 60 John H. Lynch, superin- tendent. 23 . Brother Denis . B. L. Turner . 15, 000 10, 000 746, 623 $50, 000 $55, 000 81, 260, 000 $400, 000 Bernard C. Steiner . Justin McCarthy, president . 0 4 Ernst Kroh, secretary . Jessie B. Slack . 200 50 Joseph M. Fisher, superin- tendent. 0 51 600 B. F. Cooper . 440 M. W. Blogg . 100, 000 4, 000 N. Murray . 50 Wm. A. Knapp . 300 200 2,000 325 James Whitehouse . 592 0 0 1,000 John N. Morgan, S. J . 40 300 W. F. Koopman, assistant _ 5,000 176 93 2, 000 6,446 Francis E. Snarks . . . 114 Geo. Tj. McCahan . . 1, 500 500 John F. Weyler . 525 93 F. D. Morrison, superintend- ent. 50 0 Wm. At. Pannebaker M. D E. B. Prettyman . 1,000 6 1,000 $200 220 Geo. H. Rogers . 5, 000 806 1,424 2, 200 Miss M. C. Noyes . F. J. Wagner, president 500 100 Brother Joseph _ 0 2,083 6,352 4, 000 17, 550 4, 566 88, 514 0 0 26, 230 400, 000 P. Reese Uhler, LL. D _ 500 150 800 0 150 J.P. Abell . 1,000 100 J. P. Slattery 200 500 A . Boy ed Helen J Power principal 150 C. Justin Nennedv . 1688 1689 1690 1691 1692 1693 1691 1695 1696 1697 1698 1699 1709 1701 1702 1703 1701 1705 1706 1707 1708 1709 1710 1711 1712 1713 1714 1715 1716 1717 1718 1719 1720 1721 1722 1723 1724 1725 1726 1727 1728 1729 1730 1016 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public, society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library IS) £ CD c3 1 2 3 M A R Y LA ND— COn . 1731 Baltimore . Woman’s College of Balti- 18S8 more. 1732 . do . Young Men’s Christian Asso- 1860 ciation Library. 17o3 Catonsviile . Mount de Sales Academy. . . . 1852 1734 Charlotte Hall. . . . Washington and Stonewall 1800 Society Library. 1735 Cheltenham . House of Reformation for 1893 Colored Bovs. 1736 Chestertown . Washington College . 1783 1737 College of St. College^}!' St. James Irving 1S42 J ames. Society. 1738 College Park . Maryland Agricultural Col- 1858 lege. 1739 Ellieott City . Rock Hill College . 1857 1740 . do . . . . St. Charles College . 1848 17-^1 Emmitsburg . St. Joseph’s Academv . 1809 1742 Forest Glen . National Park Seminary . 1894 1743 Frederick . Frederick College . 1860 1744 . do . Law Library Association, of 1S35 Frederick County. 1745 _ _ do . Maryland School for the Deaf 1870 1746 . do . St. John’s Circulating Library 1747 . do . Woman’s College . 1893 1748 Hagerstown . Kee Mar College . 1852 1749 _ Tdo . Y.M.C. A. Library . 1895 1750 Ilchester . Redemptorist Library (11- 1867 Chester College). 1751 Lutherville . Maryland College for Young 1853 Ladies. 1752 McDonoarh . McDonogh School . 1873 1753 Mount St. Mar vs. . Mount St. Mary’s College _ 1808 1754 Mount Washing- Mount St. Agnes College . 1869 ton. 1755 Port Deposit . Jacob Tome Institute . 1894 1756 Reisterstown . Tiilard Memorial Free Li- 1887 brary. 1757 St. George . St. George’s Hall for Bovs _ 1876 1758 Sparrows Point. .. Free Librarv . 1896 1759 Washington Grove Fairview Seminar v . 1760 Western Port . Public School Library . 1891 1761 Westminster . Western Maryland College. . . 1867 1762 . do . Westminster Theological 1882 Seminary. Woodstock . Woodstock College . 1869 MASSACHUSETTS. 1 1764 Abington . Public Library . 1878 1765 Acton . Acton Memorial Library . 1890 1766 Adams . Free Public Library . 1863 1767 Agawam . . . . do . 1870 1768 A mesbury . . Public Librarv . 1856 1769 . do . . .* . Y. M.C. A. Library . 1884 1770 Amherst . Amherst College . 1821 1771 . do . Massachusetts ~ Agricultural 1886 College. 1772 . do . Town Library . 1773 Andover .Abbot Academy . 1774 . do . Andover Theological Semi- 1807 nary. 1775 . do . Memorial Hall Library . 1873 1776 . do . Taylor Memorial Library .... 1788 1777 A rlingtou B. E. C. Library . 1778 . do . Robbins Library . 1835 1779 Asliburnham . Cushing Academy . 1873 1780 Ashby . Public Library . Class. Own or rent building. r-* r- 8 c o t £ CO u E. B. 1, 0S6 1797 Belmont . Public Library . 1868 Gen . T F. B. ID) 494 1798 Berlin . Free Public Library . 1891 Gen . T. F. B. 1,200 1799 Bernardstown .... Cushman Library . 1862 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 6,523 1800 Beverlv . Public Library . . . 1855 Gen . T. F. B. 22' 418 1801 Billerica . Bennett Public Library . 1880 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 3,500 1802 Blackinton . Free Library . 1859 Gen . T. F. B. 3,502 1803 Blackstone . Free Public Library . 1S55 Gen . R. T F B. 6,167 1804 Blandford . Free Library . I . 1892 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 2,270 1805 Bolton . Public Library . 1856 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 950 1808 Boston (Back Bay) Academy of Notre Dame . 1849 Sch . 0. C. Fr. B. 5,' 000 1807 Boston (618 Massa- Academy of the Sacred Heart . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,400 chusetts ave.). 1808 Boston . . American Academy of Arts 1780 Scien . c. Fr. B. 26, 000 and Sciences. 1809 Boston (Vn Rea- American Unitarian Associ- 1854 Theo ..... c. F. R. 1,275 con st. >. ation. 1810 Boston (14 Bea- American Board of Commig.- 1S10 Theo . R. c. F. R. 8, 820 con st.) . sioners for Foreign Mis- sions. 1811 Boston (Back Bay) Anna Ticknor Library Asso- 1897 Gen . R. c. S. C. 3, 052 elation. 1812 Boston . . . Bibliothek des Boston Turn 1849 Soc . c. Fr. R. 2, 600 Vereins. 1813 . do . Boston Athenseum . . . 1807 Gen . O. c. Fr. B. 196, 000 1814 . do . Boston Bar Association Li- 1885 Law . c. s. R. 7, 836 brary. 1815 Boston (812 Har- Boston City Hospital (Med- Meet . c. Fr. R. 3, 746 risen ave.) . ical Library). 1816 Boston (Station A) Boston College . 1862 Col . c. Fr. R. 35, 000 1817 . do . Students’ Library . 1890 Col. Soc. . . c. Fr. B. 6)000 1818 Boston (Malta- Boston Insane Hospital Li- 1860 Gen . T. Fr. C. 1,500 pan). brary. 1819 Boston . Boston Latin School Associa- 1635 Sch . c. Fr. R. 5, 218 tion Library. 1820 Boston ( Station B) Boston Library Society . 1792 Gen . O. c. S. B. 37, 681 1821 Boston . Boston Normal School . 1872 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 500 1822 . do . Boston Scientific Society . 1876 Scien . C. Fr. B. 1, 500 1823 . do . Boston Society of Civil Engi- 1848 Scien . R. c. S. R. 2, 200 neers’ Library. 1824 Boston (231 Berk- Boston Society of Natural Hist . c. Fr. B. 25, 629 eley st.) . History. 1825 Boston . Boston University College of 1875 Col . c. Fr. B. 5, 000 Liberal Arts. 1826 . do . Boston University Law 1872 Law . c. Fr. R. 10, 000 School. 1827 . do . Boston University School 1873 Med . c. F. B. 5,450 of Medicine. 1828 . do . Boston University School Theo . c. Fr. B. 6,000 of Theology. 1019 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 1-1 15 16 17 IS 175 125 5, 700 $200 $274 il, 500 225 7, 583 175 447 Mrs. Sarah L. Smith, secre- tary. 335 27, 263 1,800 1, 935 Letitia S. Allen . 120 1,435 Miss J osie E. Prouty . Emily H. Genn _ I . 250 6, 766 $325 325 Harry L. Robinson . 245 12,491 800 800 $45, 000 Geo. PI. Brown, secretary. . . 0 0 2, 000 Howell F. Wilson . 265 4,500 18, 000 15, 000 Elizabeth C. Nye . 700 389 9, 167 700 700 1,553 8, 175 30, 000 Mary E. Lane/ . 800 25 103 O. L, Willis, president . 438 7, 392 200 0 652 4, 750 Geo. R. Blinn, president _ 200 84 9, 127 354 725 9', 000 40, 000 Lydia A . Barton . 50 140 2,120 100 106 Sara T. Rockwood . 308 12, 765 950 1, 334 Nellie McCabe . 111 2, 518 50 110 520 Mary M. Babcock . 164 6,670 100 400 1,950 Rey. R. E. Birks . 1,000 54' 204 3,258 3, 258 Martha P. Smith . . . 96 5,053 0 0 '432 Fannie S. Paige . 356 5, 297 150 170 O. A. Archer ./ . . . . 202 200 5, 454 459 476 Wm.A.Cole . 86 2, 386 150 157 Hattie P. Herrick . 27 2, 762 F. C. Newton . 200 100 1, 100 0 0 50 F. Molloy . . . . . 4,000 456 202 A. Lawrence Botch ......... Geo. W. Fox, assistant. . . 0 87 75 Judson Smith, secretary . . . . 51 483 1,653 Miss Lucy B. Heywood . 100 600 Julius Kreidel . . . 4,586 59, 612 0 0 41 , 741 579, 046 201, 7S9 Ch as. K. Bolton . • . 215 287 0 0 0 l' 085 4, 550 A. M. P. Porter . 1,200 261 G. H. M. Rowe, superintend- ent. 2, 000 500 " . . . 100 Wm. Noyes . 0 74 Moses Merrill, Ph. T) . 3,000 956 9, 590 0 0 2,144 23, 000 Luella M. Eaton . Wallace C.Boyden . 2, 000 50 John Ritchie, secretary . 2, 000 275 150 S. Esinkrm.m, secretary . . 13, 311 468 C. F. Batch elder . 107 3, 000 D. L. Sharp . 1, 400 0 0 S. C. Bennett, dean . . 364 500 Anna T. levering . Marcus D . Buell . . 1781 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1788 1739 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1805 1807 180S 1S09 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1020 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MASSACHUSETTS— continued. 1829 Boston . Bostonian Society, Old State- 1881 Soc . c. Fr. R. 2,000 house. 1830 . do . Bureau of Statistics of Labor 1873 State . T. Fr. R. 15, 000 Library, 1S31 Boston (5 Somer- Carter’s Circulating Library . Gen . p. c. S. C. 25, 000 set st.). 1832 Boston (253 Com- C h amber la yne’s (Miss) . Sch . c. Fr. B. 3,000 mon wealth School for Girls. ave.). 1833 Boston (Charles- Charlestown High School .... 1850 Sch . T. F. R. 2,250 town).' 1834 Boston . College of Physicians and Med . c. Fr. R. 1,500 Surgeons Library. 1835 . do . Congregational Library . 1853 Theo . c. Fr. R. 42, 358 1836 . do . Directory Library . '. . 1846 Mer . it. c. F. R. 2,800 1837 Boston (Dorches- Dorchester High School . Sch . T. Fr. R. 3,000 ter). 1838 Boston . English High School Associ- Sch . T. Fr. R. 1, 500 ation Library. 1839 Boston (Box 1486). Farm School . 1 81 4 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,363 1840 Boston . Female Academy of the Sa- Sch . c. Fr. B. 1, 350 cred Heart. 1841 Boston) 121 Chan- Franklin Typographical So- 1830 Soc . c. Fr. C. 3, 500 dler st.). ciety. 1842 Boston (53 Mount General Theological Library . 1860 Theo . 0. c. F. B. 20, 000 Vernon st.). 1843 Boston . Girls’ High School . Sch . T. Fr. R. 4, 300 1844 . do . Girls’ Latin School . 1878 Sch . R. T. Fr. R. 1, 164 1845 . do . Grand Lodge of Masons Li- 1867 Masonic . . C. Fr. R. 8' 000 brarv. 1846 . do . Harvard Musical Association 1837 Soc . c. s. C. 4,342 Library. 1847 Boston (178 New- Horace Mann School for Deaf Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,093 bury st.). and Dumb. 1848 Boston (Deer Is- House of Correction Library. 1898 Asy . T. Fr. B. 4,442 land). 1849 Boston (55 Kilby Insurance Library Associa- 1887 Soc . It. c. S. R. 2,879 st.). tion. 1850 Boston . Massachusetts College of 1867 Col . c. F. R. 5, 265 Pharmacy. 1851 . do . Massachusetts General Hos- 1847 Med . c. S B. 5, 360 pital (Treadwell Library). 1852 Boston (1154 Bovl- Massachusetts Historical So- 1791 Hist . O. C. Fr. C. 41, 000 ston st.). ciety Library. 1853 Boston (101 Tre- Massachusetts Horticultural 1829 Scien . C. Vr R. 10, 000 mont st.). Society Library. 1854 Boston . Massachusetts institute of Col . c. Fr. B. 53, 000 Technology. 1855 . do . Massachusetts New Church 1S64 Theo . c. F. B. 2, 502 Union Free Library. 1856 Boston (Charles- Massachusetts State Prison 1805 Asy . T. Fr. B. 7,600 town). Library. 1857 Boston (Brighton) Mount St. Joseph Academv.. Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,595 1858 Boston . Museum of Fine Arts . 1870 Hist . C Fr. R. 1, 200 1859 Boston (18 Somer- New England Historic Gene- 1845 Hist . 0. C. Fr. B. 27, 000 set st.). alogical Society. 1860 Boston (38 Brom- New England Methodist 1880 Hist . c. Fr. R. 4,583 field st., r. 21). Historical Society Library. 1861 Boston . North Bennet Street Indus- 1881 Gen . c. F. B. 3,400 trial School. 1862 Boston (Roxbury) Notre Dame Academy . 1854 Sch . c. s B. 5,300 1863 Boston (South)... Payne’s Circulating Library. 1869 Gen . R. c. S. C. 4,000 1864 . do . Perkins Institution and Mas- 1833 Sch _ _ c. F. B. 16, 912 sachusetts School for the Blind. 1865 Boston (Fort War- Post Library . Gar . T. Fr. R. 1,039 ren). PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 1021 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. ‘ Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 1 5 11> 17 18 53 $5, 894 |27, 000 Chas. F. Read . . . 1829 f H. G. Wadlin . 1830 .... . . 100 1,500 70, 000 Hattie M. Baker . 1831 1832 100 25 John O. Norris . 1833 1834 48, 747 1, 003 6,824 13, 000 1835 0 100 50 Wm. E. Murdock . 1836 100 150 Chas. J. Lincoln . 1837 R. E. Babson . 1838 172 237 919 150 Chas. H. Bradlev . 1839 1840 Willis D’L. Winsor . 1841 450 4, 055 Alary W. Pillsbury, assistant 1842 John Tetlow . 1843 . do . 1844 400 250 1 Sereno I). Nickerson . 1845 135 Mrs. Mary M. Barlow, assist- 1846 * ant. Miss Sarah Fuller . 1847 21, 238 James R. Gerrish . 1848 585 608 2, 373 7,391 E. R. Hardy . 1849 63 J.W. Baird, dean . - . 1850 683 345 5,000 Grace W. Myers, acting . 1851 Samuel A. Green . 1852 11 , 000 306 349 700 Robert Manning . 1853 15, 000 4,000 12, 000 Robert P. Bigelov/, Ph. D . . . . 1854 831 9 447 0 0 20 Edwd. A. Whiston . 1355 47,000 1856 1857 2, 500 1, 450 Benj. I. Gilman, secretary. . . 1858 24, 000 430 85, 0C0 Wm. P. Greenlaw . 1859 18, 590 52 319 8,810 Willard L. Allen . I860 14, 577 1861 75 0 0 mo Sister Julia . 1862 5, 000 300 H.B. Pavne . :.. 1863 841 100, GOO Miss S. E. Lane . 1864 E.T Huron, captain, Seventh 1865 Artillery. 1022 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. 1 1866 MASSACHUSETTS— continued. Boston . 1867 Boston (Roxbury) 1868 _ _ do . 1869 Boston (Brighton) 1870 Boston . 1871 . do . 1872 . do . 1873 Boston (South)... 1874 . do . 1875 Boston (Roxbury) 1876 Boston (BaekBay) 1877 Boston . 1878 Boston (Jamaica 1879 Plain) . Boston . . 1880 Boston (458 Boyl- 1881 ston st. ) . Boston (BaekBay) 1882 Boston . . . 1883 _ do . 1884 Bourne . 1885 Boxford . . . 1886 Bovlston Center.. 1887 Bradford . 1888 . do . 1889 Brewster . 1890 Bridgewater . 1891 . do . 1892 Brimfield . 1893 . do . 1894 Brockton . 1895 . do . 1896 Brookfield _ .... 1897 Brookline . . 1898 . do . 1899 Buckland . 1900 Cambridge . 1901 . do . 1902 . do . . 1903 . do . 1904 . do . 1905 . do . . 1906 . do . 1907 . do . 1908 . do . . 1909 . do . 1910 . do . 1911 . do . 1912 . do . 1913 . do . 1914 . do . Name of library. 3 Public Library of the City of Boston, a Roxbury High School . Roxbury Latin School . St. John’s Boston Ecclesias¬ tical Seminary. Social Law Library . State Board of Health Li¬ brary. State Library 'of Massachu¬ setts. Suffolk County House of Correction. Tollgate Circulating Library. Warren Circulating Library. . Weeks (Miss) and Lougee’s (Miss) School. Wells Memorial Institute West Roxbury High School.. Women’s Educational and Industrial Union. Y. M. C. A. Library . Young Men’s Library . Y. M. C. Union Library . Y. W. C. A. Library . Jonathan Bourne Public Li¬ brary. Public Library . Boylston Public Library*.... Bradford Academy . Public Library . . Ladies’ Library . Memorial Public Library State Normal School . Free Public Library . Hitchcock Free Academy. . . . Public High School . Public Library . Merrick Public Library . Public High School . Public Library . Public Church Library . Cambridge Latin School . Cambridge School for Girls.. Cambridge Social Union Li¬ brary. East End Christian Union Library. English High School . Episcopal Theological School Harvard University . Arnold Arboretum Li¬ brary. Bussey Institution . Divinity School . Herbarium Library . Law School . Lawrence Scientific School. Medical School . Museum of Comparative Zoology. Date of founding. - - — . Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 1854 Gen . ■o. T. F. B. 772, 432 Sch . T. Fr. B. 3, 500 Sch . T. Fr. R. '2, 975 1884 Theo . 0. C. Fr. R. 12, 000 1804 Law . C. S. B. 32, 500 1869 Scien . T. Fr. R. 3' 500 1826 State . T. Fr. R. 106,351 Asy . T. Fr. B. 2, 000 Soc . R. C. Fr. C. 1 , GOO 1866 Mer . R. c. Fr. C. 1,500 1892 Sch . R. c. Fr. R. 1,000 1879 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,150 Sch . T Fr. R. 1 , 229 1880 Gen . c. F. C. 2,240 1851 Y.M. C. A. .... c. Fr. B. 6,000 Soc . c. s B. 7,200 1851 Soc . c. s B. 15' 410 1867 Soc . c. F. R. 1,000 1897 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1, 850 1873 Gen . O. T. F. C. 2,000 1880 Gen . T. F. B. 3,769 1803 Sch . C. F. R. 5, 000 1890 Gen . R. T. F. B. 5; 000 1853 Gen . O. C. F. B. 3, 600 1879 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 11, 442 1840 Sch . T. Fr. B. 6, 600 1877 Gen . T. F. B. 5', 000 1855 Sell . C. Fr. B. 2, 000 Sch . T. F. B. 14' 360 1867 Gen . T. F B. 3l' 984 1867 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 14; 989 1843 Sch . T. F. R. 1,200 1857 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 54, 570 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 2,500 1886 Sch . T. F. R. 1,000 1886 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,000 1871 Soc . c. Fr. B. 5; 100 1889 Soc . c. F. B. 1,500 1850 Sch . T. Fr. B. 3,200 1867 Theo . 0. C. Fr. B. 15, 000 1638 Col . 0. C. Fr. B. b 560, COO Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 Sell . c. Fr. B. 4,000 Theo . c. Fr. B. 29, 500 Scien . c. Fr. B. 7, 600 Law . c. Fr. B. 50,400 Scien . c. Fr. B. 4, 900 Med . c. Fr. B. 2,200 Scien . c. Fr. B. 32, 300 * Statistics of 1895-9G. a Includes Central Library, 10 branch libraries, 6 reading rooms, and 14 delivery stations. b Including the 379,000 volumes in Gore Hall and all in the 11 department libraries which follow. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LI BE A HIES 1023 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. From taxation. hi Appropriations — ft> State, county, 2 or city. C"t" Total income. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 32, 36S 1,317,497 $255, 000 $302, 457 $276, 150 $2, 500, 000 James L. Whitney . Chas. M. Clay . 200 50 270 O. M. Famham . 1,00$ 200 P. P. Chapon . 945 0 1,000 11, 836 25, 000 Francis W. Vaughan . 4, 000 Samuel W. Abbott, secre- tary. 87, 216 4, 084 0 8, 300 8, 300 C. B. Tillinghast . 100 299 John C. Whiton . _ . 80 1,800 Clarence Hallett . Miss F. M. Hanley . 50 30 Susan C. Lougee . 50 Edmund Billings . 161 Geo. B. Mann . Louisa C. Young, secretary . . 10, 000 J. A. Leach . 0 775 21,605 Richard Ray, jr . 100 Mary L. Thompson . 125 3,434 $500 500 15, 000 F, C. Small . 100 53 71 300 Miss Mary Sawyer . ; 60 Ida C. Alien . j 800 21,144 Kate E. Johnson . 0 100 2,000 50 75 1,000 Emily Rowe . 500 37, 791 1,200 1,243 500 Lucia L. Christian . 1,000 400 '500 '400 467 A. C. Boyden . 216 5,932 202 320 2, 300 Miss M. A. Tarbell . 20 '200 C. II. Jones _ Anna M. Beal . 2, 552 116, 942 1,500 8,500 10, 404 Clarence W. Ayer . . . 281 30, 015 ' 650 1,050 10, GOO Eliza R. Hobbs 100 12 D.T. Lanford, A. M . | 4, 441 104, 454 18, 500 20, 068 16, 874 77 500 Hiller C Wellman 200 '158 2; 144 90 2,500 S. B. Pratt . Annie S. Lo-rlee, secretary _ A rt.b u r Gi 1 m an 371 9, 550 LcpLi P. Pearson 400 40 600 100 John IT. Walker, snperin- tendent. 0 25 300 . M. L. Babbitt . 350 1,500 2, 000 1 10, 000 Edith T) Fuller 350, 000 23, 745 63; 000 11, 828 78. 820 1 . 096. 000 Wm. C. Lane . . 1 . . I . 1 | 1 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1888 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1803 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1024 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900, Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date o-f founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MASSACHUSETTS— continued. Harvard U ni versify — Cord' d. 1915 Cambridge . Peabody Museum . 1866 Scien . C. F. B. 2,144 1916 . do . Phillips Library (Observ- Seien . C. Fr. B. 9,400 atory). 1917 . do . Laboratory and class- Scien . c. Fr. B. 20, 000 room libraries. 1818 . do . Middlesex Law Library As- 1815 Law . T. Fr. R. 35, 000 sociation. 1919 . do . New Church Theological 1866 Theo . c. Fr. R. 2,000 School. 1920 . do . Public Library . 1857 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 57, 761 1921 . do . Radcliffe College . 1879 Col . c. F. B. 15,' 265 1922 . do . St.John Literary Institute... 1854 Soc . 0. c. Fr. B. 2, 700 1923 Cambridgeport . . . Abbott Parker Librarv . . 1876 Gen . R. c. Fr. C. 3, 200 1924 . do . E. F. Hunt A Co.’s Circulating 1833 Gen . R. c. S. C. 3, 700 Library.* 1825 . do . Latin School Reference Li- Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 brary. 1926 Canton . . Public Library . 1875 Gen . T. F. B. 11,000 1927 . do . Ladies’ Social Librarv . Soc . c. Fr. B. 3' 000 1928 Carlisle . Gleason Library . 1872 Gen . O. T. F. B. 2' 140 1929 Charlemont . Free Town Librarv . 1891 Gen . T. F. C. 1, 550 1930 Charlton . Free Public Library . 1882 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 624 1931 Chatham . Eldridge Public Library . 1897 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 0, 000 1932 Chelmsford . Adams Library . 1893 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 6, 032 1933 Chelsea . . . Fitz Public Library . Gen . 0. T. F. B. 16, 252 1934 . do . Hayden’ s Circulating Librarv Gen . R. C. s. C. 1,300 1935 Cheshire . Library Association . 1866 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 3, 440 1936 Chester . Free Public Library . Gen . R. T, F. B. U500 1937 Chesterfield . . do . 1870 Gen . T. F. B. T 200 1938 Chicopee . Center High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. L 500 1939 . do . City Library . 1853 Gen 0- T. F. B. 19, 600 1940 Clinton . Bigelow Free Public Library. Gen . T. F. B. 24', 000 1941 Cohasset . . Free Public Library . 1880 Gen _ _ _ T. F. B. 6, 624 1942 Colerain . Free Library . 1892 Gen . T. F. B. 1,359 1943 Concord . Free Public Library . 1851 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 32, 199 1944 . do . Home School . Sch . c. Fr. B. liOOO 1945 Concord Junction Massachusetts Reformatory. . 1885 Asy . T F. C. 3; 500 1946 Conway . Public Library . Gen ...... T. F. B. 2,694 1947 Cotuit . Library Association . Gen . c. F. B. 2, 500 1948 Cummington . Bryant Free Library . 1872 Gen 0. TL F. B. 6,000 1949 Dalton . Free Public Librarv . 1861 Gen . T. E. B. s' 000 1950 Danvers . Danvers Historical Society. . . 1889 Hist . R. C. Fr. R. 1,610 1951 . do . Peabody Institute . 1865 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 19, 200 1952 Dedham . Dedham Historical Society . . 1862 Hist . 0. c. F. R. 5, 000 1953 . do . Norfolk County Law Library 1898 Law . T. F. R. 4,175 Association. * 1954 . do . Public Library . . . 1871 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 16, 660 1955 Deerfield . Dickinson Library and Deer- Gen . T. F. B. 3, 500 field Town Librarv. 1956 . do . Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Hist . C. Fr. R. 6, 100 Association Library. 1957 Dover . Town Library . . . Gen . T. F. B. 1,822 1958 Dudley . Conan t Library . . . 1881 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 3, 200 1959 Dunstable . Free Public Library . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 2,160 1960 Duxbury . Powder Point School . 1886 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,500 1961 East Bridgewater. Public Library . 1884 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 3,046 1962 East Dennis . East Dennis Association Li- 1870 Gen . C. S. C. 1,400 brary. 1963 East Douglas . Douglas Free Public Library. 1799 Gen . T. F. B. 3, S68 1964 Eastham . Public Library . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 1,494 1955 Easthampton . Public Library Association .. 1869 Gen ...... 0. T. F. B. 10, 0001 * Statistics of 1895-96. 1025 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. i Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 15 10 17 18 2, 775 111 F. W. Putnum, curator . 1915 1916 1917 300 $2, 000 $2,000 John L. Ambrose . 1918 T. F. Wright, dean . 1919 3, 847 175, 026 21,230 21,652 $8, 500 $116, 000 Wm. L. R. Gifford . 1920 8,075 1,405 3, 255 C. A. Farley . 1921 2, 000 100 1,541 John J. Collins . 1922 '200 200 Abbott Parker . 1923 1924 1925 424 24, 000 1,050 1,314 Mrs. Lucy D. Downes. ....... 1926 1927 254 2,727 $322 324 10, 000 Mrs. Mary A. Green . 1928 212 3' 674 65 115 1 , 000 G. E. Bemis . 1929 0 140 2,386 200 220 '500 Frank W. Wakefield . 1930 300 50 9, 000 250 300 26, 000 30, 000 H. A. Karding, vice-presi- 1931 dent. 298 10, 642 800 856 25, 000 Emma J. Gay, secretary and 1932 treasurer. 2,610 733 70, 115 4,500 4, 736 30, 000 Miss Medora J. Simpson _ 1933 104 A. L. Hayden . " . 1934 150 5,941 125 145 2, 500 Emma E. Martin . 1935 . 40 l' 854 100 105 Frank Fay, secretary . 1936 75 43 L200 25 0 28 1937 . 1938 45, 598 3,200 4, 229 3, 000 Annie A. Smith. . . . 1939 . 868 50, 417 2, 600 2,600 C. L. Greene . . 1940 375 9, 739 850 '850 Miss S. B. Collier . 1941 280 50 2, 128 50 6S Katherine H. Cram . 1942 . 845 29; 592 2, 584 4,184 56, 1 SO 70 000 Helen W. Kelley. 1943 1944 Joseph F. Scott, superinten- 1945 dent. . 100 3, 000 135 1,000 Grace Pease . . . . 1946 75 A. J. Bearse . 1947 72 L. H. Tower . 1948 300 14, 402 500 528 Marion L. Warren . 1949 4, 181 | . 206 0 0 539 1 , 125 George Tapley . 1950 673 32, 996 500 0 4, 284 105, 533 34,218 Emilie D. Patch . 1951 7, 000 262 12, 500 John FT. Burdakin . . . . . 1952 50 738 0 1,860 1, 860 Louis A. Cook . . 1953 786 33, 131 Miss M. F. Mann . 1954 300 100 1,200 100 100 R. P. Sibley . 1955 Geo. Sheldon . 1956 200 2,736 350 350 Marion B. Hodgson . . 1957 175 80 5, 110 430 10, 000 A.. G. Collins . . . . . 1958 90 1,690 50 57 128 Lizzie 1 . Swallon . 1959 F. B. Knapp principal 1960 78 13, 410 500 585 2 000 12, 000 T/nc.y Ti Sid nail 1961 30 300 51 900 Edith Crowell . 1962 125 166 9,066 277 290 Alice E. Luther . 1963 100 51 1,635 50 61 116 Mrs. Herbert C. Clark . 1964 727 25, 050 1, 200 1,996 19, 000 20, 000 Miss D. C. Miller . 1965 ED 1900 - 65 1026 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. - • Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MASSACHUSETTS— continued. 1966 Easthampton . Williston Seminary . 1841 Seh . C. Fr. B. 3 000 1967 East Northfield. . . Northfield Seminary (Talcott 1887 Sch . O. c. F. B. 5, 708 Library) . 1968 East Orleans . Orleans Public School . 1896 Sch . . T. Fr. B. 1,000 1969 East Saugus . Circulating Library . 1864 Gen . K. C. S. C. 1,300 1970 Enfield . Public Library...." . 18S1 Gen . T F. B. 3, 500 1971 Ervin g . Town Librarv . 1875 Gen . R. T. F. C. 1,750 1972 Essex . T. O. H. P. Burnham Public 1894 Gen . O. C. F. B. 3, 800 1973 Everett . Library. Frederick E. Parlin Memorial 1878 Gen . O. T. E. B. 13, 861 Library. 1974 . do . Slrute Memorial Library . 1899 Gen . o. T. F. B. ] 950 1975 Fairhaven . Millicent Library . . 1893 Gen . O. c. F. B. 17, 0C0 1976 Fall River . B. M. C. Durfee High School. . 1887 Sch . 0. T. F. B. 1 273 1977 . do . Public Librarv . 1861 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 58, 208 1978 Falmouth . .. Free Public Library . 1892 Gen . T. F. B. 3, 627 1979 Fitchburg . Public Library . 1859 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 36,812 1980 . do . State Normal School . 1895 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,499 1981 . do . Worcester County Law Li- Law . T. Fr. R. 2, 2T5 brary. 1982 Florence . Lilly Library . . Gen . 0. T. F. B. 6,000 1983 Foxboro . Boy "den Library * . 1870 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 4, 300 1984 Framingham . State Normal School . 1843 Sch . T. Fr. B. 3, 352 1985 . do . Town Librarv . 1855 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 22” 268 1986 Franklin . Dean Academy (Pawtucket 1867 Sch . C. F. B. 2, 000 Library.) 1987 . do . Public Librarv . 1786 Gen . R. T. F. B. 6, 135 1988 Freetown . Guilford H. Hathaway Li- Gen . O. T. F. B. 1, 000 1989 Gardner . brary. Levi Heywood Memorial Li- 1886 Gen . O. C. F. B. 8,287 brary. 1990 Georgetown . Peabody Library . 1869 Gen . O. c. F. B. 9,426 1991 Gill . Free Library . Gen . T. F. B. 1,800 1992 Gloucester . Public High School . 1889 Sch . T. Fr. R. 3,700 1993 . do . Gloucester Lvceum and Saw- 1871 Gen . O. C. F. B. 14, 000 yer Free Library. 1994 Grafton . Public Library . 1866 Gen . T. F. B. 11,000 1995 Granby . . do . 1891 Gen . 0. T. F.’ B. 1,350 1996 Great Barrington. Free Library . 1881 Gen . T. F. B. 7' 696 1997 Greenfield . Franklin County Law Library 1860 Law . T. Fr. R. 7', 000 1998 . do . Library Association . 1855 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 12* 224 1999 . do . Prospect Hill School for 1869 Sch . c. Fr. R. i'ooo 2000 . do . Young Women. Public Library . 1S80 Gen . T. F. B. 12,814 2001 Greenwich Y i 1 - . do . 1891 Gen . T. F. B. i;025 lage. 2002 Groton . Groton School . . 1885 Sch .... 0. C. F. B. 5, 000 2003 . do . Lawrence Academy . 1793 Sch . 0. c. Fr. R. 2, 000 2004 . do . Public Library . 1854 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 9’ 045 2005 Hadley . Free Library . . Gen . T. F. B. 3^ 000 2006 Halifax . Holmes Public Library . 1876 Gen . T. E. B. 2, 800 2007 Hamilton . Public Librarv . Gen . T. F. B. 2, 500 2008 Hampden . Free Public Librarv . 189] Gen . R. T F. B. L280 2009 Hanover . John Curtis Free Library _ 1887 Gen . T. F. B. 4,217 2010 Hardwick . Free Town Library . Gen . B. TT B. 4,000 2011 Harvard . Brom field School . 1877 Sch . C. Fr. R. 2, 000 2012 . do . Public Library . 1856 Gen . O. T. F. B. 4, 327 2013 Harwich . Broadbrooks Free Library... Gen . C. F. B. 3; 200 2014 Hatfield . Public Librarv . 1800 Gen . O. T. F. B. 6! 000 2015 Haverhill . Haverhill Public Library.... 1873 Gen . O. B. F. B. 60, 000 2016 Hayden ville . Librarv Association . 1882 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 2; 000 2017 Hingham Center . Hingham Public Library _ 1869 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 9,000 2018 Hinsdale . Public Library . 1867 Gen . 0. T. F. 1 B. 4,500 2019 Holbrook . 1874 Gen . T. F. B. 4. 300 * Statistics of 1895-96. 1027 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 1 5 18 1 7 38 100 100 1 , 000 $200 Josenh H. Sawyer . 120 3, 413 10 $20, 000 Evelyn S. Hail, principal.. . Edith M. Smith . 10 Henry J Mills . 150 8,500 $193 684 $3, 000 C. D. Haskell, secretary and treasurer. 125 100 2, 500 5, 000 8,845 Noah Rankin . 600 8, 700 0 0 822 20,000 18, 000 Jennie H. Woodman . 650 62, 724 2,200 $1, 432 3,802 22, 000 Ellen L. Johnson . 300 100 9, 355 2,100 2,195 9,500 Leona E. Card . 100 800 43, 512 6' 000 100, 000 100, 000 Don C. Stevens . 100 0 Chas. C. Ramsay . 2, 191 159, 745 13, 335 13, 335 240, 000 Geo. W. Rankin . 8' 634 474 707 Clara L. Davis . 1,711 63' 626 5, 5Q0 7, 722 10, 000 94, 400 Geo. E. Nutting, assistant . . . 350 100 C. H, Whittemore, janitor. . . 85 11, 679 Mary A. Fuller . 21 1,255 1 Henry Whittemore, principal 1,017 49, 777 2,175 4, 200 47,500 Emma L. Clarke . 200 50 60 1,500 185 10, 265 700 999 3, 171 Mrs. E. G. Campbell . 0 50 75 118 1,500 Geo. B. Cudworth . 660 24, 092 523 1,990 20, 000 30, 000 Miss Frances E. Haynes _ 119 10, 978 520 34, 893 1,000 Sherman Nelson . 0 81 900 200 J. J. Marble . 0 76 15, 500 0 0 105 Albert W. Bacheler, principal 1,016 53, 624 4, 045 120, 000 25, 000 Alex Pattillo, treasurer . 311 18, 210 730 1,058 10, 281 H. S. Nichols . 150 3' 200 80 80 Geo. L. Murray . 468 13; 377 1,000 1, 175 2, 500 Emma W. Sheldon . 1, 000 l', 000 Samuel D. Conan t . 340 5, 560 157 Helen L. Mann . Ida F. Foster . . 36, 585 1 , 500 1,541 Emma W. Tyler . 57 1,720 ' 100 ' 100 Helen J. Nevins . 500 800 10, 000 A. H. Woods . 100 50 100 H. H. C. Bingham . 371 11,767 968 1,222 4,500 27, 500 Emma F. Blood . 50 250 150 330 Franklin Bonney, M. D . 49 2,173 113 116 James T. Thomas . . 189 5' 605 400 411 Rev. Jesse G. Nichols . 30 7 5; 325 125 125 Mrs. John Q. Adams . 202 150 343 4, 270 T avina S. Ford, trustee . 60 2, 364 50 175 2,000 Miss H. R. Spooner . 200 25 Lilia N. Frost . 691 EsteP a E. Clark . 50 2,900 200 Mrs. F. D. Underwood . 50 200 5,000 300 0 300 13,000 J. H. Sanderson . 3,080 124, 494 2,037 3, 600 15, 605 135, 000 50 000 John (4 Moulton 100 100 BSOO '100 0 156 1,000 W. M. Purrington, chairman 220 14, 220 3,246 25, 000 15 000 Hawker Fearinp- 50 0 2i 917 330 337 20, 000 James Hosmer . 40 33 17, 962 125 699 3, 000 Zenas A. French . 1905 19G7 1938 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1939 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 1028 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MASSACHUSETTS — continued. 2020 Holden . Gale Free Library . 1888 Gen . 0. F. B. 4, 950 2021 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 5,000 2022 Holliston . Public Library . 1879 Gen . T. F. C. 6, 000 2023 Holyoke . Public High School . Sch . T. F. R. 1,200 2024 . do . Public Library . 1870 Gen 0. T. F. B. 20^ 423 2025 . do . Teachers’ Professional Library 1879 Sch . C. Fr It. 2,000 2026 Hopedale . Bancroft Memorial Library.. 1886 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1, 864 2027 Hopkinton . Public Library . 1890 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 5, 000 2028 Hubbardston . . do . . 1872 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 7,000 2029 Hudson . . do . 1867 Gen . T. F. B. 2030 Hull . Hull School . 1883 Gen . T. F. B. 1, 167 2031 Huntington . Murrayfield High School _ 1899 Sch . . . 0. T F. B. 1,000 2032 Kyannis . Free Public Library . 1866 Gen . R. c. F. B. 1,400 2033 Hyde Park . Public Library . 1874 Gen . O. T. F. B. loi 000 2034 Ipswich . . do . 1868 Gen . 0. C. E. B. 12' 350 2035 Kingston . fFrederic C. Adams Public Li-1 \ brary. / 1898 Gen . 0. B. F. B. 4,620 2036 Lancaster . Town Library . 1862 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 28, 886 2037 Lanesboro . 1870 Gen . . . 0. T TT C. 3, 200 2038 Lawrence . Free Public Library . 1872 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 49, 341 2039 Lee . Library Association . 1874 Gen . T. F. B. 5, 550 2040 Leicester . Public Library . 1861 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 10, 860 2041 Lenox . Lenox Library . 1855 Gen . 0. B. F. B. 13' 271 2042 Leominster . Free Public Library . 1854 Gen . T. F. B. 17,704 2043 Lexington . Cary Library . 1868 Gen . T. F. B. 19,456 2044 Leyden . Public Library . 1880 Gen . T. F. C. R000 2045 Lincoln . Lincoln Library . 1884 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 6' 800 2046 Littleton . Reuben Hoar Library . 1887 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 7' 900 2047 Longmeadow .... Town Library . 1895 Gen . T. F. c. 1,800 2048 Lowell . City Library . 1844 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 59, 500 2049 . do . Lowell Training School 1889 Sch _ T. Fr. B. 1,000 2050 . do . Old Residents’ Historical 1868 Hist _ ! _ C. F. R. ROOD Association. * 2051 . do . St. Anne’s Church (Rector’s 1865 Theo . C. Fr. R. 3,000 Library). 2052 Ludlow . Hubbard Memorial Library.. Gen . 0. C. F. B. 4,000 2053 Lunenburg . Public Library . 1852 Gen . .... T. F. B. 4' 445 2054 Lynn . Free Public Library . 1862 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 58, 665 2055 . do _ General Lander Post, 5, G. A. 1898 Soc . C. Fr. B. 1 ' 200 R., Library. 2056 Lynnfield . Lynnfield Public Library. 1892 Gen . T. F. B. 1 , 467 2057 Malden . Ladies Exchange Circulat- 1S86 Gen . R. C. Fr. C. R000 ing Library. * 2058 . do . Public High School . 1863 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,707 2059 . do . Public Library . 1877 Gen . 6. T. F. B. 36, GOO 2060 Manchaug . Free Library . 1882 Gen . T. fr C. 2, 035 2061 Manchester . Public Library . . 1871 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 9, 600 2062 Mansfield . . do . 1834 Gen . T. F. B. 3', 500 2063 Marblehead .... Abbot Public Library . 1877 Gen . T. F. B. 14, 600 2064 Marion . Tabor Library . Gen . C. Fr. B. 4,000 2065 Marlboro .... Public Library . 1870 Gen . T. F. B. 17, 000 2066 . do . Unitarian Parish Library _ 1847 Gen . C. F B. 3, 300 2067 Marshfield . . . Free Library . 1895 Gen . o. T. F. B. 2,932 2068 Marstons Mills . . . Public Library . 1888 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 1, 300 2069 Mattapoisett . Free Public Library . 1880 Gen . R. T. F. C. 3,000 2070 Maynard . Public Library . 1881 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3,761 2071 Medfield . . _ do . Gen . T. F. B. 5,000 2072 Medford . Public High School . 1835 Sc h . T. F B. 1, 100 2073 . do . Public Library . 1825 Gen . O. T. F. B. 20, 322 2074 Medway . Dean Library Association _ 1860 Gen . O. C. F. B. 8, 000 2075 Melrose . Public Library . 1870 Gen . R. T. F. B. 13, 000 2076 Mendon . Taft Public Library . 18S1 Gen . O. T. F. C. 4,016 2077 Merrimac . Public Library . 1876 Gen . T. F. B. 5, 000 2078 Methuen . Nevins Memorial Library _ 18S5 Gen . C. Fr. B. 14, 741 2079 Middleboro . Pratt Free School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1029 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 192 6, 365 $200 $200 A.M. Holden... . . 102 15, 072 $328 554 $1, 000 Josephine E. Rockwood . 60 W. C. Akers, principal . 486 47, 932 3,000 3, 177 $86, 000 Henry A. Chase . H. B. Lawrence . 72? 11, 726 1 , 500 2, 242 Harriet B. Sornborger . . . 100 17, 000 0 0 700 2, 500 14, 000 Mary C. Holman, secretary.. 40 4, 983 2.36 236 Lucy Grime . . 218 27, 354 600 859 . Grace H. Whittemore . . 35 102 lj'836 304 Mrs. L. A. R. Knight . 500 200 80 140 L. M. Drake . 120 3. 960 450 . N. B. H. Parker, chairman . . 939 36' 031 806 4, 000 5, 135 25, 000 85 12, 780 20, 000 Lydia A. Caldwell . . . . . 500 12, 406 800 1, 681 12, 000 12, 000 Mrs. Jennie F. McLauthlen. . 16, 509 1,004 12, 074 1,000 369 1, 952 8,600 Ella Sites Wood . 20 50 2, 100 60 30 ' 130 1,000 Chas. J. Palmer . 8, 552 1,692 127,' 490 11 , 776 13, 303 25, 000 50i 000 Frederic K. Hedge . h, 880 '482 '519 L. S. Rowland . 445 13' 312 1,100 1,519 3, 500 37, 500 Mary D, Thurston . 513 16' 050 2,209 550 43' 256 744 1,300 2, 826 Florence E. Wheeler. ....... 779 32. 533 1,300 '500 2, 660 14,000 Marian P. Kirkland . . 25 85 700 50 53 Ethel H. Burlington . 300 5, 000 769 1, 137 7, 000 30, 000 H. A. Howes . . 304 6' 858 500 0 974 7,514 25, 000 254 5, 000 100 89 201 S. G. Barnes . . . 1,523 141 ; 597 0 16, 000 16, 417 175, 000 Frederick A. Chase . . . Gertrude Edmund, principal 2,000 30 A. St. John Chambre, rector . 230 Mary A. Birnie . 125 246 3, 829 240 0 387 500 Miss L. Frances Jones . . 663 2, 342 107' 279 8,500 9, 214 225, 000 ,T . C. Houghton .............. 0 6 '416 0 125 John H. Brown. . . . . . 70 2, 315 131 137 Elizabeth W. Green ......... 37 500 2,754 134, 787 12, 766 13, 626 5, 500 162, 000 Miss L. A. Williams . 70 139 i, 350 112 0 ' 112 Francis Truscott . . 476 15, 565 1, 396 1, 396 45, 000 D. L. Bingham . 100 48 10, 061 350 435 Grace M. Cobb . 534 21 , 737 500 1,809 3,500 Nathan P. Sanborn . Miss Mary Allen . 482 48, 919 1,400 2,549 750 Sarah E. Cotting . 100 54 1,520 0 0 93 980 Joseon W. Jackman . 125 155 12, 920 400 0 430 500 Joshua T. Baker . 25 700 85 500 Miss M. E. Baxter . 200 8, 071 300 450 Clara F. Sherman . 150 43 20, 000 316 331 Barak F. Nymen . 1001 492 492 Lucre tia M. Johnson . . 75 100 9, 000 Walter H. Cushing . 1,490 74' 600 1,297 5, 938 7,415 3, 009 20, 000 Mary e. Sargent . 300 8, 000 100 326 Mrs. M. C. Newell . 1,924 487 61,000 1,800 1, 800 Elbridge H. Goss . 116 3,496 175 182 1, 500 Sara F. Towne . 103 9,317 500 529 200 Louise C. Brackett . 300 18, 290 115, 000 Harriet L. Crosby . H. Le B. Thompson . 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040 2041 2042 2043 2044 2045 2046 2047 2048 2049 2050 2051 2052 2053 2054 2055 2056 2057 2058 2059 2060 2061 2062 2063 2064 2065 2066 2067 2068 2069 2070 2071 2072 2073 2074 2075 2076 2077 2078 2079 1030 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. _ _ _ . — 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MASSACHUSETTS— continued. 2080 Middleboro . Public Library . 1876 Gen . T. F. B. 7, 875 2081 Middlefieid . . do . 1872 Gen . 0. T. E. B. 1,133 2082 Middleton . Flint Public Library . 1879 Gen . O. C. F. B. 5, 077 2033 Milford . Thurber Medical Association 1858 Med . C. Fr. B. R000 Library. 2081 . do . Town Library . 1858 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 12,210 2085 Millbrook . Duxbury Free Library . 1830 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 3,090 2086 Mill bury . Tovm Library . .' . . . 1864 G en .... T. F. c. 9' 150 2087 Millis . Public Library* . 1386 Gen .... T. E. B. 2, 200 2088 Milton . Milton Academy . Seh. c. Fr. B. 1 , 976 2089 . do . Public High School . 1866 Sch . . . T. F. B. 1 , 000 2090 . do . Public Library . 1370 Gen R T. F. B. 12' 200 2091 Monson . Flynt and Packard Library.. 1820 Seh . c. F B. 2' 200 2092 Free Library and Reading 1878 Gen . O. c. F. B. 7, 280 Room Association. 2093 Montague . Town Library . 1869 Gen . T. F. B. 5, 208 2094 Mount Herxnon. . . Mount Hermon School . 1884 Sch . C. F. B. 5' 689 2095 Nahant . Public Library . 1819 Gen . o T. F B. 11 , 981 2096 Nantucket . Admiral Sir Isaac Coffin’s 1S27 Sch.. 6. c. Fr. R. 4' 000 Lancasterian School. 2097 . do . Nantucket Athenaeum . 1834 Gen . o c. F. B. 10, S30 2098 Natick . Morse Institute . 1862 Gen . 6. T. F. B. 19' 300 2099 . do . Walnut Hill School . Sch . c. Fr. R. 1, 200 2100 Needham . Public Library . 1S38 Gen .... o T. F. B. 7, 044 2101 New Bedford . Free Public Library . 1852 Gen . 6. T. F. B. 73, COO 2102 . do . Friend’s Academy . 1812 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1, 200 2103 . do . Hutchinson’s Circulating Li- 1864 Gen . R. c. S. C. 2, 365 brary. 2104 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,761 2105 . do . Swain Free School . 1882 Sch . c. Fr. B. 3,000 2106 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . Y.M. C. A. C. s B. 1, 500 2107 New Braintree ... Free Public Library . 1880 Gen . T. F. B. 1 ; 836 2108 N ewburyport . Public Library . 1854 Gen . 0 T. F. B. 34, 550 2109 New Salem . . do . Gen T Fr. B. i; 800 2110 Newton . Free Library . 1871 Gen . o. T. F. B. 58, 000 2111 Newton Centre... Hill’s Library . Theo . 6. c. Fr. B. 22' 982 2112 Newtonyille . Newton High School . 1897 Sch . T F. B. 3, 000 2113 Norfolk . Public Library . 1883 Gen . T. F C. l', 438 2114 North Abington . . . do . 1878 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4,900 2115 North Adams . Drury High School . Seh . T. Fr. B. 8, 000 2116 . do . Public Library . 1884 Gen . O T. F. B. 16i 467 2117 North Amherst... . do . 1869 Gen . o T. F B. 2, 300 2118 Northampton .... Burnham (Mary A.) School Sch . c. Fr. B. 5, 000 for Girls. 2119 . do . Clarke School . 1867 Seh . c. Fr. B. 2,410 2120 . do . Forbes Library . 1894 Gen o. c. F. B. 73, 500 2121 . do . Hampshire County Law Li- Law . TL Fr. R. 6,100 brary. 2122 . do . Insane Hospital Library . Asy . T. Fr. C. 2,000 2123 . do . Public Library . Gen _ _ 0. B. F. B. 31,670 2124 . do . Smith College . 1875 Col . 0. C. F. 3. 6! 440 2125 Northandover .... Public Library . 1875 Gen . R. T. F. C. 9,675 2126 Northattleboro ... Richards Memorial Library.. Gen . O. T. F B. 6,000 2127 North Billerica ... Talbot Library Association . . 18S0 Gen . c. S. B. Si 203 2128 Northboro . Free Library . 1868 Gen . O. T. F. B. 10, 000 2129 North Brookfield . Appleton Library . 1859 Theo . C. Fr. R. 5, 054 2130 . do . Free Public Library and 1879 Gen _ 0. T F. B. 5, 760 Reading Room. 2131 North Chelmsford Library Association . . . 1S72 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 3, 621 2132 North Easton . Ames Free Library . 1883 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 14, 832 2133 Northfield . Dickinson Memorial Library. 1878 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 4,700 2134 North Middleboro Pratt Free School . 1865 Sch . C. F. B. 1,400 2135 North Orange .... Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. C. F. B. 1,325 2136 North Plymouth. . Loring Reading Room . 1899 Soc . O. C. Fr. B. 1,500 2137 North Reading . . . Flint Library . 1873 Gen . C. F. C. 4,499 * Statistics of 1835-96. 1031 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, A YD SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. bp o S3 2 "3 Pamphlets. "3 t:! a> c3 r- rd Books issued durin year for home u d o +3 c3 X c3 4- > a o 5- l Appropriations— State, county, or city. 0) a o o a 3 o H Permanent en ment fund. a o a) 0 2 > Name of librarian. 1© 11 32 13 14 15 1 6 17 IS 4S0 25, 365 725 . @767 @1, 103 25 $10, 000 Adelaide K. Thatcher . 25 @25 Lucy S. Newton . 300 91 5,249 768 15, 000 $10, GOO Samuel A. Fletcher . J. M. French, M. D . 533 26, 977 5,640 13, 297 600 837 2. 001 30, 000 3, 000 N. F. Blake . 240 200 '569 7,900 Mrs. Frances M. Weed . 159 657 657 Miss Carolyn Waters . Harrison O. Apthorp . 50 Emory L. Mead . . . T . 420 19, 168 3, 000 957 4,453 8,400 900 Gertrude E. Forrest . 20 E. P. Morris . 252 10, 715 8, 493 1, 853 10, 222 300 1. 762 36,229 10, 000 Nellie F. Squier . . 207 275 355 Kate A. Armstrong.. . 296 0 0 256 Miss Mary J. Miller . 900 566 1,600 1,600 55, 000 Fred. A. Wilson . Geo. W. Brock, treasurer and secretary. Sarah F. Barnard . 430 19, 1S6 39, 365 900 2,495 5,901 28, 500 15, 225 6, 000 30, 000 144 355 1, 500 1,061 Nellie L. Fox . 50 Florence Bigelow, principal R. J. Bunn . 721 14, 945 130, 015 884 985 2,000 1,827 11, 680 18, 349 132, 000 R. C. Ingraham . . Grace B. Dodge, principal. . . H. S. Hutchinson . I . 425 22, 894 1, 348 Sarah D. Ottiwell . 100 5,000 Andrew Ingraham . 250 150 George S. Paine, assistant . . . Carrie F. Bush . 71 1, 922 38, 996 1,004 170, 006 1,858 500 100 105 847 3,149 5,624 75, 000 1,500 16, 000 40, 000 John D. Parsons . 150 W. V. Marshall . 1,920 370 0 13, 885 16, 207 60, 000 Elizabe th P. Thurston . Miss Caroline Smith . 100 200 25 325 Enoch C. Adams, principal. . Walter L. Sykes . 282 2,272 100 100 201 300 11, 721 1,223 66, 399 5,200 6, 000 6,303 213 30, 000 2,500 SO 56 ICO F. P. Ainsworth, secretary. . . Caroline A. Yale . 7, 796 8, 191 400 66, 440 0 5, 000 1,000 2i, 780 313, 189 125, 500 C. A. Cutler . 0 i; ooo 500 1, 000 53, 750 J. A. Houston, superintend¬ ent. Caroline S. Laidley . 2,000 4, 617 50, 000 20, 000 75, 000 342 L. w. Lyon . 800 217 14, 400 16, 000 2, 904 8,168 357 1,200 1,557 2, 000 367 Hannah J. Quealey . 250 2,000 Led a J. Thompson . 0 160 F. S. Clark, treasurer . 325 250 324 834 4, 650 3,000 30, 000 Rev. Albert Smith . 1,000 73 123 .T oh n L. Sewal 1 , pastor _ 92 20, 425 1,500 1,712 Harriet B. Gooch . . 166 6, 603 14, 963 9,633 400 420 1,000 800 Emma, T Gay 2S9 2,100 40i 000 60, 000 22, 000 Ma,rv T< lamprey . . 100 625 '625 Mrs. F. .T. Stoekbridgft _ 150 Harry Le R. Sampson _ _ _ 0 100 1,637 80 Sarah E. Rich . 50 20 101 8, 571 Addie W. Gowiag . . . 2080 2081 2082 2033 2084 2085 2086 2087 2088 2089 2090 2091 2092 2093 2094 2095 2096 2097 2098 2099 2100 2101 2102 2103 2104 2105 2106 2107 2108 2109 2110 2111 2112 2113 2114 2115 2116 2117 2118 2119 2120 2121 2122 2123 2124 2125 2126 2127 2128 2129 2130 2131 2132 2133 2134 2135 2136 2137 1032 EDUCATION IiEPOKT, 1899-1900, Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MASSACHUSETTS— continued. 2138 North Scituate ... Peirce Memorial Library _ 1894 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 2, 525 2139 North Wilbraham Free Public Library . 1892 Gen . T. F. B. 1 , 522 2140 North Woburn .... Rumford Historical Society 1877 Gen . 0. C. F. B. L 200 Library. 2141 Norton . Public Library . 1886 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 4, 845 2142 . do . Wheaton Female Seminary.. 1835 Sch . C. EL B. 5, 725 2143 Norwell James Library . . 1873 Gen . o. c. s. B. 3’ 300 2144 Norwood . Morrill Memorial Library _ Gen . 0. T F. B. 1, 000 2145 Orange . Public Library . 1869 Gen . T. F. B. 6, 802 2146 Orleans . Public School . 1895 Sch . T F. B. 1,000 2147 . do . Snow Library . 1877 Gen . 0. B. F. c. 3' 600 2148 Osterville . Public Library . 1881 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 3' 002 2149 Oxford . Free Public Library . 1870 Gen . T. F. B. 5, 600 2150 Palmer . . Young Men’s Library Asso- 1878 Gen . 0. T. F. B. b, 533 ciation. 2151 Paxton . Free Public Library . 1877 Gen . T. F. B. 1,666 2152 Peabody . Eben Dale Sutton Reference 1869 Gen . C. F R. 3' 474 Library. . 2153 . do . Peabody Institute Library. . . 1852 Gen . 0. c. F B. 36, 891 2154 Pembroke . Free Library . 1878 Gen . R. C. F. B. 1 , 000 2155 Peppered . Public Library . 1878 Gen . T. F B. 9' 000 2156 Petersham . Memorial Library . 1875 Gen . 0. B. F. c. 8, 500 2157 Phillioston . . . Free Public Library . Gen . C. F. B. 5,334 2158 Pittsfield . Berkshire Athenaeum . 1 872 Gen . 0. B. F. B. 36; 000 2159 . .do . Berkshire Law Library Asso- 1842 Law . T. F. R. 7,600 ciation. 2160 Plainfield . Public Library . Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,000 2161 Plymouth . A. S. Burbank Circulating 1873 Gen . C. F. C. 1,000 Library. 2162 . do . Pilgrim Society’s Library _ 1824 Gen . 0. C. Fr. R. 2,400 2163 . do . Plymouth County Law Li- Law . T. F. R. 3, 200 brary Association. 2164 . . do . Public Library . 1856 Gen . R. T. F. B. 13. 046 2165 Plvrnpton Free Public Library . 1891 Gen . T. F. B. 1,225 2166 Prescott . do . 1891 Gen . T. F. R. 1,300 2167 Princeton . Public Library . 1884 Gen . O. T. F. C. 4; 601 2168 Provin cet.ow n . do . 1874 Gen . O. B. 1L B. 7; 752 2169 Quincy . Thomas Crane Public Library 1871 Gen . O. T. F. B. 20, 000 2170 P an rl ol ph Ladies’ Library . 1855 Gen . R. C. S. B. 1 , 400 2171 do Turner Free Library . 1876 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 20, 000 21 72 Head i n or Public Library . 1868 Gen . R. T. F. B. 8, 635 2173 Rehoboth . Blanding' Library . 1884 Gen . 0. C F. B. 1, 600 2174 Revere . Public Library . 1880 Gen . i T F. B. 7,000 21 75 Rochester Free Public Library . 1876 Gen . 0. j T. F. B. 2; 600 2176 Rockland . Public Library . 1878 Gen . R. ! T. F. B. 10,260 2177 Rock port . do . 1871 Gen . C. F. C. 3, 350 2178 Rowe Tow n Library . . Gen . c. F. C. 1,361 2179 Rowley Free Public Library . 1891 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 390 2180 Roynlston Public Library . 1875 Gen . T. F. B. 2,037 2181 Rutland Free Public Library . 1861 Gen . T. F. B. 2,000 2182 Salem . Charitable Mechanic Asso- 1817 Soc . R. C. S. B. 6, 010 ciation Library. 2183 do Classical and High School . . . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,800 2184 do . . Essex Institute . 1848 Hist . 0. C. s. B. 79, 976 2185 . .do . Essex South District Massa- 1805 Med . c. F. B. 3, 000 cliusetts Medical Society Library. 2186 . do . Fraternity Lodge, No. 118, 1871 I.O. O.F.. R. c. Fr. B. 1,600 I.O.O. F. 2187 do . Public Library . 1888 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 3,900 2188 do . Salem Athenaeum . 1810 Gen . 0. c. S. C. 23, 000 2189 do . .. State Normal School . 1854 Sch . T. F. B. 3,394 2190 ftn n d w > ol'j Free Public. Library . 1891 Gen . C. J? C. 2,000 2191 San pm s . _ _ do . 1887 Gen . T. F. B. 5, 500 2192 Scituate Satuit Library . 1882 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1,500 2193 Segreganset . Lighten FreeTublic Library. 1895 Gen . T. F. B. 1,000 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 1033 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 38 200 256 4, 666 $122 $193 $150 $4, 000 Sarah J. Marsh . . . 255 5, 3S0 $167 25 203 1,025 400 4 0 Marion T. Hosmer _ 300 254 5,575 400 700 E. A. Titus . 140 Annette G. Munro, regent. . . 100 1,297 447 9, 000 3,500 Joseph F. Merritt . 484 18 j 151 469 2, 500 3,028 Jennie A. Hewett . 200 23^ 546 643 1,049 Mrs. W. M. Pomeroy . 50 6 Edith M. Smith . 1 217 6,400 150 345 3,000 Hiram Myers . 97 52 400 1,500 250 13, 836 469 548 Mrs. C. A. Fuller . 348 15, 971 1,000 1,669 23, 000 Chas. B. Fiske . 1,527 50 50 Herbert S. Robinson . 1 87 924 35, 000 Augusta F. Daniels . 729 0 0 7, 809 161, 000 25, 000 Lvman P. Osborn . 50 0 0 104 Ellen F. Cox . 540 7,976 590 590 . Mrs. M. F. Shattuck . 30 5' 600 200 530 3, 505 Mrs. Emerson Goddard. ..... 185 2, 572 52 72 4, 696 D. W. Baker . 4, 000 2, 042 84', 684 0 4,000 7, 477I 42; 500 100, 000 H. H. Ballard, clerk . 240 1,445 1,445 Geo. H. Tucker, treasurer _ 50 50 Hattie G. Parker . 0 100 3, 000 150 A. S. Burbank . 1,500 179 0 H. N. P. Hubbard . Edward E. Hobart . 351 36,031 1,300 1, 918 12, 316 J as. D. Thurber, clerk . 166 1,648 90 '121 John Sherman . 46 108 774 30 30 Henry L. Berry . 210 6,000 Susie A. Davis . 391 11,744 194 350 874 5, 000 5, 000 Harriet M. Dyer . 619 87.847 6,095 7,010 22, 000 50, 000 Amelia L. Bumpus . 7 ' 360 53 Mrs. D. A. Deane . 523 23, 000 5, 182 35, 665 40, 000 Chas. C. Farnham . . . 16, 520 403 1,000 1,458 L. S. Cox . 400 850 Wm. H. Marvel . 500 34, 570 1, 600 1,648 1,483 Hattie T. Fenno . 200 125 2, 395 200 234 '500 6,000 Sarah A. Haskell . 160 23, 476 900 452 1,425 Angela W. Collins . 250 13,000 225 176 581 . 4,500 Elsie M. Dann . o 22 1,327 40 Mrs. Alice E. Newell . 500 1461 5. 506 154 188 Mrs. B. P. Mighill . 25 23 2', 507 50 25 87 1,500 Mrs. Emeline E. Mackenzie . 125 3,000 134 154 Mrs. M. L. Pxmitv . CO o o 36 2, 132 0 0 570 G. A. Bod well . 276, 632 2, 976 39, 660 141, 777 25. 000 Alice G. Waters . ' 300 Geo. C. Lcntefield . Will L. Welch . 1, 737 118, 356 10, 200 12, 892 35, 000 35, 000 Gardner M. Jones . 400 1,501 28, 394 20, 000 T. P. Richardson . 6 187 T. G. Knight . 150 5, 766 600 Miss Rogei’s . j 600 400 16 957 584 682 Emma E. Newhall . 100 100 1 200 120 160 700 Julia. E. Webb . 1 3! 160 1001 105 Dwight F. Lane . | 2138 2139 2140 2141 2142 2143 2144 2145 2146 2147 2148 2149 2150 2151 2152 2153 2154 2155 2156 2157 2158 2159 2160 2161 2162 2163 2164 2165 2166 2167 2168 2169 2170 2171 2172 2173 2174 2175 2176 2177 2178 2179 2180 2181 2182 2183 2184 2185 2186 2187 2188 2189 2190 2191 2192 2193 1034 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MASSACHUSETTS — continued. 2194 Sharon . Public Library . , . Gen . T. F. B. 5 478 2195 Sheffield . Free Town Library . 1892 Gen . R. T. F. C. 1 428 2196 . do . Friendly Union Library . 1871 Soc . O. C. S. C. 1, 200 2197 Shelburne . Free Public Library . 1892 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1 652 2198 Shelburne Falls . . Arms Library . 1854 Gen . R. C. F. B. 8, 562 2199 Sherborn . Town Library . 1860 Gen . T. E. B. 9 oil 2200 Shirley . Public Library . Gen . 0. T. F. B. 2, 502 2201 . do . Shaker Community Library . Soc . O. C. Fr. B. 1 ^00 2202 Shrewsbury . Free Public Library . 1872 Gen . O. C. F. B. 4. 811 2203 Somerset . . do . . . 1897 Gen . R. T. F. B. l’ 230 2201 Somerville . English High School . 1895 Scb . T. F. B. 1 164 2205 . do . Public Library . 1873 Gen . 0. T. E. B. 45 000 2206 Southampton . Social Library . . 1883 Gen . T. F. B. 3 400 2207 Southboro . Fay Library . 1852 Gen . C. F. B. 7 568 2208 . do . St. Mark’s School . 1877 Sell . c. Fr. B. 3' 828 2209 South Braintree . . Thayer Public Library . . 1874 Gen . TL F. B. 13 000 2210 Southbridge . Public Library . __ 1870 Gen . T. F. B. 17 800 2211 South Dartmouth Southworth Library . 1890 Gen . O. C. F. C. 3,200 2212 South Deerfield . . Free Public Library . 1871 Gen . R. T. F. c. 1 472 2213 South Framing- Reformatory Prison for 1878 Asy . T. F. c. 1,500 ham. Women. 2214 South Gardner _ Social Library Association _ 1841 Soc . c. S. B. 1 363 2215 South Hadley .... Mount Holyoke College . 18.37 Col . 0. c. Fr. R. 19’ coo 2218 South Hadley Public Library . 1898 Gen _ R. TL F. B. 4, 000 Falls. 2217 South Natick . Bacon Free Library . 1880 Gen . O. c. F. B. 5 000 223 8 South Sudbury _ Goodnow Library . 1862 Gen . O. c. F. B. 13 000 2219 South Weymouth Fogg Library . 1898 Gen . 0. 0. F. B. 3 924 2220 South wick . Public Library . 1891 Gen . O. rr F. B. 1 ’ 352 2221 South Williams- . do . 1880 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,350 town. 2222 South Yarmouth . Social Library . 1860 Soc . C. F. B. 1 600 2223 Spencer . Richard Sugden Library . 1857 Gen . O. C. B. 11 003 9994 Springfield . Boston and Albany Railroad 1869 Gen . C. F. C. 3, 044 Library. 2225 . do . Bible Normal College . 1885 Col . C. Fr. R. 3, 000 2226 . do . City Library Association . 1857 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 115, 091 2227 . . .do . “ The Elms ” . Sch . C, Fr. B. 3 600 2228 . do . French- American College ... 1885 Col . C. Fr. B. 4, 000 2229 . do . Hampden* County Law" Li- 1813 Law . T. F. R. 8,000 2230 . do . brary. Historical Library of the Y. 1877 Y.M.C.A. C. Fr. B. 1,116 M. C. A. 2231 . do . Int’l Y. M. C. A. Training 1891 Y.M.C.A. C. Fr. B. 3, 858 School. 2232 . do . MacDuffie Library . 1S90 Sch . O. c. Fr. R. 2,000 2233 Sterling . Free Public Library . . 1871 Gen . O. c. F. B. 6, 400 2234 Stoekbri dge . Library Association . Gen . O. c. F. B. 7. 150 2235 S ton chain . Free Public Library . 1859 Gen . R. T. F. B. 9,108 2236 Stough ton . Public Library . 1874 Gen . T. F B. 7,’ 122 2237 Stow . Randall Memorial Library .. 1894 Gen . O. c. F. B. 4, 390 2233 Sturbridge . Joshua Hyde Public Library. 1804 Gen . O. B. TL C. 6, 000 2239 Sunderland . Sunderland Library . 1869 Gen . C. F. B. 3' 260 2240 Sutton . Free Library . 1875 Gen . T. F. B. 4', 768 2241 Swansea . Free Public Library . 1898 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 2' 546 2242 Taunton . Bristol County Law Library . 1858 Law . C. F. B. 7’ 000 2243 . do . Old Colony Historical Soci- 1853 Hist . 0. c. S. B. 2! 000 etv. 2244 . do . Public Library . 1866 Gen . R. T. F. B. 47, 000 2245 . do . Taunton Insane Hospital Li- Asy . C. F. R. 3; 000 brary. 2246 Templeton . Boynton Public Library . 1873 Gen . 0. B. F. B. 5, 912 2247 . do . Ladies’ Social Circle Library. Gen . C. 8. C. 2, 000 2248 Tewksbury . Public Library . Gen . T. F. B. 5,300 2249 . do . State Hospital Library . . Asy . T. Fr. c. 2, 871 2250 Topsfield . Town Library . 1873 Geh . T. F. B. 8, 075 1035 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBHAKIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. d 0 •r— ( +-> ci M c3 a 0 1 £ 3 3 3 0 oj O '3 _ >> P O O d a 0 0 a r— < c3 O H io 11 12 13 14 15 IB 17 18 288 12, 073 $800 Emma A. Baker . 2194 $125 $132 500 Mary R. Leonard . 2195 30 400 25 500 $10, 000 . do . 2196 34 187 2, 548 $200 0 200 2, 163 Mercy Anderson . . 2197 216 12, 290 32 819 8,337 Flora A. Halligon . 2198 0 114 176 0 223 1,000 Francis Bardwell . 2199 114 3, 578 250 270 'l00 5, 000 Mary J . Hazen . 2200 John Whitelev, elder . 2201 289 7,100 0 0 740 43, 000 800 Mabel E, Knowlton . 2202 90 100 100 AbbieL. Morrill . 2203 0 217 0 278 278 _ 1 Maria, B. Smith, assistant _ 2204 3,115 215, 448 9, 000 11, 720 1,000 45,000 Sam Walter Foss . 2205 525 70 125 125 Julia B. Strong . 2206 164 5, 855 245 1,500 Francena E. Burk . 2207 0 0 350 L. A. Abbott . 2208 508 26, 224 1,000 1 , 538 12, 500 33, 500 Abbie M. Arnold . 2209 1,167 426 20 1 026 1, 800 2, 602 1, 000 Ella E. Mierseh . 2210 '300 2, 700 '210 5,000 Kenry M. Walker . 2211 0 78 3, 200 112 112 J. M. Billings, trustee . 2212 ] Frances A. Morton, superin- 2213 tendent. 88 0 20 W. Brown . 2214 2, 199 1,222 0 0 2,249 10, 000 25. 000 Miss Mary O. Nutting . . 2215 2216 2,000 100 3,000 0 0 550 14, 000 15, 000 Gustavus Smith, trustee . 2217 150 12, 000 800 20, 000 10, 000 H. H. Brown . . . . 2218 130 692 25, 395 1,979 14; 000 25' 432 Mary D. Vaughan . 2219 700 75 1,872 250 '257 3; 500 W. B. Harding . 2220 85 1,823 175 Lucy T. Sandford . 2221 15 E. Lawrence Jenkins . 2222 117 23, 876 4, 000 Nettie A. Cutter . . . 2223 0 3; 000 '200 E, L. Janes . 2224 • 2225 15, 000 8,118 164, 091 29, 161 45, 208 72, 172 100, 000 J. C. Dana . 2226 '500 2227 500 250 1,000 0 0 300 Z. W. Kemp, dean . 2228 225 2, 000 2, 000 Robert O. Morris . 2229 1,205 20 500 500 J. T. Bourne . 2230 4, 900 1,201 2,000 851 . do . 2231 200 18 • John MacDuhie . 2232 0 200 5, 807 50 50 376 6, 500 5,500 Mary D. Peck . 2233 268 10, 083 1,148 6, 500 Caroline P. Wells . 2234 335 26, 193 . . 1,250 1, 337 M. H. Boyce . 2235 325 20, 635 605 1, 647 25. 300 . . M. Alice Burnham . 2236 50 140 506 12' 000 12, 000 Susan M. Lawrence . 2237 200 4,734 200 737 10', 000 10, 009 Emily M. Haynes . 2238 99 3,987 50 2, 344 4; 175 10; OCO Abbie T. Montague . 2239 150 5,018 215 '215 Sarah M. Mills . . . . 2240 250 8, 686 0 350 555 2,700 20, 000 Julia R. Wellington . 2211 50 600 '200 0 0 2, 962 Frederick E. Austin . 2242 60 l' 800 James E. Seaver . 2243 2, 500 . 1,610 73, 719 1,909 5,000 7,148 1,000 Joshua E. Crane . . 2244 Frank W. Boynton . . 2245 236 13, 561 300 712 H. T. Lane . 2246 Lizzie R. Parker . 22 17 165 5, 737 307 735 Wilbur A. Patten . 2248 158 Edward W. Pride . 2249 1 1, 974 323 6, 082 . 75 61 9 9.522 Albert M. Dodge . 2250 1036 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MASSACHUSETTS— continued. 2251 Townsend . Public Library . 1858 Gen . T. F. B. 3, 648 2252 Truro . Town Library . 18S4 Gen . T. F. B. 1,460 2253 Tufts College . Tufts College . 1854 Col . 0. C. Fr. B. 41 , 035 2254 . do . Universalist Historical 1834 Theo . C. Fr. R. 5, GOO Society Library. 2255 Turners Falls . Montague Public Library. . . . 1874 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4,625 2256 Tynsboro . Public Library . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 4, 725 2257 Unton . Town Library . 1871 Gen . T. F. B. 3,899 2258 Uxbw; ge . Free Public Library . 1875 Gen . O. T F. B. 9' 600 2259 Waban . Waban School . Gen . R. c. Fr. R. 2, 500 2260 Wakefield . Beebe Town Library . 1856 Gen . T. F. B. 13,139 2261 Walpole . Public Library . Gen . T. F. B. 8,200 2362 Waltham . . Notre Dame Training School. 1889 Seh . C. Fr. R. 4, 000 2263 . do . Public Library . 1865 Gen . R. T. F. B. 26, 983 2264 Ware . Young Men’s Library Asso- 1873 Gen . O. T. F B. 11, 715 ciation. 2265 Wareham . Free Library . 1891 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,800 2266 Warren . Public Library . 1876 Gen . O. T. F. B. 9,850 2267 Warwick . Free Library . 1871 Gen . O. T. E. C. 3, 850 2268 Watertown . Free Public Library . 1869 Gen . O. T. F. B. 26, 000 2269 Wayerley . MacLean Hospital andMedi- Med . C. Fr. B. 6,000 cal Library. 2270 Wav land . Free Public Library . 1850 Gen . O. T. F. B. 13,274 2271 Webster . Public Library . 1889 Gen . R. T. F. B. 5,418 2272 Wellesley . Free Library . 1881 Gen . O. T. Fr. B. 11,668 2273 . . .do . Wellesley College . 1875 Col . c. Fr. B. 51,159 2274 Well fleet . Public Library . Gen . R. T. F. B. 2. 650 2275 Wenham . . do . 1857 Gen . T. F. B. 3' 520 2276 West Acton . Boxborough Free Public 1891 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,000 Library. 2277 . do . Citizens’ Library Association. Gen . O. c. F. B. 2,000 2278 Westborough . Free Public Library . 1857 Gen . T. F. B. 12, 000 2279 West Boxi’ord .... Public Library . 1881 Gen . T. F c. 1 303 2280 West Bovlston .... . do . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 6' 000 2281 West Brookfield . . Merriam Public Library . 1872 Gen . 0. rp j. . F. B. 7,033 2282 Westfield . State Normal School . Seh . T. Fr. R. 4,000 2283 . do . Westfield Athenaeum . 1864 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 17' 694 2284 Westford . J. Y. Fletcher Public Library. 1859 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 10, 700 2285 Westhampton _ Reunion Town Library . 1866 Gen . B. F. B. 2,481 2286 Westminster . Town Library . 1868 Gen . T. F B. 4,200 2287 West Newbury . . . Public Library . 1894 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 3,500 2288 Weston . Town Library . 1857 Gen . 0. B F B. 12,423 2289 West Springfield . Public Library . Gen . T. F. B. 5, 623 2290 WestStockbridge. Free Library* . is9i Gen . T. F. C. 1,000 2291 W est Sutton . Free Library . 1883 Gen . T. F. B. 8, 782 2292 West Tisbury _ _ Free Public Library . 1893 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 1,300 2293 Weymouth . Tufts Library . 1879 Gen . 0. T. F. C. 20, 271 229 i Whately . Circulating Library. . 1870 Gen . T. F. C. 2, 340 229 5 Whitinsville . Social Library. . . . . 1845 Gen . R. T. F. c. 6' 123 2296 Whitman . Public Library . 1879 Gen . R. T. F. B. 10; 000 2297 Wilbraham . W esleyan Academy . Seh . 0. c. F. B. 9,000 2298 Williamsburg .... Meekins Memorial Library .. 1896 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 9, 000 2299 Williamstown .... Public Library . 1874 Gen . T. F. C. 4.590 23G0 . do . Williams College . Col . 0. C. Fr. B. 45, 233 2301 . do . Philotechnian Society Col. Soc . . . c. E. C. 2, 230 Library. 2302 Wilmington . Public Library . 1872 Gen . 0. T. F. C. 2,547 2303 Winchendon . Murdock School . 1887 Sch . C. Fr. R. 1,000 2304 . do . Public Library . 1850 Gen . R. T. F. B. 6,986 2305 Winchester . . do . . . 1859 Gen . T. F. B. 13, 634 2306 Winthrop . . do . 1885 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 6, 325 2307 Woburn . Burlington Public Library _ 1857 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 3,027 2308 . do . Public Library . 1856 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 41,918 2309 Wollaston . Quincv Mansion School . 1896 Sch . C. F. B. 2; COO 2310 Worcester . American Antiquarian Soci- 1812 Hist . 0. C. Fr. R. 100, 000 ety. * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1037 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. ft & a ft 10 350 27, 666 4, 000 b.0 fl ft 2 ft ft in to ft 0) o > 11 77 500 25, 000 2,000 500 0 575 43 0 '200 764 ”60 '350 173 50 2, 331 10 233 182 100 303 50 220 ft .2 ^ ft CD 5 a £ o ^ , 367 0 400 462 500 1,400 1,100 100 527 49 240 ”6 389 1,130 500 252 3.4 880 287| 410 1, 500 300 1, 000 5,000 1 , 440 . 1,165!. 3, 407 305 1,193 185 4, 925 700 3,402 1,515 1,938 5, 593 400 179 86 2, 131 49 11 1,192 2, 916 679 105 793 441 1,597 1,136 500 10, 000 1,500 6, 580 21,000 100 16, 995 17, 600 2, 000 500 525 500 7,300 ft 3 ft O > 5 . 'r~ < C/2 P2 bJO ^ fl i O 0 73 Name of librarian. 10 11 12 . 13 14 15 13 17 18 4,041 366 $863 $7, 0C0 C. H. Gurney . . 100 Kate A. Russell . . . 35 235,000 $50, 000 Prof. C. Doesburg . 171 11, 400 $200 409 Jennie R. Kantes. ... _ .... 18 5,000 160 E. G. Garner . 2, 354 785 Frances H. Scott . 1,000 50 900 200 200 B. A, Dunbar . 200 50 105 MollieA. Burt . . 436 270 . Geo. Dysinger . 320 4, 832 500 717 L. E. Amidon . 500 11, 025 575 575 L. L. Wright, superintendent Carrie N elson . . . . 2, 000 200 11, 760 Zada Fisko . . . 20 $53 53 A. P. Cook . . 1, 000 465 82, 212 218 C. F. Waldo . 500 500 H. N. Thompson . 102 145 1,500 May Conger . . 3,817 209 400 S. G-. Jenks . 1,000 400 400 J. W. Adams . 1,000 Wm. M. Edwards . 1,746 200 63,412 SO, GOO I. C. Roberts . . . 1, 000 C. T. Wilbur, M. D . . 80 550 26S _ E. Brule . . . . R. L. Tage . | 169 129 129 1 _ 1 Henrv B. Baker _ 3,299 300 7,500 7, 500 1,023 7 . 34,428 . . _..l Mrs. A. F. Cady . 20 . Helen J. Lamb . . . 500 226 3,209 17, 229 174 100 . I Miss A. E. Henry . 200 170 500 500 . . 1 Mrs. T j. R. Robinson . 200 300 1,000 643 Kate S. Hutchins . 354 13, 422 250 . Lillian F. Browuirigg . 84 270 Edith Fuller. . . . . .A . 100 3, 261 J. J. Humberger, city super¬ intendent. D. B. Waldo . 2,936 475 24, 974 2, 438 161 10, 773 18, 000 Rose E. Patenaude . 87 10, 000 5, 470 224 800 Miss V. Monk . 100 Gertrude B. Smith . 200 175 '520 100 118 E. D. Palmer, superintend¬ ent. J. W. McClenen, secretary . . Jas. II. Molten . 300 239 6, 284 12, 000 579 587 555 . 555 175 175 . O. I. Woodlev . 500 C. A. De Witt, superintend¬ ent. Mrs. G. L. Genner . 100 100 350 295 13, 868 700 750 Miss A. E. Yardley . 122 120 500 1,436 9,223 200 1, 636 13, 387 Margaret C. Apleyer . 10, 000 2, 24S 43, 255 154 75, 000 iio, 66c Julia S. Wood . ... . 1044 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 D MICHIGAN — cont’d. 2475 Negaunee . Public Library*. . . 1860 Gen . T. F. c. 2 000 2476 Niles . Ladies’ Library . Gen . C. Fr. R. l , 750 2477 . do . Public School . 1858 Sch . 0. T. F. B. 2, 750 2478 Northville . Ladies’ Library . 1889 Gen . 0. c. s. c. 2, 300 2479 . do . Public High School . Sch . 0. T. F. B. 1,000 2480 Norway _ _ High School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1. 050 2481 Olivet . Olivet College . 1847 Col . 0. C. S. B. 26, 747 2482 . do . Walton Township Library . . . 1880 Gen . R. T. F. c. 1, 446 2483 Opechee . School District Library . Sch . T. F. B. 2,030 2484 Orchard Lake .... Michigan Military Academy 1889 Sch . 0. C. Fr. R. 9,000 Library. 2485 Owosso . Ladies’ Library and Literary 1867 Gen . R. C. S. R. 2, 992 Association. 2486 Paw Paw . Public School Library . 1894 Sch . T F. B. 1,800 2487 Pinkwater . Township Library . 1888 Gen . R. T. F. C. 2, 100 2488 Petoskev . Normal School Library . 1888 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,100 2489 . do . School District Library . 1893 Sch . T. F. C. 1,350 2490 Plainwell . Ladies’ Library Association. . 1868 Gen . O. c. Fr. R. 1, 875 2491 Plymouth . Public School . 1852 Sch . T. F. B. L 500 2492 Pontiac . Eastern Michigan Asylum . . . 1 893 Asy . T. F. c. 1,768 2493 . do . Ladies’ Library . 1883 Gen . 0. 'll fr. C. 4” 000 2494 . do . Public High School . 1870 Sch . T. F. B. 2' 000 2495 Port Huron . Ladies’ Library Association . . 1866 Soc . 0. C. S. B. 3^ 916 2496 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 7,000 2497 . do . Public Library . Gen . R. T. F. B. 8' 278 2498 . do . Clair County Bar Library.... 1889 Law . R. C. S. R. 10, 000 2499 Republic . Township Library . 1876 Sch . O. T. F. C. 1, 800 2500 Rid ere way . Hall Memorial Library . 1887 Gen . O. T. Fr. B. 1.625 2501 Romeo . Public School . 1868 Sch . T. F. B. 1 , 200 2502 Saginaw . East Side High School . .... T. F. B. 1,016 2503 _ Alo . . Germania Institute Library.. 1856 Soc . O. C. S. B. 5; 000 2504 Saginaw, East Hoyt Public Library . 1883 Gen . 0. C. F. R. 24, 000 Side. 2505 S a g i n a w, W e s t Public School Library . 1855 Gen . T. F. B. 8, 109 Side. 2506 . .do . Teutonia Library * . 1868 Soc . 0. C. S. C. 1,825 2507 Saginaw, East Public Library . 1862 Gen . R. T. Fr. B. 11, 585 Side. 2508 St. Clair . Ladies’ Library . 1869 Gen . c. S. C. 1,830 2509 St.Johns . Ladies’ Library Association . . 1870 Gen . R. C. S. c. 2' 975 2510 St. Joseph . City Library* . 1885 Gen . T. F. B. 2’ 081 2511 . do * . Public School Library . 1880 Sch . T. Fr. B. 3' 100 2512 St. Louis . Public High School . Sch . T. F. c. 1,500 2513 Sault Ste. Marie . . Public Library . 1875 Gen T. Fr. B. 1,900 2514 Schoolcraft . Ladies’ Library . Gen . C. S. R. 2, 000 2515 Sturgis . City Library . 1882 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4, 600 2516 Tecumseh . Free Public Library . 1892 Gen . R. T. n C. 2, 879 2517 Three Rivers . . do . 1887 Gen . R. T. F. B. 7; 000 2518 Traverse City .... Ladies’ Library Association.. 1869 Soc . O. C. S. B. 3', 200 2519 . do . Public High School . 1835 Sch . C. F. R. 1,200 2520 Union City . Union Township Library .... 1880 Gen . R. C. Fr. R. 1,000 2521 West Bav City. . . . Sage Public Library . 1884 Gen . O. T. F. B. 28, 852 2522 Whitehall . Public School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,002 2523 . do . Township Library . 1874 Gen R. T. F. C. 1,303 2524 Wyandotte . Public Library . Gen . T. F. B. 4, 983 2525 Ypsilanti . Michigan State Normal Col- 1852 Col . T. Fr. R. 22, 000 lege" 2526 . do . Public School Library . 1 849 Sch . T. F. B. 3,766 2527 . do . Ladies’ Library* . 1868 Gen . O. C. S. B. 4,300 MINNESOTA. 2528 Albert Lea . Albert Lea College Library .. 1886 Col . C. Fr. B. 2,000 2529 Anoka . Public Library . 1893 Gen . R. T. F. B. 5, 090 * Statistics of 1895-96. 1045 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, A1NTD SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. bX) a ’C tog Receipt s. 0 V5 3 Pamphlets. -V 3 cs -CS © © 3 B o > ti © £ s vs,§ O H G ®-d G G G ''a 0) P-4 rO !i O 0) 3 > Name of librarian. io 11 li> 13 14 15 10 1 7 18 675 100 2,940 $200 $50 $250 J.D. Schiller . 150 8 $2, 000 Elizabeth Knapp, secretary. John Loeffler . 18 10 28 50 - rX 10O E. P. Frost . 550 38 15, 000 954 $15, 000 30, 000 ,T. L. Daniels . 65 65 40 150 150 500 . Alfred Nichols, superintend¬ ent. W. C. Burns . 400 200 100 3, 971 245 OOO I ' 300 1, 600 300 J. A. O’ Levey.. . 200 180 180 W. E. Hodges . 60 40 M. O. Graves . 52 257 W. M. Andrews . 45 1,004 1,600 62 Mrs. J. M. Clement . . 80 32 32 Geo. E. Rogers . . 40 2; 000 J. E. Lapham . . 104 . 460 8,000 Miss F. S. Stewart . 130 1, 091 302 2,000 4,000 Lucy A. Hendricks . 600 1,600 150 48, 115 2,450 2, 863 W. L. Jenks . Thos. Wellman . . . 2, 000 Geo. McDonald . . 50 3, 000 1,500 M. A. Graves . 130 Y. D. Thompson . 50 2,000 300 500 F. M. Leitzon . 460 500 1,000 3, 500 50, 000 52, 000 H. H. Ames . . . . . . 241 19, 066 500 500 Anna Benjamin . 150 566 35 35, 000 1,210 83 1,419 Lucy E. Houghton . . 23 Mrs. R. L. Jenks . 102 2, 890 732 813 100 100 100 7,000 500 100 72 237 E. P. Clarke . . . . . . 300 25 H. W. Daniels, superintend¬ ent. E. E. Ferguson . 250 250 8,000 250 564 450 107 9,950 750 14 764 Anna Meve . 252 1 7, 500 500 550 L. G. North . 2,000 400 27, 000 1,500 1,500 514 E. B. Linslev . 100 2, 303 3,000 1, 500 Callie Thacker . 30 300 C. H. Horn, superintendent. Katy M. Pixley . 15 1,600 73, 755 70 2, 513 897 5, 214 . 5, 214 20, 000 Phebe Parker . H. H. Clement, superintend¬ ent. Mrs. H. D. Hedges . . 72 8,996 12, 000 100 70 187 1,000 600 67 680 F. J. Goodell, secretary 1,000 G. M. Walton . ." . 250 805 1,361 582 . 582 Mildred S. Smith . 100 i ' 100 Miss Ella Young, principal.. O. F. Warnes . 100 17, 821 533 . 853 2475 2476 2477 2478 2479 2480 3481 2482 2483 2484 2485 2486 2487 2488 2489 2490 2491 2492 2493 2494 2495 2496 2497 2498 2499 2500 2501 2502 2503 2504 2505 2506 2507 2508 2509 2510 2511 2512 2513 2514 2515 2516 2517 2518 2519 2520 2521 2522 2523 2524 2525 2526 2527 2528 2529 1046 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States 2530 2531 2532 2533 2534 2535 2536 2537 2538 2539 2540 2541 2542 2543 2544 2545 2546 2547 2548 2549 2550 2551 2552 2553 25-54 2555 2556 2557 2558 2559 2560 2561 2562 2563 2564 2565 2566 2567 2568 2569 2570 2571 2572 2573 2574 2575 2576 2577 2578 2579 2580 2581 2582 2583 2584 2585 2586 2587 2588 Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2> 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MINNESOTA — COT1 . Appleton . Public Library . 1897 Gen . C. Fr. B. 1 150 Austin . Library Associate on . 1869 Gen . C. S. B. 3,000 . do . Public School . 1890 Sch . T, Fr. B. 1,280 Benson . Public High School Library.. Sell . T. F. B. 1 , 264 Blue Earth City . . Public School Library . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1,500 . do . Public Library . Gen . T. F. B. 1,200 Brainerd . Northern Pacific Library As- 1884 Gen . C. B. ] , 080 sociation. Cannon Falls . High School Library . 1S93 Sch . w V B. 1,269 Chatfield . Public High School . Sch . T. F. R. 2,000 Cloquet . Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2,100 . do . Public School Library . 1880 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1 , 206 Collegeville . St. John’s Abbey Library . 1857 Gen . O. C. F. B. 16, 000 Dawson . Public School Library . 1890 Seh . T. F. B. 1,000 Detroit City . . do . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1,560 Duluth . Central High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,932 . do . Duluth Bar Library . 1889 Law . R. C. S. B. 8,000 . do . Public Library . 1890 Gen . R. T F. c. 28, 000 . do . Sacred Heart Academy Li- 1900 Sch . C. S. B. 1, 500 brarv. Faribault . Public Librarv . 1874 Gen . T. F. B. 5,792 . do . St. Gertudes Library . 1890 Col . O. c. s. B. 1,600 . do . St. Mary’s Hall Library . Sch . c. Fr. R. 3,000 . do . . School for the Blind . 1874 Sch . T F. B. i'oio . do . School for the Deaf . 1866 Sch . t! Fr. B. 2, 055 . do . Seabury Divinity School . 1859 Theo . O. c. Fr. B. 8' 500 . do . Shattuck School Library _ 1885 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2, 500 Fairmont . Public Library . 1879 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2, 200 Fergus Falls . . do . 1890 Gen . O. c. s. C. 1,287 Glencoe . Public School Library . 1880 Sch _ T. Fr. B. 4, 900 . do . Stevens Seminary . 1880 Sch . . C. F. ' B 5* 200 Grant Falls . Public High School . 1885 Sell . 1 _ T, F. B. 1,000 Hastings . Public School Library . 1872 Gen _ 1 _ T. Fr. B. 4, 000 Hutchison . High School Library . Sch _ T. F. B. 1,500 Lake City . Public School Library . Sch _ .... T. F. R. 1,000 Luverne . Public High School Library. 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1,400 . do . Public Library . 1891 Gen . T. F. B. L 900 Madison . Public School Library . Sch . c. F. B. 1,000 Mankato . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1 , 500 . do . Public Library . 1894 Gen . R. T. F. B. Ci, 250 . do . State Normal School Library. 1869 Sch . T. V B. 4, 011 Minneapolis . Augsburg Seminary . 1869 Col . C. F. B. 3 i 500 . do . Central High School library. Sch . T. F. B. 3, 000 . do . Guaranty Loan Building' Law 1890 Law . O. c. Fr. R. 10, 600 Library. Minneapolis, East Holmes High School Library. Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 Side. Minneapolis . Minneapolis Bar Association. 1S83 Law . R. C. S. B. 10, 000 . do . Free Traveling Library _ _ _ 1900 State . R. T. F. C. 3, 000 . do . New York Life Law Library. 1890 Law . O. C. Fr. B. 12, 500 . no . Public Library . -. . . 1885 Gen . O. T. F. B. 114, 000 . do . Stanley Hall *. . 1890 Sch . C. Fr. R. 1,800 . do . Teachers’ Library Association 1892 Gen . T. Fr. c. 6, 750 . do . University Minnesota.. . 1868 Col . O. TL F. R. 65, 000 . do . University Medical Library. . 1880 Med . .... c. Fr B. 2, 500 Montevideo . Public Library . . 1882 Gen . .... T. F. B. 2; 500 Moorhead . Public School Library . 1875 Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 . do . State Normal School . . 1888 Sch . T Fr. B. 5; 000 Morris . Public Library . 1888 Gen . T. F. C. 2, 600 New Uim . Public High School Library.. 1884 Sch . T. F. B. 1,250 . do . Turnverein Library . 1866 Gen . C. F. B. 1,850 Northfield . Carleton College . 1868 Col . 0. -C, Fr. B. 15; 000 . do . Goodsell Observatory Library 1876 Scien . c. Fr. R. 2, 000 * Statistics of 1S95-96. 1047 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and, over in 1900 — Continued. bJO P g the se. Receipts. O tJ ro *3 Pamphlets. Volumes added dr the year. Books issued durin year for home u: From taxation. Appropriations— State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent cm ment fund. & >> 2 & ag O O 0 c3 Name of librarian. io 11 12 13 14 15 1G 17 18 100 May E. Joknsen . 120 5,000 900 $200 Mrs. H. H. Kent . 150 105 80 2, 250 $27 $20 20 139 43 2; 500 1,220 40 F. E. Lockerby . 15 157 E. A. McKay . . 300 200 3, 080 162 10 174 A. C. Carlson, superintend¬ ent. PI. L. Brown . . . 300 100 200 300 9,455 594 619 Leroy A. Fish . E. J. Reid, superintendent . . P. Enzel . 2,000 2,000 200 500 200 10,000 2,065 200 200 E. Phillips . „ 40 70 70 Carl E. Eckerman . . 69 Chas. A. Smith . Thos. J. Lewis, president _ Lydia M. Poirier . 2,800 77, 027 10, 463 i 13, 351 45 ' 150 Sr. Coetestine, O. S. B . 1,740 591 18, 015 759 759 $1,200 $30, 000 25 Dominican Sisters . 30 3, 000 26 Mary L. Winter . 1,160 200 James L. Dow . 135 500 300 * •Alford A. Butler, warden _ 125 S. E. Moore . 75 200 8,000 2,171 500 520 Miss Minnie Bird . 25 169 1,500 L. R. Stringham . 300 5; 780 250 254 H. S. Kellogg . 200 S. J. La Due . 200 25 2, 700 W. F. Kunze, superintendent H. L. Merrill, superintendent L. P. Cravens . . . 250 250 250 270 200 150 1,000 3, 000 5, 713 30 30 100 F. E. Dean . . 350 200 375 395 Mrs. W. N. Davidson . 100 130 2', 147 150 P. C. Tonning, superin¬ tendent. C. A. Fullerton , teacher _ 10 - 650 31, 079 2,000 2,111 Miss Minnie McGraw . ■ 736 500 '500 1,000 50 . A . M. Hive, .secretary . 400 F. C. Hale . . . 276 Edw. S. Waters . 1,250 150 5,000 5, 000 Miss C. F. Baldwin . Jessie T. Morgan . 7,155 596, 009 43, 305 61, 295 200, 000 400, 000 James K. Hosmer . . 324 4,463 150 870 Rhoda B. Long . 7, 000 10, 876 200 1,368,814 75, 000 Wm. W. Folwell . T. H. Lee . 250 9,000 3, 000 300 350 Mrs. M. E. Webb . 150 500 500 Eugenia Winston . 3,000 Mrs. S. Elliott . 44 4, 673 E. T. Critchett . 3,400 '436 176 Edward Petry . 775 7, 500 Geo. Huntington . 4,800 100 100 W. W. Payne . . 2530 2531 2532 2533 2534 2535 2536 2537 2538 2539 2540 2541 2542 2543 2544 2545 2546 2547 2548 2549 2550 2551 2552 2-553 2554 2555 2556 2557 2558 2559 2560 2561 2562 2563 2564 2565 2568 2567 2568 2589 2570 2571 2572 2573 2574 2575 2576 2577 2578 2579 2580 2581- 2582 2583 2584 2585 2586 2587 2588 1048 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900 2589 2590 2591 2592 2593 2591 2595 2596 2597 2598 2599 2600 2601 2602 2603 2601 2605 2606 2607 2608 2609 2610 2611 2612 2613 2614 2615 2616 2617 2618 2619 2620 2621 2622 2623 2624 2625 2626 2627 2628 2629 2630 2631 2632 2633 2634 2635 2636 2637 2638 2639 2640 2641 2642 2643 2644 2645 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States ' Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 3 4 5 (3 7 8 9 MINN ESOT A— COI1 . North field . Public Library. . . . 1898 Gen . T. F. B. . do . Public School Library . Sell . T. F. B. 1,940 . do . St. Olaf College Library . 1885 Col . .... c. s. B. 2, 600 Owatonna . Free Public Library . 1898 Gen . O. TL F. B. O' 300 . do . Pillsburv Academy . 1877 Sch . O. c. Fr. B. 2, 600 . . do . . Hisrh. School _ _ ." . 1880 Sch . 0. T. F. B. R 500 Red Wing . Public High School . Sch . T. B. 1 , 377 . do . Ranges Norwegian Evangeli- 1879 Sch . c. Fr. B. L200 caf Luth eran Seminary. . do . State Training School . 1868 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2, 020 Rochester . German Library . 1872 Gen . R. c. s B. 2, 300 . do . Public Library . 3865 Gen . O. T. F. B. 5,877 . do . Public School Library . 1885 Sch . O. T. Fr. B. 2, 000 Rushford . . do . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,311 St. Cloud . State Reformatory Library .. 1890 State . .... T. Fr. B. 1, 500 . do . Normal School Library . 1869 Sell . T. F. B. 6,089 . do . Public Hisrh School Library . 1876 Sch . T. Fr. C. 1 , 683 . do . Public Library and Free 1889 Gen . R. T. F. B. 5, 552 Reading Room. St. James _ Public School Library _ 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 000 St. Joseph _ St. Joseph’s Library . 1860 Theo . C. S. C. 2, 030 St. Louis Park Public School . Sch . T. F. B. 3 , 500 St. Paul . Baldwin Seminary . 1853 Sch . R. c. Fr. R. 3,000 . do . Central High. School Library. 1877 Sch . T. F. B. 5,000 . do ... Cleveland High School . 1893 Sch . T. F. B. 1,800 . do . Concordia College Library... 1893 Col . t . c. S. B. R 200 . do . Hamline University . 1854 Col . c. Fr. B. 6, 000 . do . Humboldt High School . 1890 Sch . T. F. C. 1 , 500 . do . Macalester College . Col . c. Fr. B. 7,000 . do . Mechanic Arts High School.. 1882 Sell . T. Fr. B. 3 , 210 . do . Minnesota Historical Society. 1849 His . T. F. B. 32, 080 . do . Minnesota State Board of 1872 State . T. F. R 3,000 Health. . CIO . Norwegian Lutheran Theo- 1876 Theo . c. Fr. R. 2,000 logical Seminary. . do . Public Library . 1882 Gen . O. T. F. A 50, 000 . do . St. Mary’s School Library _ 1893 Sch . c F. B. 1,000 . do . St. Joseph’s Academy Library Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,200 . do . St. Paul Seminary . 1895 Theo . 6. c. Fr. B. 7, 750 . do . Teachers’ Training School 1885 Sch . T. s. B. 4, 000 Library. . do . St. Thomas’s College Library. 1886 Col . C. s. B. 5,000 . do . State Law Library . 1851 State . T. F. R. 28, 790 . do . Visitation Convent School 1873 Sch . C. S. R. 2, 053 Library. St. Paul Park . St. Paul’s College . 1889 Col . . (4 s. B. 3 , 200 St. Peter . Gustavus Adolphus College.. 1875 Col . T. Fr. B. 7,500 . do . High School Library . 1876 Sch . T. F. R. 1 , 600 . do . Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. T F. B. 1,798 . do . State Hospital Library . Asy . T. F. C. 3 , 000 Sauk Center . Bryant Library Association. . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. b, 000 Stillwater . Public Library . 1899 Gen . T. F. B. b, 200 . do . Public School Library . 1891 Sch . . . T. F. B. 7' 000 Tracy . Library Association . Gen . C. S. c. 3,300 . do . School Library . 1892 Sch . T. F. B. 3,052 Wabasha . Ladies’ Library Association. . 1870 Gen . R. T. S. B. 3', 000 . do . Public School Library . 1892 Sch . T. F. B. 3 , 050 Wadena . . do . Sch . . . T. FL B. 3 ' 000 Warren . Public High School . . 1896 Gen . c. Fr. B. l' 298 Waseca . Public School Library . Sch. . T. F. B. 2, 000 Wells . . do . 1893 Sell . . T. F. B. 3 ' 000 Wilder . Breck Mission and Farm Sch . C. Fr. B. 3,200 School Library. Willmar . Public School Library . 1883 Sch . T. F. C. 3,500 AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1049 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. i Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 1 1 1'Z 13 14 15 Id 17 18 17S 9,026 §522 $567 Edith M. Pye . 2589 . A. B. Stanford . 2590 ], 100 750 1,081 $160 O.G. Felland . 2591 '100 14, 000 1,500 3; 000 16,500 $25, 000 Mary L. Weber . 2592 James W. Ford . 2593 50 125 1, 853 P. J. Kuntz . 2594 2595 200 100 1 110 II. H. Elstad’. . 2596 12 $125 125 J. W. Brown . 2597 10 600 106 Robert Riebe . 2598 1,060 56o 22, 510 4, 158 4,158 Edna Emerick . 2599 '100 3' 000 Miss C. C. Clink . 2600 20 544 Mary P. Putnam . 2601 Thomas Hellier, clerk . 2602 980 799 9, 413 1,000 2, 050 Geo. R. Kleeberger . 2603 200 8, 000 115 60 175 W. A. Shoemaker . 2604 1,390 20, 315 1,971 2, i8s Marie Brick . 2605 1,600 60 60 M. H. Manuel, superintend- 2606 ent. Sisters of St, Benedict . 2607 2, 000 R. L. Davidson . 2608 10 25 C. J. Backus . 2609 25 3, 000 220 220 E.V. Robinson, principal _ 2610 200 250 250 250 S. A. Farnsworth . 2611 120 H. Juergenson, professor _ 2612 700 200 Geo. S. Tnnis. . A . 2613 17 200 2, 000 275 275 Henry S. Baker . 2614 541 Miss A. M. Dickson . 2615 177 2616 32, 200 1 , 357 7,500 7, 500 Warren Upham . 2617 2, 000 If. M. Bracken, M. D . 2618 500 150 Torstien Jahr . 2619 3, 457 172, 959 15, 000 17, 934 Helen J. McCarrie . 2620 2,000 60 Sister Victoria . 2621 2622 500 200 2,000 2, 000 Rev. William Turner . . 262;', 300 251 2,700 520 GG0 B. M. Phelan . . 2624 1,000 100 150 Rev. M. J. Egan . . . . . 2625 2,' 141 1, 095 5, 500 5, 500 F. J. Johnson . 2626 ' 390 97 ' 154 M. C. Shepherd . 2627 500 250 50 E, L. Bronekcr . 2628 4,000 300 300 J. A. Youngouiet . 2629 90 V. R. Wasson, superintend- 2630 ent. 400 258 7,979 521 850 Mrs. C. R. Davis . 2631 . 2632 500 421 13,236 720 1 M. C. Kelsev . 491 30, 702 2,439 2! 942 Gertrude McPherson . 2634 400 500 400 Olive Per Lee . 2635 30 34 Maude A. Edwards . 2636 160 209 2637 100 251 Mrs. E. L. Seek . 2638 300 2, 000 200 200 A. M. Lockper . 2639 200 John Marshal . 2640 300 164 3, 798 135 • 229 William Argus, superintend- 2641 . ent. 2642 50 500 46 46 B.W. Manuel . 2643 . 2644 . W. W. Kilgore . 2645 1050 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States 4 Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. ri o +3 o Cfl Sh O o CD U Ph Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 P- 7 8 D MINNESOTA— COn. 2646 Willmar . Seminary Library “Evange- 1881 Sch . 0. T. F. R. 1,000 line.” 2647 Winnebago City . . Parker College Library ...... Sell . C. Fr. R. 1,000 2648 Winona . Free Public Library. . . 1886 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 16,514 2649 . do . State N ormal School ..... _ 1860 Sch . T. F. B. b, 000 2650 Worthington . Public High School . 1885 Gen . T. Fr. R. L 740 MISSISSIPPI. 2651 Aberdeen . Public School . 1895 Sch . C. F. B. 1,300 2652 A prienltnrn.l Col- Mississippi A prion it, oral find 1S80 Col c ]vr> B. 3; 733 lege. Mechanical College. 2653 Bay St. Louis . St. Stanislaus Library . 1854 Seh . 0. c. Fr. R. 3, 500 2654 Blue Mountain . . . Blue Mountain College Li- 1878 Col . c. Fr. B. 2, 000 brary. 2655 Byhalia . Kate Tucker Institute Li- 1S82 Sch . 0. c. F. R. 1,500 brary. 2656 Clinton . Hillman College (Lesbian So- 1853 Col. Soc. . . c. Fr. B. 1,200 ciety.* 2657 . do . Mississippi College Library .. 1826 Col . c. Fr. R. 4,000 2658 . do . Herininian Society . 1832 Col . 0. c. F. R. 3,000 2659 . do . Philomathean Society . . . 1865 Col . 0. c. F. R. 3 AGO 2660 Columbus . Mississippi Industrial Insti- 1886 Col . 0. T. F. B. 2, 000 tute and College Library. 2661 . . . . .do . Public Library . 1876 Gen . c. S. c. 2, 350 2662 Crystal Springs _ Public High School Library . Sch . c. S. B. 1, 000 2663 French Camp _ Central Mississippi Institute. Col . c. Fr. R. 3; COO 2664 Greenville . Public School Library . 1889 Sch . T. F. B. 1, 500 2665 Holly Springs .... Rust University. . . 1868 Col . c. Fr. R. 3’ 100 2666 Houston . Mississippi Normal College*. Col . c. Fr. B. 2; 000 2667 Jackson . Mississippi Institute for the 1894 Sch . T. F. B. 1, 110 Deaf. 2668 . do . Mississippi Institution for the Seh . T. F. B. 1,500 Blind. 2669 . do . Millsaps College Library. . . . 1892 Col . c. Fr. B. 5, 000 2670 . do . Mississippi State Library _ 1838 T. F. R. 79^ 090 2671 . do . High School Library . 1892 Sch . - T. F. B. T500 2672 Lockheart . Foster Polytechnic School Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,500 Library. 2673 Natchez . Fisk Memorial Library . 1883 Soc . R. c. S. B. 2,300 2674 Pontotoc . Chickasaw Female College . . 1852 Col . 0. C. Fr. R. 2 , 000 2675 Port Gibson . Chamberlain Hunt Academy. Gen . c. Fr. B. 1,800 2676 Xougaloo . Tougaloo University . 1870 Col . c. F. B. 4, 500 2677 University . University of Mississippi . 1848 Col . 0. c. F. B. 17, 000 2678 West Point . Mary Holmes Seminary . 1892 Sch . 0. c. Fr. B. 1,000 2679 Westside . Alcorn Agricultural and Me- 1871 Col . 0. T. Fr. B. 3; 000 chanical College. 2680 Yazoo City . St. Clair Academy Library. . . . Sch . .... c. Fr. B. 1, 250 MISSOURI. 2681 Albany . Central Christian College. . . . 1892 Col . 0. c. F. R. 3, 500 2682 . do' . J. S. Allen Society Library _ Gen . C. S. C. 2, 500 2683 . do . Northwest Missouri Academy Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 2684 . do . Public School . 1888 Sch . T. F. B. 1,800 2685 Arcadia . Ursuline Academy . Sch . c. s C. i; 200 2686 Ashley . Watson Historical Library... 1855 Sch . c. F. B. 1 ; 200 2687 Bethany . Public School Library . 1887 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,500 2688 Bolivar . Southwest Baptist College . . . 1878 Col . 0. C. Fr. B. 1,200 2689 Bonne Terre . Public School Library . 1893 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 2690 . do . St. Joseph Lead Company’s Gen . 0. TL F. C. 2,900 Free Library. 2691 Boonville . Kemper Military School Li- Sell . c. Fr. B. 2,000 brary. * Statistics of 1S95-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AETD SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1051 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 J2 13 14 15 13 17 18 25 §75 §75 S. Tjosvold . It. M. Lawrence . 1,709 200 45 75 859 180 100 10 78, 381 6. 552! . 6, 865 500 §50, 000 Edward Lees . §500 F. A. Elmer . Miss Alta A. Beeson . 700 8, 568 200 300 117 167 1,000 35 500 M. Rose . 1,820 1, 100 J. M. White . Bro. Daniel . B. G. Lowry . Mrs. Kate E. Tucker . W. T. Lowry . 200 200 ' 500 100 Miss Gertrude Ashmore . 2796 160 1,892 _ i _ 140 M. J. Patterson, superintend- 2727 ent. 10 30 20 30 30 C. C. Thudium . 2728 1,000 400 G. B. Smith . ‘>729 80 415 75 600 Carrie Wallace . 2730 1 . Geo. 3. Brvant . 2731 200 5, 000 550 Adelaide .T. Thompson . 2732 1 , 500 1,800 Wm. G. Pike . 2733 Jennie Edwards . 2734 10 2735 j . B. T. Blewetl , LL. D _ 200 2, 504 92 341 Mae Hansel . . . 2"37 ' 700 H. R. Ross . 2738 2, 304 182, 987 900 250, 000 Mrs. Carrie W. Whitney . 2739 140 320 Ferreol Girardey . ' . 2740 500 100 G. W. Shaw, principal . 2741 1,000 25 E. M. Goldberg . 2742 1, 000 1, 200 1,275 50, 000 John R. Kirk, president . 2743 2744 2745 | 3001 200 200 C. A. Phillips . 2746 1054 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 O (i 7 8 9 Missouri — cont’d. 2747 Lexington . Wentworth MilitaryAcademy Sch . C. Fr. R. 1,200 2748 Liberty . Wm. Jewell College Library . 1849 Col . 0. Fr. B. 10, 500 2749 Louisiana . Public School Library . 1875 Sell . T F. B. 3, 000 2750 Macon . ; . Blees Military Academy Li- 1909 Sch . . C. Fr. B. 1,500 brary. 2751 Marshall . Missouri Valley College Li- 1889 Col C. Fr. B. 5, 500 brary. 2752 . do . Public School Library . 1887 Sch T. Fr. B. 1,636 2753 Maryville . Public High School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 2754 Mexico . Blanton Public School Li- « i.882 Sch T a. B. 1,750 brary. 2755 . do . Hardin College Library . 1873 Col . 0. c. Fr. R. 1,000 2756 . do . Odd Fellows’ Library . lo98 I O O F R. c. Fr. C. 2, 000 2757 Moberly . High School . 1896 Sch T. Fr. B. 1,351 2758 . do . Railroad Library . 1870 Gen R. c. s. B. 2, 500 2759 Morrisville . Morrisville College . Col C. F. B. 1.300 2760 Neosho . Gladstone Literary Society . . 1890 Soc . C. Fr. B. 1,440 2761 . do . Public School Library ....... 1887 Sch T. F. B. 2', 038 2762 Nevada . Public School . 1887 Sch T. Fr. B. 1,500 2763 Parkville . Park College Library . 1875 Col C. F. B. 12; 000 2764 Pierce City . Baptist College . Col C. F. B. 1,000 2765 Pleasant Hill . High School Library . 1876 Sch. TL Fr. B. 1 ; 200 2766 Republic . Public High School Library . Sch T. F. B. 1,200 2767 Richmond . . do . . . .' ". . . Sch . T. F. B. 1,450 2768 Holla . School of Mines and Metal- 1871 Col T Fr. B. 3,500 lurgy. 2769 St. Charles . Linden wood Ladies’ College. 1860 Sch c. Fr. B. 2,000 2770 . do . Public School Library _ A. 1860 Sch T. Fr. B. 3,000 2771 . do . St. Charles Borromeo College. 1860 Gen . O. C. S. B. 4; 000 2772 . do . St. Charles College * . Col c. Fr. B. 1 , 000 2773 St. Joseph . Academy of the Sacred 1853 Sch c. Fr. B. 2,100 Heart. 2774 . do . Free Public Library . 1890 Gen R. T. F. B. 18, 561 2775 . do . . . German- American Bank Law 1889 T,a w c. & R. 2, 811 Library. 2776 . do . High School . 1380 Sell T. F. B. 1,800 2777 . do . St. Joseph Commercial Col- 1868 Sch . C. Fr. R. 1,200 lege Library. 2778 St. Louis . Bishop Robertson Hall Li- 1874 Sch c. Fr. T> 3, COO brary. 2779 St. Louis (11 W. Catholic Free Library . 1882 Theo c. F. B. 3, 000 Broadway). 2780 St. Louis . Christian Brothers College . . 1851 Gen c. Fr. B. 6, 500 2781 . do . Concordia College Library _ 1849 Col c. F. B. 7,000 2782 . do . Concordia Turnverein . 1875 Soc, _ c. Fr B. 3,000 2783 . do . Eden College . 1850 Col c. Fr. B. 8, 000 2784 . do . Theological Library . 1850 Theo . c. Fr. R. 4, 460 2785 .....do . Engineers’ Club of St. Louis . 1889 Scien . R. c. S. R. 1,000 2786 . do . German Free Community of 1850 Sell . O. c. S. B. 3, 000 North St. Louis. 2787 . do . . Hosmer Hall Library . 1S85 Sch c. Fr. B. 1,000 2788 . do . Kenrick Seminary Library . . 1893 Col . 0. c. Fr. B. 20, 000 2789 . do . Law Library Association _ 1838 Law . c. S. R, 28, 000 2790 . do . Mary Institute Library . 1859 Sch c. Fr. B. 1,500 2791 . do . Missouri Botanical Garden 1S89 Scien . 0. c. F. R. 14, 287 Library. 2792 . do . Missouri Historical Society 1S66 His . 0. c. S. R. 5, 181 Library. 2793 . do . Missouri School for the Blind. 1851 Sch. T. F. C. 2, ‘VO 2794 . do . High and Normal School .... Sell . .... T. F. R. 1,200 •>7'.;5 . do . Public Library . 1865 Gen . R. T. F. B. 135, 000 2796 South St. Louis . . . Sacred Heart Academy . 1872 Sch . c. S. R. 5, 047 2797 . do . St. Joseph’s Church (resi- 1844 Gen . c. Fr. R. 5, 000 dence library). 2798 Rosary Library . I860 Gen . c. Fr. B. 5,000 * Statistics of 1S95-96. PXJBLIG SOCIETY AKD 'SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1055 of 1,C00 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. bo s © t* © oO GQ Receipts. o 'O d 3 Pamphlets. d d £ 2 S’ d o m P) © -u i p o > fl P © 2 § ©71 p u go m -'-i H ^ O o * w 0 O To d M c2 4-» a o PH J} §3 +3 o d u g<©1d g d y ftCQ O < o5 a o o p •r—i 4-0 o 6-i *2 c g aa o Am rO £ oq a§ S4-4 o Name of librarian. 10 11 13 13 14 15 1G 17 18 $370 $370 Minnie Wikoff . 200 50 5, 000 40 A. W. Riggs, superintendent. M. S. Shanks . 1,000 1,500 200 W. H. Black . 382 54 845 207 T. E. Spencer . 300 106 265 D. A. McMillan . . 50 Geo. A. Rose, vice-president. Wm. M. Tielor . . . 1,000 10 3,122 1,500 Miss Frances Nise . . 200 1,013. Mrs. Bessie Lee . 200 57 R. W. Sodley . 500 J. C. Rita, superintendent . . . David C. Davis . 211 8, 285 500 250 Geo. E. Ladd . M. H. Reaser . ::::::: 100 600 . 120 $8, 000 Wm. F. Hoffend . 200 450 - 100 M. Vernier . . . 3,200 2, 047 911 109, 939 3, 600 6,600 600 7, 765 P.B. Wright . Nellie Badger . Brother Elzear . ! 40 Sister Catherine . 100 300 George Wright . 500 500 78 Brother Emerv . 1,000 300 250 . Prof. L. Fuerboinger . Paul D. Kelleter. I . 600 300 . Albert Muck . . 250 350 50 . . do . 100 20 200 J. L. Van Ornum . 500 100 900 10, 000 Aug. Hoffmann . 400 200 Miss M. H. Mathers, presi¬ dent. F. V. Nugent . . 686 250 7, 532 . Gamble Jordan . 80 100 E. H. Seais . 19, 175 642 3,153 3,165 $50, 000 Wm. Trelease . 4,696 250 25, 000 W. K. Clendenin . 250 W. J. S. Brvan . 30, 000 5, 441 130 707, 823 73, 781 78, 225 F. M.Crunden . Mary Burte, superior . 2,000 350 120 F. J, Vallazza . 30 . do . . 2747 2748 2749 2750 2751 2752 2753 2754 2755 2756 2757 2758 2759 2760 2761 2762 2763 2764 2765 '2766 2767 2763 2769 2770 2771 2772 2773 2774 2775 u t 6 2777 2778 2779 2780 2781 2782 2783 2784 2785 2786 2787 2783 2789 2790 2791 2792 2793 2794 2795 2796 2797 2793 1056 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public , society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. j Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 1 6 7 8 9 3; 1 ssou r i — con t ’ d . 2799 South St. Louis . . . St. Louis Law School Library. 1867 Law . C. Fr. R. 9,000 2800 . do . St. Louis Medical Library _ 1899 Med c. S. R. 2 203 2801 . do . St. Louis Mercantile Library. 1846 Mer ... O. c. s B. H3’ 587 2802 St. Louis (1508 St. Louis Turnverein Library. 1855 Gen . c. Fr. B. 4, 900 Horton avenue). 2803 St. Louis . St. Louis University Library. 1831 Gen c. Fr. R. 36 065 2804 . do . Young Men’s Sodality 1870 Soc . O. c. S. B. 5j 000 Library. 2805 . do . Self-Culture Free Library _ 1888 Gen . c. Fr. B 2 000 2806 St. Louis (705 01- Union Trust Building Law 1894 Law . c. Fr. It. 8, 500 ive street). Library. 2807 St. Louis . University Club, St. Louis _ 1872 Soc . 0. c. S. B. 1,500 2808 . do . Ursuline Academy . 1850 Seh . c. Fr. B. 1 270 2809 . do . Washington University . 1857 Col . c. Fr. R. 6 000 2810 . do . Y. M. C. A. Central Branch . . . 1876 Y.M.C. A. 0. c. F. R. L 200 2811 Sedalia . Free Public Library . 1895 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 6 444 2812 . do . Geo. R. Smith College Library 1895 Col . c. Fr. B. 4’ 000 2813 Springfield . Drury College Library . 1873 Col . 6. c. S. B. 25, 300 2814 . do . High School Library . 1894 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2 156 2815 . do . Y.M.C. A. Library . 1899 Y.M. C. A, .... c. s. B. 1,100 2816 Stanberry . Normal School Library . Col . c. F. It. 1 000 2817 Tarkio . Tarkio College . . : . 1884 Col . c. B. 15 000 2818 Trenton _ 1 . Jewett Norris Free Public 1891 Gen . 6. c. F. B. 6, 000 Library. 2819 Warrensburg . State Normal School Library. 1871 Sch . 0. T. Fr. B. 6, S00 2820 Warren ton . Central Wesleyan College. . . . 1870 Col . C. S B. 6 500 2821 Webb City . Public School Library . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1, 000 MONTANA. 2822 A naconda . Hearst Free Library . 1895 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 5, 562 2823 Bozeman . . Agricultural and Mechanical 1893 Col . c. F. B. 4, 721 College. 28°4 . do . Free Library . 1885 Gen . T. F. B. 8, 000 2825 Butte . Free Public Library . 1890 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 27, 150 2826 Dibon . Public Library . 1890 Gen . r. T. F. B. 2,265 2827 * do . State Normal School . 1897 Sch . T. F. B. 2 638 2828 Great falls . Valeria Public Library . 1889 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 5, 000 2829 Helena . Grand Lodge A. F. and A. M. 1866 Masonic . . R. C. Fr. R. 1.000 of Woodman . 2830 Historical and Miscellaneous 1864 His . T. F. R. 12, 000 Department of the State Library. 2331 . do . Montana Wesleyan Univer- 1890 Col . .... C. F. B. 2,000 2832 do . Public Library . 1868 Gen . O. T. F. B. 29, 612 2833 Miles City . Public School Library . 1877 Gen . T. F. B. 1,543 2834 Missoula . Free Public Library . 1894 Gen . it. T. F. B. 4, 828 2835 _ do . University of Montana . 1895 Col . T. Fr. B. 5,600 NEBRASKA. 2836 Ben, trice . Free Public Library. _ _ _ ... 1893 Gen . T. F. B. 5, 705 2837 . do . Hierh School Library . 1888 Sch . .... C. Fr. c. 1,000 2838 Bellevue . Bellevue College Library. 1884 Coi . C. i« r. B. 3 000 2839 Blair . Blair College Library . 1889 Col . 0. C. F. B. 2, 785 . do . Library Association . 1880 Gen . c. Fr. B. 1, 206 2841 Broken Bow . Public High School Library. . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1, 000 2842 Collegeview . Union College Library . 1891 Col . C. Fr. B. 3 000 2843 Crete . Doane College Library . 1872 Col . 0. c. F. B. 8, 195 2844 . do . Public Library . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 3, 000 2845 David Citv . . do . . . 1890 Gen . T. F. B. 3, 000 2846 Fair bury . Jefferson County Teachers’ 1887 Gen . . c. S. B. 1 050 Association. 2847 Falls City . Public School Library . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1057 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. j j Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. d .2 V-> o3 M c3 -+-> a o PR 1 £ GO .2 3 -12 o A ° ^ «. ^ O 4— ' £ c3 ° ft 4-3 ft02 O '612 . Olive Jones . . . 200 117 '650 Edith Leonard . . . 1,000 250 50, COO J. A. Beck, secretary . 200 100 100 1,000 Mrs. Rose C. King." . 500 500 200 200 150 150 Augusta Stenkolm. . . 600 50 1, 008 | ,T. W. Searson . 500 200 338 406 10.0001 _ Grace Hurlbut . 50 150 Wm. E. Schell . 1, 500 7,750 1,720 2, 947 Edith Jone.s . '560 H. K. Clapp . 10, 000 John F. McDonell . . . 20 80 80 M. R. Averill . . . 3, 500 500 G. Macpherson . . . 180 62 3,840 46 106 310 5,000 W. N. Hayward . 75 16 46 1,500 1,600 Clara G. Bullock . 94 Lina, Carpenter . 268 3, 649 300 406 3,000 Mrs. Alice M. Wyman . L778 66 66 Mrs. C. E. Morton . R. R. D. Dearborn . H. N. Dunham . 2848 2849 2850 2851 2852 2853 2854 2855 2856 2857 2858 2859 2860 2861 2862 2863 2864 2865 2866 2867 2868 2869 2870 2871 2872 2873 2874 2875 2876 2877 2878 2879 2880 2881 2882 2883 2884 2885 2886 2887 2888 2889 2890 2891 2892 2893 2894 2895 2896 2897 2898 2899 1060 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 a 4 5 6 7 8 B NEW HAMPSHIRE— continued. 2900 Atkinson . Free Public Library . 1S94 Gen . T. F. B. 1,039 ‘2901 Bat hi . . do . 1893 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,214 2902 Bedford . . . Public Library . 1898 Gen . T F. B. 1, 000 2903 Belmont.... . . do . . 1S93 Gen . 0. T. F. C. 1,170 2904 Berlin . Free Public Library . 1893 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2’ 886 2905 Bethlehem T Library Association . 1877 Gen . R. c S. C. 1 , 731 2906 Bradford . . Free Library . 1892 Gen . R. T Fr. B. 1,000 2907 Bristol . Minot-Sleeper Public Library 1885 Gen . O. T. F. B. 4,800 2908 Brookline . Public Library . 1861 Gen . T. F. B. 1,758 2909 Candia . . Smvthe Public Library . Gen . c F. c. 1 , 200 2910 Center Barn stead Free Public Library . Gen . R. T F. B. 1 , ‘180 2911 Center Fffinpham . do . 1893 Gen . T F B. 1, 000 2912 Center Sandwich Free Librarv . 1898 Gen . T F. C. 1,800 2913 Charlestown . Silsby Free Public Library... L95 Gen . O. T. F. B. 4.865 2914 Chester . . Free Public Library . 1894 Gen . O. T F. B. 1,600 2915 Chesterfield Town Librarv . 1894 Gen . T T? c. 1 , 256 2916 Claremont _ Fiske Free Library . 1873 Gen . B. F. B. 7, 500 2917 Colebrook . Public Librarv . 1891 Gen . R. T F. c. 3' 200 2918 Concord . New Hampshire Asylum for 1843 Asy . c Fr. B. 2,070 Insane. 2919 . do . New Hampshire Historical 1823 His . 0. T. s. R. 15, 662 Society. 2920 . do . New Hampshire State Li- 1819 State . 0. rn ± . F. B. 60, 456 brary. 2921 . do . Public Library . 1855 Gen . 0. T F. B. 20, 000 2922 . do . State Board of Health Li- 1883 Med . 1' Fr. R. 1,000 brary. 2923 . do . St. Paul’s School . 1856 Sch . C. S. B. 14, 300 2924 Contoocook . Contoocook Library . 1892 Gen . T Fr. B. 2, 174 2925 Deerfield Center.. Philbriek James Librarv . 1880 Gen . C. F. R. 2; 300 2926 Derry . Pinkerton Academy Library. 1885 Sch _ c Fr. B. 4, 080 2927 Dover . Public Library _ 1 . 1 . 1883 Gen . T F. B. 25, 300 2928 Dublin . . do . 1889 Gen . T F. B. 3, 603 2929 Durham . College of Agriculture and 1866 Col _ ; _ T s B. 8,000 Mechanic Arts. 2930 . do . Public Library . 1892 Gen . T F. B. 6, 600 2931 East Canterbury. . Shaker Community Librarv. . 1840 Gen . C. F. R. 1, 400 2932 East Derry . Tavlor Librarv. . _ .* . . 1878 Gen . c. F. B. 4' 002 2933 East Jaffrey . Public Library . 1883 Gen . 0. T F. B. 3' 225 2934 East Rochester . . Reading Room and Library 1885 Gen . B F B. 1 , 800 Association. 2935 East Rindge . East Rindge Library . 1870 Gen . G. Fr. C. 1,200 2936 Enfield . Public Librarv . 1893 T F. B. 2, 290 2937 Epping . . Free Public Library . 1893 Gen . T. F. B. 1,052 2938 Exeter . Phillips Exeter Academy .... 1781 Sell . c. Fr. B. 1,800 2939 . do . Public Library . 1853 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 11,427 2940 Farmington . do . 1890 Gen . T F. B. 2,000 2941 Fitzwilliam Town Library . 1797 Gen . T. F. c. 4, 783 2942 Francestown . . do . 1851 Gen . T. F. c. 3' 000 2943 Franklin . . Franklin Library . 1861 Gen . c. s c. 3. 542 2944 Franklin Falls _ Smith Library . 1880 Soc . R. C. S. B. 3,000 2945 Gilsum . Public Librarv . 1892 Gen . T. F. C. 1.166 2946 Greenville . Free Public Library . 1879 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 635 2917 Hampstead . . Public Library . 1888 Gen . O. T F. B. 2; 000 2948 Hamnton .... . do . 1865 Gen . T. F. C. 2, 465 2949 Hampton Falls . Ladies’ Social Library . 1845 Gen . T. s. c. l’ GOO 2950 Hancock . Town Library . 1860 Gen . O. C. F. c. 3,800 2951 Hanover . Dartmouth College Library.. 1769 Col . 0. C. Fr. B. 90', 000 2952 . do . Howe Library . 1899 Gen . 0. C. F. c. 1,270 2953 Harrisville . Public Library . 1877 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1.712 2954 Haverhill . Librarv Association . 1880 Gen . c. S. C. 1,400 2955 Hebron . Public Librarv . 1897 Gen . rp F. B. l' 152 2956 Henniker . Free Library.*. . 1899 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2,440 2957 Hillsboro . Fuller Public Library . 1876 Gen . R. T. F. R. 4, 013 2958 Hollis . Social Library . 1799 Gen . T. F. B. 4,135 2959 Hooksett . Public Library . 1893 Gen . o. T. F. B. 1,000 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1061 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 25 143 1,161 $100 $100 Alice F. Gilbert . 340 $103 103 Wm. J. Leanard _ 100 3, 000 125 125 Laura R. Woodbury . 16 l' 854 150 155 $1, 000 C. E. Gilman . * . 221 13^ 771 650 702 Henry W. Johnson . 41 79 Benj. Tucker . 50 85 103 Martin H. Hun toon . 350 500 995 $4, 000 5, 000 Wm. A. Chase . 47 100 102 Ella W. Tucker . 80 1,100 100 138 4, 500 207 80 90 John George . 200 100 1, 000 130 130 Albert N. Gould, M. B . 100 l' 500 57 50 107 E. Q. Marstan . 154 8, 528 400 419 7,000 A . M. Robertson . . . 150 4, 640 150 155 Isabelle H. Fritz . 101 100 100 Sewall F. Rugg . - . Abbie Field . . , . j 300 15, 000 300 300 J. H. Darby . 1 3, 750 100 A. E. Brownrigg . 80, 000 557 2, 295 500 1,679 11,100 10, 000 N. F. Carter _ . . . 31, 794 6, 845 17,203 17,203 300, 000 Arthur C. Chase . 700 90, 161 5,000 5,150 5, 000 Miss Grace Blanchard . 2,000 50 Irving A. Watson . 13 70 3,000 Mrs. Isa A. Pulsifer . 75 150 1,052 250 Mary H. Bingham . 1,229 71,' 269 3, 750 3, 915 2,800 Caroline H. Garland . 160 3,321 100 106 Mrs. M. E. Leffingwell . 5, 000 1,446 300 C. W. Scott . 658 440 677 Miss M. E. Smith . 100 50 Jessie Evans . 300 7,806 179 202 509 3, 000 Adaline A. Reynolds . 78 256 300 312 2; 000 12, 400 Lucia B. Cutter . 3 4, 152 200 426 Geo. L. Harrington . C. L. Converse . 160 100 138 Jennie M. Huse . 90 4, 073 100 110 George G. Prescott . J. A. Tufts . 617 30, 413 2, 000 2, 215 10, 000 Frances E. Moulton . 100 163 100 326 Mrs. P. D. Allen . 175 2,460 75 83 Miss A. L. Colbv . 75 3, 520 100 131 500 Mary M. Woodbury . 86 3; 293 109 Mary A. Rowell . 60 Mary E. Daniell . 50 12 2, 255 48 121 Israel A. Loveland . 85 3, 201 350 350 J. M. Taft . 1 173 3,459 150 285 3, 500 3,000 M. Lillian Hoyt . 150 78 2, 239 100 113 S. Albert Shaw . . H. M. Sanborn . 200 455 10. 000 22, 000 2,938 10, 243 12, 290 43, 764 70, 000 M. D. Bisbee . 383 Mabel Read. . . 61 1,256 2 Mabell e Eustace . 52 300 Miss Ellen Flanders . 86 1, 142 30 50 Alice M. Wells . 120 6; 394 113 100 219 Mrs. J. N. Dodge. . . 52 3,000 Mary C. Bixby . 76 150 165 S. L. Gerould . 160 144 2, 684 164 164 2,000 Jennie B. Cibbott . 2900 2901 2902 2903 2904 2905 2906 2907 2908 2909 2910 2911 2912 2913 2914 2915 2916 2917 2918 2919 2920 2921 2922 2923 2924 2925 2926 2927 2928 2929 2930 2931 2932 2933 2934 2935 2936 2937 2938 2939 2940 2941 2942 2943 2944 2945 2946 2947 2948 2949 2950 2951 2952 2953 2954 2955 2956 2957 2958 2959 1062 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 o 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 NEW HAMPSHIRE— continued. 2960 Hopkinton . Free Public Library . 1892 Gen . T. F. B. 1,969 2961 Hudson . Greeley Public Library . 1893 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2, 607 2962 Jackson . Public Library . 1879 Gen . T. Fr. B. 1,500 2963 Keene . . do . * . 1874 Gen . O. T. F. B. 11 ; 208 2961 Kensington . Social Library . 1895 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 1, 718 2965 Kingston . Nichols Memorial Library... 1894 Gen . o. T. F B. 2', 811 2966 Laconia . Public Library . 1878 Gen . R. T. F. c. 7,658 2967 Lakeport . . do . 1890 Gen . R. T. F. c. 2,410 2968 Lancaster . . do . 1867 Gen . T. F. B. 6,900 2969 Lebanon . Leavitt’s Library . 1881 Gen . R. C. F. R. ] ' 200 2970 . do . . Public Library . 1889 Gen . O. T. F. B. 5’ 000 2971 Lisbon . . do . 1899 Gen . O. T. F. B. 2,708 2972 . do . Village Library Association * 1864 Gen . O. c. S. c. 2, 180 2973 Littleton _ ' . Public Library . 1889 Gen . T. F. B. 7,192 2974 Londonderry . Leach Library . 1879 Gen . T. TT B. 2,166 2975 Lyme . Turner Social Library . 1797 Soc . T. S. B. 3, 000 2976 Manchester . City Library . 1854 Gen . O. T. F. B. 43, 945 2977 . do _ St. Anselm’s College Library. 1891 Col . C. F. B. 4' 850 2978 Marlboro . Frost Free Library . . 1866 Gen . O. c. F. C. 6,000 2979 Marlow . Town Library . 1877 Gen . T. F C. l’ 151 2980 Meredith . Public Library . 1882 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3' 052 2981 Meriden . Kimball Union Academy .... Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 2982 Merrimack . Free Public Library _ . . . . 1893 Gen . T. Tf B. l' 824 2983 Milford . Free Library . 1868 Gen . T. F. B. 7’ 193 2984 Milton . Nute High School Library _ 1889 Gen . O. C. F. B. 2,094 2985 Nashua . High School Library . 1878 Sch . T. F. R. i'ooo 2986 . do . Public Library . 1867 Gen . R. T. F. B. 16,' 787 2987 Nelson . Free Public Library . 1S92 Gen . T. F B. 1, 065 2988 New Boston . Whipple Free Library . 1888 Gen . C. F. B. l' 910 2989 New Hampton . . . Gordon Nash Library . 1895 Gen . O. C. F. B. 11; 000 2990 Newington . Langdon Public Library . 1893 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 2,379 2991 New London . Colby Academy . 1887 Sch . C. Fr. R. 3^ 927 2992 Newmarket . Town Library . 1850 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 4” 000 2993 Newport . Richards Free Library . 1888 Gen . o. C. F. B. 5' 924 2994 North Haverhill.. Library Association. .* . 1898 Gen . R. C. S. C. 1, 199 2995 North wood Center Coe’s Northwood Academy 1866 Sch . c. F. B. 1,000 Library. 2996 Pelham . Free Public Library . 1893 Gen . T F. B. 1.664 2997 Pembroke . Pembroke Academy Library. 1837 Sch . c. F. B. L800 2998 Peterboro . Town Library . *. . 1833 Gen . O. T. F. B. 9,398 2999 Plymouth . Free Public Library . 1873 Gen . T. F B. 3; 357 3000 . do . Holderness School for Boys. . 1879 Sch . O. C. Fr. B. 1, 700 3001 . do . Public High School . . . . . Sch . T. F. B. 2^ 500 3002 . do . . State Normal School . 1871 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2. 250 3003 Portsmouth . Public Library . 1881 Gen . T. F. B. 16’ 472 3004 . do . Portsmouth Athenseum . 1817 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 24, 000 3005 Rochester . Public Library . 1893 Gen . T. F. B. 7,120 3006 Rindge . Ingalls Memorial Library. . . . 1893 Gen . 0. T. F B. 3,500 3007 Salem . Free Public Library . 1894 Gen . T. F. B. 1 , 745 3008 Sanborn ville . Wakefield Free Library . 1895 Gen . C. F. C. LOGO 3009 Seabrook . Brown Memorial Library _ 1892 Gen . 0. C. K B. 2,072 3010 Somersworth . Public Library . 1899 Gen . T. F. B. 6, 048 3011 South Hampton . . . do . 1893 Gen . T F. B. 1,038 3012 Suncook _ J . Allenstown Public Library .. 1893 Gen . T. F. B. 1,000 3013 . do . Pentagon Circulating Li- 1875 Gen . C. S. C. R550 brary. 3014 Rurrv . Reed Free Library . 1881 Gen . C. V B. 2, 884 3015 Swanzey . Mount Ceesar Union Library. 1880 Gen . 0. C. s. B. 2; 000 3016 Temple . Mansfield Public Library _ 1890 Gen . 0. T. F. R. 2,631 3017 Tilton . New Hampshire Conference 1845 Sch . C. K B. 3, 000 Seminary Library. 3018 . do . Tilton and Northfield Pub- 1887 Gen . 0. T. F. C. 5, 500 lie Library. 3019 Wakefield . Public Library . 1895 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 3,127 3020 Walpole . Town Library. . 1854 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 7,162 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 1063 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Boohs issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 2,518 Sarah U. Kimball . 134 1,942 $150 $156 M. S. Andrews . . . 100 l'400 $28 62 Clara E. Meserve . . 1,478 543 33’ 212 2, 450 2, 885 $5, 000 $25, 000 Myra F. Southworth _ .... 1,001 80 4,000 Mary A. Hilliard . 16 208 4’ 448 89 201 1,000 15, 000 Mrs. Nellie F. Ingalls . 454 30, 390 1,000 1,130 Looo Julia S. Busiel . 107 14 7, 962 Olin S. Davis . 150 1, 000 400 615 900 F. D. Hutchins . 800 10 Geo. A. L. Leavitt . 17,544 500 600 2, 500 10, 000 E. H. Thompson . 60 8; 253 300 315 '250 Nettie L. Kelsea . 455 15, 108 700 804 Miss H. F. Merrill . 460 14 2, 508 88 125 1,000 Charles G. Pillsbury . 100 84 450 Henry H. Holt _ " . 1,204 77, 159 5,000 16, 020 10, 000 50, 000 Edith O. Simmons . 1,540 Hilary Pfraengle, president. 50 4, 500 6,000 E. C. Holt _ 7.. A . 1,833 60 61 E. A. Jones . 150 7, 925 250 304 Mary E. Bedee . 45 278 3,400 225 232 Emma A. Cross . 1,800 394 1 Cl 522 900 1,248 5,100 200 4'. 500' . '324 Frank Haley . . . 212 L. S. Hastings . . . 2, 760 998 64, 354 5,000 5, 183 H. Crombie . 81 500 21 21 Delia H. Osgood . 150 3,800 A. A. Atwood . 3, 150 600 14, 000 L. P. Bickford . 80 114 2, 367 125 128 3' 500 Miss Lydia Smith Coleman. . c ^ Horace G. McKean . 200 4,000 300 300 15, 000 Geo. L. Dearborn . 308 8, 632 1, 140 25, 000 25; 000 Anne Parmelie . 245 64 May L. Southard . 500 25 500 20 E. K. Welt . 116 2, 529 100 100 Mary E. Hobbs . 398 12, 638 800 843 10, 250 20, 000 Era E. Coffin . 636 120 10, 889 350 350 Caroline R. Leverett . 40 Rev. Lorin Webster . 100 50 500 A. J. Knowlton . 900 926 32, 928 2,700 3,200 13, 000 9,000 Robert E. Rich . Wm. H. Relhus . J 400 324 26,008 1, 400 1, 478 Lillian E. Parshley . 50 125 2, 900 300 538 4, 600 16, 000 Miss Emma E. Leighton - 410 141 5, 136 78 100 312 Susan A. Cluff . 450 2, 096 150 Elsie E. Nichols . 2, 608 150 1,570 4, 000 Mrs. H. M. Tucker . Leona E. Hussey . 300 16 998 25 26 Blanche M. Caw . 153 2, 059 83 50 153 A. W. Sullivan . 150 J. Wilkins . 74 125 51 2,000 Francis F. Field . 100 1, 862 7T Mrs. Flora E. Newell . 46 2, 982 50 99 Mary L. Hayward . 50 100 12, 000 500 500 • 1,000 10, 000 L. F. Batchelder . 722 2, 513 183 3,000 Alice C. Milliken . 281 8, 966 400 475 6,000 Thomas B. Peck . 2960 2961 2962 2963 2964 2965 2966 2967 2968 2969 2970 2971 2972 2973 2974 2975 2976 2977 2978 2979 2980 2981 29S2 2983 2984 2985 2986 2987 2988 2989 2990 2991 2992 2993 2994 2995 2996 2997 2998 2999 3000 3001 3002 3003 3004 3005 3006 3007 3008 3009 3010 3011 3012 3013 3014 3015 3016 3017 3018 3019 3020 1064 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , ancl school libraries in the United States Location. * Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 m 6 8 9 NEW HAMPSHIRE— continued. 3021 Warner . Pillsbury Free Library . 1S91 Gen . O. T. F. B. 7 294 30‘}2 Wa rren . Free Public Library . Gen . T. Fr. B. 1 000 3023 Washington . Shedd Free Library . 1869 Gen . O. c. F. B. 3,000 3024 W eare . Free Library . 1893 Gen . T. F. R. 1 448 3025 West Lebanon. . . . Library Association . 1868 Gen . c. F. B. 1 , 285 3026 Westmoreland. . . . Free Library . 1887 Gen . T. F. P>. 1.646 3027 West Rindge . West Rindge Library . Gen . c. F. B. 1, 000 3028 West Swaiizey.... Stratton Free Library . 1885 Gen . 6. C. F. R. 2,111 3029 Whitefield . Public Library . 1893 Gen . T. F. c. 4,439 3030 Wilton . Ministerial Library . 1824 Gen . C. Fr. c. 1, 129 3031 . do . Public Library. . . 1890 Gen . c. F. B. 4, 950 3032 Winchester . . do . . 1813 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 4 067 3033 Windham . Nesmith Library . 1871 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 3, 000 3034 Wolf boro . Brewster Library . 1890 Gen . c. F. B. 1, 415 Woodsville . Free Library . 1893 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 2,700 NEW JERSEY. 3036 Asbury Park . Free Public Library . 1898 Gen . 0. T. F. c. 1. ooo 3037 . do . Public School . . 1894 Seh . c. F. B. 1, 072 3038 Atlantic City . Public School Library . Seh . T. Fr. B. 4,300 3039 Bavonne . Free Public Library .' . 1893 Gen . R. T. F. B. 10.315 3010 Blairs town . Scribner Library of Blair 1875 Gen . C. F. B. 1,000 Academy. 3041 . . .do . Blair Presbyterial Academy Sch . c. F. R. 3,000 Library. 3042 Bloomfield . German Theological School 1875 Tlieo . C. Fr. B. 4, 000 of Newark.* 3043 . do . Public School Library . 1871 Sch . T. F. B. 2,400 3044 . do . Watsessing Free Public Li- 1886 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 2,200 brary. 3045 Boon ton . Holmes Library . 1893 Gen . 0. C. s B. 1 , 955 3046 Borden town . Borden town Female College. 1895 Sch . C. Fr. R. 3, 000 3047 . do . Bordentown Military Insti- 1885 Gen . c. F. C. 1,000 tute. 3048 . do . Public Library . 1880 Soc . R. c. s C. 1 , 800 3049 Boundbrook . Library Association . Gen . R. c. F. B. 1,175 3050 Bridgeton . South jersey Institute . 1869 Sch . c. F. B. 3,000 3051 . do . West Jersey Academy . 1852 Sch . c. F. B. 2, 500 3052 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . . Y.M.C.A. R. c. Fr. B. 2; 500 3053 Burlington . Burlington Library . 1758 Gen . o. T. F. C. 14, 800 3054 Camden . Camden County Bar Asso- 1881 Law . R. T. S. R. 5, 057 elation. 3055 . do . Camden Free Public Library. 1898 Gen . C. F. B. 5, 500 3056 . do . North Baptist Church Li- 1886 Gen . C. S. B. 3, 310 brary. 3057 Cape May . Public School Library . Gen . T. s B. 1.100 3058 Chatham . Circulating Library . 1878 Gen . T. Fr. B. 2 ' 500 3059 Cranford . Grant High School . 1888 Sch . T. F. B. 1,110 3060 East Orange . High School . 1890 Sch . rn F. B. 2,260 3061 Elizabeth . Public Library and Reading 1887 Gen . c. F. B. 8, 692 Room. 3062 . do . Public School No. 2 . 1887 Sch . T. F. B. 1,396 3063 Englewood . Library Association . 1890 Gen . R. c. s B. 7,000 3064 Florence . Florence Library . 1872 Gen . O. c. F. C. l', 050 3065 Fort Lee . Institute of the Holy Angels. 1885 Gen . c. F. R. 2.500 3066 Freehold . High School Library . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1, 154 3067 Glen ridge . Library Association . 1892 Gen . R. C. S. B. 5' 042 3068 Hackensack . Hackensack Library . 1885 Gen . B. s. B. 3,790 3069 Haddonfield . Haddon Athenseum . 1887 Gen . O. c. s. C. 2, 500 3070 . do . Training School . 1888 Sch . O. c. F. B. 1, 500 3071 Hightstown . Longstreet Library of Peddie 1869 Sch . 0. C. F. B. 5, 200 Institute. 3072 Hoboken . Academy of the Sacred Heart 1S75 Sch . C. Fr. R. 1,100 3073 . do . Free Public Library _ 1898 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 22, 150 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1065 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1 900— Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. IO 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 7 18 500 7, 751 $423 $530 $20, 000 Mary B. Harris. . . 3021 50 90 90 Alice M. Head . 3022 50 100 $40 240 $2, 500 5, 000 Clara H. M. Hurd . 3023 115 115 3024 50 65 2, 500 30 Maude Burton . 3025 1,600 79 79 Carrie E. Bryant . 3026 113 1, 166 2 Mrs. H. E. Wetherbee . 3027 * 965 42 10,000 Florence M. Emery _ 3028 500 15, 992 500 505 C. E. Wright . 3029 11 30 24 378 J. F. Kimball . 3030 380 8,620 300 548 5, 000 Mary N. Abbot . 3031 215 500 509 15, 000 J. Grace Alexander _ 3032 102 2, 124 60 112 1,000 6, 000 Josie B. Nesmith _ 3033 13 6, 655 21 Inez A. Brewster . 3034 200 150 6,851 150 200 500 7,200 Charles B. Griswold . 3035 120 1, 500 1, 100 1,240 30, 000 Henry Mitchell . . 3038 195 2, 500 20 511 F. t. Sheoherd . 3037 200 2, 400 60 204 H. H. Young . 3038 250 775 42, 514 4,437 4, 706 Alfred C. Herzog _ 3039 150 600 100 Warren Van Name . 3040 3041 3042 90 210 Wm, E. Chancellor . 3043 250 800 4,072 247 2, 100 Edward M. Baily . 30J4 279 9,816 815 5,000 10, 000 Miss Anna Thibon . 3045 3046 50 Rev. Thompson H. Lamdon. 3047 225 Marv Singleton . . . 3048 515 3049 700 Mrs. J. D. Macnab . . 3050 200 100 Phoebus W. Lyon . 3051 3052 300 18, 340 COO 900 Lydia Weston . 3053 1,000 1G7 1,340 John Meirs . . . 3054 1,500 42, 000 500 1, 118 W. F. Rose . 3055 239 5, 989 1,035 E. W. Anson . 3056 75 F. H. Hain, superintendent.. 3057 200 2, 500 75 James R. Littlejohn . 3058 50 208 1,978 Richard E. Clement . 3059 240 2, 100 Georgiana Stevenson . 3060 1,330 434 18.239 1,454 Marie L. Grevost . 3061 49 5, 714 10 34 N. W. Pease . 3062 8, 166 1,000 5,000 Harriet R. Prosser . 3063 110 3064 400 50 25 Sister Marv Nona . 3065 87 60 2, 278 25 20 45 John Enright . 3065 158 584 Mary I. Howe, treasurer . 3067 20 363 11,143 500 1, 797 Jennie H. Labagh . 3068 300 5,000 391 1,500 C. IV. Kimtall . ~ . 3069 200 700 Margaret Bancroft . 3070 2,000 125 500 301 16, 000 P. WC S wetland . 3071 200 100 3072 2,100 1,110 122, 828 9, 399 10, 735 5,000 Thos. F. Hatpilt . 3073 1086 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 1 5 6 T 8 9 NEW JERSEY — COn. 3074 Hoboken . Stevens Institute of Tecbnol- 1S71 Scien . C. F. R. 6,000 ogy. 3075 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library, Railroad 18S9 Y.M.C.A. .... C. S. B. 2, 600 Dept. 307G Jamesburg . New Jersey State Home for 1865 Sch . o. T. Fr. C. 1 . 000 Bovs. .Tersev City _ Free Public Library . 1889 Gen . R. T F. B. 68, 829 3078 . do . Law Library * . 1872 Law . c. s. B. 4, 500 3079 . do . High School Library . 1872 Sch . T. Fr. R, 1,400 3080 . .do . St. Peter’s College. . 1872 Col . 0. C. Fr. R. 10,000 3081 Kearney . New Jersey Soldiers’ Home.. 1866 Gen . O. T F. B. 2,500 3082 Keyport . Public School Library . 1883 Sch . c. F. B. 1 080 3083 Lakewood . Lakewood Library . 1893 Gen . c. s. B. 3084 . do . Oaks Library . Gen . c. Fr. B. 3,000 3085 Lambertville . Stryker Library . 1882 Gen . R. T F. B. 3, 000 3086 Lawrenceville. . . . Lawrenceville School . 1882 Sch . C. F. B. 3,570 3087 Livingston . Public School Library . 1890 Sch . T. F B. 1,330 3088 Longbranch . Chattle High School . 1885 Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 3089 . do . Circulating Library . 1879 Gen . O. C. S. B. 6,000 3090 Madison . . Drew Theological Seminary . 1866 Theo . 0. c. Fr. B. 58, 803 3091 . do . Public High School Library. . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,600 3092 . do . Public Library . 1899 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 4' 348 3093 ..do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1872 Gen . R. c. F. B. 1,000 3094 Merc ban tville. . . . Half Hour Reading Club 1893 Gen . c. S. C. 1,400 Public Library. 3095 Metuchen . Public Library . 1884 Gen . o. s. F. c. 1,000 3096 Millville . Library and Reading Room 1864 Gen . R. c. F. B. 3, 500 Association. 3097 .do . Public Hight3chool Library.. Sch . T. F. B. 1,200 3098 Montclair . Cloverside School Library _ 1894 Sch . C. S. B. 2,000 3099 . do . Free Public Library . 1893 Gen . O. T. F. B. 9' 200 3100 . do . Military Academy . 1887 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1 ', 000 3101 . do . Public School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 3^ 563 3102 Moorestown . Free Library . 1853 Gen . C. F. B. 2* 500 3103 . do . Friends’ Academy Library . . Sch . C. Fr. B. 2, 000 3104 Morristown . Library and Lyceum . 1878 Gen . c. s. B. 22' 000 3105 . do . Public School Library . 1898 Sch . T F. B. 2,000 3106 . .do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1S73 Y.M.C.A. c. F B. 1 ' 200 3107 Mount Holly . Burlington Countv Lyceum 1876 Gen . R. c. S. B. 6' 500 of History and Natural Science. 3103 Newark . . Board of Trade . „ . 1868 Mer . R. c. F. R. 2, 240 3109 . do . Essex County Lawyer Club.. 1899 Law . c. S. R. 3' 000 3110 . . .do . Free Public Library . 1888 Gen . R. T. F. B. 74, 687 3111 . do . New Jersey Historical So- 1845 His . R. C. S. R. 20, COO ciety. 3112 . do . Prudential Insurance Com- 1S92 Law . O. c. Fr. R. 7,500 pany Law Library. 31^3 . do . St. Benedict’s College . 1870 Col . c. F. C. 1 , 500 3114 . do . St. Patrick’3 Church (Rosary 1853 Theo . c. S. C. 1,600 Library). 3115 . do . Technical School . 1885 Sch . 0. c. Fr B. 1 , 000 3116 . do . Towsend’s (Miss) School Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 Library. 3117 .....do . Young Men’s Catholic Asso- 1856 Gen . 0. c. Fr. B. 1 , 200 ciation Library. 3118 New Brunswick.. Anable’s (Miss) School Li- Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,000 brary. 3119 . do . Deshler Memorial Library Sch . T. F. C. 4,000 and Public School. 3120 . do . Free Public Library . 1883 Gen . R. T. F. B. 17, 300 3121 . do . Gardner A. Sage Library . 1856 Theo . O. C. F. B. 44; 503 3122 . do . Public High School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 2;oco 3123 . do . Rutgers College Library 1766 Col ....... O. C. F. B. 41,381 3124 Newton . Dennis Library . ' . 1868 Gen . O. C. S. C. 8,060 * Statistics of 1895-96. 1067 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. bJO C r-S ig the >e. Receipts. 1 r* o "d i 2 •r—i d Pamphlets. Volumes added di the year. Books issued durin year lor home us From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent en ment fund. !>> e3 . ?h go & bo ^ a o > Name of librarian. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS H. F. Raetz . 2, 000 . 8250 J. L. B. Sunderlin . 50 Ira Otterson, superintendent 4, 134 427, 808 831, 181 32, 443 3, 506 Esther E. Burdick . 75 J. G. Hopkins . 20CV 500 3,904 Bishop W. Mains . 100 215 6,040 502 K. A. O’Leary . 40 E. T. Ferrington . 50 35 150 H. Holcombe . 200 Geo. M. Peck . 30 300 810 20 J.L. Hunt . 2, 000 1,502 8,540 Christopher Gregory . 100 91 * 1,017 83, 800 90, 000 Mrs. J. L. Morris . 47, 585 9,767 850 817, 000 S. G. Ayres . . 5, 004 5,720 1,178 4,000 100, 000 70,000 Bertha S. Wild man . Wm. H. McBee . 400 80 Juliet C. W. Finley . 90 2,000 3, 000 \ 130 500 Ruth Thomas . 250 136 500 Samuel W. Fox . 200 90 Elizabeth Limton . . 369 1, 234 39, 667 3, 053 9,585 6,277 J. S. MacVicar . _ . 200 6 295 475 Randall Spaulding . 50 116 2, 185 454 Anna M.Kaighn . 300 12, 754 200 595 100 144 600 300 600 135 3,725 650 10, 600 Anna Hilyard Deacan . 3, 500 75 Jas. M. Reiley . 350 2,500 49, 950 2, 500 C. G. Parker . 6, 600 500 356, 208 46, 104 400, 000 20, 000 H. R. Palmer . Edgar B. Ward . 100 2, 400 600 George Bien . 50 80 50 . . 139 Charles A. Colton . 52 20 50 T. J. Ryan . 35 Wm. C. Armstrong . 875 3, 233 3, 570 i , 650 Miss Cornelia A. See . 8, 067 483 3,050 55, 000 Franciso W. Drury . 10 65 65 . W. C. Armstrong” superin¬ tendent. Irvins’ S. Upson . 5, 000 1,381 227 2,320 10, 000 20, 000 Laura C. Cousen . 3074 3075 3076 3077 3078 3079 3080 3081 3082 3083 3084 3085 3086 3087 3088 3089 3090 3091 3092 3093 3094 3095 3096 3097 3098 3099 3100 3101 3102 3103 3104 3105 3106 3107 3108 3109 3110 3111 3112 3113 3114 3115 3116 3117 3118 3119 3120 3121 3122 3123 3124 1068 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 NEW JERSEY— COO. 3125 Nutley . “ Cloverside,” A Home Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,500 School for Girls. 3126 . do . Franklin High School Li- Sch . c. F. B. 1,250 brary. 3127 Orange . Free Librarv . 1885 Gen . O. c. F. B. 1, 100 3128 . do . New England Society . Soc . r. F. R. ] , 500 3129 . do . High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1, 500 3130 Passaic . Free Public Library . 1888 Gen . T. F. B. 8. 760 3131 Paterson . . do . 1885 Gen . O. T. F. B. 36; 106 3132 . do . High School Library . . Sch . T. EL B. 1,700 3133 Pennington . Library Association . 1876 Gen . R. c. s. B. 1,200 3134 Perth Amboy . Free Public Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3, 000 3135 Plainfield . Public Library and Reading 1881 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 20, 063 Room. 3136 . do . Public School Library . 1868 Sch . T. F. B. 1, 000 3137 Point Pleasant _ Librarv Association . 1894 Gen . 0. t: F. B. 1,300 3138 Pompton . He Miile School Library . 1 899 Gen . c. Fr. B. 3, 000 3139 Port Oram . Public Library . 1899 Gen . c. F. B. 1,007 3140 Princeton . Free Lending Library . 1897 Gen . c. F. B. 1 , 400 3141 . do . Ivy Hall Library* . 1872 Soc . 0. c. F 0. 3, 080 3142 . do . . Preparatory School Library. . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1, 000 3143 . do . Princeton Theological Semi- 1812 Theo . O. c. F. B. 64, 500 nary. 3U4 . do . Princeton University . 1746 Col . 0. c. F. B. 126, 149 3145 . do . American Whig Society 1769 Col. soc. . . c. F. C. lu; 000 Library. 3146 . do . Cliosophic Soci etv Library 1765 Col. soc. . . 0. c. S. B. 10, 000 3147 . do . E.M. Museum Library... 1890 Col . c. F. R. 4, 500 3148 . do . Philadelphian Society... Y. M.C. A. c. F. B. 1,000 3149 Rahway . Librarv A ssociation . 1864 Gen . 0. c. s B. 15; 000 3150 Redbank . Library Company . 1878 Gen . R. c. s. B. 2, 111 3151 . do . Public School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1 , 302 3152 3153 Ridgefield Park Free Public Library . 1894 Gen . R. c. F. B. 2, 500 Ridgewood. . Public Library . 1897 R. c. Fr. B. 1, 900 3154 Riverton . Free Library . 1899 Gen . c. u B. 1,719 3155 Rutherford. . Free Public Library . 1894 Gen . O. T F. B. 2; 650 3156 . do . Park Avenue School Library. Sch . c. F. B. 1,200 3157 Salem . Salem Library Co . 1804 Gen . 0. c. F B. 11,660 3158 Scotch Plains . Free Public Library . 1888 Gen . R. c. F. B. 1,148 3159 Shrewsbury Shrewsbury Library . 1889 Gen . O. c. S. B. 2; 300 3160 Somerville . Public Library . 1871 Gen . I\ . c. s B. 3; 774 3161 South Orange .... Free Public Circulating Li- 1886 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 5, 756 brary. 3162 . do.. Seaton Hall College . 1857 Col . c. Fr. B. 40, 000 3163 Summit . Kent Place School . Sch . c. Fr. B. R 000 3164 . do . Library Association* . 1874 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 1,950 3165 ..do.. Public School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,200 3166 do St. George Hall Library . Sch . c. F. B. 3, 500 3167 Toms River . Librarv of Christ Church. . . . 1885 Gen . R. c. F. B. 1,500 3168 Tren ton Free Public Library . Gen . T. F. B. 5, 000 3169 . do . . New Jersey School for Deaf 1882 Sch . T. F. B. 2,400 Mutes. 3170 . do . . New Jersey State Hospital _ 1880 Gen . C. F. B. 3, 506 3171 . do . New Jersey state Library.... 1796 Gen. and T. F. R. 53, 500 law. 3172 . do . New Jersey State Prison . 1836 Gen . T. Fr. C. 3,166 3173 . .do . . St. Francis College Librarv .. 1898 Col . C. Fr. c. 6, 000 3174 . do . State Normal and Model 1893 Sch . O. T. Fr. B. 3,610 Schools. 31 75 . do . Union Library . 1885 Gen . R. C. s. B. 7, 000 3176 Yincentown. Public Library . . . 1867 Gen . c. F. B. 1,548 3177 Vineland . Historical and Antiquarian 1864 His . 0. c. Fr. B. 5, 500 Society. 3178 . .do . Public High School . 1892 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 000 3179 Weebawken . Free Public Library . 1891 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3, 867 3180 . do . Public High Scool Library... Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,015 * Statistics of 1895-96. 1069 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. d _o a X d S o Appropriations — State, county, or city. a5 a o o d 73 o Eh 10 11 12 13 14 15 1G 17 18 $50 $137 1,874 Wm. R. Wright . 1,493 40, 487 Elizabeth Pi. Wesson . N. M. Swingle . 1, 220 3,049 25 54, 213 125, 097 500 82, 935 10, 000 4,985 20, 269 19 C. C. Lambert . $75, 000 G. F. Winchester . J. A. Reinhart . 200 2,234 10, 279 37, 952 1, 200 1,221 F. W. Kitchel . 117 6, 003 10 ?;833 20 153 . 20, 000 Emma L. Adams . H. M. Maxson . . 100 3, 200 100 M. R. Wood . Mrs. A. C. D. Loucks . 293 230 80 3, 346 • 400 60 Frederick Fance . 27, 000 25, 000 1,816 12, 000 200 $54, 000 Rev. .T. H. Dulles . 22, 190 1,400 25, 000 750, 000 E. C. Richardson . Carl M. Erdman . Robert C. Dodd . 600 200 William Libbey . 125 1,000 119 94 50 200 606 248 15 319 50 50 70 499 300 150 Robert Z. Williams . Carolyn Wells . 200 7,847 2,400 1,500 603 100 42 357 878 769 Elizabeth Coooer . 50 S. V. Arrowsmith . 500 Rev. Allan MacNeiil . 100 Helen D. Buck . 8, 411 12, 159 3, 100 9,076 1,200 500 Elizabeth B. Campbell . 300 Dorothy E. Burrows . 250 . W.C. Ingalls . 5, 000 12, 000 M. H. Stratton . 64 2, 000 100 Mrs. D. Thomas . 162 4,000 Mrs. A. V. Jennings . Miss M. H. Thomas . 22, 726 1,514 1,000 10, 000 Mrs. S. W. Paul . 200 * John K. Lathrop . 400 Mrs. L. C. Coudrick . 1,000 30 250 2, 000 24 500 300 John P. Walker, superin¬ tendent. John W. Waso, M. D . 250 7,600 5, 000 7,600 H. C. Buchanan . 52, 000 Rev. G. C. Maddock . Very Rev. Dominic Reuter. . Martha F. Nelson . 350 14, 838 1.715 Alice M. Rice . 50 3, 000 30 433 110 2,938 Miss Susie S. Herbert . 1,639 25 850 1,000 Frank D. Andrews . no 1,333 J. C. Schramm . 2, 040 9, 076 Otto Ortel, superintendent. . 3125 3126 3127 3128 3129 3130 3131 3132 3133 3134 3135 3136 3137 3138 3139 3140 3141 3142 3143 3144 3145 3146 3147 3148 3149 3150 3151 3152 3153 3154 3155 3156 3157 3158 3159 3160 3161 3162 3163 3164 3165 3166 3167 3168 3169 3170 3171 3172 3173 3174 3175 3176 3177 3178 3179 3180 1070 EDUCATION REPORT, 1S99-1900 Public, society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 NEW JERSEY — COH. 8181 Westfield Public Library . 1877 Gen . R. C. s B. 2,864 3182 West Hoboken Free Public Library . 1897 Gen . R. T F. B. 2, 735 3183 . . do . Public School Library . . . 18S4 Sch . T. Fr. c. 1,492 3184 West Orange . High School Library . 1886 Sch . c. F. B. 2,500 3185 Whi ppan v _ - .... Roberts Memorial Library... 1895 Gen . c. F. B. 1,500 3186 Wonrlhririo-p . Barron Public Library . 1877 Gen . O. c. F. C. 3' 988 3187 Woodbnrv . Deptford Institute Free Li- 1894 Gen . c. F. B. 5' 183 brary. 31S8 _ do . Public High School Library . Sch . T. F B. 1 , 000 3189 W oof] st.own Pilesgrove Library . I860 Gen . c. S. B. 2, 018 NEW MEXICO. 3190 Alhnqnerqi ' . Public Library . 1891 Gen . R. T. F B. 3,000 3191 do . University of New Mexico. . . 1892 Col . T Fr. R. 4, 050 3192 Fort Bayard Post Library . Govt . T. Fr. B. L 882 3193 Las Vegas Normal University . 1898 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 3194 . do . Revista Catholic Library .... 1878 Soc . O. c. S. B. 2, 000 3195 Mesilla Park . New Mexico College of Agri- 1890 Col . T. S. B. 4; 000 culture and Mechanic Arts. 3196 Santa Fe . Free Public Library . 1895 Gen . C. F. c. 1 , 400 3197 .do . Loretto Academy . 1S85 Sch . C. s. B. 2' 700 3193 . do . St. Michael’s College . 1874 Col . O. C. F. B. L200 8199 . do . Territorial Library . 1850 Law . T. Fr. R. 4,500 3200 Silver City . Normal School . 1897 Sch . rP Fr. B. 2, 000 NEW YORK. 3201 Adams . Free Library . . 1900 Gen . R. c F. B. 1,000 3202 Addison . Public Library . 1850 Gen . T. F. B> 4, 000 3203 . do . Union High School . Sch . T. F. B. 3' 000 3204 Al’ton . Public High School . 1870 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,318 3205 Albany . Academy of the Sacred Heart . 1861 Gen . c. F. R. 3’ 718 3206 . do . Albany Academy . Sch . c. F. B. 1,500 3207 . do . Albany Institute* . 1793 Scien . c. Fr. B. 5', 000 3208 . do . Albany Law School . 1SS3 Law . c. F. R. 2,030 3209 . do . Catholic Union Library . 1887 Soc . .... O c. F. B. 6' 000 3210 . do . Christian Brothers Academy 1869 Sch . c. F. B. 2, 371 Library. 3211 . do . Diocesan Lending Libras _ 1890 Theo . c. Fr. C. 1,449 3212 . do . Free Library . 1891 Gen . O. ry F. B. 4, 500 3213 . do . N ew Y ork State Court of Ap- 1869 Law . T. Fr. R. 25, 000 peals. 3214 . do . New York State Law Library. 1818 Law . T. F. R. 63, 296 3215 . do . New York State Library . 1818 Gen . T. B. 423, 290 3216 . do . New York State Normal Col- 1844 Gen . T. r F. B. 3; 408 lege. 3217 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 12. 500 3218 . do . Public School . 1871 Sch . T. Fr. B. 6^ 250 3219 . do . St. Agnes’ School . 1870 Sch . c. F. R. 4' 220 3220 . do . St. Joseph’s Academy . 1890 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1. 055 3221 . do . Young Men’s Association. . . . 1833 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 17, 000 3222 . do . Young Men’s Christian Asso- 1857 Y.M.C.A. .... C. S. B. 5,343 ciation. 3223 . do . Young Men’s Christian Asso- 1884 Y. M. C. A. . . . . C. S. B. 1,530 ciation (R. R.dept. ) 3224 . do . Young Men’s Christian Asso- 1888 Soc . c. s. B. 1,778 ciation. 3225 Albion . Swan Library . 1S99 Gen . 0. B. F. B. 5, 960 3226 Alexander . Union School . 1836 Sch . T. Fr. Y> 3227 Alfred . Alfred University . 1857 Gen . C. s. B. 12; 920 3228 Allegany . Union and High School . 1S85 Sch . rp B. 1,125 3229 . do . St. Bona venture’s College _ 1860 Col . 1 0. C. Fr. B. 8, 657 3230 St. Elizabeth’s Academy . 1884 Sch . 1 1 c. F. B. 2, 488 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 1071 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. Prom taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 11 15 16 17 18 149 4, 378 $594 Ruby J. Oliver . 650 13; 220 $1, 250 1,301 Paul M. Konert . 12 5; 924 |50 '306 Robert Waters, superintend- ent. 150 10, 000 71 161 P.D.McCollom . 150 M. E. Shipman . 100 2, 510 §15, 000 Anthony Schoder . ... 87 . 90 Chas. F. Pancoast . 235 15, 106 582 1,124 Susan A. Murch . 1, 150 96 '250 500 500 M. Custers . 15 1, 440 S. N. Pilchard . . . 300 300 E. L. Hewett . 500 100 25 " Charlotta A. Baker ......... N. Simmons . 8 12 Sister M. Xavier . 408 30 Brother Botulph . 4001 2, 220 2, 220 L. Emmett . 1,000 300 C. M. Light . . 161 6, 025 150 150 300 Mary Sanford Brewer . 200 267 1, 913 50 75 161 Charles S. Gibson, principal. 20 Madame M. Hoey, secretary. 2, 000 193 211 W. R. Davidson, secretary .. 2, 500 600 5, 867 150 670 38, 000 Maude C. O’Hagan . . 53 60 90S 32, 000 2,300 200 2,730 4,600 John A. Howe, president . . . 550 2, 500 2; 500 A. S. Brolley . . . . 1,000 1,684 Stephen B. Griswold . 143; 725 23; 327 22, 597 100, 900 110, 671 Melvii Dewey . 70 . Wm. J. Milne, president _ 4, 233 2, 117 8, 000 1,421 1,421 Mattie L. Donhauser . 40 100 '200 Ellen W. Boyd . 4 100 Brother Anselm . 700 58, 619 3, 600 7,910 80, 000 Nelly B. Lovejoy . 288 8,740 200 1, 693 A. C. Clarke . 15 64 3,440 50 60 A. P. Gillette . 90 27 §150 Miss C. M. Cumming, secre- tary. 300 1,009 11, 093 600 200 1,256 15, 000 27,000 Miss Lillian A. Achilles - 200 25 446 25 L. D. Roberts, principal . 6,711 784 6, 206 200 1, 575 4,000 Edward M. Tomlinson, A.M. 125 50 50 100 C.G. Wright, secretary board of education. 580 40 200 15, OOO Father O.M. Hickey, O.F. M . 200 126 18. 250 160 190 Mother M. Teresa . . . 3181 3182 3183 3184 3185 3186 3187 3188 3189 3190 3191 3192 3193 3194 3195 3196 3197 3198 3199 3200 3201 3202 3203 3204 3205 3206 3207 3208 3209 3210 3211 3212 3213 3214 3215 3216 3217 3218 3219 3220 3221 3222 3223 3224 3225 3226 3227 3228 3229 3230 1072 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States I ocation. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 Z 3 4 5 iy 7 8 9 NEW YORK — COI1. 3231 Am a walk . St. Joseph’s Normal College.. Sell . T. Fr. B. 3,000 3232 Amsterdam . Free Library . 1891 Gen . R. c. F. B. 4,436 3233 . do . . . . . St. Mary’s Catholic Institute. 1880 Sch . c. S. B. 1,100 3234 Angelica, . Free Library . 1827 Gen . It. c. F. B. 2,929 3235 Annandale . St. Stephen’s College . 1860 Col . O. c. Fr. B. 16, 780 3236 Attica . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 2, 321 3237 . do . Stevens Memorial Library . . . 1894 Gen . O. C. F. B. 7,211 3238 Auburn . Academic High School . Sch . T. F. R. 2, 000 3239 . do . Auburn Prison Librarv . 1841 State . m F. c. 5, 000 3240 . do . Free Library of W omen’ s Ed- 1887 Soc . c. F. B. 1,000 ucational and Industrial Union. 3241 . do . Seymour Library . 1876 Gen . 0. B F. B. 14, 672 3242 . do . Theological Seminary Li- 1821 Theo . O. C. F. B. 26, 378 brarv. 3243 . do . Y. M. C. A. Librarv . Y.M.C. A. C. Fr. B. 1,000 3244 Aurora . Cayuga Lake Military Acad- Sch . c. Fr. R. 2, 500 emy Library. 3245 . do . Public Library . 1897 Gen . B. F. B. 1,400 3246 . do . Wells College Library . 1868 Col . C. F. B. 7,602 3247 Avon . Public High School . 1881 Sch . T. F. B. 1,066 3248 Babylon . . do . 1892 Sch . T. F. B. l' 4°3 3249 Bainbridge . . do . 1873 Sch . T. F. B. 1,516 3250 Baldwinsville .... Free Academy and Union 1868 Sch . rn F. B. L390 School. 3251 Ballston Spa . Public Library . 1893 Gen . T. F. c. 1,100 3252 . do . . . . . Saratoga County Law Library 1813 Law . T. F. R. L500 3253 Batavia . New York State School for 1867 Sch . T. F. c. 4, 959 the Blind. 3254 . do . Union School (District No. 2) . 1853 Sch . T. F. B. 11,542 3255 Bath . Davenport Librarv* . 1889 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 90, 138 3256 Bath Beach . New Utrecht Free Library _ 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3’ 061 3257 “Rath on Hudson Public Library . 1893 Gen . T F. C. 2,200 3258 Bayshore . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1, 347 3259 Beedes . Keene Heights Library Club. 1888 Gen . O. c. S. B. L 5S9 Belfast . Public School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,053 3261 Belleville . Union Academy . 1826 Sch . c. F. B. 2,316 3262 Belmont . Free Library . 1893 Gen . O. B. F B. 2, 955 3263 . do . Public High School .... 1891 Sch . T. F. B. l' 800 3264 Binghamton .... City School Librarv . 1861 Sch . T. F B. 13, 210 3265 . do . Lady Jane Grey School . Sch . C. F. B. 2, 000 3266 . do . Library Association . 1874 Y.M.C. A. C. S. C. 5, 000 3267 . do . Supreme Court Library . 1859 Law . T. Fr. R. 11,000 3268 Boonville . Erwin Library and Institute. 1890 Gen . O. c. F. B. 3^ 774 3269 Bridgehampton . . Hampton Librarv . 1876 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 5; 446 3270 Broekport . State Normal and Training 1866 Sch . T. F. B. 5,187 School. 3271 Bronxville . BronxviPe Librarv . 1868 Sch . T F. B. 1,700 3272 Brooklyn. . . . Adelphi College Library . 1869 Col . C. F. B. 8,' 254 3273 Brooklyn (73d st. Bay .Ridge Free Library . 1888 Gen . 0. T. F. s. 6; 479 and 2d ave.). 3274 Brooklyn (1143 Bedford Circulating Library. 1877 Gen . R. C. S. C. 5,000 Bedford ave.) . 3275 Brooklyn. . Berkeley Institute . 1886 Sch . c. F. B. 3, 500 Brooklyn (Marcy Boys’ High School . 1895 Sch . T. F. B. 4, 800 and Putnam ave.). 3277 Brooklyn . . Brooklyn College of Pliar- 1890 Col . R. C. Fr. R. 1,500 macy. 3278 do Brooklyn Institute of Arts 1824 Sci . T. F. R. 24, 278 and Sciences. 3279 Brooklyn ( 197 Brooklyn Library . 1857 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 149, 676 Montague st.). * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1078- >. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 15 IG 17 18 444 47,809 8200 $200 $2, 115 $27, 637 Jennie Coe Clark . 40 35 Sister Marcella . 169 3, 716 100 882 Emma A. Whitmore, treas- urer. 7,1-19 1,039 $70, 000 Lawrence T. Cole, warden . . 500 '600 25 25 A. M. Preston, principal . 100 7,369 Laura E. Leland . F. J. Bartlett, principal . 500 700 700 Cordello Herrick, chaplain . 100 50 900 30 Miss Mary A. Fosgate . 772 34, 244 2,000 200 3, 985 30, 000 40, 000 Miss Martha A. Bullard . 7,892 700 4, 000 1,913 16, 661 40; 000 Arthur S. Iloyt . 350 30 l % Albert Somes . 45 191 799 50 41 262 Miss Marv Morrell . 700 446 1 , 153 E. W. Mosher, secretary . 600 133 318 85 75 205 Merwin W. Lay . 40 1,200 25 25 50 William H. Lisk, principal.. 400 35 '728 2? 16 38 F. W. Crumb, M. A . 200 10 4,118 7 Bessie M. Reynolds . 5 7,812 300 50 555 Charlotte B. Newton . 60 18 W. A. Smith . 184 1,600 500 866 Gardner Fuller, superin- . tendent. 367 26, 496 500 783 P. P. Bradish, clerk board of education. 598 15, 774 933 1, 536 Miss Sarah P. Sherwood, president. 220 7,000 250 100 350 W. A. Cuzner . 262 2, 116 87 87 174 200 160 431 1,200 J. H. Maghee, president _ 150 1, 750 60 125 F. W. Gray, principal . 91 1,010 45 117 C. J.Golpin, principal . 400 4,823 200 200 824 1,000 10, 000 Mrs. Hamilton Ward. 150 5 800 5 5 10 Chas. II. Munson, principal. . 1,000 1,292 67,072 2,966 3, 172 Mrs. Josephine W. Clonney . '200 '200 Miss Mary B. Hyde . 30 4,331 32 Philip H. Bigler . 250 600 600 1,200 Miss Winifred M. Smith . 15 450 9, 740 200 797 15, 700 15, 000 L. W.Fiske . 600 198 2, 234 699 15; 627 4, 000 John F. Youngs . 2,000 400 5; 000 800 800 David Eugene Smith, prin- cipal. 300 50 50 Miss Rebecca E. Young . 6,413 185 370 Miss Mabel Farr . 75 631 23, 754 2,150 2, 524 10, 000 Jas. Warren Lane, secretary. 1,000 Miss Anna E. Wirts . . 300 260 400 100 275 . J. W. Abernethv, principal.. 400 25 1,200 Daniel O’C. Walsh . 3,000 133 500 Dr. Chas H. Meyer . 1,000 1 . 000 Mis3 Susan A. Hutchinson . . 19, 000 3, 523 86, 057 21,893: 291,565 155, 750 Willis A. Bardwell . 3231" 3232': 3233 3234- 3235- 3236 3237- 3233 3239 3240- 3241: 3242.: 3243-. 3244 3245-. 3246 3247s 3248 3249- 3250 3251- 3252 3253- 3254' 3255' 3256 - 3257' 3258- 3259 3260- 3261 3262 . 3268 3264 3265- 3266- 3267 3268- 3269 3270-. 3271 3272 3273- 3274- 3275 3276- 3277 ' 3278 3270. ED 1900 - 68 1074 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1S00. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States 1 ' Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, J or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 NEW YORK — COO. 3280 Brooklyn (20Bre- Brooklyn Public Library 1 . . . 1897 Gen . R. T. F. B. 37, 651 voort place). 3281 Brooklyn (Flat- Erasmus Hall High School . . 1787 Sch . T. F. B. 3,000 bush aye.). 3282 Brooklyn . Female Institution of the 1855 Sch . C. F. B. 3,000 Visitation. 3283 . do . Fort Hamilton Free Library. 1893 Gen . O. T. F. B. 6, 000 3284 Brooklyn (67 Free Lending Library of the 1882 Gen . O. B. F. B. 44, 763 S c h ermerhorn Union for Christian Work. St.). 3285 Brooklyn . Free Library and Reading 1875 Theo . R. C. F. B. 2,000 Room of the Brooklyn So- ciety of the New Church. 3286 . do . Girls’ Hiyh School . 1888 Sch . T. F. P 3, 697 3287 . do . Hall’s (Miss) School for Girls Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,800 Library. 3288 . do . Law Library in Brooklyn, 1850 Law . T. S. R. 23, 177 including second judicial district. 3289 . do . Long Island Historical So- 1863 Hist . O. C. S. R. 64, 683 ciety Library. 3290 Brooklyn (76 Manual Training High School 1895 Sch . R. T. F. B. 3, 006 Court st.). 3291 Brooklyn (1313 Medical Society of the County 1845 Med . O. C. Fr. B. 25, 000 Bedford ave.). of Kings. 3292 Brooklyn . Packer Collegiate Institute 1854 Sch . C. F. B. 7,880 3293 . do . Polytechnic Institute (Spicer 1891 Col . c. F. B. 7, 650 Memorial Library). 3294 . do . Pratt Institute Free Library 1888 Gen . c. F. B. 70, 249 3295 . do . Public School Library (No. Sch . T. F. B. 1, 060 119). 3296 Brooklyn (525 Round’s (Miss) School Li- Sch . c. F. B. 3, 000 Clinton aye.). brarv. 3297 Brooklyn . St. Francis College . . . 1884 Col . O. c. S. R. 4, 250 3298 . do ‘ . St. John’s Coll ep-p (Hartnett 1896 Col . c. F. B. 2,000 Free Library). 3299 Brooklyn ( 992 St. St. John’s Orphan Koine Li- 1870 Asv . c. F. B. 1,060 Marks ave.). brary. 3300 Brooklyn . . St. Thomas Aquinas Acad- Sch . c. K B. 1,025 emv Library/ 3301 . do . Train! n e- School forT packers 1885 Sch . T. F. B. 1, 500 3302 Brooklyn (502 Y. M. C. A. Library . 1853 Y.M.C.A. C. S. B. 17, 375 Fulton st.). 3303 Brooklyn . . do . 1888 Y.M.C. A. C. F. B. 9, 546 3304 Buffalo (794 Wash- Academy of the Sacred Heart. 1894 Sch . c. S. B. 2,500 ingtori st.). 3305 Buffalo ( Main and Buffalo Catholic Institute 1866 Gen . O. c. S. B. 10, 205 Virginia- sts.). Public Library. 3306 Buffalo (Bela- Buffalo Club . 1890 Gen . c. Fr. R. 1, 000 ware ave.). 3307 Buffalo . Buffalo Historical Society . . 1862 c. F. R. 10, 423 3308 . do . Buffalo Public Library 1837 Gen . O. T. F. B. 155, 000 3309 . do . Buffalo Seminary . 1851 Sch . c. F. B. 2,000 3310 . do . Buffalo Society of Natural 1 861 Scien . c. Fr. R. 4, 296 Sciences. 3311 Buffalo (Ellicott Buffalo Turn Verein* . 1876 Gen . c. F. C. 1,760 st.). 3312 Buffalo . Canisius College Library . 1870 Col . . . c. S. B. 21,000 3313 . do . Central High School . 1854 Sch . T. F. B. 3; 881 3314 . do . Erie Railroad Library Asso- 1874 Gen . .... C. S. B. 4,000 ciation. 3315 Buffalo (82 Dodge German Young Men’s Asso- 1811 Gen . R. c. s. B. 7, 597 st.). ciation. * Statistics of 1895-96. 1 Including 7 branches. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1075 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. 1 Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 1G 11 12 13 14 15 1G IT IS 1,935 21, 990 434, 255 $40, 000 $40, 576 Arthur E. Bostwick . 600 $704 754 - 1 Miss Mary A. Kingsbury _ 500 750 16, 565 1,480 1,-540 $2, 000 II. S. Thorne, M. D., presi- dent. 3, 030 206, 819 5,000 100 8, 232 Miss Fannv Hull . . 100 12 639 1, 100 $15, 915 E. Tingle . 216 300 Calvin Patterson, principal. . [ 1,046 8,-675 12, 485 James X>. Bell, -chairman _ 2, 161 8, 281 129, 150 154, 011 Miss Emma Toedteberg _ 5 4, 000 Charles D. Larkins, princi- pal. 8, 000 4,000 2, 000 75, 000 Albert T. Huntington . 403 7, UK) 550 Miss Julia B. Anthony . . 150 650 Chas. A. Green, A. M . 4,064 242, 757 Miss Mary L. Davis . '200 Moses Becker, jr. , principal. Miss Christina Rounds . 1. 100 50 100 100 5, 000 Brother Paul, secretary ..... 150 50 1,500 210 Rev. Tiros. F. Walsh, D.D., Ph.D. 600 34 2,075 Mother M.de Chantal, sup- erintendent. 3,000 880 15, 337 2,500 423 19, 945 Miss Fannv D. Fish 800 525 45 Sr. M. Leonarda . 500 470 17,843 200 8, 599 120, 000 125, 000 Miss Elizabeth D. Renninger 100 Henry H. Seymour, chair- man. 16, 186 500 200 600 50, 000 Edward D. Strickland, sec- retary. 12, 000 21, 221 887, 686 78, 786 200 85, 801 105, 000 750, 000 H. L. Elmendorf, superin- tendent. 1,357 500 2, 774 24, 378 J. E. T/etsnrn director 245 500 208 1,000 600 Francis S. Betten 105 222 222 Miss Ada, AT. Kenyon 300 10, 000 Miss Sue Dana Woolley . 206 5,466 926 R. Kuehm . 3280 3281 3282 3283 3284 3285 3286 3287 3288 3289 3290 3291 3292 3293 3294 3295 3296 3297 3298 3299 3300 3301 3302 3303 3304 3305 3306 3307 3308 3309 3310 3311 3312 3313 3314 3315 1076 EDUCATION EE PORT, 1899-1900. Public , society, and school libraries in the United States 3316 3317 3318 3319 3320 3321 3322 3323 3324 3325 3326 3327 3328 3329 3330 3331 3332 3333 3334 3335 3336 3337 3338 3339 3340 3341 3342 3343 3344 3345 3346 3347 3348 3349 3350 3351 3352 3353 3354 3355 3356 3357 3358 3359 3360 3361 3362 Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 NEW YORK — coil. Buffalo . Grosvenor Library . 1859 Gen . 0. T. F. R. 54 266 . do . Guard of Honor . 1868 Soc . 0. c. S. c. 2 000 Buffalo (Station Harngari Library (District 1886 Soc . C. F. B. l’ 042 E). Erie, D. O. H.). ' Buffalo . Holy Angels Academy Alum- 1883 Sch . c. S. B. 2,698 nffi Association. Buffalo ( Room 23, Law Library of Eighth Judi- 1863 Law . T. F. R. 13, 801 City Hall.) cial District. Buffalo . Lord Library (Historical So- Gen . T. Fr. R. 10, 000 ciety). . do . Lutheran Young Men’s Asso- 187 6 Soc . C. F. B. 3,890 ciation. Buffalo (154 Ma- Martin Luther Seminary .... 1854 Theo . C. Fr. R. 1 233 pie st.)! Buffalo . Masten Park High School . . . 1897 Sch . T. F. R. 1 212 Buffalo (286 Dear- North Buffalo Catholic Asso- 1886 Gen . C. S. B. L 600 born st.) . ciation and Library. Buffalo (348 Por- Oblate Fathers’ Library . 1891 Col . c. F. B. 8,000 ter aye.). Buffalo (1238 St. Joseph’s College . 1861 Col . c. F. B. 2,000 Main st.) . Buffalo . St. Margaret’s School . Sch . c. F. B. 1 000 Buffa 1 o ( D e 1 a - Saturn Club Library . 1895 Soc . c. Fr. R. 1,100 ware ave.). Buffalo (Central Sherman Williams Memorial 1894 Sell . c. Fr. B. 1 076 H. S. Bldg.). Library. Buffalo . State Normal School . Sch . T. F. R. 2 500 Buffalo (37 Allen University of Buffalo, Medi- 1845 Med . C. F. R. 5, 963 st.). cal Department. Buf f al o (126 N. Woman’s Educational and 1885 Soc . C. F. B. 1 , 600 Pearl st. ) . Industrial Union (Mary A. Ripley Library). . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1852 Y.M. C. A. c. s. B. 6 100 Cambridge . . Union School . 1892 Sch . T. F. B. 4 500 Camden . Free Library . 1891 Gen . C. F. B. 2, 085 Can a) oharie .... Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 2, 383 Canandaigua . . Granger Place School . 1876 Sch . C. F. B. 2, 700 . do . Lhiion School and Academy . 1795 Sch . T. F. B. 3,500 _ _ .do . Wood Library . 1868 Gen . B. E. B. 2, 795 Canastota . Public Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2,555 . do . Union School . Sch . T. F. R. 1,360 Canton . Free Library . 1891 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 893 . do . St. Lawrence University . 1857 Col . O. C. F. R. 12, 384 Carmel . Drew Seminary for Young 1866 Sch . .... C. Fr. B. 2, 578 Women. . do . Literary Union . 1881 Soc . R. c. S. B. 1,863 Carthage . Public School . Sch . T. F. R. l’ 200 Catskill . Public High School . 1869 Sch . T. Fr. R. L 800 . do . Public Library . 1893 Gen . R. T. F. C. 4,023 . do . . Public School Library . Sch . TL F. R. U 500 Cattaraugus . Public High School . 1887 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 549 Cazenovia . Cazenovia Seminary Library. 1824 Gen . C. F B. 3! 463 . do . Public Library Society . 1836 Gen . R. B. F. B. 6, 200 Champlain . Union Free School . 1890 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 Chateau gay . Public High School . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 Chatham . do . 1883 Sch . B. F B. 3,690 Chester. . . do . 1846 Sch . T. F. R. 1,865 Ch i then a n pt> Yates High School Library .. 1873 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,000 Clarence Parker High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,500 Claverack . Free Library and Reading 1892 Gen . O. C. F. B. peso Room Association. do Hudson River Institute . 1854 Sch . C. F. B. 1,100 Clifton Springs . . . Clifton Springs Sanitarium . . 1850 Gen . C. F. B. 3, 000 1077 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. OQ -4-J CD 2 a a s Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 1G 17 18 2, 500 5, 059 $24, 739 $200 $25, 786 $30, 000 $100, 000 E. P. Van Duzee . 3316 3317 5 188 . 1,495 149 Magnus Jenzen . 3318 1 080 29 785 Sister St. Mary . 3319 886 6,025 Ralph Stone . 3320 500 500 Miss Elia M. Edwards . 3321 300 20 986 Edward W. Fischer . 3322 185 22 38 Rev. Wm. Grabau . 3323 142 189 224 Miss Mvrtilla M. Constantine 3324 100 50 2,000 1, 300 Jos. B. Sander . 3325 100 400 550 C. J. Sloan, M. D . 3326 Brother Pompian . 3327 3328 60 Walter L. Brown, chairman. 3329 78 16 260 5, 000 Philip B. Goetz . 3330 40 50 50 James M. Cassety, principal. 3331 32, 500 300 200 200 1, 200 Matthew D. Mann, "dean ". . . . 3332 750 8 50 150 Miss Gracia S. Benedict, 3333 chairman. 255 12, 289 1, 102 G. W. Leighbody . 3334 150 6i 115 200 180 494 Miss Katherine" B, Barr . 3335 100 359 1,500 113 449 Miss Anni e More . 3336 254 458 3,150 2'9 127 415 Schuyler F. Herron . 3337 125 Miss Charlotte Parmelee, secretary. 300 900 7, 045 950 550 1,500 J. C. Norris . . 3339 260 14 271 '824 Miss Sara N. Lee . 3340 776 Id, 692 400 150 708 Miss Julia M. Perkins . 3341 120 190 52 52 104 Geo. H. Ottaway, principal. . 3342 347 17, 432 500 200 767 Miss Josephine Paige . _ 3343 L33 177 1,000 25, 000 H. P. Forbes, D. D . 3344 390 150 David H. Hanaburgh, presi- 3345 dent. 34 644 51 E. J. Foster . 3346 1 2.00 2,500 M. F. Perry, principal . 3347 . 200 25 25 25 Charles Hale . t . 3348 236 22, 981 1,000 200 1,284 Miss Emily F. Becker . . 3349 100 15 10 10 T. A. Caswell . 3350 100 72 1,100 Geo. A. Bolles . 3351 600 23 474 Jas. R. Forsyth, secretary 3352 3, 000 800 15, 000 200 200 1,247 J.H.Ten Eyck Burr, secre- 3353 tary. 93 50 50 100 Jas. De F. Burroughs, presi- 3354 dent board of education. 100 150 1,500 150 110 260 E. F. McKinley . 3355 259 4,000 152 153 305 Miss Ella E. Wagar . 3356 161 200 90 90 Cha,s. W. Kerner, president 3357 board of education. 500 25 25 50 William M Fort principal 3358 700 Miss Althea, D. Sherman 3359 500 60 3,600 100 666 7,000 Clarence E. Seipel . 3360 200 10 400 40 •T. O. Spencer, A. M., Ph. D . . . 3361 100 5, 000 Rev. S. H. Adams, chanlain. . 3362 1078 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-1900. Public , society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. V olumes. 1 2 3 4 1 ** 6 7 8 D NEW YORK — COn. 3363 Clifton Springs... Peirce Library* . 1SS0 Y.M.C.A. C. S. B. 1,470 3364 Clinton . Hamilton College . 1812 Col . O. c. F. B 40 353 3365 . do . Houghton Seminary . 1854 Sch _ c. F. B o 433 3366 . do . Public High School . 1891 Sch . T. F. B 9 070 3367 Clyde . . do. . . r. . Sch . T. F. R 9 100 3368 Cobleskill . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1 500 3369 Cohoes . Egberts High School . 1S83 Sch . .... B. F. B. 1 ' 2-10 3370 . do . Public School Library . 1856 Sch . . T. F. R 4 027 3371 Coldspring . Haldane Union School . 1889 Sch .. T. F. B ° 100 3372 College Point . Poppenhusen Institute Li- 1868 Cen . c. F. B. 3,091 brarv. 3373 Cooperstown . Public High School . 1869 Sch . . . . T. F. B 3 349 3374 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library * . 1887 Y.M.C.A. C. S. B. 1,382 3375 Copenhagen . Public High School . 1886 Sell . T. F. B 1 770 3376 Corinth . . do . 1891 Sch . . . T. F B i 193 3377 Corning . Free A caderuy . 1872 Sch . T. F. R 2 831 3378 . do . Free Library . 1885 Gen . T. F. B 8 2g5 3379 Cornwall-on-Hud- New York Military Academy. 1889 Sch . C. Fr. B. 5,540 son. 3380 . do . Public High School Library . 1S95 Sch . T. F. C. 2 053 3381 Cortland . Central School Library _ * . Sell . T. F. B. l’488 3382 . do . Franklin Hatch Library As- 1S86 Gen . 0. C. s B. 4, 190 sociation. 33.83 State Normal School . . 1870 Sch T. F. R. 6 000 3384 Crown Point . Hammond Library . . 1883 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1, 600 3385 Cuba . Circulating Library . 1872 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,897 3386 Dansvill-e . Public Library _ ". _ _ 1874 Gen . R. T. IL B. 4, 000 3387 Delhi . Delaware Academy Library. . 1819 Gen . c. F. B. 2 000 . do . Delaware Supeme Court Li- 1876 Law . rn F. R. 10’ 000 brary. 3389 DeDOsit . Public High School . 1867 Sch . T Fr. R. 2,400 3390 Dobbs Ferry- on- Masters (Misses) School . Sch . C. F. B. 3, 000 Hudson. 3391 . do . Westminster School . Sch . C. F. B. 1 300 3392 Dolgeyille . Free Public Library . . 1S90 Gen . c. v B. 1,000 3393 Dryden . . . . Southworth Library . 1882 Gen . O. c. F. B. 7, 569 3394 Dunkirk . Brooks Memorial Library. . . . 1899 Gen . c. F. B. 3, 700 3395 . do . School District . 1850 Sch . T. F. B. 3, 307 3396 East Aurora . Public High School . 1883 Sch . T. F. B. 3, 550 3397 East Bloomfield . . . do . Sch . T. F. B. 1,245 3398 East Chatham _ Public Library . . . . 1893 Gen . T. F. B. L277 3399 East Hampton _ Free Library . . . . 1897 Gen . C. s B. 1,678 3400 East Syracuse . Public High School . 1887 Sch . .... T. F. B. 2, 000 3401 Eddytown . Starkey Seminary . . 1839 Sch . C. F. B. 3' 505 3402 Elizabethtown . . . Circulating Library. . . 1882 Gen . O. c. F. B. 2, 067 3403 Ellenville . Public Library . . . 1893 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3,141 3404 Ellieottville _ Public High School (Har- 1892 Sch . T. F. B. L146 mon Library). 3405 Ellington . Public High School . 1856 Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 3406 Elmira . Elmira College _ _ _ 1855 Col . C. Fr. B. 6,120 3407 Elmira (H57 Hoff- Farmers Club . 1869 Soc . C. Fr. B. 1,000 man st.). 3408 Elmira . Free Academy . 1840 Sch . T. F. B. 3,115 3409 . do . N ew York State Reformatory. 1876 Asv . T. F. B. A, 000 3110 .do . Steele Memorial Library . 1899 Gen . O. B. F. B. 6,680 34U Fayetteville . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1, 875 3412 Florida. S. S. Seward Institute . Sch . O. T F. B. L 227 3413 Flushing . Flushing Institute . . Sch . c. F. B. 1.395 3414 . do . Flushing Seminary . Sch . c. F. B. 1,404 3415 . .do . . Library Associa tion . 1858 Gen . O. B. F. B. 6, 450 3416 .....do . Public High School . 1S50 Sch . T. F. B. 3,118 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, A1\TD SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1079 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 15 1G 17 24, 894 945 4, 447 $200 $2, 150 1, 400 250 2, 400 $159 126 285 . 50 . 106 601 100 100 400 100 2,000 305 48 970 202 341 4,000 25 165 370 300 425 1,200 100 100 350 60 83 7,845 70 70 140 700 104 100 204 151 11.858 800 200 1,015 660 144 4,000 180 154 5,235 100 60 17] 100 288 ' 700 200 200 400 . 141 8, 490 918 $10, 000 $10, 000 1, 000 350 700 800 'lOO 250 10, 000 43 175 356 129 200 200 660 380 19, 397 600 200 943 700 5 600 5 1] 200 215 200 600 800 . 1,000 300 224 489 7, 730 200 200 1,235 18, 000 15, 000 1,000 SO, 000 1, 250 200 1,650 400 2, 492 138 70 '210 200 233 5, 778 150 150 300 60 100 100 38 1,298 25 23 48 475 5,900 5, 000 300 200 4, 000 75 75 172 179 1.800 131 255 101 3, 725 100 257 700 24, 806 500 200 998 234 87 '948 100 100 201 1. COO 100 1, 300 ' 200 50 75 1 . _ 252 1,582 438 100 536 250 7' 000 300 6,680 .37; 436 200 3,449 40, 500 75 2, 500 75 68 125 800 619 27, 210 1, 865 20C 3 *> 84 10, 000 ft 44 1.000 19 19 38 Name of librarian. 18 Melvin G. Dodge . A. G. Benedict . . W. A. Billingham, clerk M. E. Ackerman . Miss Kate J, Martin, princi¬ pal. R. A. Ross. . . . Otis Montrose, principal _ F. Martens . . . Miss Antoinette Abrams _ F. A. Walker . . . . A.M. Hollister, A. M., Eh. D . Leigh R. Hunt . . J. W. Lynahan, secretary _ S. C. Jones, superintendent. . Miss Leonora Pope . F. E. Smith _ Miss Mary E. Hubbard _ Francis J. Cheney, principal Miss Mary PI. Huestis . Mrs. Robt. S. Armstrong _ Miss Elizabeth E. Sweet, president. Eugene D. Holm.es, principal Miss Mary E. Clark . W. L. Harris, principal James Gilbert Riggs .. James Eggenberger, princi¬ pal of Union School. Miss Lilian Mirick . Miss Carrie M. Monchow _ E. E. Scribner, superin¬ tendent. E. Hambleton, secretary _ J. Finton Bullock.. . S. B. Smith . Miss Ettie C. Hodges... . Samuel Reed Brown . . Marty n Summerbell _ Miss Mary E. Hale _ _ Miss Retta L. Russell. _ _ C. J. Melrose . . E. E. De Voe... . . . A. C. MacKenzie, D. D., presi¬ dent. C. Compton . Chas.W. Evans, principal. . . A. E. Upham, director . Mrs. Kate Deane Andrew. . . D. B. Williams, principal _ G. C. Schaible . E. A. Fairchild, principal . . . Walter L. Bogert, secretary. . Jean Ely . . 3363 3364 3365 3366 3367 3368 3369 3370 3371 3372 3373 3374 tio / 0 3376 3377 3378 3379 3380 3381 3382 3383 3384 O0b5 3386 3387 3388 3389 3390 3391 3392 3393 3394 3395 3396 3397 3398 3399 3400 3401 3402 3403 3404 3405 3406 3407 3408 3409 3410 3411 3412 3413 3414 3415 3415 1080 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United Stales 1 Location. Name of library. i Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 NEW YORK— COll. 3417 Flushing . St. Joseph’s Academy . 1874 Sc-h . C. S. B. 1,800 3418 Fonda . Public High School . 1896 Sc-h . T. F. B. 1,690 3419 Forestville . . do . 1867 Sch . T. F. B. 1,295 3420 Fort Edward . Collegiate Institute . 1854 Sch . C. F. B. l'l30 3421 . do . Union School Library . 1870 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 400 3422 Fort Plain . Free Library . 1885 Gen . R. T. F. C. 1,363 3423 . do . Liberal Institute . 1831 Sch . C. F. B. 2.500 3424 Frankfort . Free School . Sch . T. Fr. C. 1,200 3425 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,200 3426 Franklin . Delaware Literary Institute. . 1835 Sch . C. F B. 2, 347 3427 Fredonia . Darwin R. Barker Library _ 1875 Gen . O. rn F. B. 6,; 217 3428 Friendship . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. i'ooo 3429 Fredonia . State Normal School . 1867 Sch . T. F. R. 2, 275 3430 Fulton . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 2, 000 3431 . do . Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. c. F. B. 3* 725 3432 Fultonville . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,085 3433 . do . Starin Library . 1888 Gen . C. F. B. 1,976 3434 Garden City . St. Paul’s School . 1878 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,100 3435 . do . St. Mary’s Cathedral School. . 1S72 Sch . c. S, B. 5,000 3436 Geneseo . Wadsworth Library . Gen . O C F. B. 12, 960 3437 Geneva . De Lancey Divinity School . . 1861 Theo . c. F. R. 1,100 3438 . do . Hobart College . 1825 Col . O. c. S. B. 37,412 3439 . do . Public High School . 1839 Sch . T. F. B. 6,345 3440 . do . Y. M. C. A . . . 1886 Y.M.C. A. C. S. B. 2, 200 3441 Gilbertsville . Free Library . 1889 Gen . 6. C. F. B. 1,466 3442 . do . Public High School . Sell . T F. B. 1,300 3443 Glens Falls .... Crandall Free Library . 1893 Gen . C. F. B. 8,403 3444 . do . Glens Fulls Academy _ Sch . C. F. B. 8,010 3445 . do Public Hiedi School _ _ Sch . T. F. B. 5; 739 3416 G’loversville . Free Library . 1880 Gen . R. T. F. B. 19, 000 3447 Goshen . Library and Historical So- 1895 Soc . R. C. S. B. 3, 0C0 ciety. 3448 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,764 3449 Gouverneur . do . 1828 Sch . T. F. B. 1,465 3450 .... do . Public Library . 1885 Gen . R. T. S. B. 1,750 3451 Granville . Public High School . 1891 Sch . T. F. B. 1,208 3452 Greene . do . Sch . T. F. B. 1,675 3453 Greenport Union School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,100 3454 Greenwich Circulating Library . 1877 Gen . C. s. B. 1 , 967 3455 Groton _ Public Library . 1896 Gen . T. F. C. 1,193 3456 Hamburg Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,725 3457 Hamilton. Colgate Academy . 1874 Sch . T. S. B. 2, 000 3458 . -do . Colgate University . 1820 Col . C. F. B. 29, 382 3459 do Beta Theta Pi Society . 1880 Soc . C. Fr. R. 1,000 3480 do Public High School . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. i; 025 3461 TT am m nn d sport Public Library 1896 Gen . T. F. B. R732 3462 do Union School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 3463 Hartwick Semi- Hartwick Seminary . 1816 Gen . ' C. Fr. C. 5, 510 nary. Gen . ! 3464 Haverstraw King’s Daughters’ Public 1895 O. c. F. B. 2, 515 Library. Sch . 1 do Public liigh School . T. Fr. R. 1, 024 3466 H em psten.d Union Free School . 1863 Sell . ; T. F. B. 1, 514 3467 Herkimer Free Library . 1896 Gen . O. T. F. B. 7, 038 3468 d o Union School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,300 3469 Highland Falls Free Library . 1884 Gen . O. c. F. B. 1,900 3470 H i m rod Georgic Library . 1855 Gen . O. C. Fr. R. 1,500 3471 TT op'd n shn tp* Union School Library * . 1886 Sch . 0. c. Fr. B. 1,879 347') Holland Patent Union Free School 1802 Sch . T. F. B. 1,149 3473 Holley Public High School . 1850 Sch . T. F. B. , 1,000 3474 Homer . Homer Academy . 1819 Sch . ' T. F. C. 2,800 * Statistics of 1895-9G. 1081 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. .5 ’G ri Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts ■s o 'C 2 Pamphlets. Volumes added di the year. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent en ment fund. rO >> a§ 4H O Name of librarian. io 1 1 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 200 $300 68 67 3, 000 1,698 m 40 $25 E. B. Robbins, principal . 300 67 40 80 A. C. Anderson" . \ . 200 60 75 150 Jos. E. King, Ph. I) . 25 6,000 100 100 W. S. Coleman, principal _ Maria Ehle . 200 164 830 12 Wm.C. Joslin, principal _ Samuel J. Slawson . 200 100 1,200 50 50 100 377 501 29, 809 700 1,033 $1,300 Miss Isabelle B. Greene . 300 51 25 25 F. B. Palmer, principal . 200 458 20,711 690 200 939 Mrs. Helen B. Emens . 30 115 25 45 90 Henry Wheaton, principal. . Miss Henrietta Y. Cross . 108 2, 633 500 Fred’k L. Gamage . Miss Elizabeth" L. Kou.es, principal. Miss Ruth C. Shepard . 40 5,214 20, 000 900 30 . Rev. Chas. W. Hayes, D. D. . . Chas.D. Vail . . 10,116 375 1,173 347 3, 955 31,751 2, 791 51,574 $50, 000 475 282 '865 W. H. Truesdale, superin¬ tendent. E. L. Mogge . 112 960 30 131 3,578 254 4,500 2,500 Mrs. Chas. V. Daniels . H. M. Dann, principal . 530 32, 820 700 1,922 Sherman Williams, chair¬ man. 1 1,209 1,251 100 63, 398 5, 000 2, 000 200 7, 418 28, 000 A. L. Peck . 400 Miss Carrie S. Ray . 291 234 873 100 100 215 G. H. Baskerville, B.A . 74 31 27 58 Il.DeW.De Groat . 4, 415 200 558 N. ,T. Ellsworth . 100 116 1,145 50 50 100 R. E. Brown, Ph. B., principal M. S. Parker, secretary _ . 20 25 25 50 161 100 100 George E. Dorr . 265 1,000 150 125 275 Mrs. Lillian M. Tanner, 200 65 25 25 50 president. W. B.Chriswell . 40 140 3201 F. L. Shepardson, principal. Dr. F. Estes . 1, 167 2, 950 25, 000 . 50 3 . 2,541 6, 835 20 20 C. H. Van Tuvl, principal _ F. C. Fawcett, secretary . 100 225 75 315 . 305 498 300 34 200 J. Luther Kistler . 260 7,375 4,897 2, 500 Miss Mary E. Van Orden _ 50 215 25 25 50 L. O. Markam . . . 200 53 987 51 23 74 Ezra F. Knapp, superin¬ tendent. Miss Mary L. Avery . 415 21,291 6,000 6, 000 1,200 200 1,851 20, 000 200 150 O. J. Merrell , superintendent Miss Helen A. Sliottenkirk. . 129 75 875 1,000 700 5 500 Louis A. Cheney . 376 126 937 25 50 100 Miss Edna A. Andrews . 100 50 2, 445 3,000 25 25 50 . 1 H. D. Bartlett . 50 25 95 1,000 . | Lewis H. Tuthill . 3417 3418 3419 3420 3421 3422 3423 3424 3425 3426 3427 3428 3429 3430 3131 3432 3433 3434 3135 3436 3437 3438 3439 3440 3441 3442 3443 3444 3445 3446 3447 3448 3449 3450 3451 3452 3453 3454 3455 3456 3457 3458 3459 3460 3451 3432 3463 464 3465 3166 3467 3468 3469 3470 3471 3472 3473 3474 1082 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. | Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 G NEW YORK — COn. 3475 Hoosic Falls . Union Free School . 1880 Sch . R. T F. B. 2,431 3476 Hornellsville . Hornell Free Library . 1868 Gen . O. T. F. B. 12' 000 3477 . do . Maple City Lodge, No. 15, A. 1876 Soc . R. C. Fr. B. l' 400 O. U. W. 3478 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 3479 Horseheads. . . _ . do . Sch . .... T. F. B. 1,006 3480 Hudson . Hendrick Hudson Chapter, 1898 Gen . T. F. B. 4, 561 D. A.R., Free Library." 3481 . do . Public School Library . . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1,984 3482 . do . Y.M.C.A . . 1867 Y.M.C.A. .... C. S. C. 1,100 3483 Huntington . Library Association . 1875 Gen . c. S. B. 5, 044 3484 Ilion . Free Public Library . 1893 Gen . o.J T. F. B. 10, 872 3485 . do . Public School Library . 1893 Sch . T. Fr. R. 2, 600 3486 Irvington . Public High School . 1883 Sch . T. F. B. 2,323 3487 Islip . Library Association . 1884 Gen . R. C. S. B. 2, 000 3488 Ithaca . Cornell Library Association . 1866 Gen . O. C. F. B. 20, 670 3489 . do . Cornell University . 1868 Col . O. C. Fr. B. 225, 022 3490 . do . Public High School . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. 1,600 3491 Jamaica . . do . 1860 Sch . rp F B. 2, 000 3492 Jamestown . James Prendergast Free Li- 1880 Gen . O. C. F. B. 16, 113 brary. 3493 . do . Public High School . 1868 Sch . T. F. B. 4. 442 3494 _ _ do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1884 Y.M.C.A. C. F. B. 1,759 3495 Johnstown . Johnstown Library . 1898 Gen . T. F. B. 4, 380 3496 Jordan . Free Academy Library* . Sch . T. F. B. 1,239 3497 Jordanville . Public Library . 1893 Gen .... C. F B. 1,067 3498 Katonah . Village Improvement Society 1878 Soc . R. c. s. B. 1,953 Library. 3499 Keeseville . McAuley Academy Library. . Sch . c. F. B. 1,000 3500 . do . Public High School . 1854 Sch . T. F. B. 1,600 3501 Keuka College _ Public Library . 1896 Gen . c. F. B. 1,509 3502 Kingston . City Library . 1899 Gen _ B. F. B. 3' 069 3503 . do . Kingston Academy Library. . 1774 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,700 3504 . do . Law Library of the Third Ju- 1876 Law . T. F. R. 6,202 dicial District. 3505 _ _ do . School Library (Elementary) 1838 Sch . T. B. 2,445 3506 Lancaster . Lancaster (The) Library . 1882 Gen . C. S. c. lj 455 3507 . do . Public High School . Sell . T. F. B. R400 3508 Lawrence . . cl o ... A . ., . Sch . T. F. B. 1, 200 3509 Leroy . Ladi es Library Association . . 1874 Gen . R. C. S. C. 3^000 3510 . do . Public High School. . . . . 1891 Sch . . . T. F. B. l' 468 3511 Liberty . Public Library . 1894 Gen . T. F B. 2, 000 3512 Lima . Genesee Wesleyan Seminary. 1832 Sch . c. F. B. 5,000 3513 Little Falls . Public School Library . Sch . m F. B. 5; 000 3514 Liverpool . Union School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 3515 Loekport . St. Joseph’s Academy and 1866 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,179 Industrial Female School. 3516 Long Island City . Public Hi all School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,00S 3517 . do . Queens Borough Library1 _ 1896 Gen . R. T. F. B. 14, 420 3518 Lowville . Lowville Academy . Sch . C. F B. 4'. 095 3519 . do . State Street High School . Sch . T. F. R. 1,500 3520 Lyons . Union School . 1810 Sch . B. F B. 3,450 3521 Malone . Franklin Academy Library.. Sch . T. F. B. 2,250 3522 . do . Village School District Li- Sch . O. T. F. B. 6,402 brary. 3523 . do . Wadbams P.eading Circle 1894 Soc . R. C. F. B. 1,352 Library. 3524 Manlius . Public High School . 1877 Sch . T. F. B. 1,700 3525 Marathon . Peck Memorial Library . 1893 Gen . O. C. F. B. 2, 990 3526 Margaretville . . . . Union School Library . 1893 Sch . B. F B. 1,025 3527 Maspetli . Borough of Queens Library, Sch . T. F. B. 1,200 School No. 72. 3528 . do . Public School L jrarv . Sch . T. F. B. 1,298 3529 . do . Union Free School Library*. Sch . T. Fr. B. 3, 000 * Statistics of 1895-96. 1 Including 3 branches. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1083 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 1 o A t? 14 15 18 17 18 100 3, 500 SU49 $263 B. Frank Cooley . 1,179 27, 120 1,500 $300 1,885 $5, 000 R. M. Tuttle . 200 100 2, 357 30 A. W. Logie . 2, 215 76 50 126 Elmer S. Pmdman, superin- tendent. 300 690 9, 594 500 700 Miss Esther E. Boardman... 358 3,470 97 97 194 F. J. Sagendorph . . 20 W. C. Til lard I . 600 5, 627 422 $900 Miss Mary F. Gaines . 544 43^ 226 1, 850 75 2, 558 3,000 25, 000 Miss Anna A. Perkins . 100 600 999 25 247 A. W. Abrams, superintend- ent. 854 100 25 125 Miss Alice P. Pongan . 8 117 1, S89 187 Miss Ella S. Clock” . 43, 122 S. H. Synnott . 38, 600 13, 741 18' 259 ‘34, 237 301,000 260, 000 George William Harris . 100 1,579 300 350 '700 F. D. Boynton . 150 65 3, 236 Miss Carrie E. Hoyt . 1,640 2, 295 59, 227 400 6, 428 150, 000 70, 000 Miss Mary E. Hazeltine . 500 509 15, 238 838 267 1,105 Rovillus R. Rogers, superin- tendent. 578 Chas. N. Ramsey, secretary. . 407 23, 328 200 200 400 60 102 2, 216 65 136 Miss Elizabeth A. Bell . 826 1, 234 371 •Miss M. Augusta Horton _ 250 80 560 30 83 Ernest E. Hinman, principal. 135 646 69 138 Miss Lora A. Marsh . . . . . 200 3, 069 19, 673 200 2, 495 E. S. Post . 1,000 7C 125 386 3S6 '772 M. .T. Michael . 68 600 600 1, 200 GOO Harry C. Smith . 50 227 2,000 86 50 136 C. M. Rvon . . 95 4,100 125 Miss A. E. Thatcher . .. 200 ' 625 120 120 240 Burk B. Farnsworth . . 35 250 3,650 125 50 179 E. De L. King . 80 3,500 250 Miss Katharine Cameron 79 2,507 100 100 200 Miss Emma Henderson . 106 3,000 100 50 162 Miss Linda Horn. . 500 50 45 B. W. Hutchinson, president 180 13, 300 250 121 529 Miss Dorothy Sheldon . 24 460 Sister Veronica . 300 2, 317 61, 568 5,000 200 5,318 Mis3 Jessie F. Hume . Arthur M. Johnson. . 1,000 160 4, 000 200 200 F. H. Gardner . 350 16,427 1,718 160 1,902 5, 0Q0 Geo. J. Whipple . 200 245 5,000 305 Mrs. J. J. Murphy . 100 860 28 14 47 Asa S. Knapp . 672 450 9, 392 50 200 1,233 21, 000 13, 500 D. B. Tripp" president . 300 125 600 25 25 85 R. L. Countryman . 50 90 Robert Eadie, principal . 57 98 94 94 Miss Fanny West . 200 3475 3476 3477 3478 3479 3480 3481 3482 3483 3484 3485 3486 3487 3488 3489 3490 3491 3492 3493 3494 3495 3496 3497 3498 3499 3500 3o01 3502 3503 3504 3505 3506 3507 3508 3509 3510 3511 3512 3513 3514 3515 3516 3517 3518 3519 3520 3521 3522 3523 3524 3525 3526 3527 3528 3529 1084 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Public , society , and school libraries in the United Slates 1 Location. Name of library. Date of founding. 2 3 NEW YORK — con. 3530 Matteawan . Howland Circulating Library 1872 3531 Mayville . Union School Library . 1857 3532 Meehanicsville . . . Public School Library . 1894 3533 Medina . Public High School . 1854 3534 Mexico . Academy and High School .. 1826 3535 Middleburg . Public High School . 1884 3536 Middletown . Public School Library . 1879 3537 State Hospital (Leonora S. 1877 Bolles Memorial Library). 3538 Mohawk . Public Library . 1893 3539 Montgomery . Public High School Library . 1791 3540 Montour Falls .... Cook Academy Library . 1872 3541 . do . Free Library . 1874 3542 . do . Union FreeSehool Library .. 1850 3543 Moravia . Powers Library . 1882 3544 . do . Union High School Library.. 3545 Moriah . Sherman Collegiate Institute 1873 3546 Morris . Public High School Library . 1875 3547 Mount Kisco . Union School Library . 1876 3548 Mount Vernon ... Public High School Library.. 1894 3549 . do . Public Library . 1896 3550 Nanuet . . do . . 1894 3551 Naples . Naples Lcademv . 1860 3552 _ tdo . Union School Library . 3553 Newark . Free Public Library . 1897 3554 . do . Union School and Academy Library. 3555 Newark Valley. . . Public High School . 1889 3556 New Brighton .... Arthur Winter Memorial Li- 1886 brary. 3557 . do . Sailors’ Snug Harbor Library. 1833 3558 . do . Staten Island Academy and 1886 Latin School. 3559 . do . Trinity English and Classical School.* 3560 Newburgh . Law Library of the Second Judicial District. 3561 . do . Free Library . 1852 3562 . do . Mackie’s (Misses) Seminary . 3563 . do . Mount St. Mary’s Academy . . 1888 3564 . do . Newburgh Theological Sem- 1805 inary. 3565 Newpaltz . State Normal School . 1886 3566 NewRochelle _ Public Library . 1893 3567 New York City Academy of Mount St. Vin- 1846 (Kingsbridge). cent. 3568 New York City . . . Aguilar Free Library 1 . 1886 3569 New York City American Chemical Society . 1876 (108 W. 55th st.). 3570 New York City American Female Guardian (29 E. 29th st.). Society. 3571 New York City American Geographical So- 1852 (11 W. 29th st.). ciety. 3572 New York City American Institute . 1829 (19 and 21 W. 44th st.). 3573 New York City American Institute of Elec- 1884 (26 Cort landt trical Engineers. st.). 3574 New York City American Museum of Natu- 1869 (77th st. and 8th ral History. ave. ) 3575 New York City American Numismatic and 1858 (17 W. 43d st.). Archseological Society. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 4 5 6 7 8 9 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 6,983 Sch . T. F. B. 1,024 Sch . B. F. B. 4' 209 Sch . T. F. B. 1,750 Sch . T. EL B. 2, 360 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 Sch . 0. T. F. B. 8’ 212 Asyl . B. F. B. 2, 629 Gen . T. F. B. 1,287 Sch . .... T. F. R. E 150 Sch . 0. Fr. B. 2, 371 Gen . R. T. F. C. E290 Sch . T. F. B. 1,200 Gen . O. C. S. B. 4; 000 Sch . T. F. B. 12, 000 Gen . C. F. B. 2, 000 Sch . T. F. B. E 450 Sell . T. F. B. T, 422 Sch . T. F. B. R100 Gen . T. F. B. 8' 200 Gen . T. F. B. lj 451 Sch . T. F. B. 1, 500 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,159 Gen . R. C. F. B. 2, 300 Sch . T. F. B. 1,800 Sch . T. F. B. 1,024 Sch . C. F. B. 8,615 Soc . O. c. F. B. 3, 500 Sch . c. F. C. 8, 615 Sch . €. Fr. B. 1,800 Law . T. F. R. 5, 665 Gen . O. T. F. B. 25, 000 Sch . C. F. B. 2, 500 Sch . c. F R. 1,120 Theo . c. F. R. 3, 500 Sell . T. F. B. 3,000 Gen . R. T. F. C. 8,550 Sch . C. F. B. 7,165 Gen . O. B. F. B 76, 779 Sci . R. C. F. R. 5, 000 Soc . c. F. B. 3, 000 Soc . O. c. S. R. 18, 600 Soc . c. S. B. 14, 265 Sci . c. Fr. R. 1,200 Sci . c. F. R. 46, 000 Sci . ! c. S. R. 2,000 * Statistics of 1895-96. 1 Including 3 branches. 1085 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 | 188 6, 357 $1, 363 $23, 000 Miss Josephine E. Badeau. . . 965 $50 $20 70 T. E. Lockhart, A. M., Ph. D . 50 650 3,000 437 797 L. B. Blakeman, superin- tendent. 75 175 2, 550 101 101 204 . Miss Laura S. Gay . 1,050 148 900 45 76 156 $1, 000 F. R. Parker, principal . 20 800 50 50 100 S. C. Kimm . 485 27, 453 2,000 200 2,286 . 30, 000 Miss Mary K. Van Kemen . . 289 80 5, 663 Selden H. Talcott, superin- tendent. 105] 4, 943 143 67 220 S. A. Watson . 1 48 518 10 10 20 J. I. Harkness, principal . 7 500 50 1,000 Charles S. Estes, principal. . . 159 5,029 100 65 22h Mrs. E. P. Hopkins . 1,000 50 800 100 100 G. R. Lamson . 39 3,000 H. M. Jewett, treasurer . 100 300 50 50 125 E. M. Sincerbeaux . 200 1, 500 5, 000 500 •1,000 B. L. Brown, A. M., principal 35 1,400 50 75 173 Miss Anna M. Shanessy . 71 83 lj 678 120 20 157 F. J. Carpenter . 6 150 100 100 200 Lydia F" Root . 226 914 43, 085 2,000 200 2, 526 500 Helen K. Gay . 78 1,288 60 60 120 Emory Rikert . 100 25 1,200 30 60 Huse T. Skerritt, principal . . 20 2 '925 Wm.C. Noll . . . . 485 8, 500 712 Calvin P. H. Vary, president. 2 3, 020 104 157 418 C. A. Hamilton, A. M . 125 400 4,000 50 215 451 J. Stanton Kingsley, princi- pal. 307 70 483 Miss Marion Canfield . 475 12, 000 D. Delehantv . 307 69 448 Fredk. E. Partington . 126 1,600 1,600 Wm. F. Cooley . 1, 500 84, 500 3, 155 5, 241 25, 000 Chas. Estabrook . Miss Eleanor J. Mackie . 100 200 50 Sr. M. Emmanuel . 225 J.G.D.Findlev . 50 Miss Jeannette Stetson . 1, 529 40, 008 3,500 200 3, 700 Miss Mary E. Huntington . . . '251 Miss Margaret M. Maher _ 13, 009 648, 199 Miss Pauline Leipziger . 500 500 15, 000 1,043 21,014 158, 000 80, 000 Geo. C. Hurlbut . 62 4 G eorge Whitefield, j r. , clerk . 100 400 Ralph W. Pope, secretary _ 3, 000 2, 799 Anthony Woodward, Ph. D . 7,500 37 2,032 7,901 Herbert Valentine . 3530 3531 3532 3533 3534 3535 3536 3537 3538 3539 3540 3541 3542 3543 3544 3545 3546 3547 3548 3549 3550 3551 3552 3553 3554 3555 3556 3557 3558 3559 3560 3561 3562 3563 3564 3565 3566 3567 3568 3569 3570 3571 3572 3573 3574 3575 1086 EDUCATION REPOST, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 NEW YORK — C'On. New York City American Society of Civil 1S52 Scien . C. Fr. R. 11,155 (220 W. 57th St.'). Engineers. New York City Arion Club Library . 18S7 Soc . c. Fr. B. 2,000 (59th st. and Park ave. ) . 3578 New York City Arthur W. Tams Music Li- 1885 Soc . R. c. S. B. 500, 000 ( 109 W. 28th st.). brary. 3579 New York City A seh en brood el -Vereiu Li- 1863 Soc . c s. R. 2,600 (146 E. 86th st.). brary. 3580 New York City Association of the Bar of the 1870 Law . 0. c. s. R. 50, 170 (42 W. 44tli st.). City of New York. 3581 New York City Authors’ Club Library . 1882 Soc . R. c. F. R. 1,500 (Seventh aye. and 56th st.) . 3589 New York City Barnard College library. . 1889 Col . c F. R. 1 000 3583 New York City Barnard School for Bovs’ Li- 1896 Sch . R. c. F. R. 5,000 (117 and 119 W. brary. 125th st. ) . 3584 New York City Berkeley School (B.osener 1894 Sch . c F. B. 1,000 (435 Madison Library). aye. ) . 3585 New York City Bibliothek des Dentschen 1868 Soc . c. F. B. 7,000 (115 E. 58th st.). Liederkranz. 3586 New York City _ Blackwells Island Peniten- Asy . T F. c. 3, 000 3587 New York City tiary. Boys and Girls’ High School. Sch . T. F. B. 1,219 ( 3080 Third aye.). 3588 New York City Boys’ High School Library . . 1897 Sch . T. F. B 1,570 (417 W. 114th st.). 3589 New York City Brier! y School Library . Sch . c. F. R. 5, 000 (17 W, 44th st.) . 3590 New YTork City Broome Street Free Library . 1885 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 2,300 (395 Broome st.). 3591 New York City Cathedral Free Circulating 1893 Gen . O. T. F. B. 44, 000 (120 E. 50t.h st.). Library.1 3592 New York City Catholic Club Library . 1871 Soc . O. C. Fr. B. 30, 002 ( 120 W. 59th st.). - 3593 New York City Century (The) Association .. 1847 Soc . O. C. S. R. 12, 500 (7 W. 43d st.). 3594 New York City Chamber of Commerce of the 185S Mer . R. C. Fr. R. 6, 500 (32 Nassau st.). State of New York. 3595 New York City City Library . 1847 Gen . T F. R. 20, 000 (City Hall). New York City College of the City of New 1852 Col . C. F B. 32, 326 ( 1 7 Lexington York. ave. ) . 3597 New York City Clionian Society Library. 1870 Soc . C. S. B. 1 265 (105 E. Broad- way) . 3598 New York City Coll eep of Pharmacy of the 1829 Col . C. F. R. 5,047 (115 and 119 W. City of New York. 68th st. ) . 3599 New York City College of St. Francis Xavier. 1847 Col . C. TT' T . B. 82, 000 (30 W. 16th st.) . 3600 New York City . . . Students’ Library.... Soc . C. S. C. 17, 000 3601 New York City Colleen Settlement 1888 Gen . R. c. F. B. 2, 240 (95 Rivington st.). 3602 New York City . Columbia, University 1754 Col . 0. c. c. Fr B 295, 000 3603 New York City Comstock School . Sch . F. B. 1,200 (22 W. 40th st.). 3604 New York City . . . Cooper Union for the Ad- 1857 Gen . . . . . c. F. R. 37, 000 vancement of Science and Art. 1 Including 4 branches. 1087 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. 1 Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 16, 941 273 Chas. Warren Hunt, secre- tary. 50 20 J. Bohne, literary committee 1, 000, 000 $25, 000 Arthur W. Tams . 70 Robt. Reitz . 1 , 819 William F. Kip . Rossiter Johnson, secretary. 50 Miss Elizabeth Metcalf _ _ _ 100 Theodore E. Lyon . J. Clark Read, registrar . 200 6,000 1 j 050 G. Otto Wolkwitz . 500 24, 000 John T. Murtha, warden _ Edward J. Goodwin . . 25 295 2,600 Hiram H. Bice . F. G. Croswell . 15 5 950 3 H. E. Waste . 1, 500 3,000 200, 000 $10, 817 11,108 $22, 000 J03. H. McMahen, director . . 1,000 Jas. M. Mooney . . . 800 262 3,000 397, 990 J. Herbert Senter . George Wilson, secretary. . . . 700 Philip Baer . 790 5, 168 2, 054 3 767 $32, 000 Henry E. Bliss . 59 500 50 J.C. Mackby . 1, 778 52 O. J. Griffin, secretarjr . 2,400 Rev. John F. O’ Donovan, S.J. 1 000 380 11,200 1 300 1 . Miss Elizabeth S. Williams. . 15, 000 22, 000 1,100,000 James H. Canfield . 20 Miss Lydia Day, principal .. 837 L. C. L. Jordan, secretary _ 357G 3577 3578 3579 3580 3581 3582 3583 358-4 3585 3586 3587 3588 3589 3590 3591 3592 3593 3594 3595 3596 3597 3598 3599 3600 3601 3602 3603 3604 1088 EDUCATION REPORT, 1809-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States 3605 3606 3607 3608 3609 3610 3611 3612 3613 3614 3615 3616 3617 3618 3619 3620 3621 3622 3623 3624 3625 3626 3627 3628 3629 3630 3631 3632 3633 3634 3635 Location. 1 NEW YORK — COll. New York City (108 W. 59th St.). New York City (286 Rivington st,). New York Citv (239 E. 14th st.). New York City (85th and 86th stg.). New York Citv (43 W. 47th st, ). New York City (120 Broadway). New York City (109 W. 54th st.). New York City ... New York City (63 Park st.). New York City (156 5th ave.). New York Citv (226 W. 42d st. ). New York City (20 W. 44th st.). New York Citv (226 E. 16th st.). New York City (Chelsea sq.). New York City (137 2d ave.). New York City (Westchester) . New York City (79 W. 23d st.). New York City (29 E. 32d st.). New York City (32 W. 123d st.). New York City (45 W. 42d st.) New York City (27 W. 44th st.). New York City . . . - do . New York City (36 Stuyvesant st.). New York City (343 W. 42d st.). New York City (726 Fifth ave.'). New York City (Westchester ave.). New York City (904 Lexington ave.). New York City (736 Lexington ave.). New York City (Kingebridge) . New York City (44 Second st.). Name of library. Date of founding. a ed 5 Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. a 0 O > 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 De La Salle Institute Li- Sch . C. F. R. 3,000 brary. De Witt Memorial Free Li- 1882 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 2,350 brary. Eclectic Medical College Li- 1865 Med . c. F. R. 2,348 brary. Ely’s (Miss) School for Girls.. Sch . c F. B. 1 000 English and Classical School Sch . c F. B. 2, 000 for Girls. Equitable Life Assurance So- 1876 Law . c. F. R. 16, 775 ciety Law Library. Ethical Culture Schools Li- Sch . c. F. B. 3, 000 brary. Female Academy of the Sa- 1847 Sch . c. S. R. 5, 944 cred Heart. Five Points Mission Free 1868 Gen . c. F. C. 2,100 Reading Room. Foreign Missions Library _ 1840 Gen . c. F. B. 7 075 Free Circulating Library 1 . . . . 1880 Gen . 0. B. F. B. 163, 465 Free Library of the General 1820 Gen . 0. B. F. B. 109, 955 Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen. Friends’ Librarv . 1880 Soc . c. F. B. 1 400 General Theological Semi- 1817 Theo . 0. c. Fr. B. 29, 633 nary of the P. F. Church. German Hospital and Dis- 1857 Med . c. F. B. 5, 929 pensary. Grammar School 99 . 1860 Sch _ ... T F. C. 1 800 Grand Lodge F. and A. M. 1885 Masonic . . _ c. F. R. 4,900 Library. Grolier Club . 1884 Soc . c. F. R. 6,418 Harlem Library . 1823 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 17, 202 Harmonic Club Library . 1852 Soc . 0. C. F. B. 15, 922 Harvard Club Library . 1890 Soc . c. F. R. 4, 334’ Health Department Library . 1866 Scien . T. Fr. R. 1,702 Hebrew Orphan Asvlum . 1876 Asy . C. F. B. 3^ 200 Hebrew Technical institute . 1887 Sch . c. F. B. 2, 270 Holy Cross Academy Library. 1858 Sch . c. S. B. 1 1,874' Huger Boarding and Day Sch . c. F. B. 1,200 School. Huntington Free Library _ 1891 Gen . 0. c. F. R. 5, 000 Institute for Improved In- Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 etruction of Deaf-Mutes. Jewish Theological Seminary 1886 Theo . c. F. R. 5,000t (Morais Library). Kingsbridge Free Library ... 1894 Gen . R. c. F. B. 1, 505 La Salle Academy Library. . . 1848 Sch . c. F. B. 2, 520 1 1 Including 10 branches. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 1089 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. ! Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations— State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 500 50 Brother Blimond, director . . 200 40 13, 245 Malcolm R. Birnie . 13, 390 40 G. W. Boskowitz, dean . Miss Elizabeth L. Ely . 300 447 Thomas Campbell . 860 . 325 E. White, R. S. H . 420 Jtio. Ernest Parker . 397 W. Henry Grant . 14, 574 1 , 585, 577 877, 167 98, 497 872, 250 8275, 000 J. N. Wing . 120, 818 4,167 6, 622 300, 000 Richard T. Davies . 807 1 , 400 3,337 6 000 50, 000 Charles Bull . 14 303 Hermann G. Klotz, M. D _ 100 1,500 30 30 Bernard H. Kelly, B. S . 2, COO 322 1,000 Alex. A. Clark . R. H. Lawrence . 1,711 124, 286 $5, 400 200 8,903 30, 000 Miss Bessie S. Smith . 214 499 11, 404 1,700 Hugo Hoffmann . 445 T. Frank Brownell, chair- man. 30 Roger S. Tracy, M. D . D. Adler, superintendent _ 153 162 Edgar S. Barney, principal.. 150 15 10 M. D. Huger . Owen H. Dolen . 250 200 500 E. A. Grever . . 1,245 100 P. Israeli . 192 9,840 Miss M. H. Winn . 86 1,040 150 Brother E. Victor, principal. 3605' 3606 3607' 3608 3609 3610< 3611 36121 3613' 3614 3615- 3616 3617 3618 3619 3620 3621. 3622 3623' 3624. 3625 3626 3627’ 3628. 3626 3630. 3631 3632. 3633 3634 3635, EC 1900 - 69 1090 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public , society, and school libraries in the United States 1 Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3636 NEW YORK— COn. New York City Literarische Gesellschaft 1883 Soc . R. C. S. B. 1,746 3637 (170th st. and 3d ave.). New York City (558 5th aye.). New York City von Morrisania. Lotos Club Library _ _ 1870 Soc . c. F. R. 1,200 65, 121 3638 Maimomdes Free Library. . . . 1852 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3639 (223 Lexington ave.). New York City (Grand Boule¬ vard and West 131st st. ) . New York Citv Manhattan College Library.. 1863 Col . C. F. R. 9,500 1,800 3640 Maritime Exchange Library. 1874 Mer . c. Fr. R. 3611 (16 Beaver st.). New Yrork City Mechanical Engineers’ Li- 1890 Sci . 0. C. F. R. 6,000 3642 (12 West 31st st.). New York City (39 Broadway) . New York City . . . brary Association. Medico-Legal Society Li¬ brary.* Mercantile Library Associa- 1872 Law . c. Fr. S. R. 1,500 262, 043 3643 1820 Gen . 0. C. B. 3644 3645 3646 New York City (150 5th ave.). New York City (5tli ave. and 60th st. ) . New York City (82d st. and 5th ave. ) . New York City (Governors Island). New York City tion. Methodist Library . Metropolitan Club Library. . . Metropolitan Museum of Art. Military Service Institute Li- . 1894 1880 Theo . Soc . Scien . C. C. c. F. F. F. R. B. R. 10, 000 2,000 5, 825 10, 000 80, 000 3647 1879 Gar . c. Fr. B. 3648 brary.* New York Academy of Medi- 1847 Med . 0. c. Fr. B. 3649 (17 West 43d st.). New York City cine. New York Academy of Sci¬ ences. New York American Veteri- 1818 Scien . c. Fr. R. 7,000 3650 (Columbia Uni¬ versity) . New York City 1S75 Med . R. c. F B. 1,400 3651 (141 West 54th st.). New York City (Central Park South). New York City (846 7th ave.). New York City ... _ do . nary College Library. New York Athletic Club Li- 1895 Gen . c. F. R. 3, 181 3652 brary. New York Caledonian Club 1856 Soc . c. F. B. 3,500 5,670' Library. New York Catholic Protec— 1867 Sch . c. F. B. 3654 tory Library (male dept.). New York Catholic Protec- 1873 Sch . c. F. B. 1,000 1, 000 3655 New York City (222 2d ave.). New York Citv (226 West 58th st.). New York City tory Library (female -dpt.). New York Eye and Ear In¬ firmary Library.* New York Genealogical and Biographical Society. New York Historical Society 1849 Med . c. Fr. R. 3656 1869 Soc . c. S. R. 4, 423 100, 000 3657 1804 Gen . O. c. S. R. 3658 (170 2d ave.). New York City Library. New York Homoeopathic Medical College. New York House of Refuge.. New York Institution for the 1880 Col . c. F. B. 4,886 2,200 5,000 7,971 3659 (63d st. and ave. A.). New York City (Harlem, Sta¬ tion L). New York City (412 9th ave.). New York City (Station M). 1825 Asy . c. F. c. 3860 1831 Sch . c. Fr. B. 3661 Blind Library.* New York Institution for the 1829 Sch . c. Fr. B. Instruction of the Leaf and Dumb. .... * Statistics ol 1895-96. 1091 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. 1 Name of librarian. d .o V-» X c3 a o Ph 1 £ co n S s .2 p +3 o cj o u _>> 8-8 « P.CC o <1 c5 a o o .2 -t^> O H 10 11 12 13 34 15 IB 17 18 106 392 8150 Paul A. Junker . ' 150 2,000 Chester L. Lord, secretary 6,886 • 173, 103 $9, GOO 10, 542 S. Hamburger, secretary _ 3, 000 100 Brother John Chrysostom, secretary. A. J. Hennessy . 500 250 5, 107 $65, 000 F. W. Hoadley . 2,000 5, 782 133, 258 *26, 516 750, 000 W. T. Peoples . 100 Charles Holt . 737 244 1,000 $5, 200 Wm. Clifford . 1,000 20, 000 John S. Brownne . 1,200 Livingston Farrand . . 10, 000 25 800 Hr. A. Eichhorn . 24 740 John C. Gulick, chairman... 450 William MacDuff . 800 300 6, 341 Bro. William . . 100 3, 000 5, 716 411 4,227 H. Calkins, jr . 8, 403 4, 878 11, 540 50, 000 Robert H. Kellev . 23 Charles H. Hornby . 200 F. Helbing . 16,124 607 1,866 4,200 Thomas Francis Fox, M. A.. 3G36 3637 3638 3639 3640 3641 3642 3643 3644 3645 3646 3647 3648 3649 3650 3651 3652 3653 3654 3655 3656 3657 3658 3659 3660 3661 1092 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 NEW YORK— COn. 36G2 New York City _ New York Law Institute . 1828 Law . C. F. B. 52, 373 3663 New York Citv New York Law School Li- 1898 Law . R. C. F. R. 9, 165 (35 Nassau st.). brary. 3661 New York City New York Press Club Library. 1876 Soc . R. C. F. R. 2,030 (116 Nassau st.) . 3665 New York City . . . N ew Y ork Produce Ex- 1872 Mer . c. F. R. 3,000 change. 3666 New York Citv New York Public Library1. . . 1895 Gen . O. c. F. R. 500, 000 (40 Lafayette place). 3667 New Yrork City New York Society Library. . . 1754 Soc . O. c. F. B. 100, 000 (109 University place). 3668 New York City New York Society of Peda- 1894 Soc . c. s. B. 1,500 (85th st. and gogy. Madison ave.). 3669 New York City New York Turn Verein . 1850 Soc . c. s. C. 8,000 66-68 E. 4th st.)'. 3670 New York City New York University Li- 1831 Col . O. c. Fr. R. 55, 000 (University brary. 3671 Heights). New York City New York Yacht Club Li- 1844 Scien . c. S. R. 3,500 (67 Madison brary. ave.). 3672 New York City . . . Normal College Alumnie 1886 Col . T. F. B. 6,280 Library. 3673 New York Citv Olivet Church Library . 1879 Gen . c. F. B. 2,970 (63 2d st.). 3674 N ew Y ork City Players’ Library . 1888 Soc . c. F. R. 2,123 (16 Gramercy park). 3675 New York City Protestant Episcopal Sea- 1874 Gen . c. F. B. 1,500 (21 Coen ties men’s Society (Cummings slip). Library) . 3676 New York City Ravson’s (Misses) School Li- 1895 Sch . c. F. R. 1,300 ( 176-180 \V. 75th brary. st.). 3677 New York City Reform Club Library . 1888 Soc . c. F. B. 8, 560 (233 Fifth ave.). 3678 New York City Riverdale Library . 1885 Gen . O. c. F. C. 2,000 (Riverdale). 3679 N ew York Ci t,y Sacred Heart Academy T,i- 1883 Sch . c. S B. 1,200 (Westchester) . brary. 3680 New York City St. Agnes’ Free Library and 1894 Gen . R. T. F. B. 8, 579 (2279 Broad- Reading Room. way). 3681 New York City St. Francis’ Hospital Library. 1866 Gen . c. F. C. 1 , 082 (609 Fifth st.). 3682 New York City St. George’s Free Circulating 1893 Soc . c. F. c. 3,509 (207 E. 16th st.)'. Library. 3683 New York City St. John’s College Library _ 1841 Col . O. c. S. B. 39, 000 (Fordham). I 3684 New York City St. Mary’s School Library *. . . 1890 Sch . c. Fr. R. 3,100( ■ (6-8 E. 46th st.). 3685 N ew York Ci ty St. Hharesa’s TTrsuline Acad- 1874 Sch . c. F. R. 1,000 (139 Henry st.). emy. 3GS6 New York City Salmagundi Club Library. . . . 1890 Soc . c. F. R. 1,045 (14 W. 12th st.) . 3687 New York City Spaldiua Literary Union . 1885 Gen . c. F. R. 1,000 (34 W. 60th st.). 3688 New York City (6 Spence’s (Miss) School Li- 1893 Sch . c. F. B. 1,000 W. 48th st.). "brary. 3689 New York City Teachers College (Bryson 1888 Col . c. Fr. B. 14,240 (120th st.). Library). 3690 New York Cif.y Tvpothetaa of the City of 1892 Soc . c. Fr. C. 2,000 (108 Fulton St.). New York. *Sta1 dstics of 1895-96. 1 Including all the branches of the Astor, Lenox, and Tilden foundations. 1093 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 1 1 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 2, 123 45, 000 $16, 636 William H. Winters . 1, 157 . 4,619 Miss Lucy D. Waterman . 100 200 250 Arthur Loring Mackaye .... 2,500 50 James H. Patrick . 140, 0C0 36, 775 150, 000 J. S. Billings, director . 1,733 35, 434 127,061 $188, 000 1100, 000 F. B. Bigelow . 150 150 1,200 6,000 Bernhard Strauss . 4,466 6,413 52, 500 1,000, 000 Leslie J. Tompkins . 600 T. C. Zerega, chairman . 480 3, 253 Miss Edith Rice . 110 7,227 William Denman, pastor. . . . 112 Edwin B. Child . Isaac Maguire . 100 Miss Amy Rayson, principal . 425 350 Walter T. Stephenson . 50 75 1,383 874 Francis H. Thorne . 1,000 300 Brother August . 1,894 121,740 $6, 950 7,567 A. L. Gibson . 100 18 Sister Josephine, secretary.. 300 6,000 250 Miss Emma A. Bays . 2,430 228 5, 284 396 15, 000 G. A. Pettit, S. J., president . . 100 . Mother M. Lucy, superior . . . 250 477 Wm. Henry Shelton . 300 E. Francis Gordon . 600 100 Miss Ella C. Williams . 2, 292 13, 181 1,000 100 8 Chas. H. Cochrane, secretary 3662 3663 3664 3665 3666 3667 3668 3669 3670 3671 3672 3673 3674 3675 3676 3677 3678 3679 3680 3681 3682 3683 3684 3685 3686 3687 3688 3689 3690 1094 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. tb £ Q} u O O Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 NEW YORK — COll. 3691 New York Citv Union League Club Library. . 1S63 Gen . n S. R. 11, 000 (1 E. 39th st.).' 3692 New York City Union Theological Seminary. 1836 Theo . 0. c. Fr. B. 75, 000 (700 Park aye.). 3693 New York City University Club Library . 1S79 See . c. S. R. 17, 609 (5th awe. and 54th st.). 3694 New York City Uni\Tersity Settlement Li- 1887 Gen . R. B. F. B. 4,867 (184 Eldridge brary. st.). 3695 New York City V el tin’s (Miss) School Li- Seh . c. F. B. 1,000 (160 W. 74th st.'). brary. 3696 New York City Washington Heights Free 1868 Gen . O. B. F. B. 16, 974 (Station M). Library. 3697 New York City Webster Free Libra r a* . 1894 Gen . O. T. F. B. 10, 050 (Foot of E. 76th st. ). 3698 New York City Weil’s (Mrs. ) School for Girls 1867 Sch . C. F. B. 2,000 (109 and 111 W. Library. 77th st.). 3699 New York City Woman’s Libra nr . 1873 Gen . C. F. B. 1, 500 (59 Clinton place). 3700 New York City Workhouse LibrarA' . 1876 Asv . T. F. B. 1,007 (Blackwells Is- land). 3701 New York City Y. M. C. A. Library . 1S52 Y.M.C.A. .... C. Fr. B. 53, 460 (317 W. 56th st.). 3702 New York City Y. M.C. A. Library (Harlem 1868 Y. M.C. A. .... C. S. B. 3,480 (5 W. 125th st.). Branch ). 3703 NeAV York City Y. M. C. A. Library (Railroad 1887 Y.M.C.A. .... c. S. B. 8,523 (361 Madison Branch). aye.). 3704 NeAV York City Young Men’s Christian 1888 Soc . .... c. s. B. 1,000 (Westchester Union Library. and Bergen ayes.). 3705 New York City Young Men’s IlebreAV Associ- 1874 Soc . c. F. R. 5, 000 (Lexington aA'e ation Library. and 92d st.). 3706 NeAV York City Young Men’s Institute Li- 1SS5 Y. M.C. A. .... c. s. B. 2,258 (222 BoAverv). brary. 3707 Ne\y York City Young Women’s Christian 1870 Soc . c. F. B. 27, 795 (7 E. 15th st.). " Association Library. 3708 N e w York Ci fy Young Women’s Association 1S94 Soc . B. F. B. 1,810 (33 2d st.). Library. 3709 N i a y n r a. Fa 1 1 s De Veaux College Library. . . 1852 Sch . c. F. B. 1,409 (Station A). 3710 . .do . Public LibrarA' . 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3711 Niagara TTniyer- Niagara University . 1857 Gen . O. C. S. B. 12, 000 sitv. 3712 North Chili A. M. Chesbrough Seminary 1869 Sell . c. F. B. 2,000 Library. 3713 North Tarry town Union School Library . Sch . T. F. C. 1,350 3714 North Ton a wan da Public LibrarA' . 1893 Gen . T. F. B. 4, 249 3715 Norwich. Public High School Library.. Sch . T. F. B. 5, 159 3716 Nun da . . do . 1876 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 3717 Nyack . Nyack Library . 1879 Gen . R. T. F B. 4,872 3718 . .do . . Union School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,412 3719 Oa k field . _• . . Public High School LibrarA'. . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 3720 Ogdensburg . . Public LibrarA' . 1893 Gen . O. T. F B. 10, 500 3721 Clean . Foreman LibrarA' . 1871 Gen . O. C. S. B. 67000 3722 . .do . Public High School Library. . 1850 Sch . T. F. B. 2. 900 3723 One1’ da . . Public High School Library Sch . T. F. B. 5, 000 (List. No. 4) . 3724 Oneonta . Public Library . 1892 Gen . R. T. F. B. 5, 838 3725 . do . State Normal School . 1889 Sch . T. F. B. 3,000 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIB PARIES 1095 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1000 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. 1 Receipts. > £ G - 1 G r~* ^ G aa G PH Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 1 3 1-1 15 36 17 18 298 S3, 500 ' William B. Child . 30, 000 766 4, 772 $82, 000 S100, 000 Chas. R. Gillett . 1, 504 W. H. Duncan . 550 91, S20 $4, 000 |200 4,950 Miss Grace L. Phillips . • 400 2, 572 63, 021 4, 100 6,083 52, 000 Miss Alma R. Van Hoeven- berg. 400 1.047 80, 702 4, 400 4, 650 18, 000 Edwin W. Gaillard . 500 100 Mrs. Matilda Weil . M. .1. Kemp, sunerintendent. 600 1 John M. Fox, warden . 4,000 2,000 ■ 17, 800 100, 000 Silas H. Berry . 50 2,907 521 Frank G. Banister, secretary 325 14, 432 2,560 100, 000 W. F. Stevens . 150 Wm, W. Lawson, secretary . 2,000 1,500 15,000 Percival S. Marken, presi- dent. C. A. Mohr . 2,145 84, 414 5,400 6,825 Miss Harriet F. Plusted _ 3 108 5,783 50 152 Miss Mary E. Underwood superintendent. 4 350 6 Wm. S. Barrows, master _ 1,774 53,023 4, 610 200 4,927 Miss Adele B. Barnum . 400 ' 200 : ft: ono 20 10,000 Rev. Luke A. Grace . 200 R. N. Thompson, clerk 2,380 60 60 200 693 15, 000 300 200 508 Clinton S. Marsh . 200 155 6,000 Mrs. Mina B. Blackman . 100 100 200 Miss Bertha Bergman _ 281 25, 782 1,030 200 ( 1,294 Miss Helen L. Powell . 50 40 1,200 A. H. Downey, principal 1,000 800 22, 246 1,200 200 2,440 Fred Van Duzen, Ph. D . 100 24 15’ 800 200 l’ 400 8, 000 8,000 Miss Ella P. Hazlett . 100 100 6' 000 400 100 '500 Ollin Wilson Wood . 332 12' 540 250 250 500 Miss Rosa M. McElroy 1,500 381 18, 838 800 200 1,065 Alva Sevbolt . 100 1, 800 100 ' 140 C. A. Schumacher, Ph. D _ 3691 3692 3693 3694 3695 3696 3697 3698 3699 3700 3701 3702 3703 3704 3705 3706 3707 3708 3709 3710 3711 3712 3713 3714 '3715 3716 3717 3718 3719 3720 3721 3722 3723 3724 3725 1096 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. 1 2 NEW YORK — COI1. bh a 'S rt 3 o > Name of librarian. io 11 12 13 14 1 5 1G 17 18 200 50 $30 $30 H. W. Harris, principal . 178 $25 40 83 A. K. Hoag . 750 1,348 96 $5, 000 $14, 000 Robert S. Kelsey . 145 14, 769 18, 000 96 300 300 200 400 Miss Carrie V. Sinnamon _ 450 20, 000 500 500 Mrs. J. B. Worthington . 500 30 1, 200 Robert K. Toag . 10 1,200 D. G. George . 100 324 2,902 2,580 19, 000 125 125 W. J. Deans . 100 300 175 175 350 W. E. .Tordon . 140 773 3,000 D. C. Hasbrouck, secretary . . D. M. Orleman . 500 * 288 14, 001 205 300 100 451 Miss Henrietta Hicks . 200 50 50 50 130 H. C. Jeffers, nrineina! _ 184 184 . | Frank Eno . ' 83 George K. Hawkins, princi¬ pal. Frederic H. Davis, superin¬ tendent. E.S. Hall . 279 25 115 500 506 16, 204 1,000 200 1, 222 200 50 950 190 2,000 500 Dexter Wheeler, secretary.. 1 696 288 5, 000 Mrs. H. E. Marshall . . 33 5, 536 24 24 E. G. Lautman, superintend¬ ent. F. S. Witherbee . 9 270 10, 687 35, 079 400 819 10, 000 8, 000 1,200 ...... 3, 110 700 3,810 Miss Elizabeth G. Thorne... Eugene G. Putnam . 127 T. B. Stowell . 1 , 012 1,088 65, 785 5,204 5, 204 80, 000 John C. Sickley . 4; 490 500 12 D. B. Ward . . . ." . 3, 187 Miss Frances A. Wood . 3G0 21 1.700 8.700 658 103 1,500 E. A. Bishop . 125 912 2,000 8, 000 W. I. Miller . 89 140 25 75 100 T. W. Stewart . 250 89 1,000 48 47 95 J . A. Bassett, A. M . 205 6, 223 125 446 .L H. Hand, president . 100 50 Madame Onahan . 2,936 133, 733 4, 000 1,112 5, 261 Mrs. Katharine J. Dowling. . Irwin Taylor . . 1,200 1,200 701 1,154 Sister M. Berchmans . 50 330 James M. Angle . . . 4,289 75 2, 445 72 23, 205 12, 000 120 40, 000 Alfred S. Collins . 120 A. H. Wilcox, principal . 65 Miss Jane E. Rochester . 250 429 Rev. Prof . Howard Osgood.. B. J. McQuaid, president _ F.II. Briggs, superintendent. 30 1,800 3726 3727 3728 3729 3730 3731 3732 3733 3734 3736 3736 3737 3738 3739 3740 3741 3742 3743 3744 3745 3746 3747 3748 3749 3750 37ol 3752 3753 3754 3755 3756 3757 3758 3759 3760 3761 3762 3763 3764 3765 3766 3767 3768 3769 3770 3771 3772 3773 3774 3775 3776 3777 3778 1098 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and. school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 -i 5 G 7 8 9 KEW YORK — COn. 3779 Rochester . University of Rochester . 1850 Col . O. C. Fr. B. 36 931 3780 Rochester (945 St. Western New York Institu- 1876 Sch . c. Fr. B. 8, 000 Paul st.) . tion for Deaf Mutes. 3781 Rockville Center . Public Library . 1894 Gen . T. F. B. 2 050 3782 Rome . Jervis Library . 1894 Gen . 0. C. ' F. B. 10, 604 3783 . clo . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1.400 8784 . do . St. Peter’s Academy . 1873 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1 133 3785 . do . Y. 51. C. A. Library . . 1871 Y. M. C. A. C. S. B. 2, 500 3786 Rondout (Kings- Ponckhockie Public Li- 1895 Gen . T. F. B. 1,600 ton"). brary. 3787 Rondout . Ulster Academy . 1870 Gen . T. Fr. B. 2 093 3788 Roslyn . Brvant Circulating Library.. 1878 Gen . 0. C. S. C. 1, 027 3789 Roundlake . Public Library . 1897 Gen . R. c. £L B. 1, 650 3790 . do . Summer Institute . 1886 Sch . B. Fr. B. 1 807 3791 Rouse Point . Union School . Sch . B. F. B. 1,200 3792 St. Johnsville _ Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 3793 Salamanca . Pinion School . 1881 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 040 3794 Salem . Bancroft Public Library . 1891 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 6, 160 3795 . do . Washington Academy Library Sch . T Fr. B. 1, 590 3796 Sandyhill . Public High School . 1871 Sch . t: F. B. 2, 000 3797 Saranac Lake . . do . 1896 Sch . m 1 . F. B. 1,275 3798 Saratoga Springs . Law Library of the Fourth Law . T. F. R. 5, 700 Judicial District. 3799 . . .do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1.517 3800 . do . Public Library . 1867 Gen . T. F. B. 4, 000 3801 . . .do . St. Faith’s School Library _ ] 890 Sch . C. Fr. R. 2, 000 3802 . do . Saratoga Springs Athenaeum 1885 Gen . R. C. & B. 6, 000 3803 Saugerties . Public High School Library. 1894 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,875 3804 . do . Public Library. . . . 1894 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3,404 3805 Savannah . Public High School Library. Sch . T F. R. 1 , 350 3806 Schenectady . Free Public Library . '. . 1894 Gen . R. B. F. B. 8, 363 3807 . do . Union Classical Institute.... 1854 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,243 3808 . do . Union College Library . 1795 Col . Tb Fr. B. 35, 314 3S09 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1875 Y.M.C.A. c. s. B. 1,965 3810 Schuylerville . Public School Library . 1874 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 3811 Seneca Falls . Library Association . 1894 Gen . B. F. B. 3,400 3812 . do . Mynderse Academy Library. 1867 Sch . rn F. B. 2, 150 3813 Sherburne . Public High School . 1847 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,550 3814 . do . Public Library . 1895 Gen . T. F. B. 2,382 3815 Sherman . Union School Library . Sch . .... T. F. C. 1,205 3816 Shortsville . M. M. Buck Free Library _ 1890 Gen . c. F. B. 1,000 3817 Sidney . Public High School Library.. 1886 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,000 3818 . do . Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2, 629 3819 Silver Creek . Academic Department 1840 Gen . T F. B. 2, 203 Union School Library. 3820 Sinclairville . Free Library . 1870 Gen . R. B. Fr. B. 1 , 752 3821 Sing Sing . Holbrook Military Academy 1866 Sch . T. S. R. 2, 500 (Briar Cliff Library). 3822 . _ _ do . . . Mount Pleasant Academy _ 1814 Sch . c. Fr. c. 12, 000 3823 . do . . Ossiuiup' Seminary for Girls Sch . . c. Fr. B. 1 , 000 3824 . do . Prison Library . . 1842 Asv . T. Fr. C. 7,800 3825 .... .do . Public High School Librarv . Sch . . . T. Fr. B. 2,429 3826 . do . Public Library . 1845 Gen . T. F B. 5,485 3827 Skaneateles . Library Association . 1877 Gen . O. C. S. B. 9, 536 3828 . do . Public High School . 1866 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,704 3829 Solvay . Union and Pligh School . 1895 Sch . T. F. B. L 300 3830 Somers . Somers Library . 1875 Gen . O. C. S. B. 1, 800 3831 Southampton . Public High School . 1891 Sch . T. F. B. 1,500 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 1099 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 11 15 16 17 18 a. 000 1 385 3 991 $3, 314 $25, 000 $100, 000 H. K. Phinney . 500 3,500 Miss Helen C.McNall . 36 8,000 $150 $100 329 Frank T. De Lano, secretary. 100 728 45, 408 1,200 2, 282 20, 180 20, 000 Miss M. Elizabeth Beach _ 430 125 400 60 Sister Mary Patrick. . 20 250 Louis W.M. Wilson, secretary 1 5, 082 108 75 186 W. A. McConnell . . 100 193 2, 576 100 100 200 John E. Shull . 500 90 475 6, 000 J. H. Bogart . 180 4, 887 420 Miss Louise E. Lodewick . . . 200 13 301 25 50 20, 000 Mervin D. Losey, principal . 125 300 660 107 132 264 George M. Lasell . 196 150 184 75 59 134 C. G. Campbell, A. B., prin- cipal. 300 3,025 150 150 300 . Thomas S. Bell, superin- tendent. 200 955 802 1,802 20, 000 Harris C. Rush, treasurer . . . 200 200 150 100 250 George A. Ingalls . 35 106 537 101 370 471 James E. Weld . | J. G. Salisbury . . 300 14, 000 450 100 550 Thomas R. Kneil . 25 MissE. A. Shackelford, prin- cipal. 200 10,400 910 Miss Elizabeth Brazee . 248 227 1* 567 221 150 371 Fred. N. Moulton, principal. 462 ll' 387 625 200 964 Fred. N. Moulton . 350 211 1,300 60 60 120 E. G. Merritt, principal . 400 1,261 49; 274 1,500 200 3,113 Henry Glen . 330 ' 189 78 78 156 Arthur Marvin, A. M., prin- cipal. 263 690 200 1,241 Andrew V. V. Raymond, president. 37 William F. Cronin . 100 113 55 25 80 N. L. Coleman, principal _ 10, 000 Miss Ellen Wickes . 252 105 1, 000 85 30 115 C. Willard Rice, superin- tendent. 79 106 433 65 66 131 Charles R. Loomis _ _ 1,300 300 3, 656 150 175 356 Miss Anna M. Merrihew _ 113 1,235 67 50 117 C. W. Myrick, secretary board of "education. 25 15 600 Mrs. O. C. Buck . 200 400 2,418 200 200 541 Win. Thorp, district clerk .. 375 f 613 175 175 510 Miss Sarah M. Tabor . 100 41 3; 500 25 280 ......... ......... J. L. Walthart, superintend- ent. 50 92 1, 670 60 Mrs. A. E. Fife . 100 Rossiter Holbrook . C. F. Brusie, principal . 500 500 Rev. Geo. Sanderson, chap- lain. 443 20, 557 343 400 745 J. Irving Gorton . 270 5, 546 1,184 3,000 Miss Lydia A. Cobane . 31 25 25 50 H. I. Miner, A. M . 150 1, 200 102 100 202 C. O. Richards . 37 '648 60 300 Miss Ruth Tompkins, t.reas- urer. 100 116 300 40 40 110 Charles E. Keck, principal . . B779 37S0 3781 3782 3783 3784 3785 3786 3787 3788 3789 3790 3791 3792 3793 3794 3795 3796 3797 3798 3799 3800 3801 3801’ 3803 3804 3805 3806 3807 3808 3809 3S1 0 3811 3312 3813 3814 3815 3816 3817 3818 3819 3820 3821 3822 3823 3824 3825 3826 3827 3828 3829 3830 3831 1100 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States 3832 3833 3834 3835 3836 3837 3838 3839 3840 3841 3842 3813 3844 3845 3846 3847 3848 3849 3850 3851 3852 3853 3854 3855 3856 3857 3858 3859 3860 3861 3862 3863 3864 3865 3866 3867 3868 3869 3870 3871 3872 3873 3874 3875 3876 Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. | Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. • _ 1 Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 | | NEW YORK — COn. Southampton . Rogers Memorial Library.... 1893 Gen . O. B. F. B. 4, 520 South Glens Falls. Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 Springville . Griffith Institute Library .... Sch . T. Fr. B. 1* 375 . do . Public Library. . . "... 1893 Gen . T. F. B. 3,500 Stamford . Seminary and Union School 1870 Sch . T. F. B. 3*350 Library. Stanfordville . Christian Biblical Institute.. 1872 Theo . 0. C. Fr. R. 2,174 Stillwater . Union School Library . 1883 Sch . T. F. B. 1,526 Syracuse . Academy of the Sacred Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,500 Heart Library. • 1 . do . Central Library . 1 855 Gen . T F. B. 47, 000 . do . Court of Appeals . 1849 Law . T. F. R. 25* 000 . do . Onondaga County Orphan 1885 Asy . C. Fr. B. 2*700 Asylum (White "Memorial i Library). . do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 4,072 . do . St. John’s Catholic Academy. 1867 Sch . C. S. B. 1*735 . do . Syracuse University . 1871 Col . 0. c F. B. 45, 681 Syracuse ( 309 College of Medicine . 1870 Med . c. F. R. o, 109 Orange st. )'. Syracuse (626 Uni- William C. Ruger Lav/ 1899 Law . c. F. R. 1,500 versity Block) . . Library. Syracuse . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1858 Y.M.C. A. .... c. S. B. 1,515 Tarrytown . Home Institute Library . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 . do . Irving Institute . 1891 Sell . c. Fr. B. 1,200 . do . Mason’s (Miss C. E.) School Sch . c. Fr. B. L000 Library. . do . Washington Irving High 1896 Sch . T. F. C. 2,767 School Library. . do . Young Men’s Lyceum Free 1869 Gen . C. F. B. 4, 234 Public Library. Tivoli . Public Library . 1895 Gen . T. F. B. 1,000 Tompkinsville ... Y. M. C. A. Library . 1887 Y.M.C. A. R. C. S. B. 1,700 Tonawanda . Public Library . 1896 Gen . T. F. B. 3,400 Trenton . Barneveld Library Associa- 1S75 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 2, 850 tion. Trov . Children’s Free Circulating 1894 Gen . R. B. F. B. 1,500 Library. . do . Emma Willard School Li- 1821 Sch . c. Fr. R. 2,500 brarv. . do . La Salle Institute Library . . . 1S78 Sch . C. Fr. B. 2,823 . do . Public High School Library . Sch . T. Fr. B. 2, 433 . do . Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti- 1824 Sch . C. F. B. 6i 285 tute Library. . do . Rensselaer Society of Engi- 1886 Soc . C. S. R. 1,000 neers Library. . do . St. Peter’s Academy . 1886 Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,000 . do . St. Peter’s Lyceum Library 1898 Soc . c. S. B. 1,600 (Parish). . do . Young Men’s Association Li- 1835 Gen . O. c. F. B. 41,000 brary. . do . Young Women’s Association 1895 Gen . c. F. B. 1,780 Library. T rum ansbu rg Public High School Library . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 Unadilla . Public High School and 1880 Sch . T. F B. l,800j Academy^ Union . Union School Library . 1891 Sch . T. F. C. 1,300 Union Springs Oakwood Seminary Library . 1796 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2, 150 . do . Public High School Library . Sch . B. F. B. 1,200 Utica . Balliol School Library* . Sch . C. Fr. B. 7,000 . do . Deutscher Leseverein . 1848 Gen . R. C. S. C. 2, 600 . do . Faxton Hall Library . 1893 Soc . O. c. s. B. 1,100 . do . Female Academy . Sch . c. Fr. R. 2,000 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1101 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 711 13, 759 $200 $1,096 $9,000 Edward H. Foster . 40 125 1, 375 $71 71 C. G. Sandford, principal _ 400 11,392 525 525 Guy H. Leland . 500 96 5; 000 331 325 660 W. H. McAlpine, secretary . . 572 6 . Lester Howard . 200 138 2,192 60 50 110 Willis U. Hinman . 5, 714 145, 492 23, 078 734 23, 812 Ezekiel W. Mundy . ' 300 3,600 Z, 600 T. L. R. Morgan . i, 660 Mrs. Florence Hills, matron. . 45 33 Sister M. Columbina, prin- cipal. 18, 302 1, 762 5, 073 ‘3,338 $40, 000 Henry O. Sibley . 4, 000 650 1,095 Miss Abby M. Bond, secre- tary. 49 Frank R. Walker . 6 W. A. Perry, secretary . 25 J. M. Furman, principal . 1, 100 200 200 W. C. Wright . 26 728 10, 843 1 , 086 5,000 Marshal L. Bacon, principal. 50 25 25 25 50 Charles W. Townsend, prin- cipal. 200 200 200 441 11,407 300 200 500 Frank J. Diamond, secretary. 172 59 ' 700 100 2,000 Mrs. Julia E. Andrew . 164 20 19, 962 200 1,653 H. J. Ward, secretary . 43 Mary A. Knox, principal. . . 300 520 1, 000 293 Brother Arnold . 258 '278 5, 000 John W. Nugent . 800 20 J. W. Emig . . . . 200 24 75 Sr. M. Odilia, principal . 9 797 . 7 Anna B. Nugent . 4, 631 52, 088 6,896 61,000 150, 000 De Witt Clinton . 136 5, 354 50 152 Miss Kate A. Farnham . 500 75 800 42 25 118 F. M. Westfall, principal _ 200 5,163 200 100 300 Miss Marv Elliott . . . 100 60 700 25 25 50 J. L. Lusk . 50 10 T. H. Chase, head master _ 200 35 816 83 Jesse C, Bell, principal . 100 700 90 J. C. Schreiber . Miss Mary A. Thomas . L. S. B. Saunders . 3832 3833 3834 3835 3836 3837 3838 3839 3840 3841 3842 3843 3844 3845 3846 3847 3848 3849 3850 3851 3852 3853 3554 3555 3856 3857 3858 3S59 3860 3861 3862 3863 3864 3865 3866 3867 3868 3869 3870 3871 3872 3873 3874 3875 3876 1102 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. hi) .5 'S g o «4-f o o 3 ft Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. i 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 NEW YORK— COI1. 3877 Utica (287 Genesee Free Academy . 1853 Sell . T. Fr. R. 2,244 St.). 3878 Utica . Oneida Historical Society. . . . 1876 Hist . 0. C. F. R. 7,298 3879 . do . Public Library . 1893 Gen . T F. B. 29, 786 3880 . do . Utica Law Library . 1876 Law . t! F. R. 6, 715 3881 _ do . Utica State Hospital Medical 1843 Med . T Fr. R. 6' 000 Library. * 3882 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library* . 1889 Y.M. C. A. f! S. C. 1,200 3883 Yalatie . Public High School . 1888 Sch . T. Fr. B. ] , 375 3884 Walden. . Union School Library . 1890 Sell . T. Fr. B. 1,000 3885 Walton . Union School Library . 1858 Sch . T. Fr B. 2, 500 3886 . do . William B. Ogden Free Li- 1899 Gen . B. F. B. 2; 050 brary. 3887 Wappingers Falls . Grinnell Library . 1867 Gen . . 0. c. s. B. 6, 339 Warrensburg . Public High School Library . 1888 Sch . T. F. B. 1,155 3889 . do . Richards (Miss) & Kellogg’s 1890 C. S. C. 1, 6S6 (Mrs.) Library. Warsaw . Union School Library . 1853 Sch . T. F. B. 4,517 3891 Warwick . Warwick Institute Library. . . 1848 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,500 3892 Waterford . Public High School Library . 1895 Sch . T. F. C. 3, 600 3893 Waterloo . Library and Historical So- 1875 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 6,000 ciety. 3894 Watertown . Public High School Library . 1865 Sch . R. T. S. B. 2,800 3895 . do . Public School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 5, 399 3896 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1875 Y.M.C. A. c. s. B. 1,100 3897 Waterville . Public Library . 1873 Gen . T. F. c. 2, 350 3898 Watkins . Public High School Library . 1895 Sch . R. TL F. B. 3’ 300 3899 . do . Public Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4,000 3900 Waverly . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 3i 025 3901 Weed sport . . do . 1858 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1.481 3902 Wellsville . Public Library . 1894 Gen . T. F. B. 4,500 3903 West Albany . Y. M. C. A. (Railroad Depart- 1879 Y.M.C. A. C. S. B. 1,350 ment). 3904 Westfield . Patterson Free Library . 1896 Gen . C’. F. B. 10, 385 3905 . do . Public High School . 1837 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 500 3906 West Point . United States Military Acad- 1816 Govt . O. T. F. B. 44, 524 emy Library. 3907 West Winfield.... Free Library . 1894 Gen . T. F. B. 2,000 3908 Whitehall . Union School Library . 1884 Sch . T. F. B. R 600 3909 Whiteplains . Law l ibrary of Westchester 1861 Law . T. F. R. 5, 000 County. 3910 . do . Public Library . 1899 Gen . T. F. B. 3, 263 3911 . do . Union High School Library.. Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 3912 Willard . Willard State Hospital . 1869 Asyl . T. Fr. R. 3, 288 3913 Willets Point . United States Engineer 1891 Govt . T. Fr. P. 6,123 School (U. S. A.). 3914 Wilson . Union School Library . 1845 Sell . T. Fr. C. 1,500 3915 Wyoming . Free Library . 1889 Gen . O. C. F. B. 2, 615 3916 Yonkers . Public Library . 1893 Gen . B. EL C. 14, 787 3917 . do . St. Joseph’s Seminary Li- 1896 Theo . C. Fr. B. 22, 000 brary. 3918 . do . Woman’s Institute Library .. 1880 Gen . C. Fr. B. 3, 594 NORTH CAROLINA. 3919 Asheville . Asheville Female College. . . . 1842 Col . C. Fr. B. 3,000 3920 . do . Bingham School Library . . . . Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,500 3921 . do . Bishop Atkinson Library . . . . 1882 Theo . C. F. B. 1,946 3922 1 Library Association . 1879 Gen . c. S. B. 5,022 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1103 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations— State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 IB 17 1 8 300 264 Miss Viola Cook . Chas. W. Darling, secretary . 3,283 2,721 149, 260 $8, 850 $9, 281 C. M. Underhill . 191 1, 600 1,600 Eugene Stearns . 40 200 1,000 61 122 W. L. Millias . . . 600 400 1 800 200 400 . J. R. Fairgrieve _ 27 910 17, 791 200 597 $7, 200 Lewis E. Steele . 204 185 7,900 659 $13, 000 Mrs. E. A. Howarth.... . 125 40 40 L. C. Aldrich . . 100 1, 874 52 Miss C. Richards . . . 160 10, 767 1225 515 George W. Botsford, secre- tary. 100 100 70 70 140 L. W. Hoffman . 300 450 10, 097 200 20T 400 Alexander Falconer, secre- tary. 138 8, 658 80 649 10, 000 William S. Carter, secre- tary. 200 500 123 190 379 Gary M. Jones, principal .... 549 12, 241 800 846 Frank S. Tisdale . I . 6 400 S. B. Groner, secretary . 100 350 4, 000 50 125 235 1,000 W. G. Mayer, president 300 150 4, 500 300 250 600 Samuel S. Johnson . 200 8, 643 300 50 350 Frederick Davis . . 200 9,412 100 100 200 H. J. Walter . 187 2,052 51 50 101 L. R. Hopkins . 300 300 5, 235 5501 572 167 Mrs. Ida K. Church, secre- tary. 2,227 S. F. Fraser, secretary 845 20, 035 5, 322 10, 000 F. W. Crandall, treasurer . . . 50 4, 000 Berton K. Pattison, princi- pal. 7,400 1,513 9,792 73, 900 73, 900 50, 000 Prof. P. S. Michie . . . 30 125 1,500 50 57 114 Edwin M. Randolph, A. B. . . - 500 20 3; 000 191 191 W.W. Howe, superintendent. 1,000 90 Bert Thompson . 1,332 10, 489 1,329 600 1,929 Miss Clara F. Hopper. . W. A. Macy, M. D., superin- tendenh 322 175 John G. D. Knight, major, U.S. A. 250 161 4, 100 40 40 80 C. C. Seheck, orineipal . 140 600 4, 325 414 250 2,000 Miss C. N. J. Wheeldon . 1,267 62, 520 2, 000 200 3, 942 Miss Helen M. Blodgett . 2, 500 900 Joseph Bruneau . 200 200 8,669 97 233 Miss Mary M. Butler, presi- dent. 500 250 Archibald A. Jones, presi- dent. 900 Rev. Alfred H. Stubbs, warden. 532 10, 132 1,267 Miss A. M. Campbell . 3877 3878 3879 3880 3881 3882 3883 3884 3S85 3886 3887 3888 3889 3890 3891 3892 3893 3894 3895 3896 3897 3898 3899 3900 3901 3902 3903 3904 3905 3906 3907 3908 3909 3910 3911 3912 3913 3914 3915 3916 3917 3918 3919 3920 3921 3922 1104 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. si £ c c c £ 1 3923 NORTH CAROLINA — continued. Asheville . 3924 . do . 3925 Belmont . 3926 Buies Creek . 3927 Chapelhill . 3928 Charlotte . 3929 Concord . 3930 . do . 3931 Conover . 3932 Crescent . 3933 Davidson . 3934 Durham . 3935 . do . 3936 Elon College . 3937 Fayetteville . 3938 Franklin ton . 3939 Garysburg . 3940 Goldsboro . 3941 Greensboro . 3942 3943 . do . 3944 Guilford College.. 3945 Hickorv . 3946 Highlands . 3947 Ledger . 3948 Lenoir . 3949 Mebane . 3950 Morganton . 3951 Mount Pleasant . . 3952 Murfreesboro . 3953 Newton . 3954 Oakridge . 3955 Oxford . 3956 Raleigh . 3957 . do . 3958 . do . 3959 . do . 3960 . do . 3961 . do . 3962 . do . 3963 Ramseur . 3964 Rockymount . 3965 Rutherford Col- 3966 lege. Salisbury . 3967 . do . 3968 Trinity . 3969 Wake Forest . 3970 Waynesville . 3971 . do . 3972 Whitsett . 3973 . do . 2 Normal and Collegiate Li¬ brary. Public High School . St. Mary’s College Library . . . Buies Creek Academy . University of North Carolina. Biddle University Library . . . Laura Sunderland Memorial School. Scotia Seminary Library . Concordia College Library. . . Academy and Normal Insti¬ tute. Union Library of Davidson College. Public School Library* . Trinity College Library . Elon College Library . Cross Creek Lodge, No. 4, I.O.O.F. Christian College Library _ Public High School Library.. . do . Female College Library . Public School Library . State Normal and Industrial College. Guilford College Library . Lenoir College Library . . Hudson Free Library . Good-Will Free Library . Pioneer Library . Bingham School Library .... Kelly Library (School for deaf) . North Carolina College Li¬ brary. Chowan Baptist Female In¬ stitute Library. Catawba College Library .... Oak Ridge Institute Library. Horner School Library _ College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts Library. North Carolina State Library. Olivia Raney Library . St. Augustine’s School (Ben¬ son Library). St. Mary’s School Library _ Shaw University Library .... Supreme Court Library . Ramseur High School Li¬ brary. University School Library . . . Rutherford College Library. . Livingstone College Library. Public School Library . Public High School Library . Wake Forest College Library. Library Association . Public Library * . Whitsett Institute Library. . . Y. M. C. A. Library . ft 3 1886 1878 1895 1800 1874 1892 1896 1887 1884 1846 1844 1880 1888 1895 1890 1892 1837 1894 1884 1887 1875 1891 1895 1857 1852 1891 1821 1900 1897 1865 1812 1853 1899 1834 1891 1891 1855 Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,000 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 Col . C. S. B. 12, 697 Sch . c. F. R. 2,000 Col . c. Fr. B. 31,000 Col . c Fr. B. 14, 000 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,150 Theo . c. Fr. R. 2, 780 Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,200 Soc . c. S. B. 11,000 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2, 000 Col . 0. C. S. B. 13, 500 Col . c. Fr. B. 2,000 I.O.O.F.. .... c. Fr. C. 3^ 001 Col . c. Fr. R. 1,000 Sch . T. F. B. L 500 Sell . T. Fr. B. 3' 000 Col . C. S. B. 6, 600 Sch . T. Fr. B. 5' 000 Col . C. Fr. B. 2,000 Col . c. Fr. B. 6,000 Col . c. Fr. R. 1,000 Gen . c. F. B. 1,200 Gen . c. F. B. 6,000 Gen _ _ _ c. S. B. 2,000 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1, 500 Gen . c. Fr. c. 1,400 Col . c. Fr. R. 2,100 Col . c. Fr. B. 2,500 Col . c. S. R. 2,000 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2, 000 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,500 Col . T. Fr. B. 3.000 State . T. F. R. 35, 000 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 6,000 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2, 500 Sch . .... c. S. B. 4,500 Col . c. Fr. R. 2,000 Law . .... T. Fr. R. 13, 031 Sch . .... C. Fr. B. 1,000 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,000 Col . c. Fr. B. 5, 000' Col . c. Fr. B. 5, 000 Sch... _ B. Fr. B. 2, 000' Sch . T. Fr. B. 1, 000 Col . C. S. B. 15, 000 Gen . c. S. R. 2,000 Gen . 0. c. s. B. 11 i 656 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 Y.M.C. A. .... c. S. B. 4,000 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1105 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. bx> .3 'u rd Receipts. O *3 Pamphlets. Volumes added dr the year. Books issued durin year for home us d c *5 c3 a o Fh Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. Permanent en< ment fund. rO >» Fh d • too ^ p o Name of librarian. io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 200 150 4,000 $85 763 R. J. Tighe, principal . 900 364 F. Bernard, O. S. B., rector. . . J. A. Campbell . 12, 000 3,500 1,500 1,500 A. U. Frierson . Miss Melissa Montgomery, principal. D. J. Satterfield, D. D . 375 125 100 110 $500 1,500 50 60 Prof. C. A. Weiss . '300 100 150 Rev. J. M. L. Lyerly . C. S. Matthews . 100 ! 2,000 500 2,000 4,000 J. P. Breedlove . 25 W. D. Gasten . 200 150 Rev. Z. A. Poste, president. . . J. W. Blacknall . 200 150 $135 135 2,000 600 1,000 600 1,000 500 500 G. A. Grimsley, superintend¬ ent. 50 200 102 H. C. Hackney . 50 . Rev. R. A. Yoder, president. . Miss Albertina Staub . 400 50 18 300 710 Miss Laura Irby . 400 222 2, 124 76 Mrs. George F. Harper . Preston Lewis Gray, princi¬ pal. E. McK. Goodwin, superin¬ tendent. Edgar Bowers, president. . . . 300 200 600 220 4,000 150 100 15 J. B. Leonard . 500 50 60 M. H. Holt . 213 2,500 E. B. Owen . 464 500 500 M. O. Sherrill . 6, 000 $30, 000 A. B. Hunter . 75 Rev. T. D. Bratton, B. D . 75 C. W. Jewett, secretary . 439 R. H. Bradley . 2, 000 2,000 200 1,500 500 1,000 Chas.L. Coon, superintendent 5, 000 873 Wm. L. Poteat, curator . 500 100 122 Miss Frances Boone . N. M. Wetzel . 3923 3924. 3925 3926 3927 3928 3929 3930 3931 3932 3933 3934 3935 3936 3937 3938 3939 3940 3941 3942 3943 3944 3945 3946 3947 3948 3949 3950 3951 3952 3953 3954 3955 3956 3957 3958 3959 3960 3961 3962 3963 3964 3965 3966 3967 3968 3969 3970 3971 3972 3973 ED 1900 - 70 1106 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. • Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 NORTH CAROLINA— continued. 3974 Winston-Salem _ Salem Female Academy and 1804 Col . c. Fr. B. 6, 000 College. . do . West Salem Public School 1886 Sch . T. Fr. B. 3,268 Library. NORTH DAKOTA. 397() Agricultural Col- North Dakota Agricultural 1890 Col . T. Fr. R. 8,000 lege. College. 3977 Bismarck . North Dakota State Library.. 1S89 State . T. Fr. R. 13, 400 3973 . do . State Educational Library. . . 1890 State . T. F B. 3, 200 3979 Cassei ton . Public Library . 1897 Gen R. C. S. B. 1,200 39S0 Ellendale . Public High School Library. . Sch . T. F. It. L 200 3981 Fargo . Fargo College Library . 1890 Col . C. S. B. 3,400 3982 . do . Public Library . 1899 Gen . T. F. B. 1,300 S9S3 Grand Forks . Northwestern Normal Col- Sch . T Fr. B. R000 lege. 398-1 Hillsboro . Public High School Library. . Sch . T. F. C. 1,100 3985 Lakota . Circulating Library . Gen . c. Fr. B. 1,000 3986 Larimore . Public School Library . 1890 Sch . T. F. R. L 250 3987 Mayville . City Library . . 1900 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1,000 3988 ....‘do . State Normal School Library. Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,781 3989 University . University of North Dakota 1S84 Col . . . T. Fr. R. 7, 000 Library. 3990 Valley City . State Normal School . 1892 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,800 3991 Wahpeton . Red River Valley University. 1892 Col . C. Fr. B. 1,000 OHIO. 3992 Ada . Ohio Normal University . 1871 Go! _ O. c. Fr. B. 5,597 3993 . do . Franklin Library . 1872 Col _ T. S. R. 2,200 3991 . do . Philomathean Library . 1871 Col . c. s B. 1,644 3995 Akron . . . Buchtel College Library . 1874 Col . c. F. B. 6,000 3996 . do . Eva Hill Parish Library . 1888 Gen . c. F. C. 5,000 3997 . do . Public Library . 1873 Gen R. T. F. B. 19; 325 3998 Alliance . Mount Union College Library 1858 Col . c. S. R. 4, 000 3999 . do . Public School Library . . 1885 Gen . T. F. C. 1,936 4000 Ashland . . do . Sell . . T. Fr. B. 1,200 4001 Ashtabula . Free Public Library . 1895 Gen . .... T. F. B. 3, 995 4002 Athens . Ohio University Library . 1804 Col . C. F. C. 15, 000 4003 . do . Public School Library . Gen . T. F. B. 1,020 4004 Austinburg _ ... Grand River Institute . 1831 Sch . S. B. 2,000 4005 Barnesville . Public School Library . 1882 Gen . T. F. B. 1,900 4006 Bellaire . . do . ‘ . 1896 Sch . T. F. B. 1,548 4007 Bellevue . Public Library . 1891 Gen . R. C. S. B. 1,000 4008 Berea . German Wallace College Li- 1864 Col . O F. B. 3,000 bTarv. 4009 . do . Philura Gould Baldwin Me- 1893 Col . O. c. S. B. 6, 500 morial Library. 4010 Bov, ding Green . . . Public High School Library. . Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,000 4011 Brooklyn . St. Stanislaus Novitiate . 1897 Theo . C. Fr R. 5, 000 4012 Bueynis . Memorial Library . 1895 Gen . O. riL F. B. 2, 500 4013 . do . Public School . 1890 Sch . T. IL B. l! 300 4014 Cadiz . Public Library . 1880 Gen . T. s. B. 5, 500 4015 Cambridge . Public School Library . 1888 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 4016 Canal Dover . Public High School Library.. Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 4017 Canlield . Northeastern Ohio Normal 1883 Col . C. Fr. B. i; 5oo School. 4018 Canton . Public Library Association .. 1884 Gen . R. T. F. B. 6, 707 4019 Cardington . Ladies Public Library . 1878 Gen . C. s. C. 1, 383 4020 Ca.rev . Dickerson Public School Li- Gen . T. F. B. 1,100 brarv. 4021 Carthage . Longview Hospital . 1861 Asy . C. F. C. 2, 000 1107 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes ddded during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. 6 rrH *+ a; <3 g § 0 pH Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 8 E. A. Lehman . 2GC 600 Etliel McVeety . 600 81, 000 81, 000 1 Fred Falley . . . . 300 '300 Will M. Cochrane _ _ . . . 75 198 Mrs. N. E. Shugsby . 800 W. M. Lawyer, principal _ 500 100 P. G. Knowlton, dean . 200 Mrs. E. H. Smith . 200 32 E. L. Whitney, superintend- ent; 200 100 P. S. Berg, principal . 1 , 000 11,500 811, 000 J. Rosholt, treasurer . 100 l'OOO 100 1, 100 Joseph Garhart, president. . . Miss E. M. Bratt * . 1,000 250 George A. McFarland _ . 200 Edward P. Robertson, presi- dent. 600 97 216 H. S. Lehr, president . . J. H. Hurr . 53 P. L. Foucht . 430 85, 000 CLP. Olin . - Mrs. H. B. Raymond . 560 1, 000 56, 554 $7, 600 7, 845 Pauline E. Edgerton . 1 , 500 32, 100 517 . John E. Morris, superin- tend ent. .2,275 1,785 18, 385 800 _ 857 Miss N. E. Warmington . 2,600 a E. D unkl-e _ 50 125 40 102 F. S. Coultrap, superintend- ent. 300 15 1,200 52 Granville W. Mooney . 150 J. L. Hunt . . 4.685 300 200 636 Emma Sutter . 500 356 520 40, 481 40, 000 7, 000 G. F. Collier . Rev. A. Roebliff . 500 10, 000 600 1,281 500 A. M. McCracken . 150 30 7, 658 50 50 J. ,T. Bliss . 150 4, 200 400 525 Ella M. Ward . '890 C. L. Cronebaugh . 500 100 200 Nellie MneWhitnev . 307 30, 808 1,200 500 2,410 Mary P. Martin . 33 '866 40 100 Mrs. Clara Banker . . M' O c 3,000 S. E. Cochran . 3 2,500 E. S. Whitaker . 3974 3975 3976 3977 3978 3979 3980 3981 3982 3983 3984 3985 3986 3987 3988 3989 3990 3991 3992 3993 3994 3995 3996 3997 3998 3999 4000 4001 4002 4003 4004 4005 4006 4007 4008 4009 4010 4011 4012 4013 4014 4015 4016 4017 4018 4019 4020 4021 1108 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Public , society , cmr? school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. ! Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 a 4 5 6 7 8 9 ohio — continued. 4022 Carthagena . St. Charles Borromco Tlieo- 1876 Theo . C. Fr. R. 7,000 logical Seminary. 4023 Cedarpoint . St. Gregory Seminary Library 1891 Col . c. Fr. B. 4 000 4024 Cedarvilie . Cedarvilie College . 1896 Col . c. F. B. 1 200 4025 Chillicothe . Public Library . 1848 Gen . 0. T. EL B. 24, 500 4026 Cincinnati . Academy Sacred Heart . 1873 Sch . C. Fr. R. 1, 800 4027 . do . Bartholomew Classical Sch . c. S. R. 1 , 500 School for Young Ladies. 4028 Cincinnati (Oak Butler’s (Miss) School for Sch . c. £. R, 1, 000 st., Walnut Kills) Girls. 4029 Cincinnati . Central Turngemeinde .. 1854 Soc . 0. c. Fr. B. 3 000 4030 . do . Cincinnati Hospital . 1874 Med . c. Fr. R. 11 ' 881 4031 . do . Cincinnati Law Library . 1847 Law . c. Fr. R. 25, 000 4032 . do . Cincinnati Museum Associa- 1881 Scien . c. Fr. R. 2, 400 tion Library. 4033 . do . Cincinnati Observatory . 1S43 Scien . 0. c. Fr. R. 2, 500 4034 . do . Cincinnati Society of Nat- 1870 Scien . 0. c. Fr. R. 5, 000 ural History. 4035 . do . Cuvier Club . 1871 Gen . 0. c. Fr. R. 1,200 4036 . do . Educational Institute Li- Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,000 brary. 4037 . do . Hebrew Union College Li- 1875 Col . o. c. Fr. B. 15, 000 brarv. 4038 . do . Historical and Philosophical 1831 His o c. ■S. R. 16, 000 Society of Ohio. 4039 . do . House of Refuge Library .... 1852 Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,000 4040 . do . Hughes High School Library. 1852 Sch . c. F. B. 2, 500 4041 . do . Lane Theological Seminary. . 1829 Theo . 0. c. F. B. 18; 700 4042 . do . Law Library of the Cincin- 1833 Law _ 0. c. Fr. R. 6, 980 nati College. 4043 Cincinnati (Sta- Linwood School Library . 1890 Gen . c. F. B. 1,800 tion C). 4044 Cincinnati . Lupton’s (Miss) School for 1881 Sch . . R. c. Fr. B. 3, 000 Girls. 4045 . do . Mount Auburn Institute Li- 1856 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 brary. 4046 . do . Mussey Medical and Scien- 1875 Med c. Fr. R. 6, 059 title Library. 4047 . do . New Jerusalem Church . 181 7 Theo . c. F. B. 2,238 4048 .... .do . Ohio Mechanics’ Institute... 1828 Scien . O. c. Fr. R. 5; 600 4049 Cincinnati (Col- Ohio Military Institute Li- 1890 ’ Sch . 0. c. Fr. B. 1,700 lege Hill). brary. 4050 Cincinnati . Public Library of Cincinnati. 1867 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 203, 684 4051 . do . St. Francis Seraph College 1858 Col . c. Fr. B. 1,250 Library. 4052 . do . St. Joseph’s College . 1878 Col . c. Fr. B. 1,600 4053 . do . St. Xavier College Library. . . 1842 Col . c. Fr B. 17; 600 4054 . do . Students Library . ' _ 1870 Col . c. Fr. B. Si 900 4055 Theological and R el i cions 1863 Theo c. F. B. 6; 913 Library Association. 4056 . do . University of Cincinnati 1878 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 32, 427 (Van Wormer Library). 4057 Cincinnati (Sta- American Association for Scien . _ _ c. Fr. R. 3,800 tion E). Advancement of Science. 4058 Cincinnati . Woodward High School Li- 1831 Soc . c. F. B. 4,000 brary. 4059 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1848 Y.M.C.A. 0. c. s. R. 1,290 4060 . do . Young Men’s Mercantile Li- 1835 Gen . c. s. B. 63, 000 brary. 4061 Circleville . Public Library. . 1869 Gen . T. F. B. 9, 835 4062 Cleveland . Case Library . 1848 Gen . 0. c. S. B. 50; 000 4063 . do . Case School of Applied Sci- 1881 Col . c. Fr. R. 3; 100 ence. 4064 . do . Cleveland Central High 1893 Sch . c. F. B. 6, 100 School. 4065 . do . . . Homeopathic Medical Col- Med . c. Fr. R. 1,000 lege. 1109 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. ! Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. j Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 1,G00 150 50 Rev. P. Trost. . 4022 12 Henry Brinkmeyer . . 4023 200 3u $30 W. R. McChesnev, A. M. . 4024 6,000 750 22, 245 f600 $800 1,542 $500 $12, 000 Burton E. Stevenson . 4025 300 150 M. Raleigh . 4026 G. R. Bartholomew .. 4027 4028 95 700 Jas. Schleicher . 4029 1,700 281 147 710 P. S. Conner . 4030 600 Edwin Gliolson . 4031 J. H.Gest . 4032 760 75 ,T. G. Porter . 4033 350 2,300 40, 000 10, 000 Josia Gindahl . 4034 4035 4036 50 300 2,000 4037 62, 000 1,906 87 1,981 17, 000 30, 000 Catherine W. Lord . . . 4038 4039 30 140 4040 300 1,000 18, 000 12, 000 Prof. Henry G. Smith . 4041 Chas. A. Groom . 4042 M. F. Andrew . 4043 Katharine M. Lupton . 4044 4045 3, 779 4046 16 264 4047 200 225, 000 John M. Hubbell . 4048 120 W. L. Siling . 4049 27,208 8, 176 511,334 59, 097 65, 428 17, 300 300, 000 N.D.C. Hodges . 4050 112 50 Rev. P. Bernard Nuru . 4051 400 Rev. J. M. Scherer . 4052 4,000 300 John N. Poland . 4053 560 3, 000 650 Gilbert Ganaghan . 40:54 1 471 68 300 N.D.C. Hodges . 4055 195 800 2,251 60,000 Lila H. Hartmann . 4056 L. H. Hartmann . 4057 1,000 50 150 500 Geo. W. Harper . 4058 Geo. H. Fitch . 4059 1,020 29, 252 7, 500 30, 000 Alice McLean . 4060 2 000 551 31 878 1,356 1 391 35, 000 Mary Lowe . 4061 3,000 74,000 15, 507 500, 000 Arthur S. Wright . 4062 4,000 1,145 . do . 4063 15, 151 334 Augusta L. Seaman . 4064 4065 1110 EDUCATION REPORT, 1399-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States bo Location. 1 ohio — continued. 4066 Cleveland . 4067 . do . 4068 . do . 4069 . do . 4070 . do . 4071 . do . 4072 . do . 4073 . do . 4074 . do . 4075 _ do . 4076 . do . 4077 . do . 4078 . do . 4079 . do . 4080 . do . 4081 . do . 4082 Civ cl e . 4083 Collin wood . 4084 Columbus . 4085 . do . 4086 . do . 4087 . do . 4088 . do . 40S9 . do . 40S0 . do . 4091 . do . 4092 . do . 4093 . do . 4094 . do . 4095 . do . 4096 . do . 4097 . do . 4098 do . 4099 . do . 4100 . do . 4101 . do . 4102 . do . 4103 . .do . . 4104 Coshocton . 4105 Covington . 4106 Dayton . 4107 . do . 4108 . do . 4109 . do . 4110 . do . 4111 . do . 4112 . do . bO Name of library. 2 Cleveland Medical Library Association. Hathaway Brown School Jewish Orphan Asylum . Law Library Association _ Mittleberger’s (Miss) Eng¬ lish and Classical School. Public Library . St. Ignatius College.. . St. Mary’s Seminary Library. University School Library... Ursuline Academy . Western Reserve Historical Society. Western Reserve University (Adelbert College). College for Women . Law School (Franklin F. Backus). Medical College . West High School Library.. . High School Library . Public School . Capital University and Theo¬ logical Seminary. Franklin County Free Trav¬ eling School Library. Girls’ English and Classical School. Law Library Association .... Ohio Department of Agricul¬ ture. Ohio Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. Ohio Institution for Educa¬ tion of Blind. Ohio Institution for Feeble¬ minded Youth. Ohio Penitentiary Library... Ohio State Archaeological Society Library. Ohio State Library . Ohio State University . Phelps’s (Miss) English and Classical School for Young- Ladies and Children. Public Library and Reading Room. Public School Library . St. Joseph’s Academy Li¬ brary. Smythe’s Circulating Library Starling Medical College .... Supreme Court Law Library. University School . Free School Library . Public School . English and Classical Train¬ ing School for Boys. Law Library . Notre Dame Academy . Public Library . St. Mary’s Institute Library.. Steele High School . Union Biblical Seminary Li¬ brary. >r3 Ch * — 1 o 0 « Class. -U> 0 o £ ° -*■* a o' 3 ~ P* o o 1" p<° p 75 1 2 0Q U O o 0) £ Circulating, re or both. 02 0 S ! p o > 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1895 Med . 0. C. S. B, 7, 000 1886 Sch . C. S. B. 1,500 1868 Asv . c. Fr. B. 1,130 1870 Law . 0. c. S. R. 17,000 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,400 1S69 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 165, 868 1886 Col . 0. c. S. B. 7,572 1849 Theo . c. Fr. B. 10, 000 1891 Sch . c. Fr. B. 5^000 1850 Gen . 0. c. Fr. B. 12,000 1867 His . 0. c. S. R. 20, 309 1826 Col . 0. c. Fr. B. 37, 709 1888 Col . 0. c. Fr. B. 4, 000 1892 Law . c. Fr. a. 10, 000 1843 Med . c. Fr. R. 2, 000 1895 Sch . T. TP B„ 3 '500 1880 Sch . T. F. B. i,oco 1889 Sch . T. F. B. l'2C0 1830 Theo . C. Fr. B. 6, 000 1899 Sch . c. F. B. 2,500 1884 Sch . T. Fr, R. 1,500 1887 Law . C. s. R. 4, 216 1847 Scien . T. F. R. 5, 000 1851 Sch . T. Fr. R. 3,000 1874 State . T. F. B. 1881 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,752 1867 Gen . 0. T. F. C. 4, 000 1885 His . T. F. R. 1,500 1817 State . T. F. B. 66,235 1873 Col . T. Fr. B. S5i 274 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,500 1872 Gen . T. F. B. 32, 000 1S53 Sch . 0. T. F. B. ’ | 42, 148 Gen . c. Fr. R. 1,500 1S98 Mer . R. c. S. B. 3, 000 1870 Med . c. Fr. R. 3,300 1860 Law . T. Fr. R. 20; 000 1899 Sch . c. F. R. 1,500, 1898 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2, 800: Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 Sch . C. Fr. R. 1,200 1868 Law . C. S. R. 6, 0001 1886 Sell . T. S. B. l! 000 1855 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 48, 862 Col . C. s. C. 3, 000 1893 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2, 000 1875 Theo . C. S. Ii. 2, 000 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1111 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanen t endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. o d M d 4-> g O PR 1 £ G fl 4-5 .2 2 43 O d O % ~ ^ 0-2-3 *-< d ° c '“-1 o g o o o H 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 200 2,000 $2, 000 $7, 000 $15, 000 C. A. Hamann M. D . Mary E. Spencer . Dr. S. Wolfenstien, superin- tendent. 400 $1, 800 4,700 C. H. Kugel . . 10, 000 19, 422 876, 769 62, 739 72, 943 3,437 William H. Brett . '910 G. Schulte . . . 3,000 235 768 V. A. Cha.lounka _ 500 200 _ i Mother Superior _ 25, 000 1,200 40 11,500 75, 000 J. P. MacLean . 1,749 15, 334 E. C. Williams . 700 Prof. R. W. Peering . 1 , 000 5,000 10, 000 E. K. Hopkins . 25 250 3,000 G. C. Ashwum . 100 50 T. H. Johnston . 50 A. H. Wicks . 200 3, 500 $150 160 Wells L. Griswold . 2, 000 36 A. Pflueger . 1,000 700 W. B. Galloway . 2C0 25 L. M. Phelps . 600 i 800 Chas. T. Keech . 10, OCO 250 W. W. Miller, secretary . J. W. Jones, superintendent . 799 799 Pauline Grajr . 144 G. A. Doran, superintendent. 500 300 60, 000 J. D. Starr . 2, 000 1,000 Wm. C. Mills . 2,000 6, 875 35, 549 14, 640 14, 640 7, 000 7, 288 Olive Jones . 2,751 94, 533 6, 593 6,893 5, 250 John J. Pugh . 362 5,246 141, 170 6, 540 6,690 45, 000 Martin Hensel . 24 Sisters of Notre Dame . 20, 034 . Mary L. Clarke . 1,000 25 Adolph Eeiel . 10, 000 10, 000 Frank N. Beebe . Frank J. Cole . 500 441 500 350 1, 544 Joseph Love . 300 R.W. Hines, superintendent. 250 165 5C0 890 D. W. Iddings . 20 12 12 Sisters of Notre Dame . 2,500 2, 458 128, 673 13,866 14 259! _ 100, 000 M. I. Dry den . _ C. Eichner . . | . Chas. L. Loos . 1,000 inn _ 200 1 _ Wm. J. Shuey . . . 4066 4067 4068 4069 4070 4071 4072 4073 4074 4075 4076 4077 4078 4079 4080 4031 4G82 4083 4084 4085 4086 4087 4058 4059 4090 4091 4092 4093 4094 4095 4096 4097 4098 4099 4100 4101 4102 4103 4104 4105 4106 4107 4108 4109 4110 4111 4112 1112 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. i Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ohio — continued. 4113 Davton . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1887 Y.M.C.A. C. S. B. 3,000 4114 Defiance . Public Library . . 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4, 246 4115 . do . Public School . 1885 Sch . T. F. B. 1,500 4116 Delaware . Citv Library . . 1899 Gen . T. F. B. 1 000 4117 . do . Girls’ Industrial Home . 1869 Gen . T. Fr. B. 1, 600 4118 . do . Ohio Wesleyan University 1853 Col . O. C. Fr. B. 37, 108 Library. 4119 . do . Monnett Hall Library ... 1860 Col . . C. Fr. R. 1,250 4120 East Cleveland _ Public School Library . 1892 Sch . . T Fr. B. 1, 946 4121 East Liverpool _ . do . I . 1894 Sch . | _ c. S. B. 1,100 4122 Eaton . . do . 1886 Sch _ .... T. F. B. 1,000 4123 Elyria . Elyria Library . 1868 Gen . O. C. s B. 16, 000 4124 Findlay . Findlay College Library . Col . C. s Fr. 1, 300 4125 Franklin . Free School Library . 1895 Gen . R. T. F. C. 4,800 4126 . do . Public High School Library . Sch . T. Fr. B. 2. 300 4127 Fremont . Birchard Library . 1874 Gen . 6. c. F. B. 13,000 4128 Galion . Public School . 1880 Sch . T. Fr. B. 3,000 4129 Gallipolis . Public Library . 1898 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,980 4130 Gambier . Kenyon College . 1828 Col . 0. c. S. B. 30, 000 4131 . do . . . Theological Library, 1849 Theo . O. C. Fr. R. 10, 000 Bexley Hall. 4132 Garrettsville . Public School Library . 1875 Gen . T. F. B. 3, 050 4133 Geneva . Platt R. Spencer Memorial . . . 1894 Gen . T. F. B. 2,600 4134 Germantown . Public Library . 1888 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 3' 606 4135 . do . Twin Valley College . 1886 Col . c. Fr. B. 1,200 4136 Glendale . Glendale FemaltT College 1879 Col. soc . . . B. S. B. 2; 500 (Alumnae Library). 4137 . do . Glendale Lyceum Library . . . 1883 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 3,528 4138 Granville . Denison University Library. . 1831 Col . 0. C. s. B. 20, 576 4139 Greenfield . Greenfield Public School .... 1888 Sch . T. Fr. B. L 000 4140 . do . McWhinney Free School Li- 1894 Sch . T. F. B. 3; 900 brarv. 4141 Hamilton . Lane Free Library . 1866 Gen . T. F. B. 7,446 4142 . do . High School Library . 1880 Sch . T. Fr. B. R 150 4143 Hartwell . Public Library . 1895 Gen . T. F. B. R 041 4144 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,000 4145 Hillsboro . Public Library . 1877 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 7' 434 4146 Hiram . Hiram College Library . 1852 Col . C. Fr. B. 7, 585 4147 Hudson . Western Reserve Academv .. 1882 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,500 4148 Jefferson . Citizens’ Library Association . 1883 Gen . T. F. C. 2, 300 4149 Kent . Free Library and Reading 1892 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2, 300 Room. 4150 Kenton . Public Library . 1886 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2,950 4151 Lancaster . Boys’ Industrial School Li- 1854 Sch . T. F. C. l! 760 brary. 4152 . do . . Public Library . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 6, 531 4153 Lebanon . Mechanics’ Institute Library. 1893 Gen . C. S. B. 4” 263 4154 . do . National Normal University. 1858 Gen . C. Fr. R. 12' 000 4155 Leroy . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 4156 Li sbon . Lepper Library . 1897 Gen . 0. C. S. B. 3,326 4157 Lockland . Lockland Village Library _ 1886 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3' 260 4158 Logan . Public Library . 1897 Gen . T. F. B. 1,500 4159 Lorain . Public School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,500 4160 Mansfield . Memorial Library Associa- 1882 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 8,900 tion. 4161 . do . Public High School Library. Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 4162 Mantua Station . . . Public High School . Sch . T. F. C. R 200 4163 Marietta . Marietta College . 1835 Col . 0. C. F. B. 65, 000 4164 . do . Public School Library . 1898 Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 4165 Marvsville . Library and Reading Room 1897 Gen . C. S. B. 1,735 Association. 4166 . do . Public School Library . 1890 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,500 4167 Massillon . McClymond’s Public Library. 1897 Gen . 0. B. F. B. 9,400 4168 . do . Public School Library . ". . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1113 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. 1 Pamphlets. Y olumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. ri o o3 X -M 8 o U 1 * m §£ '13 o O O -h> S t* d ft-S u P.CC o < o5 s o o £ £ o H io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1,000 200 Chas. G. Reade . '420 413 19, 990 $778 $778 Miss Jewel Fouke. 100 200 2,400 100 130 R. W. Mitchell, superintend- ent. 387 4,585 1,134 1,634 Nellie F. Pratt . 18 Mamie 0. Betz . 3, 800 4,427 2,714 $1,900 1,900 $76, 000 T. G. Duvall . 30 C. B. Austin . 600 400 140 . W. H. Kirk, superintendent. 350 200 Robert E. E,ayman . 78 78 J. H. Gibbins . 590 $10, 000 Mary C. Parker . 500 12, 000 225 Rachael Hartley . 13, 000 Harriet Gast . 8, 000 I, C. Gunther, superintend- . . ent. 31 516 14, 370 1,026 1,138 Mrs. Addie A. Vanden . j . 645 2 ; 140 10, 188 Ellen D. Devol . 1,000 50 C. W. Cook . 250 300 2, 000 50 180 C. T. Houthrop . S, 000 S. J. Searle . 150 167 7,768 2,000 2,666 2,000 Mrs. Adelaide Taylor . O. G. Brown . . 75 Mary Potter . 47 800 Mrs. Samuel Bailey . 14, 300 876 4, 656 679 500 10, 000 H. H. Tuttle . ' . 200 80 130 J. S. Arnott . 7,662 310 1,000 1,310 Miss C, Biltimier . 90 14, 952 2,200 Florence S. Schenck . 294 39 5, 841 120 120 Harriet L. Marpe . I 418 454 21,000 Clara B. Perin . 400 500 515 Geo. H. Colton . 1,000 75 145 Olley Henick . 113 7,000 120 320 A. C. White . 300 20', 418 800 821 N.B. Rynard . 249 23, 818 643 978 Margaret Rogers . 300 C. D^Hilles, superintendent. 1, 607 771 40, 423 1, 600 1, 914 Ella Hite . 1,500 108 3,512 Miss Mary L. Frost . 200 50 John W. Withers . 250 200 300 J. F. Smith . 750 228 8,585 208 15, 000 Chas. C. Connell . 150 7, 000 1,000 1, 000 S. F. Dial . 14, 849 386 455 Margaret Saumenig . 200 375 F. DTWard. superintendent . 560 48, 000 2, 053 2,082 2,215 75, 000 Martha Mercer . 200 300 5, 463 300 D. W. McGlenen . 18, 100 3,271 20, 000 Miss Minnie M. Orr . 450 3,801 440 490 Anna B. Stephenson . 94 5, 725 231 Mrs. L. T. Henderson . L. B. Demorest, superin- tendent. 135 1,200 43, 230 1,759 3, 190 20, 000 15, 000 Charlotte D. Levirtt . 4113 4114 4115 4116 4117 4118 4119 4120 4121 4122 4123 4124 4125 4126 4127 4128 4129 4130 4131 4132 4133 4134 4135 4136 4137 4138 4139 4140 4141 4142 4143 4144 4145 4146 4147 4148 4149 4150 4151 4152 4153 4154 4155 4156 4157 4158 4159 4160 4161 4162 4163 4164 4165 4166 4167 4168 1114 EDUCATION REPOST, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 ohio — continued. 41G3 Middletown . Public High School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 4170 Minerva . Public School . . 1881 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 4171 Mount Gilead . Public School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 4172 Mount Vernon .... Public Library and Free i888 Gen . 6. T. F. B. 5, 240 Reading Room. 4173 National Military Putnam Library . 1868 Gen . C. S. C. 11, 041 Home. 4174 . do . George H. Thomas Library. . . 1869 Gen . C. S. C. 11,172 4175 Newark . Ladies’ Circulating Library.. 1876 Gen . C. s. c. 2, 800 4176 . do . Licking County Pioneer His- 1867 His . C. F. R. L 700 torical and’ Antiquarian Society. 4177 . do . . High School Library . 1896 Sch . T Fr. B. 1, GOO 4378 New Athens . Franklin College Library.... Col . C. Fr. R. 3,000 4179 New Concord . Muskingum College Library. 1892 Col . c. Fr. R. 3,500 4180 New Philadelphia. Public School Library . 1890 Sch . T. F. R. 1,400 41S1 New Straitsyille. . . do . . 1894 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1,400 4182 Norwalk . Young Men’s Library and 1866 Gen . C. S. B. 6,000 Reading Room Association. 4183 Oak Harbor . High School . *1875 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 4184 Oberlin . Oberlin College Library . 1833 Col . 0. C. Fr. B. 61,000 4185 . do . Union Library Association.. 1874 Col . c. S. B. 10, 537 4186 Oxford . Miami University Library... 1824 Col . T. F. B. 15, 960 4187 . do . Oxford College Library . 1850 Col . C. S. B. 3,000 4188 . do . Western College Library . 1855 Col . 0. C. Fr. R. 10, 343 4183 Painesyille . Lake Erie College . 1859 Col . c. Fr. B. 7* 000 4190 . do . Public Library . 1898 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 4, 800 4191 Perryshurg- . Way Library.! . 1881 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 7’ 000 4192 Piqua . Public High School Library. 1889 Sch . rr Fr. B. 10i 238 4193 Plain City . . do. . . . . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. l’ 000 4194 Pleasant City _ . do . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 4195 Pleasant Ridge _ Public Library . 1879 Gen . R. T. F. C. 2, 352 4196 Portsmouth . . do . 1879 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 10’ 900 4197 Rathbone . Girls’ Industrial Home . 1869 Gen . T. F. B. IffiOO 4198 Ravenna . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. R700 4199 Richmond . Richmond College Library. . Col . C. Fr. B. 3^ 000 4200 Rio Grande . Rio Grande College Library. 1875 Col . c. Fr. B. 2, 200 4201 St. Martin . Ursuline Academy . Sch . c. Fr. B. 6, 000 4202 St. Marys . Public School . i886 Sell . T. Fr. R. 2, 500 4203 Sandusky _ Public High School Library. Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,300 4204 Scio . Scio College Library . ! . 1 S66 Col . c. F. R. 2, 000 4205 Shelby . Public High School Library. Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,500 4206 Sidney . . Public Library . 1869 Gen . T. F. B. 4, 050 4207 South Salem . Salem Academy . 1842 Sch . 0. c. F. B. 1,863 4208 Sparta . Public School Library . 1885 Sch . T. F. R. 1,000 4209 Springfield . Warden Public Library . 1872 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 18, 300 4210 ,.;..do . Wittenberg College . 1845 Col . 0. C. Fr. B. 12, 000 4211 Steubenville . I. O. O. F. Public Library _ 1880 I. O. O. F. 0. C. S. C. 3; 942 4212 . do . Public School . 1881 Sch . T. E. B. 5, 500 4213 Tiffin . Heidelberg University . 1850 Theo . C. S. B. 15, 000 4214 . do . Public Library . 3878 Gen . o. T. F. B. 3,050 4215 . do . Pubb’c School Library . Sch . T. F. C. 1,700 4216 . do . . Ursuline College . 1870 Sch . c. Fr. B. 3,000 4217 Toledo . Public Library . 1873 Gen . 0. T F. B. 48, 000 4218 . do . Toledo Medical Library . 1889 Med . 0. c! Fr. R. 1,063 4219 . do . Ursuline Academy Library . . 1860 Col . c. Fr. B. 3,000 4220 Toronto . Central High School . . 1895 Sch . T. E. B. 1,000 42‘>1 Troy . Free Public School . 1896 Gen . T. F. B. 3,109 4-122 . do . Public High School Library. Sch . T. F. B. 2, 500 4-123 Uhrichsville . _ r do . Sch . T. F. B. 2,000 4°24 Upper Sandusky. Public High School . 1880 Gen . T. F. R. 2,000 4225 Urba n a. . . Public Library . 3880 Gen . 0. C. Fr. B. 3,100 4226 . do . Urbana University Library.. 1851 Sch . C. Fr. B. 5,800 4227 Vanwert . . Brumback Library . Gen . 0. T. F. B. 4,000 4228 . do . Public School Library . 1885 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 000 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1115 of 1,000 volumes ciucl over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. r~ * o 4-> c3 X & 4-> a o £ Appropriations — State, county, or city. 6 a o o e c3 o H io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 O.W. Kurtz, superintendent. M. W. Spear, superintendent. Gertrude A. Baker . . 1,000 100 185 73 503 100 SO 400 2,500 850 §60 2, 205 $2, 205 $6, 000 19, 064 26, 431 J. B. Thomas . . do . 300 65 3,000 Mrs. M. W right . . 17 225 James H. Smith . 5, 000 200 C. IV. Humes . R. G. Campbell . 200 250 905 . 487 21 6,200 2,508 1,000 240 198 225 2,617 600 1,503 Jesse Johnson . 300 200 926 250 ; G. C. Maurer . 725 Chas. IV. Cookson, superin¬ tendent. Mattie L. Husted . 233 23 3, 200 304 840 109 542 150 536 500 200 25 7,377 400 15, 000 6, 239 200 37, COO C. J. Biery, superintendent. . Azariah S. Root . $20, ooe 30, 000 Nettie E. Close . 1,000 Wm, J. McSurely . Rev. Fay Walker, president.! Miss C. D. White . 180 Mary Evans, president _ 21, 402 10,411 21,180 400 2,509 13, 000 12, 000 Mrs. Julia G. Erwin . 15,000 Mrs. Ann E. Frederick . 473 1,020 Sue E. Hetherington . O o O' D. N. Cross . I. . . i 76 400 18 4, 278 15, 650 120 1, 600 120 1, 600 P. D. Acomb, secretary . 3, 300 Nana A. Newton . Mamie O. Betz . 75 W. J. Dodge, principal . 400 800 . 1,300 G. S. Bohanan . 100 50 Sister M. Baptista . 50 J. S. Simkim . . 1,000 200 Ross Masters . 500 635 20, 760 649 1,753 Emma Graham . . Prof. C. W. Barrett . 175 50 1,635 595 20 200 69, 429 20 7, 940 350 133 Thomas F. Leonard . 5, 921 100, 000 10, 000 Alice Burrowes . 5, 000 Benj. F. Prince . 3, 000 Hattie King . J. S. Hawkins . 250 381 3, 200 16, 634 1,827 1,350 5, 000 T. H.Sonnedecker, secretary H. W. Michaels, secretary... C. A. Krout, superintendent. Mother Superior . 456 1,200 2,000 500 3, 725 177, 931 17, 277 19,681 130, 000 Mrs. Frances J ermain . 200 Dr. Park L. Myers, secretary Mother Superior . 20 25 148 100 S. A. Harbourt, superintend¬ ent. Mrs. Clara Williams . 18, 776 264 363 S. K. Mordis . 1, 800 100 125 13, 436 T. W.Shimp . Mrs. N. T. Houston . 300 John H. Williams . 4,500 4, 500 105 50, 000 J. P. Reed . £00 100 80 J. P. Sharkey . 4169 4170 4171 4172 4173 4174 4175 417(5 4177 4178 4179 4180 4181 4182 4183 4184 4185 4186 4187 4188 4189 4190 4191 4192 4193 4194 4195 4196 4197 4198 4199 4200 4201 4202 4203 4204 4205 4206 4207 4208 4209 4210 4211 4212 4213 4214 4215 4216 4217 4218 4219 4220 4221 4222 4223 4224 4225 4226 4227 4228 1116 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 (> 7 8 9 ohio — continued. 4226 Wapakoneta . Public High School Librarv. . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1 500 4230 W arren . Library Association . 1888 Gen . T. F. B. e' 038 4231 . do . Public Library . 1888 Gen . R. T. F. B. 6, 037 4232 Wauseon . .... do . 1875 Gen . C. s C. 2,000 4233 Waverlv . Public School Library . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 4234 Wellington . Public Librarv . 1873 Gen . T. F. B. 5, 050 4235 Wellsviile . Cleveland and Pittsburg 1875 Gen . C. S. B. 2, 763 Railroad Reading Room.~ 4236 Westerville . Otterbein University Librarv 1847 Col . c. F. B. 9, 522 4237 . do . Philomathean Librarv _ 1875 Soc . C. Fr. B. L400 4238 . do . Philophronean Society 1856 Soc . C. Fr. B. 2; 000 Library. 4239 West Mentor . Mentor Village Librarv . 1890 Gen . T. F. B. 2,124 4240 Wilberforce . Wilberforce University . 1856 Col . c. Fr. B. 5,000 4241 . do . Payne Theological Semi- 1892 Theo . c. TT B. 2,200 nary. 4242 Willoughby . Public School . Sch . T. F. C. 1,000 4243 Wilmington . Wilmington College . 1872 Col . C. g B. 2, 100 4244 Windham . Township Librarv . Gen . c. S. B. 1,200 4245 Woodville . Teachers’ Seminary Library. Gen . c. s. R. i ' 666 4246 . do . Woodville Academy Library. Sch . c. s. B. l'ooo 4247 Wooster . Free Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1' 500 4248 University Library _ 1870 Col O. C. s. B. 17, 000 4249 Xenia . Librarv Association . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 6, 631 4250 . do . Xenia Theological Seminary. 1794 Theo . C. Fr. R. 6' 000 4251 Yellow Springs _ Antioch College . 1853 Col . C. F. B. 9' 000 4252 Youngstown . Library Association . 1860 Gen . T. F. B. 16' 500 4253 . do . Rayen High School Library . Sch . T. F B. 2, 000 4254 . do . Public School (Reuben Me- 1890 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2' 000 Millan Library). 4255 . do . Reuben McMillan Free Li- 1860 Gen . O. T. F. B. 18, 451 brary. 4256 Zanesville . Buckingham Library (Put- 1840 Sch . c. F. R. 3, 750 nam Seminary). 4257 . do . Zanesville Athenaeum . 1829 Gen _ ... 0. c. Fr. B. 12, 000 OKLAHOMA. 4258 Alva . Northwestern Normal School 1897 Col . T. Fr. R. 1,000 Librarv. 4259 Chiiocco . Indian School Library . 1899 Sch . T. F. B. 1, 100 4260 Edmond . Territorial Normal School . . . 1892 Gen . .... T. Fr. R. 1,506 4261 Fort Sill . Post Library . Ga r . T. F. B. 1 , 000 4262 Guthrie . Oklahoma Library . 1893 Law . R. T F. R. 6' 000 4263 Kingfisher . Kingfisher College Librarv .. 1895 Col . c. F. B. 2, 100 4264 Norman . University of Oklahoma Li- 1892 Col . T. F. R. 6^000 brary. 4265 Stillwater . Agricultural and Mechanical 1892 Gen . O. C. F. B. 6, 000 College. OREGON. 4266 Albany . Albany College . 1866 Col . O. c. F. B. 2,500 4267 . do . Jones Circulating Library _ 1894 Gen . R. c. s B. 1,250 4268 Ashland . Library Association . 1891 Gen . c. S. B. 1,223 4269 Baker City . Public High School Library. 1889 Sch . T. F. R. 1,121 4270 Corvallis . Oregon Agricultural College. 1887 Col . T. Fr. B. 5,000 4271 Eugene . University of Oregon . 1882 Col . C. Fr. B. 8,500 4272 Forestgrove . Freethought Library . 1895 Gen . c. F. B. l' 200 4273 . do~. . Tualatin Academy and Pa- 1848 Col . c. S. B. 9; 985 cific University. 4274 McMinnville . McMinnville College Librarv 1857 Col . c. F. B. 2, 487 4275 Monmouth . State Normal School . 1882 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,000 4276 Mount Angel . Benedictine Sisters Convent 1891 Sch . c. S. B. 2; 150 and Academy. 1117 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. ; bo 0 ri > Fh cd . U CO ,0 bfl 10 £ u-t O o 0 Id Name of librarian. IQ 11 1 2 13 1 14 15 1« 17 18 1,229 $1 , 686 1, 500 $2, 793 1,920 $3, 500 3, 500 A. Elizabeth Smith . 1,228 Mrs. Marshall Woodford _ 47 1,976 2, 000 8,318 3, 559 112 liOOO Marv S. Hunt . 150 $16 84 F. E. Reynolds, superintend¬ ent. Lenora Lamdon . 250 470 2,000 116 T. D. Culbertson . 3, 555 300 225 W. J. Zuck . 75 201 3, 516 E. L. Weinland . 200 10 1,000 57 W. O. Lambert . 130 5, 190 200 . 210 M. C. Angier . . 1,500 . Rev. George F. Woodson _ S. D. Shankland . 100 60 1,200 75 75 600 50 ‘ 100 J. B. Unthank, president _ W. R. Davis, superintendent 1 . 6,159 5,000 34, 898 749 849 Miss B.Elsperman . 3,000 655 $35, 000 T. K. Davist . 429 2, 082 2, 290 Etta G. McElwain . 151 W. A. Bell . 2,538 67, 580 350 M. E. Gibson . 100 400 Geo. F. Jewett . 1,525 67, 450 400 20, 000 Minnie E. Gibson . 5 Mrs. Helen B. Colt . 19, 000 2,000 2,000 Jas. E. Eruent . 300 500 150 W. H.Blish . 32 J.G.Imel . 90 10 475 25 65 Rev. B. C. Hammond . 2, 000 1,000 2,000 300 1,800 2,300 200 Geo. H. Dodson . 50 Dwight E. Porter . 1,000 1,200 20 1,200 David R. Boyd . 600 3,000 30,000 Frank A. Hutto . 15 W. H. Lee, president . 475 200 1, 562 184 H. J. Jones . 186 203 Mrs. A. M. Carter . 243 175 175 J. A. Churchill, superintend¬ ent. A. J. Stimpson . 6, 000 2,000 760 8,000 1,407 170 Camilla Leach . . . 200 400 Oscar I. Freeman . 4, 000 548 1,000 568 653 850 Joseph W. Marsh . 68 32 Emanuel Northup . J. B. W. Binter . 370 48 500 Sister M. Rose . I \ 4229 4230 4231 4232 4233 4234 4235 4236 4237 4238 4239 4210 4241 4242 4243 4244 4245 4246 4247 4248 4249 4250 4251 4252 4253 4254 4255 4256 4257 4258 4259 4260 4261 4262 4263 4264 4265 4266 4267 4268 4269 4270 4271 4272 4273 4274 4275 4276 1118 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1899-1900 4277 4278 4279 4280 4281 4282 42.83 4284 4285 4286 4287 4288 4289 4290 4291 4292 4293 4284 4285 4296 4297 4298 4299 4300 4301 4302 4303 4304 4305 4306 4307 4308 4309 4310 4311 4312 4313 4314 4315 4316 4317 4318 4319 4320 Public, society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or Corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 OREGON — COnt’ d. Mount Angel . Monastery College and Sem- 1887 Gen . 0. C. F. R. 6,000 in ary. Portland _ A. O. II. 'W. Librarv . Soc _ c. Fr. B. 2,600 . do . . I. O. O. F. Librarv Association 1876 I.O. O. F.. c. Fr. B. 5,219 . do . Librarv Association . 1864 Gen . 0. c. S. B. 27, 000 . do . Multnomah Law Librarv 1891 Law . c. s. B. 7,000 Association. . do . Public High School Librarv. Sch . T. F. B. 1,300 . do . Public Library . 1891 Gen . c. F. R. 1,500 . do . St. Mary’s Academy and Col- Sch . c. S. R. 3; 000 lege Library. . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1870 Y.M. C. A. _ c. s. B. 1,976 Salem . Masonic Librarv... . 1879 Masonic . . R. T. s. B. 3, 000 . do . Odd Fellows Library . 1866 I.O. O. F.. R. C. s. B. 3^ 300 . do . State Library . 1850 Law . O. T. F. B. 25, 000 . do . . Willamette University Li- 1844 Gen . c. Fr. B. 4, 686 brary. PENNSYLVANIA. Alexandria . Memorial Public Library .... 1900 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 2,000 Allegheny . Allegheny Observatory Li- 1859 Sci . c. Fr. R. 2; 000 brary. . do . . Allegheny Theological Semi- 1830 Theo . c. Fr. B. 6, OOo! nary. . do . Carnegie Free Librarv . .-. 1890 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 41, 955; . do . Public School and Citizen 1871 Sch . R. T. F. B. 17, 000 Free Library. . do . Theological Seminary of Re- 1856 Theo . C. Fr. B. 3, 500 formed Presb. Ghurch. . do . Western State Penitentiary 1826 Gen . T. Fr. B. 9, 986 Library. . do . Western Theological Semi- 1859 Theo . C. Fr. B, 30, 000 nary. . do . Western University of Penn- 1787 Col . c. Fr. R. 20, 0G0 sylvania. Allentown . Allentown College for WTo- 1893 Col . c. S. B. 1,000 men. . do . Muhlenberg College . 1867 Col . c. Fr. B. 12, 500 . do . . Euterpean Society . 1867 Soc . c. Fr. B. 2,400 . do . Sophronian Literary So- 1867 Soc . c. Fr. B. 2,100 eiety. Altoona . Mechanics’ Library and Read- I860 Gen . c. S. B. 29, 302 ing Room Association. Ambler . . . Union Librarv . Gen . R. B. Fr. B. 1,235 Annville _ _ Lebanon "Valley College . 1867 Col . C. Fr B. 6, 000 Ashland . . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1.500' Athens . Athens Librarv . . 1898 Gen . .... o. C. E. B. 3, 000 Beatty . St. Vincent Abbey Library * . 1846 Soc . 0. c. Fr. R. 40, 000 . do . St. Xavier’s Library . 1S45 Col . 0. Fr. B. 1,200 Beaver . Beaver College and Musical 1853 Col . c. Fr. B. 2, 100 Institute. Beaver Falls . Geneva College Library . 1830 Col . c. Fr. B. 4,000 Bellefonte _ Public High School . 1889 Sch . T. Fr B. 2,000 . do . Young Men’s Christian Asso- Y.M. C. A. R. C. F. B. 1,100 ciation. Berwick . . . do . . 1878 Y.M. C. A. C. Fr. B. 4, 500 Bethlehem . Lehigh Preparatory School Sch . C. Fr. B. 2, 000 Library. . do . Malin Library of Moravian 1882 His . c. Fr. R. 1,416 Literature. . do . . Moravian Church Archives... 1742 His . c. Fr. R. 3, 350 . do . Moravian College and Theo- 1838 Theo . c. Fr. R. 6,500 logical Seminary. . do . . Moravian Parochial School.. 1742 Sch . c. Fr. R. 5,000 . do . . Moravian Seminary and Col- Sch . c. Fr. B. 6,000 lege for Women. * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1119 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during tire year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 1G 17 1 8 10, 000 400 $500 Dr. Urban Fisher . 4277 500 300 12, 000 $2, 140 Ben F. French _ 4278 18 $425 '425 Horace Smith, president. .. . 4279 1,070 57, 414 5, 668 $156, 000 75, 250 Davis Parker Leach . 4280 500 '200 1, 300 Frank J. Raley _ 4281 I. T. Davis . 42S2 1,000 2,010 William L. Brewster . 4283 4984 300 50 1, 108 -250 H. W. Stone, secretary . 42S5 35 150 300 John Gray . 4286 150 3,002 500 A. N. Moores . 4287 500 1,500 600, 000 J. B. Putnam . . 4288 2, 753 62 W. Hawley . , . 4289 100 2, 000 ■ 30, 000 15, 000 Miss E. S. Walker . 42S0 2, 000 F. L. O. Wadsworth, director. 4291 1,000 1,000 15, 000 D.-A.McClenahan . 4292 5, 021 108, 202 $20, 000 20, 000 500, 000 W. M. Stevenson . 4293 406 55, 000 J. W. Benney . D. B. Willson . 4295 300 38., 000 Rev. J. L. Milligan, chap- 4296 lain. 1,000 493 1, 165 1, 360 30, 665 J. A. Kelso . 4297 432 A. E. Frost, registrar . 42S8 200 112 500 65 4299 1,500 G. L. Ft linger . 4300 150 125 Lewis A. Ink . 4301 100 . Q. A. Kuehner . . . 4302 700 1,590 44, 802 7,739 C. B. Dudley, chairman . 4303 500 51 2, 100 75 215 1, 500 .T. M. Haywood, treasurer _ 4304 110 H. H. Slienk . 4305 20 700 33 . S. H. Clair, principal . 4306 100 150 ::::::: 258 . 25, 000 Mrs. L. IV. Murray . 4307 5, 000 . 1 . Rev. E. Gensheimer . 4308 50 4309 250 • Arthur Staples, president . ,. 4310 130 700 _ 200 Geo. Kennedy . 4311 100 100 600 25 150 D. O. Etters . 4312 J. Victor Royer . _ . 4313 400 145 5,544 64 1,000 Horace Breece . 4314 H. A. Foering _ 4315 12 Rev. .T. M. Levering . 4316 1,120 66 42 . Rev. .T. M. Levering . . 4317 120 125 2,000 Augustus Schultze . 4318 500 205 Albert G. Rau . 4319 . J. Max Hark . 4320 1120 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society , and school libraries in the United States 4321 4322 4323 4324 4325 4326 4327 4328 4329 4330 4331 4332 4333 4334 4335 4336 4337 4338 4339 4340 4341 4342 4343 4344 4345 4346 4347 4348 4349 4350 4351 4352 4353 4354 4355 4356 4357 4358 4359 4360 4361 4362 4363 4364 4365 4366 4367 4368 4369 4370 4371 4372 Location. Name of library. Date of founding. - 1 Class. Oivn or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 a 4 5 6 7 8 9 PENNSYLVANIA — continued. Bethlehem . Young Men’s Missionary So- Soc . C. s. R. 1,800 cietv.* Blairsville . Town Library . Gen . 0. c. Fr. B. 1 500 Birmingham . Mountain Seminary Library. 1857 Sch . c. s. B. 2, 500 Bloomsburg . Literary Institute and State Sch . T. Fr. B. 4.000 Normal School. Braddock . Carnegie Free Library . 1889 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 22, 939 Bradford . Carnegie Public Library . 1900 Gen . 0. T F. B. 6,600 Bristol . Public Library . '. . 1878 Gen . R. C. Fr. B. 2,858 Brownsville . Public Library Association . . 1899 Gen . R. C. Fr. B. 1, 769 Bryn Mawr . Brvn Mawr College Library. 1885 Col . c. Fr. B. 32, 138 Rnelringhfim Buckingham TTnchesiau Li- 1875 Gen . . . c. Fr. B. 2,396 brarvT Butler . Public Library . 1891 Gen . R. c. F. B. 1,500 . do . Public School . 1890 Sch . .... T Fr. B. 1,200 California . State Normal School . 1886 Sch . T. Fr. B. 6,000 Canonsburg . Canonsburg Library . 1879 Gen . R. c. F. B. 3, 500 . do . Jefferson Academy Library. . 1820 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 Canton . Public Library . . 1899 Gen . c. F. B. 1,170 Carbondale . Free Public Library . 1896 Gen . B. F. B. 3,075 . do . Public High School . 1886 Sch . C. Fr. B. I, 674 Carlisle . Cumberland County Law 1869 Law . T. Fr. R. 4; 171 Library. . do . Dickinson College Library... 1783 Col . O. c. Fr. B. 44, 000 I . do . Belles Lettres Literary 1800 Soc . 0. C. s. B. 12,000 | Society. ! . do . School of Law . 1890 Law . R. c. Fr. R. 4,000 . do . Union Philosophical So- 1789 Soc . c. S. B. 12, 000 ciety. . do . J. Herman Bosler Memorial 1900 Gen . O. c. s B. 3, 100 Library. . do . Metzger College Library . 1881 Sch . c. s. B. 1,200 . do . United States Indian Train- 1898 Sch . T Fr. B. 2, 350 ing School. C’atawissa . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. C. 1,000 Chambersburg. . . . Franklin County Larv Li- 1865 Law . C. S. R. 1, 800 brary. . do . . . Public High School . 1885 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1 150 . do . Wilson College . 1870 Col . C. Fr. B. 5,000 Charleroi . Public High School . 1894 Sch . T F. B. 1,000 Chester . Crozer Theological Seminary 1868 Theo . 0. c. Fr. B. 14, 6S1 (Bucknell Library). . do . Free Library . 1873 Gen . 0. c. s. B. 4,000 . do . Pennsylvania Military Col- Col . c. Fr. B. 1, 500 lege.' Clarion . Public High School . 1890 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,000 . do . State Normal School . 1887 Sch . T. F. B. 9, 000 Coatesville . Y. M. C. A. Public Library _ 1894 Y.M.C.A. C. S. B. 2, 200 Collegeville . Ursinus College . 1869 Col . c. S. B. 8,476 Concordville . Maplewood Institute . Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 Coudersport . Public Library . 1850 Gen . c. S. B. 2,500 Danville . Thomas Beaver Free Library. 1888 Gen . 0. c. F. B. lL 069 Darby . Library Company . 1743 Gen . o. c. F. C. 4,500 Doylestown . . do . . . . . . 1859 Gen . c. S. C. 5^ 000 Dixmont . Western Pennsylvania Hos- Asy . T. Fr. R. 1; 000 pital for Insane. East Downing- Downingtown Library Com- 1876 Gen . R. c. S. B. 1,800 town. pany. Easton . Library Association . 1811 Gen . O. c. S. B. 5, 000 _ do . Lafayette College . 1832 Col . O. c. Fr. B. 15, 000 East Stroudsburg. State Normal School . 1893 Sch . T. Fr. R. L000 Edinboro . . do . 1860 Sch . T Fr. B. 6,000 Elwyn . Pennsylvania Training Sch . C. F. 1 B. li200 School, F. M.C. Erie . Public Library . 1897 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 18,243 Factory ville . Keystone Academy . 1869 Sch . C. Fr. ] B. 3; 500 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1121 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. From taxation. ^ \ Appropriations — ® State, county, 0. or city. *3’ Total income. j Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. 10 11 12 13 14 15 1« 1 7 18 E. E. Beibel . 4321 100 6,038 $100 $280 $2, 500 A. Snyder, president _ _ _ 4322 150 Miss N. J. Davis . 4323 44 524 3,500 W. N. Detwiler . 4324 800 6,680 107, 404 12, 000 250, 000 Walter Crane . 4325 '992 2,060 3, 969 $5, 000 25! 000 E. V. Cody . . . 4326 139 4,556 164 J.K. Wilclman . 4327 2,077 43 Emma De Laney . 4328 8,000 2,544 5, 513 Isabel Ely Lord . 4320 500 '100 64 Miss E. C“ Cox . 4330 249 Mrs. E. M. Black . 4331 30 1,000 J. A. Gibson, superintendent 4332 1,000 300 3' 200 375 Miss A. M. Shutterly . 4333 800 2; 645 46 Miss L. G. Barnett . 4334 4335 243 3,594 $100 790 Miss Sarah F. Gates . 4336 600 625 26! 000 400 1,010 C. E. Spencer . 4337 36 2, 000 H. J. Hockenberry . 4338 255 716 Merkel Landis . 4339 300 . L. C. Prince . 4340 50 100 W. L. Moore . . 4341 400 . 4342 J.W. Kelley . 4343 179 6, 430 859 20, 000 Miss S. N. Biddle . 4344 Sarah Kate Ege, president.. 4345 300 119 2. 031 O. II. Bakelers. " . 4346 20 20 4347 100 350 400 William Alexander, chair- 4348 man. 60 155 Miss B. E. Elliott . 4349 2, 000 4350 300 180 J. A. Snodgrass . 4351 289 1, 120 540 10, 000 20. 000 R. P. Bliss". . 4352 100 12, 000 1,200 12, 000 Laura L. Hard, treasurer _ 4353 Chas. Hyate . 4354 200 100 100 100 L. L. Himes, principal . 4355 Nell M. Wetter . ..." . 4356 100 5,328 B.C. Pond, general secretary 4357 259 50 F. G. Moser . 4358 4359 100 3,500 125 Miss A. M. Glassmire . 4360 513 32; 842 2,073 40, 000 M. J. Wetzell . 4361 '231 l! 200 10, 000 Morgan Bunting, secretary . 4362 125 2,632 157 4363 '500 H. A. Hutchinson . 4364 66 1,982 999 P. II . Thomas . 4365 250 80 829 425 Miss E. M. Barnes . 4366 W. G. Forsyth . 4367 100 Geo. P. Bible, principal . 4368 2,500 126 1,520 William Most . 4369 M. W. Barr . 4370 2 6, 678 140, 020 20, 793 21,286 150, 000 C. E. Wright . 4371 20 Elkanah Hulley . 4372 ed 1900 - 71 1122 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1899-1900, Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PENNSYLVANIA— continued. 4373 Fall si no- ton . Fallsington Library . 1802 Gen . 0. B. Fr. B. 8,000 4374 Frackville . Public High School . 1886 Sell . T F. B. 1,200 4375 George School _ George School Library. . 1893 Sch . C. Fr. B. 2, 397 4376 Gettysburg . Lutheran Historical Library. 1853 His . C. Fr. R. 2,500 4377 . do . Pennsylvania College . 1832 Col . 0. C. Fr. B. 25, 000 4378 . do . Philomathean Society . . . 1831 Soc . C. Fr. R. 6, 295 4379 . do . Phremakosmian Society . 1833 Soc . c. Fr. B. b, 600 4380 . do . Theological Seminary . 1826 Theo . c. Fr. R. 15' 000 4381 Glen Mills . House of Refuge Library .... 1828 Sch . c. Fr. C. 4, 249 4382 Greensburg . St. Joseph’s Academy for Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 YoungTadies. 4383 . do . Underwood High School .... 1879 Sch . c. F. R. 2, 500 4384 Greenville . Public School . 1870 Sch . T. Fr. C. u 000 4385 . do . Thiel College . 1870 Col . c -ppr B. 7,194 4386 Grove City . Grove City College Library .. 1876 Col . 0. c. F. B. 3' 000 4387 Hanover . Higbee School Library . 1890 Sch . c. F. C. 1,000 4388 Harrisburg . Dauphin County Law Library 1865 Law . T. Fr. R. 3^ 000 4389 . do . Historical Society of Dauphin 1869 His . C. S. R. 1, 200 County. 4390 . do . Pennsylvania State Agricul- 1851 Col . R. T. F. B. 2,220 tural Society. 4391 . do . Pennsylvania State Library.. 1790 Gen . O. T. F. R. 101,906 4392 . . .do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 4393 . do . Public Library . 1890 Gen . R. C. S. B. 8,379 4394 Young Men’s Christian Asso- 1855 Y.M. C. A. C. Fr. B. 7,000 ciation. 4395 Hatboro . Union Library Company . 1 755 Gen . O. C. S. B. 11 , 950 4396 Haverford . Haverford College . 1833 Col . c. F. B. 37' 000 4397 Hazleton . Hazleton Seminary Library. . 1886 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 4398 Hereford . Literary Society Library . 1880 Soc . c. Fr. B. 1, 200 4399 Hoboken . Allegheny County Work- 1S70 Asy . T. Fr. B. 3; 000 house Library. 4400 Hollidaysburg. . . . Holliclaysburg Seminary . 1867 Sch . R. C. Fr. R. 1.200 4401 Honesdale . Honesdale School Library _ Sch . c. S. B. 5, 000 4402 . do . Law and Library Association. 1869 Law . c. Fr. R. 2, 000 4403 Huntingdon . Juniata College . 1876 Col . c. S. B. 5,' 344 4404 . do . Pennsylvania Industrial Re- Asy . T. Fr. R. 3j 000 form atory. 4405 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. Pr B. 1,200 4406 Indiana . Indiana Normal School . 1875 Sch . TL E. B. 4, 500 4407 Johnstown . Cambria Free Library . 1870 Gen . O. c. F. B. 14^ 050 4408 Kingston . Wyoming Seminary (Ben- 1890 Sch . c. Fr. B. 3j 768 nett Library). 4403 Kittanning . Public School . 1887 Sch . T. F. B. 1,400 4410 Knoxville Bor- Library Association . 1846 Mer . C. Fr. B. 40, 000 ough. 4411 Kutztown . Keystone State Normal 1868 Sch . TL Fr. R. 4, 000 School. 4412 . do . Keystone Literary Soci- 1865 Soc . c. S. R. 2,469 ety Library. 4413 . do . Philomathean Literary 1865 Soc . c. s. B. 3,000 Society. 4414 Lancaster . Eastern Theological Semi- 1825 Theo . o. c. Fr. B. 12, 000 nary of the Reformed Church. 4415 . do . Franklin and Marshall Col- Col . 0. c. Fr. B. 17, 000 lege (Watts de Peyster). 4416 . do . Diagnothian Society Li- 1835 Soc . 0. c. s. B. 7,500 brary. 4417 . do . Goethean Literary Soci- 1834 Soc . 0. c. s. B. 9,200 etv. 4418 . do . Law Library Association . 1840 Law . c. s. R. 6,400 4419 . do . Mechanics’ Library . 1838 Gen . R. c. s. B. 6^000 4420 . do . Yeates Institute . 1854 Sch . R. c. Fr. B. 1,300 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, ATO SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1123 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. a a d Pm 25 ’i,'oo6 "ioo 500 2,200 1,200 7,270 200 1,735 2,700 bo Xj >-* > d a) CO rd CD +J o > 11 400 300 73 45 500 150 60 300 227 200 100 500 822 100 36 25 500 116 1, 020 odm fl 3 3 § 2 § pi £ 12 4, 783 200 60 5, 000 56 500 10, 000 4, 000 4, 209 Receipts. pi _o +-> cj X c3 a o Sh £ 13 $250 25, 175 fl d .2 2 +3 O d o & Aid S 73 " £1,4-* ?-i P.02 O 14 $125 o Eh 15 o Xj P! . CD rg ^ a IQ pi pp K*"» ,0 t>f) Y2 P729 $5, 000 85 . 616 75 62 590 200 100 100 50 250 282 190 25, 175 150 3,300 353 2,000 3,300 1,500 600 11,000 17 $4, 000 3, 300 70, 000 2,500 39, 000 500, 000 3,000 Name of librarian. 18 T. E. Gillingham. Anna Jackson . J. W. Richard . J. A. Himes . C. W. Weiser . D. S. Martin . J. W. Richard . F. H. Nibecker, superin¬ tendent. Sisters of Charity . J. D. Gill, secretary S. H. Miller . Miss E. L. Baker... E. L. Hughes . J. T. Nace . William H. Wyant . William A. Kelker. H. C. Demming, secretary . Theo. E. Elwood, secretary Miss A. G. Miller . . Laura Gause . . H. Black . E. G. Erdmann A. C. Thomas. . 4373 4374 4375 4376 4377 4378 4379 4380 4381 4382 4383 4384 4385 4386 4387 4388 4389 4390 4391 4392 4393 4394 4395 4396 4397 4398 4399 4400 4401 4402 4403 4404 4405 4406 4407 4408 4409 4410 4411 4412 4413 4414 4415 4416 4417 4418 4419 4420 150 1,500 2, 900 50 50 330 100 500 H._W. Fegley . S. J . McRoberts, clerk 50 155 M. A. Bosworth . T. S. March, principal W. W. Lee, secretary . J. E. Saylor . T. B. Patton _ _ .... 300 1,000 947 4,000 700 500 400 900 940 112 150 450 300 49 65 200 1,800 60 147 300 100 50 76, 033 60 800 4,410 16, 945 57, 153 20, 000 350 1,200 ,500 200 1,500 350 20 75 475 900 320 216 600 339 25 8, 000 A. F. Carter . Miss L. H. Berkey . . Miss B. L. Reynolds E. R. Shirey . H. M. Graham . . 5, 500 15, 000 30, 000 8,000 7,000 Rev. C. C. Boyer . . J. N. Levan . E. J. Snyder, secretary. J.C.'Bowman . . J. B. Kieffer . . E. S. Lamar . . W. R. Weaver 4, 300 E. P. Bunton, treasurer _ Percy Carpenter . Fred. Gardiner, principal . . . 1124 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PENNSYLVANIA— continued. 4421 Lancaster . Young Men’s Christian Asso- 1870 Y.M.C.A. C. S. B. 8, 000 ciation. 4422 Langborne . Circulating Library . 1876 Gen . 0. c. s. B. 3 714 4423 Lansdowne . Public Library . 1899 Gen . B. F. B. 2 115 4424 Lebanon . . do . 1890 Gen T. S. B. 5 000 4425 Lewisburg . Bucknell University Library. 1846 Col . C. Fr. B. 20. 000 4426 Lewistown . Library Associatioxi * . '. . 1869 Soc . C. S. B. 2,000 4427 Ligonier . Public Library . 1884 Gen . 0. c. S. B. 1, 300 4428 Lincoln Univer- Lincoln University . 1855 Col . C. s B. 13, 500 sity. 4429 Lititz . Linden Hall Seminary Li- Sell . c. Fr. B. 2,000 brary. 4430 Lock haven . Library Company . 1866 Gen . R. c. S. B. 5 000 4431 . do . State Normal School . 1890 Sell . TL F. R. 4,000 4432 Loretto . St. Francis College . Sch . c. Fr. B. 4, 000 4433 McKeesport . Young Men’s Christian Asso- 1868 Y.M.C.A. c. Fr. B. 3,' 300 ciation. 4434 McSherrystown . . St. Joseph’s Academy . 1880 Sch . c. S. R. 1 , 245 4435 Mahanoy City. Public School . 1896 Sell . T. F. B. 1, 500 4436 Mansfield . State Normal School Library. 1862 Sch . T. Fr. B. 5, 076 4437 Marietta . Lyceum of Natural History.. 1870 His . C. S. R. 1,025 4438 Mauchchunk . Carbon County Law Library. 1868 Law . B. g R. l’ 030 4439 . do . Dimmick Memorial Library . 1885 Gen . O. C. F. B. 18' 000 4440 Meadville . Allegheny College Library . . 1817 Col . c. Fr. B. 16, 000 4441 . do . Art and Historical Associa- 1880 Gen . 6. B. F. B. 6,394 lion. 4442 . do . Theological School Library.. 1844 Theo . 0. C. F. B. 26, 000 4443 Meehanicsburg _ Irving College for Young 1856 Col . c. Fr. R. L000 Women. 4444 Library and Literary Asso- 1872 Gen . R. c. <3 B. 3, 200 ciation. J 4445 Media . Delaware County Institute 1833 Scien . O. c. s. B. 5, 000 of Science. 4446 Mercersburg . Mercersburg College . 1865 Col ....... c. Fr. B. 3,000 4447 Millersville~ . State Normal School Library. 1892 Sch . T. Fr. B. 10, 000 4448 . do . Normal Society Library . 1857 Soc . o. C. Fr. B. 4, 000 4449 Milton . Public High School . A. 1885 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1 ' 500 4450 Morganza . Pennsylvania Reform School 1893 Asy . T. Fr. C. 2; 700 Library. 4451 Mount Holly Amelia S. Givin Free Library. 1889 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 3,300 Springs. 4452 Mount Pleasant Western Pennsylvania Clas- 1873 Sch . C. F. B. 2,800 sical and Scientific Insti- tute Library. 4453 Mverstown . Albright College Library _ 1895 Col . c. Fr. B. 1,200 4454 Natrona . Pennsylvania Salt Manufac- 18S0 Gen . c. F. B. 1,500 turing Company Library. 4455 Nazareth Nazareth Hall Military Sch . c. F. B. 1 , 000 Academy. 4456 . do . Public High School . 1893 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 4457 New Berlin. Central Pennsylvania Col- 1883 Col . C. F. B. 1.093 lege. 4458 . do . ExcelsiorLiterary Society 1856 Soc . C. F. C. 2, 0,50 4459 . do . Neocosmian Literary So- 1858 Soc . C. F. B. 2, 020 cietv. 4460 New Brighton. Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,500 4461 . do . Young Men’s Christian Asso- 1852 Y.M.C.A. R. C. S. B. 2, 122 ciation. 4462 New Castle . Young Men’s Christian Asso- 1885 Y.M.C.A. .... c. S. B. 2,500 ciation. 4463 Newtown . Newtown Library Company. 1760 Gen . 0. c. s. B. 4.000 4464 New Wilmington. Westminster College Library. 1852 Col . c. F. B. 6,008 4465 Norristown . Montgomery County Law Li- 1869 Law . T. Fr. R. 5; 000 brary. 4466 . do . Norristown Library* . 1798 Gen . 0. c. s C. 8, 000 4467 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 5, 879 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1125 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 1 1 12 13 14 1 5 16 17 18 250 4,000 $2, 400 1,000 200 4, 147 $471 4, 000 $10, 000 Chas. Wildman, treasurer _ 770 9, 558 $300 1, 044 Miss A. S. Regester . . . 200 250 5,200 400 600 R. T. Adams . . . 1,300 357 W. E. Martin . 800 110 500 Bertha Moore . . . 750 250 George S. Carr . | 200 1 450 Miss E. Karskaddon . " j B. F. Fletcher . _ 1 _ 10 2,091 200 W. T. Forrester, secretary . . . 150 45 75 10 5, 000 SO W.N.Ehrhart . ito ■ A. T. Smith, principal . . R. S. Geist. secretary _ 1 34 115 135 _ F. P. Sha rk ev . _ 500 300 12, 000 . 3, 015 40, 000 16, 000 Douglas Craig . 75 J. Hamnett . 170 381 15, 782 $350 1 , 358 5,500 18, 000 W. Reynolds, president . ! 14, 000 268 1,022 31, 440 6,000 Mrs. S. B. Maxwell . 30 E. E. Campbell, president _ 900 60 2, 700 125 D. E. Kast . 20 300 780 10, 000 C. M. Broomali, treasurer . . . 1, 000 100 N. M. Irvine, nrincipal . 300 8, 846 Janet Bird . 200 150 200 H. J. Roddy . 25 38 A. ReistRutt, superintendent 354 250 250 J. A. Quay, superintendent. . 300 200 7,000 700 10, 000 20, 000 J. A. Steese, secretary . 300 25 H. C. Dixon . C. A. Bowman, president _ Miss Lizzie Otterman . R. P. McCready . 1S7 120 Frank Ruth, principal . 1,200 123 65 A. E. Gabble, president . 65 75 65 M. B. Remkle . 60 85 G. F. Oidt . 500 29 238 25 H. A. Lord, secretary . 300 2, 800 3,933 W. W. Locher, secretary . 234 12, 000 355 4,000 2, 200 Geo. A. Jinks, principal . 2, 000 200 3’ 000 300 M. McLaughry . 71 J. S. Jones . 4421 4422 4423 4424 4425 4426 4427 4428 4429 4430 4431 4432 4433 4434 4435 4436 4437 4438 4439 4440 4441 4442 4443 4444 4445 4446 4447 4448 4449 4450 4451 4452 4453 4454 4455 4456 4457 4458 4459 4460 4461 4462 4463 4464 4465 4466 4467 1126 EDUCATION BEPOKT, 1899-1S00, Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PENNSYLVANIA — continued. 4468 Norristown . William McCann Library _ 1882 Gen . c. F. B. 5,200 4469 North East . St. Marys College Library _ 1881 Col . C. Fr. R. 6,100 4470 Ogontz School _ Ogontz'School Library./ . 1883 Gen . R. c. Fr. R. 2,000 4471 Orwell . Library Association . 1876 Gen . c. Fr. B. 1,350 4472 Overbrook . St. Charles Seminary . 1833 Sch . c. Fr. R. 25, 000 4473 Pennsburg . Perkiomen Seminary . 1892 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 4474 Philadelphia . Academy of Natural Science 1812 Scien . c. F. R. 50, 220 of Philadelphia. 4475 . do . Academy of Protestant Epis- Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 copal Church. * 4476 Philadelphia Agnes Irwin’s School . 1869 Sch . R. c. F. B. 2,000 (2011 De Lan- cey PL). 4477 Philadelphia American Academy of Po- 18S9 Scien . c. Fr. R. 1,000 (Sta. B). " litical and Social Science. 4478 Philadelphia . American Entomological So- 1859 Scien . c. Fr. R. 2,500 ciety. 4479 Philadelphia American Philosophical So- 1743 Soc . c. Fr. C. 33, S00 (104 S. 5th st.). ciety. 4480 Philadelphia American Sunday School 1824 Soc . c. Fr. R. 9, 500 (1122 Chestnut Union. st.). 44S1 Philadelphia Anable’s (Miss) School . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 (1350 Pine" st.). 4482 Philadelphia Apprentices’ Library . 1820 Gen . O. c. F. C. 20, 000 (Broad and Brandywine). 4483 Philadelphia Athenseum of Philadelphia.. 1814 Gen . O. c. S. B. 35, 000 (219 S. 6th st,). 4484 Philadelphia Carpenters’ Company of the 1724 Gen . c. F. C. 6,000 (320 Chestnut City and County of Phila- st,). delphia. 4485 Philadelphia . Central High School . Col . c. Fr. B. 3,000 4486 Philadelphia Central Manual Training 1885 Sch . T, Fr R. L200 (17th and Wood School. st.). 4487 Philadelphia Charter Oak Library . 1855 Gen . c. Fr. B. 1,000 (Germantown). 4488 Philadelphia College of Physicians of 1788 Med . c. F. B. 59, 205 (13th and Lo- Philadelphia. cust st.). 4489 Philadelphia Diocesan Library and Read- 1S96 Theo . .... c. F. B. 8, 000 (12th and Wal- ing Room of the Protestant nut st.). Episcopal Church. 4490 Philadelphia Disston Library and Free 1884 Gen . R. c. S. B. 6,000 (Sta. L). Reading Room. 4491 Philadelphia . Drexel Institute Library . 1891 Col . c. F. B. 26, 000 4492 . do . Eastburn Academy* . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,350 4493 Philadelphia Eastern State Penitentiary, 1823 State . T. Fr. C. 12, 000 (21st and Fair- Philadelphia. mount ave. ) . 4494 Philadelphia Edwin Forrest Home . Gen . c. Fr. B. 8,000 (Holmesburg). 4495 Philadelphia Engineers’ Club of Philadel- 1878 Scien . R, c. F. R. 1,000 (1122 Girard st. ). phia. 4496 Philadelphia Fidelity Mutual Life Insur- 1879 Law . . c. Fr. R. 1,115 ance Co. Law Library. 4497 . do . Frankford Library and Read- 1856 Gen . c. S. B. 4, 851 ing Room Association. 4498 . do . Franklin Institute Library. . . 1824 Scien . c. S. B. 51,190 4499 Philadelphia Free Library of Economies 1897 Scien . c. F. B. 1,100 (1315 Filbert st.) and Political Science. 4500 Philadelphia Free Library of Philadel- 1S91 Gen . R. B. F. B. 207, 5S5 (1217-21 Chest- phia. 1 nut st. ) . * Statistics of 1895-96. 1 Including 15 branches. 1127 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBEAKIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 1 5 16 17 18 150 15, 600 $5, 000 Fannie ,T. Fnrsnn . 100 Rev. C. G. Ritter, president . . 200 60 Miss S. .1 . Ffl.stm an 93 135 ,T. M. Cowles . . . Rev. F. P. Siegfried _ 500 mo 105 E. Allen, A. M . 18, 646 647 E. J. Nolan . 350 Miss S. T) Trwin . . 2,500 ,1. E. Stewart _ 1,000 15 245 $3, 000 Wm . ,T. Fox . . . 1, 116 Annie Hays . 1,000 50 250 E. W. Rice . Miss I. Anable . 1, 178 72, 362 16, 144 $50, 000 T. Y. Middleton . 5, 000 1,000 8,000 6,000 45, 000 60, 000 L. K. Lewis . . 300 20 100 J. B. Betts . 100 100 Wm. L. Sayer . Geo. E. Bevan . 37, 179 2,655 2,169 5, 169 65, 000 Chas. Perry Fisher . 1,000 L. G. Price . 400 6, 856 588 J. Luffberrv . 2, 190 2, 344 21, 186 Miss A. B. Kroeger . 700 8, 000 $375 375 J, W. Storey . 100 10, 000 A. Hartel, superintendent. . . 7, 248 Hamson Souden . 125 2,942 462 H. M. Taylor . 35. 966 1,579 2, 200 18, 600 71, 585 Alfred Rigling . 2, 100 400 Helen Marot . 22, 898 1, 778, 387 150, 000 164. 000 235, 000 John Thomson . . 4468 4469 4470 4171 4472 4473 4474 4475 4476 4477 4478 4479 4430 4481 44S2 4483 4484 4485 4486 4487 4488 4489 4490 4491 4492 4493 4494 4495 4496 4497 4498 4499 4500 1128 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by ta xation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. m o> B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 D PENNSYLVANIA — continned. 4501 Philadelphia Friends’ Free Library and 1874 Gen . O. C. F. B. 20, 100 (Germantown). Reading Room. 4502 Philad el phia Friends’ Library . 1742 Gen . O. c. F. B. 16, 000 (142 N.IGth st.). 1503 Philadelphia Friends’ School . 1840 Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,000 (Germantown). 1504 Philadelphia George Institute Library . 1872 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 10, 0G0 (Station W). 4505 Philadelphia German Society of Pennsyl- 1817 Gen . 0. c. Fr. B. 50, 000 (Station S). vania. 4506 Philadelphia Germantown Academy . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 (Germantown). 4507 Philadelphia . Girard College Library . 1848 Sch . c. F. B. 15. 774 4508 Philadelphia Girls’ High School . 1853 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1, 150 (17th and Spring Garden). 4509 Philadelphia Gordon’s (Miss) School . . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 (4112 Spruce st. ) . 4510 Philadelphia . Grand Lodge F. A. M. of 1871 Masonic . . c. Fr. R. 4, 160 Pennsylvania. 4511 Philadelphia Hahnemann Medical Col- 1850 Med . c. Fr. B. 10, 000 (1862 Frankford lege. ave.). 4512 Philadelphia Hebrew Education Society Soc . c. F. C. 1,000 (10th and* Car- Library. pen ter sts.). 4513 Philadelphia Hirst Free Law Library.. 1885 Law . c. Fr. R. 10, 600 (9 01 Drexel Building). 4514 Philadelphia Historical Society of Penn- 1824 His . 0. c. F. R. 45, 000 (1300 Locust st.). sylvania. 4515 Philadelphia House of Correction Library. 1888 Asy . .... c. F. C. 1,666 (Station M). 4516 Philadelphia House of Refuge, Girls’ Be- Asy . c. Fr. B. 1,125 (900 N. 22d st. ). partment. 4517 Philad e 1 p h l a Insane Department of the 1847 Gen . c. Fr. B. 4,503 (Station B). Pennsylvania Hospital. 4518 Philadelphia Institute for Colored Youth.. 1865 Sch . .... c. Fr. R. 4,000 (917-19 Bain- bridge st. ). 4519 Philadelphia Irish Library of the Cathe- 1873 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 15, 000 (7 S. 15th st.). dral T. A. B. 4520 Philadelphia Jefferson Medical College of 1898 Med . c. Fr. R. 2, 4C0 (10th and* Wal- Philadelphia. nut sts.) . 4521 Philadelphia Keneseth Israel Public Li- 1892 Gen . c. F. B. 4,540 (1422 N. 16th st.). brarv. 4522 Philadelphia La Salle College Library _ 1852 Col . c. Fr. B. 8, 500 (1240 N. Broad 4523 SI. ) . Philadelphia Law Association of Phila- 1802 Law . B. F. B. 35, 000 (City Hall). delphia. 4524 Philadelphia Leeser Library of Hebrew 1868 Scien . 0. c. Fr. R. 2, 900 (336 N.3d st). Education Society. 4525 Philadelphia . Library Association of 1S35 Gen . c. F. B. 10, 146 Friends. 4526 . do . Library Company of Phila- 1731 Gen 0. c. Fr. B. 201, 184 delphia. 4527 Philadelphia Library and Historical So- 1870 His . R. c. S. B. 6, 717 (Germantown) ciety.* 4528 Philadelphia Library and Reading Room 1857 Gen . c. S. B. 4, 256 (Station F). Association.* 4529 Philadelphia Lovett Memorial Free Li- 1885 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 11,520 (Mt. Airy). brary. 4530 Philadelphia Lutheran Orphans’ Home 1898 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,310 (Germantown). Library. * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1129 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. J Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. o 4-> c3 X Go 4-J a o 1 £ ce Ft F o £ +3 o a o Fh +* O F ce v P.+J Sh o a o o F 'S c H 1© 11 12 13 14 1 5 1 6 17 18 815 13, 000 15, 381 Miss II. M. Jones . 300 3,623 Mary S. Allen . 50 D. H. Forsythe, principal _ 9. 000 400 8, 400 400 $30, 000 $12, 000 Thomas Wynne . 1,200 500 10, 016 746 J. B. Hertzog . . . Wm. Kershaw, principal .... ......... 1,000 200 5, 238 Mary Mecutchen . W. D. Rorer . F. E. Gordon . 4,829 3,000 G. P. Rupp . 6, 000 500 100 T. L. Bradford . .Abe Lochet, clerk . 400 H. Scott Reig, assistant li- brarian. 1,637 13, 441 41 , 168 Gregory B. Keen . 150 155 5, 751 100 3, 000 Rev. T. Kirkpatrick . Isabella L. Walker . 79 Wm. M. Walter, clerk . 15 350 C. L. Moore, assistant libra- rian. 2,500 500 3,000 650 25, 000 E. J. Logue . 2,500 400 3,700 1, 390 210 26, 514 911 H. S. Friedman . 1,300 500 Bro. Wolfred, president . 1,420 4,500 $2, 430 11,297 500 L. E. Kewett . 1,000 250 D. Sulzberger, secretary . 95 Miss A. B. Carroll . 31, 000 3, 619 41,787 43, 695 440, 000 950, 000 J. G. Barnwell . 12, 012 1,977 35, 000 10, 000 37 54 Rev. G. C. Eisenhardt, super- intendent. 4501 4502 4503 | 4504 4505 I ! 4508 1 4507 4508 4509 4510 4511 4512 4513 4514 4515 4516 4517 4518 4519 4520 4521 4522 4523 4524 4525 4526 4527 4528 4529 4530 1130 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. i Date of founding. 1 2 3 4531 PENNSYLVANIA — continued. Philadelphia Lutheran Theological Semi- 1804 4532 (Mt. Airy). Philadelphia nary. Mechanics’ Institute (South- 1852 4533 (1106 S. 5th st.). Philadelphia . wark Library). Medico-Chirurgical College 4534 . do . of Philadelphia. Mercantile Library . 1821 4535 Philadelphia (109 S. 20th st.). Philadelphia Mid-City School for Girls _ 4536 Mount St. Joseph Academy.. 1860 4537 (Station H). Philadelphia Moyamensing Literary In- 1853 4538 (SE. cor. 11th and Cathrine). Philadelphia stitute. New Century Guild Library . 1882 4539 (1227 Arch st.) . Philadelphia . New Church Book Associa- 4540 Philadelphia tion. Northeast Manual Training 1890 4541 4542 (Station S). Philadelphia (Chestnut Hill). Philadelphia . High School. Notre Dame Academy . Numismatic and Antiqua- 1858 4543 . do . rian Society of Philadel¬ phia. Olney Free Library and 1876 4544 Philadelphia Reading Room. Pedagogical Library . 1882 4545 (City Hall). Philadelphia . Pennsylvania College of Den- 4546 Philadelphia tal Surgery Library. Pennsylvania Horticultural 1827 4547 (Station A). Philadelphia (8th Society. Pennsylvania Hospital Med- 1760 454S and Spruce sts.) Philadelphia (Mt. ical Library. Pennsylvania Institution for 1820 4549 Airy). Philadelphia the Deaf and Dumb. Pennsylvania Museum and 1877 4550 (Broad and Pine sts.). Philadelphia . School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia Board of Trade 1833 4551 Philadelphia (NE. Library. Philadelphia City Institute 1852 4552 4553 cor. 18th and Chestnut sts.). Philadelphia . Philadelphia Free Library. Philadelphia Club . Philadelphia College of 1865 1821 4554 (145 N. 10th st,). Philadelphia Pharmacy. Philadelphia County Prison . 4555 (10th and Reed sts.). Philadelphia Philadelphia Divinity School 1862 4556 (Station B). Philadelphia . Philadelphia Maritime Ex- 1875 4557 . do . . change. Philadelphia Museums . 1S94 4558 Philadelphia Philadelphia Normal School 1896 4559 (1301 Spring- Garden st.). Philadelphia Library. Philadelphia Turn-Gemeinde 1849 4560 (431-35 N. 6th st,). Philadelphia . Post No. 2, G. A. R . . . 1875 Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 4 5 G 7 8 9 Theo . C. Fr. B. 29. 000 Gen . .... c. S. C. 9, 000 Med . c. Fr. B. 1,500 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 185, 000 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 Gen . c. g B. 7, 000 Gen . c. F. B. 7,887 Gen . c. F. B. 3, 000 Theo . c. F. B. 1 , 500 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2.000 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 Soc . c. s B. 5,000 Gen . R. c. S. B. 1,000 Soc . T. F. C. 6, S65 Med . C. Fr. B. 1,030 Soc . C. S. C. 4, 000 Med . .... C. Fr. R. 15, 500 Sch . 0. B. Fr. C. 5, 000 Sch . C. Fr. R. 1,500 Mer . R. C. Fr. R. 2,000 Gen . C, F. B. 24, 000 Gen . /n s. R. 4, 500 Med . c. S. R. 10, 000 Asy . T. Fr. B. 5, 000 Theo . C, Fr. B. 20, 0C0 Mer . C. Fr. R. 1,200 Mer . C. F. R. 9, 2S5 Sch . T. Fr. B. 6,500 Gen . B. Fr. B. 2, 800 Gen . C. F. B. 1,800 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1131 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations— State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 K> 17 18 5,000 • 200 Henry E. Jacobs, dean 75 6, 440 $942 Miss C. A. Wisdom _ Seneca Egbert, dean . 10, 000 1,000 10, 000 12, 450 $120, 000 $350, 000 John Edmands . 50 1,000 200 . Sisters of St. Joseph . 151 5, 235 940 5,000 J. H. Davis . 000.00.0. 121 2,653 Lisabeth Canning, Acting.. . 300 300 A. J. Morrison . 300 Berry Smith Lyman, secre- tary. 9 349 89 Samuel Morris, treasurer. . . . 450 380 795 $500 500 Geo. W. Warren, secretary. . . David Rust . John McCahan . 100 Grace L. Wright . . 350 46 L. A. Miller, principal . 1,700 1,147 47, 570 10, 500 Mary A. Fell . 300 800 C. H. Hutchinson . 150 T. S. Weigand . 500 $450 450 900 P. Q. Mathewell, jr. , super- intendent. 5,000 L. M. Robinson . 1,000 E. R. Sharwood, secretary . . . 17, 250 1,623 J. J. Macfarland . 32 300 10,516 400 Miss L. F. Buhrman . 150 500 C. Beckmann . . 200 48 284 5 James Robb, chairman . 4531 4532 4533 4534 4535 4536 4537 4538 4539 ■i540 4541 4542 4543 4544 4545 454G 4547 4548 4549 4550 4551 4552 4553 4554 4555 4556 4557 4558 4559 4560 1132 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PENNSYLVANIA— continued. 4561 Philadelphia . Presbvterian Board of Pub- Gen . C. Fr. R. 3,450 lication and Sabbath- School Work.* 4562 Philadelphia Presbvterian Historical So- 1852 Hist . C. Fr. R. 20, 000 (1319 Walnut ciety. St.). 4563 Philadelphia Public School Library . 1885 Seh . T. Fr. B. 2, 000 (17th and Wood sts.) . 4564 Philadelphia Rittenhouse Club . 1875 Soc . C. Fr. R. 5, 441 (1811 Walnut .... 4565 St. ) . Philadelphia Roman Catholic H. S. for Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 (Broad and Boys. Vine sts.). 4566 Philadelphia (960 Rodeph Shalom Free Li- Gen . c. F. B. 2,420 N. 8th st.). brary and Reading Room. 4567 Philadelphia . Sacred Heart Academy and 1850 Sch . c. Fr. R. 4,600 Convent (Eden Hall). 4568 . do . St. Luke’s School . 1884 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1.500 4569 Philadelphia St. Vincent’s Seminary Li- 1868 Gen . c. Fr. B. 18, 000 (Germantown). brary. 4570 Philadelphia St. Timothy’s Workingmen’s 1873 Soc . c. S. B. 5,000 (Station I). Club and Institute Library. 4571 Philadelphia . Southwark Library Comnany 1821 Gen . c. s. B. 9, 000 4572 . do . Soring Garden Institute *. . . . 1851 Gen . c. s B. 15, 000 4573 . do . Supreme Court . 1893 Law . T. Fr. R. 3^ 500 4574 Philadelphia Teachers’ Institute of the 1868 Gen . C. S. B. 15; 482 (Spring st . City and County of Phila- .... above 9th ) . delphia. 4575 Philadelphia Temple College . Sell . c. Fr. B. 3,500 (Broad "an d Berks sts.). 4576 Philadelphia Union League Library . 1865 Soc . c. s. R. 9,284 4577 . do . United States Naval Home .. Gar . c. Fr. C. 3,708 4578 . do . University of Pennsylvania.. 1749 Col . O. c Fr. B. 160, 000 4579 Philadelphia Biddle Memorial Law 1886 Law . c. F. R. 22, 525 (34th and Chest- Library. nut sts.). 4580 Philadelphia . Wagner Free Institute of 1855 Scien . c. F. R. 139, 670 Science. 4581 Philadelphia (8 William Penn Charter School . Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,300 South 12th st.). 4582 Philadelphia Wilson’s Library . 1875 Gen . R. c. S. C. 95, 000 (1117 Walnut st.). 4583 Philadelphia, Woman’s Medical College of 1850 Med . c. Fr. B. 2,100 Pennsylvania. 4584 Philadelphia Woman’s Christian Associa- 1875 Soc . c. Fr. B. 4,700 (18th and Arch tion Free Library. sts.). 4585 Philadelphia . Young Men’s Christian As- 1854 Y.M.C. A. . . . . c. S. B. 5, 000 sociation (Central Branch). 4586 Philadelphia Young Men’s Christian As- 1871 Y.M.C. A. . . . . c. s. B. 5, 500 (Germantown). sociation. 4587 Philipsburg Public School . 1892 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2, 000 4588 Phoenixvilie _ Public High School Library.. 1897 Sch . R. T. F. B. 4,003 4589 Pineen’ovo . Public High School . 1874 Sch . T. F. B. 1,125 4590 Pittsburg . Allegheny County Law Li- 1867 Law . B. F. R. 33, 000 brarv. 4591 . do . Bishop Bowman Institute... Sch . C. Fr. B. 2,000 4592 ..do . Carnegie Library . 1835 Gen . O. B. F. B. 104,844 4593 Pittsburg (410 Engineers’ Society of West- 1880 Soc . R. C. S. R. 3,000 Penn ave.). ern Pennsylvania. 4594 Pittsburg . Holy Ghost College Library.. 1878 Col . C. s. R. 3, 000 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1133 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. 1 Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. iO 11 1 2 13 14 15 IB 17 18 1,500 ♦ 50, 000 $759 14, 335 Wm L. Ledwith . 200 100 200 Wm. L. Sayre, principal 247 1,332 37, 562 C. A. Smyth, secretary . Olga Gerson . 110 11,000 400 500 Madame Macormack . C. H.Strout . 450 110 785 300 Rev. C. R. Maloy, M. C . 125 2,000 100 E. B. Hirst . 1,200 150 2,000 1,500 5, 000 Victoria Mahan . 1 1 §3, 000 3,000 J. T. Mitchell, justice . 500 306 A. E. Lindlay.i . i * 277 4,273 . Alfred Lee . 199 C. E. Rappalee, clerk . 100, 000 10, 000 12,278 l 1,518 $300, 000 Morris Jastrow . 1, 935 5, 111 M. C. Klingelsmith . 25, 000 . T. L. Montgomery . 5, 140 Gotthold Hang . 100 7, 244 127 L. Voute . 500 205 3,653 400 950 J. H. Bos worth . 532 W. A. Smalley, secretary _ 100 C. T. Fryberger, secretary . . . 308 22, 874 1,100 1,354 E. W. Pennypacker . 20 125 119 G. W. Channell . 50 450 P. G. Digley . Rev. R. J. Coster, rector . 7,643 29 113 . 345 590 81, 000 93 739 19, 000 840, 000 E. IT. Anderson . 100 4,255 Clias. W. Ridinger . 200 50 . 100 Rev. M. A. Hehir, president . 4581 4562 4563 4564 4565 4566 4567 4568 4569 4570 4571 4572 4573 4574 4575 4576 4577 4578 4579 4580 4581 4582 4583 4584 4585 4586 4587 4588 4589 4590 4591 4592 4593 4594 1134 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 PENNSYLVANIA — continued. 4595 Pittsburg (3333 ‘ 1 Lady of Mercy ’ ’ Academj* . 1894 Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,250 5th ave. ) .' 4596 Pittsburg . Pennsylvania College for Col . c. Fr R. 2,200 Women. 4597 . do . Pittsburg Library Associa- 1848 Merc . c. S. B. 40, 000 tion. 4598 Pittsburg (4406th Pittsburg Academy of Medi- 1892 Med . c. Fr. R. 2,841 ave.). ~ cine. 4599 Pittsburg . Public High School . 1859 Sch . T. Fr. B. 3, 500 4600 Pittsburg (Shady Thurston Preparatory School . Sch . R. C. Fr. B. 1,000 ave.). ~ 4601 Pittsburg (228 Young Men’s Christian Asso- 1866 Y.M.C. A. c. F. R. 4, 000 Wyo. ave.). ciation. 4602 Pittston . Pittston Library . 1873 Gen .... R. c. F. B, 1, 124 4603 Pottstown . Hill School Library . 1876 Gen . c. Vv B. 4, 500 4604 . do . Public High School Library . 1885 Sch.... c. F. B. 3.033 4605 . do . Athenaeum Library . 1877 Soc . c S. B. 3,500 4606 Quakertown . Richland Library Co . 1795 Gen . R. c. S. B. 1,838 4607 Reading . Berks County Law Library*. 1859 Law . c. Fr. R. 4,000 4608 . do . Girls’ High School . 1896 Sch . T. Fr. B. 3 An 4609 . do . Reading Library . 1808 Gen . O. B. F. B. S, 628 4610 Ridley Park . Library Association * . Gen . T. Fr. C. U030 4611 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. F B. 1.700 4612 Riegelsville . Public Library . 1885 Gen . O. C. S. B. 8, 332 4613 . do . Riegelsville Academy Li- Sch . c. Fr. B. 3, 500 brarv. 4614 Roversford . Free Public Library . 1898 Gen _ c. Fr. B. 1,193 4615 Saegerstown . Public High School . 1888 Sch . . B. F. B. 1, 000 4616 St. Marys . St. Mary’sBenedictine Priory 1850 Gen _ 1 _ c. Fr. R. 30, 000 4617 Scranton . Connell Law Library . !. Law . O. c. Fr. R. 3,000 4618 Scranton ( 1102 Green Ridge Public Library Gen . c. F. ■ B. 2,400 Green Ridge of \ Association. 4619 St.). Scranton (422 Ad- Lackawanna Institute of His- 1SS6 Sei . c. Fr. B. 2,000 ams ave.). tory and Science Library. 4620 Scranton . Lackawanna Law and Li- 1S91 Law . c. s. R. 4, 200 brary Association. 4®21 . do . Public Library . 1890 Gen . O. T. F. B. 37, 100 4622 . do . St. Cecilian Academy Library Sch _ c. Fr. B. 3,000 4623 . do . St. John’s College . .1 . . . 1884 Col _ _ C. Fr. R. 3; 844 4624 . do . School of the Lackawanna. . . Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 4625 . do . Welch Philosophical Society 1861 Gen . R. c. S. B. 3,500 and Free Reading Room.'* 4626 Selinsgrove . Susquehanna University Li- 1859 Col . c. Fr. B. 5, 600 brary. 4697 Sewieklev . Public Library . 1885 Gen . B. F. B. 3, 844 4628 Shamokin . Public High School . 1882 Sch . T. Fr. B. 3,000 4629 Sharon . Hall Institute Library . 1888 Col . C. Fr. B. 1.000 4630 . do . Public School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,920 4631 Sharpsville . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,175 4632 _ .do . Public School * . Sch . T. F. B. 1,020 4633 Shenandoah . Public School . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. 4,189 4634 Slippery Rock .... State Normal School . 1889 Sch . T Fr. B. 2.180 4635 Somerton . Somerton Library . 1894 Gen . R. B. S. B. 1,200 South Rethlehem Bishopthorpe School Library Sch . C. Fr. R. 3,000 4637 . do . Lehigh University Library . . 1877 Col . C. Fr. R. 81, 326 4633 South Hermitage. John Me Ally Library . 1876 Gen . c. F. B. 2,000 4639 State College . Pennsylvania State College Col . B. F. R. 16, 375 Library. 4640 . do . Public Library . 1898 Gen . C. S. B. 1.010 46^1 Steelton . Free Library . 1884 Gen . T. F. B. 2,000 4642 . do Public Higli School . T. Fr. B. 2,500 Sugargrove . Sugargrove Seminary (II. J. 1885 Col . C. Fr. B. 2, 000 Hopkins Public Library). 4644 Sunbury . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1135 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow- j inent fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Sister Hilda, directress _ 4595 Alice Stockton . . 4598 10, 000 750 75, 000 $2, 500 $7, 500 H. M. Graham . 4597 184 William Duncan . 4598 50 C. B. Wood, principal _ _ _ _ _ 4599 A. M. Thurston. . .1 . 4600 300 500 J. B. Griggs, secretary . 4601 550 11, 666 593 ,T. R. Ross, librarian . 4602 3.000 250 J. M. Meigs . 4603 '250 121 15, 960 Miss J. A. McCarthy . 4604 300 239 3' 600 B.N. Hyde . ~. . 4605 300 40 '380 49 Eleanore Foulke . 4608 4607 52 102 . 4, 220 . $100 100 Mary H. Mayer, principal. . . 4608 3,118 54, 399 3,500 5, 500 $25, 000 46t»9 4610 250 . A. P. Silverthorn . . . 4611 100 204 253 8, 000 E. C. Brinker . 4612 4613 150 200 L. E. Kaltenbach. . . 4614 200 100 5, 000 $50 80 J. D. Goodwin . 4615 P. Paulinas . 4616 A. W. Broadbent . 4617 37 10, 000 1,200 Elizabeth Maclay . . 4618 J. H. Fisher, secretary . 4619 100 300 1,000 Herman Osthaus, secretary . 4620 5, 500 2,613 121, 022 12, 760 13, 447 1,000 160, 000 Henry J. Carr . 4621 M. Crescentia, superior . 4622 840 844 Bro. F. Andrew, President. . . 4623 T.M.Cann, LL.'D , . 4624 400 4625 400 T. C. Houtz . 4626 284 10, 910 800 1,349 Elizabeth Knapp . 4627 200 A. G. Haas, secretary . 4628 2,000 18 S. L. Cover. . . . 4629 100 5,400 150 D. F. Grier, superintendent. . 4630 4631 . 4632 52 13, 419 399 M. S. Kerrigan . 4633 200 175 4634 800 40 93 H. L. Bonner . . 4635 10 4636 30, 832 1,350 886 . W.H. Chandler . 4637 '150 1 . ooo! _ 250 5,000 Cleveland Frame . 4638 2,370 500 2, 431 Helen M. Bradley . 4639 244 3,582 . 138 J. M. Penny . 4640 200 340 1, 628 700 700 L. E. McGinnes. . . . 4641 4642 1,000 10 300 10 Helen Martin . 4643 4644 1136 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. | Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. 1 Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 1 5 6 7 8 9 PENNSYLVANIA — continued. 4645 Susquehanna . Public Library . 1859 Gen . C. s B. 4, 741 4646 Swarthmore . Swarthmore College . 1869 Col . c. Fr. B. 13, 600 4647 . do . . . Delphic Literary Society. 1875 Soc . c. F. B. 1 ' 271 4648 . do . Friends Historical Li- His . c. Fr. B. 2, 362 brary. 4649 Tarentum . I. O. O. F. Library ( Lodge 587) 1870 I.O.O.F.. R. c. Fr. B. 1, 753 4650 Tidioute . Public Library . Gen . c. Fr. R. 3, 000 4651 Towanda . Susquehanna College Insti- Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,000 statute. 4652 Towanda Library* 1878 Gen . R. c. S. C. 2,200 4653 Troy . Public High School Librarv. 1870 Sch . T. F. B. l' 500 4654 Uniontown . Book Club Library . 1865 Gen . c. S. B. 2, 500 4655 Villamaria - St. Mary’s Library . 1854 Gen . c. Fr. B. 3' 700 4656 Villanova . Villanova College . 1842 Col . c. s. B. 12' 000 4657 Warren . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 12, 000 4658 . do . Public Librarv . 1871 Gen . O. c. F. B. 11,497 4659 Washington . Citizens’ Library . 1872 Gen . R c. s B. C>; 000 4660 . do _ Trinity Hall .A . 1879 Sch . c. Fr. R. 3' 000 4661 . do . Washington County Law Law . c. F. R. 2,500 Library. 4662 . do . Washington Female Sem- Sch . c. S. B. 2,000 inary. 4663 . do . Washington and Jefferson 1789 Col . O. c. S. B. 14, 131 College. 4664 . do . Young Men’s Christian- As- 1890 Y. M. C.A. R. c. F. B. 1,000 sociation. 4665 Waynesboro . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 4666 Waynesburg . Waynesburg College . 1860 Col . C. Fr. B. 5, 000 4667 Weis Library . Weis Library . 1895 Gen . O. C. F. B. 2; 500 4668 West Chester . Birmingham Library . 1795 Gen . .... C. Fr. B. 2, 900 4659 . do . Chester County Law and 1811 Law . c. S. B. 7, 000 Misct laneous Library. .... 4670 . do . Darlington Seminary for 1851 Sch . c. s. B. 3,000 Young Ladies. 4671 . do . Friends’ Library Association. 1880 Gen . c. Fr. B. 1. 050 4672 . do . Librarv Association * . 1872 Gen . O. c. S. B. 3,400 4673 . do . PublicHigh School Library . 1841 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,400 4674 . do . Public Library (free) . 1872 Gen . 6. B. F. B. 4, 500 4675 . do . State Normal School . . 1871 Sch . c. S. B. 7, 750 4676 Westtown . Westtown School Library.... 1804 Sch . c. Fr. B. 5,400 4677 Wiconisco . Public School Library . . 1886 Sch . c. F. C. 1,000 4078 Wilkesbarre . Law and Librarv Association. 1856 Law . c. S. R. 9,000 4679 . do . Osterliout Free Library . 1889 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 28, 000 4680 . do . Wyoming Historical and 1858 His . c. F. R. 16, 000 Geological Society. 4681 . do . Y. M.C. A. Library . 1871 Y.M.C. A. 0. c. S. B. 2,000 4682 Williamsport . Dickinson Seminary* . Sch . c. s. B. 4,000 4683 . do . Public School Library . 1882 Sch . T. F. B. 4,500 4684 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1888 Y.M.C. A. c. S. B. 2,200 4685 Williamson School Free Schools of Mechanical 1891 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2, 200 Trades. 46S6 W yncote . Chelten Hills School Library. Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,250 4687 Yardley . Yardley ville Library . 1845 Gen . 0. c. S. B. 3,695 4688 York . Public Library . 1897 Gen . T. F B. 4,200 4689 . do . York Collegiate Institute 1874 Sch . C. Fr. B. 3; 000 (Cassat Library). 4690 . do . York County Law Library . . . 1868 Law . C. Fr. R. 4,000 RHODE ISLAND. 4691 Anthony . Free Library . 1872 Gen . T. F. B. 2.700 4692 Apponaug . . do . 1898 Gen . B. F. B. 3, 200 4693 Arlington . Public Library . 1895 Gen . B. S. B. 2,312 4694 Ashaway . Free Library Association _ 1871 Gen . R. T F. B. 5, 367 4695 Ashton . Library Association . 1870 Gen . B. S. B. 2, 869 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1137 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. ♦ From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 100 211 5,800 $294 Mrs. M. H. Boynton . 4645 400 Miss S. M. Nowell . 4646 18 Edward R. Meredith . 4647 4648 60 40 J. F. Humes, secretary . 4649 E. J. Robinson . 4650- 1,500 M. S. H. Unger, principal _ 4651 4652- 1,000 C. H. Gardinier, principal . . . 4653. 150 176 A. D. Ewing . 4654 350 36 180 50 Sister Mary Anna . 4655 200 L. A. Delure y . 4656 4657 984 33, 096 $1,236 2,069 $7, 000 $80, 000 Mary C. Weiss . 4658 20 1,200 190 2;oco Miss Antoniette Cracraft _ 4659 Wm. W. Smith, rector . 4666 75 300 Winfield Mcllwaine . 4661 Mrs. M. N. McMillan, prin- 4662 cipal. 500 750 5,000 W. C. McClelland . 4663 400 James Vinson, secretary. . . . 4664 4665 1,000 | 4666 50 1,200 2,000 5,000 J. J. Schmitt . 4667 4668 Thomas Lock . 4669- 500 100 50 M. M. Faas . 4670 Gilbert Cope, treasurer . 4671 4672 200 50 1,500 Addison L. Jones . 4673 15^ 784 Ada J. Townsend . 4674 1,000 370 7, 500 860 G. M. Philips, principal . 4675 110 '800 250 WAV. Demees . 4676 500 100 40 Charles Price, secretary . 4677 570 970 J. D. Coons, secretary . 4678 1,594 70, 778 16, 000 400, 000 56, 000 Hannah P. James . 4679 800 2, 149 15, 700 H. E. Hayden . 4680 40 500 W. C. McKee, secretary . 4681 4682 1,000 273 3, 562 233 H. G. Runkle . 4683 W. C. Myers . 4684 100 J.M.Shrigley . 4685 4686 3, 250 Miss H. W. Comly . 4687 400 1,200 3,500 A. Wanner . 4688 '300 E. T. Jeffers . 4689 250 250 500 N. M. Wanner . 4690 1,300 35 35 C. E. Andrews . 4691 150 3, 500 175 468 Nellie A. Williams . 4692 300 209 6,885 $700 125 1, 255 E. P. Durfee . 4693 202 5, 768 250 250 H. F. Larkin . 4694 200 240 Miss Susan A. Ray . 4695 ED 1900 - 72 1138 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. l RHODE ISLAND — continued. 4696 Auburn . 4697 Barrington Center 4698 Block Island . 4699 Bristol . 4700 Carolina . 4701 Centerdale . 4702 Central Falls . 4703 Crompton . 4704 East Greenwich . . 4705 East Providence . . 4706 East Providence Center. 4707 Edgewood . 4708 Exeter . 4709 Greenville . 4710 Hope . 4711 Hope Yalley . 4712 Howard . 4713 . do . 4714 Jamestown . 4715 Kingston . 4716 . do . 4717 Lakewood . 4718 Little Compton. . . 4719 Lonsdale . 4720 Manville . 4721 Matunuck . 4722 Natick . 4723 Newport . 4724 . do . . 4725 . do . 4726 . do . 4727 . do . 4728 . do . 4729 Oaklawn . 4730 Pascoag . 4731 Pawtucket . 4732 . do . 4733 Peacedale . 4734 Phenix . 4735 Pontiac . 4736 Portsmouth . 4737 Providence (512 Westminster St.). 4738 Providence . 4739 . do . 4740 . do . 4741 Providence (181 Weybosset st.). 4742 Providence . 4743 . do . 4744 . do . 4745 . do . 4746 Providence (01- neyville) . Name of library. Date of founding. OQ O 1 5 Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Public Library. . . k . 1888 Gen . R. B. F. B. 5 055 _ do . . 1880 Gen . T. F. B. 6, 728 Island Free Library . 1870 Gen . T. F. B. 2,870 Rogers Free Library . 1878 Gen . O. T. F. B. 13, 930 Public Library . 1881 Gen . T. F. B. 3, 073 Union Free Library . 1870 Gen . O. T. F. B. 3,829 Free Public Library . 1882 Gen . T. F C. 8,500 Free Library . ; . 1875 Gen . 0. B. F. B. 5,060 Free Library Association .... 1867 Gen . 0. B. F. B. 4,500 Watch emoket Free Public 1885 Gen . B. F. B. 5, 631 Library. East Providence Free Library 1819 Gen . T. F. B. 4,540 Free Public Library . 1897 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1 538 Manton Free Library . 1880 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3,090 Public Library . 1881 Gen . O. T. F. B. 3,725 Hope Library . 1875 Gen . C. F B. 1,500 Langworthy Public Library. 1888 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4,866 Sockanasset School for Boys. 1859 Asv . T. Fr. B. 2, 000 State Prison Library . Asv . T. Fr. B. 2, 000 Philomenian Library . 1850 Gen . T. F. C. 4 495 Free Library . 1877 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 6,003 Rhode Island College of Ag- 1890 Col . 0. B. F. B. 10, 000 riculture and Mechanic Arts. Free Library . 1845 Gen . T. F. B. 750 Free Public Library . 1878 Gen . T. F. C. 1,975 Library and Reading Room 1854 Gen . C. S. B. 3, 904 Association. Manville Library . 1872 Gen . C. F. B. 2,500 Robert Beverly Hale Memo- 1S96 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 2, 500 rial Library. Free Library . 1889 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 375 Middletown Free Librarv .... 1848 Gen . R. C. F. B. 1.600 Newport Historical Society.. 1853 His . T. F. R. 4, 300 People’s Librarv . 1869 Gen . O. C. TP B. 30, 000 Post Library (Fort Adams Gar . T. Fr. B. 1, 588 R.I.). Redwood Library . 1730 Gen . 0. B. S. B. 47, 415 Y.M.C. A. Library . 1888 Y.M.C. A. C. S. B. 2,000 Free Public Librarv . 1889 Gen . T. F. B. 2 850 Ladies’ Pascoag Library . Gen . C. S. C. 1,478 Free Public Librarv . 1876 Gen . R. T. F. B. 18, 700 Public High School Library.. Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,500 Narragansett Library As^oci- 1852 Gen . B. F. B. 7, 331 ation. Pawtucket Valley Free Li- 1884 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4,675 brary. Free Library . 1884 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 744 Public Library . 1897 Gen . O. T. F. R. 1,742 Brownson Lyceum . 1858 Soc . R. C. F. B. 1,123 Brown University Library. .. 1767 Col . O. C. Fr. B. 110, 000 Butler Hospital for the In- 1848 Gen . C. Fr. B. 2,000 sane. Classical High School . 1897 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,117 Davis’s Circuiting Library.. 1847 Gen . C. S. C. 6, 500 English High School Library. Sch . T. F. R. 4, 100 Friends School . 1784 Sch . C. Fr. B. 7’ 600 Gregory’s Circulating Library 1881 Gen . C. Fr. C. 6,000 La Salle Academy Library . . . 1871 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1, 200 Olneyville Free Library . 1875 Gen . O. B. F. B. 8; 565 # PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. 1139 Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations— State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 14 1 5 10 17 18 681 14, 240 $1, 146 $1,324 Mrs. F. M. Kendall . 243 7' 069 $600 ' 200 819 Mrs. E. S. Bradford 146 912 125 150 E. P. Chomplin . 830 17, 956 800 196 1 , 596 G. U. Arnold . 116 2, 450 156 180 G. F. Phipps . . 97 2, 632 125 250 $800 F. C. Angel 1 . 17' 000 1,696 1,696 J. W. Freeman . 80 6' 270 ' 196 '485 1,200 Annie M. Liysey . 250 10 | 000 150 780 $10, 000 3' 500 T. W. Chew _ “. . 296 16' 860 146 790 Mrs. J. E. Briggs . . 202 2, 084 Mrs. B. T. Aspinwall . 15 230 5, 641 896 969 2,000 E. T. Hill . 200 120 '688 115 115 Miss P. H. Edwards . 150 2,681 250 262 1,000 L. L. Mathewson . . 121 136 A. M. Howland. . 197 4, 405 246 --••433 Clara A. Olney . Elmer Butterfield, superin- tendent. Frank Viall, clerk . . 151 5, 360 171 209 Mrs. L . C. Hammond . 118 3' 120 246 509 5, 000 Mrs. M. E. Greenman . 7, 500 2,200 Lillian M. George . . . 100 97 4, 914 171 17c k. . . J. A. Belcher . . '653 100 100 220 2, 249 464 J. W. B. Veitch . 125 1,700 125 W. D. Aldrich . . 250 2, 200 121 171 Mrs. E. K. Browning _ ..... 50 25 3, 000 200 255 C. W. Littlefield . . 250 725 W. L. Brown, president. .... 12, 000 204 500 721 R. H. Tilley. '.t . . 4, 000 416 31, 000 4, 200 78, 000 50,000 David Stevens. 150 15 G. F. E. Harrison . . . . . 1,200 5, 448 55, 388 Richard Bliss . . . 500 350 W. L. Tisdale . . . . 589 545 3,041 625 660 L. M. Shaw . 30 25 Miss J. E. Gory, secretary _ 10, 000 2,500 45, 882 7,200 7, 200 M. A. Sanders . E. S. Hosmer, principal _ _ 350 269 11, 883 246 1, 673 29, 170 F. W. Fison . 7, 788 196 414 105 2, 258 227 227 B. E. Albro . Beulah A. Davol . 30, 000 5,438 7,172 15,066 68, 500 120, 000 H. L. Koopman . 160 1,600 H. H. Goss, steward . 279 W. T. Peck, principal . 1,500 100 24, 075 A. F. Davi3 . , 250 100 D. W. Hoyt, principal . 300 A. Jones, principal . H. Gregory, principal . Bro. Peters . 527 14, 400 200 ' 2,375 20, 000 30, 000 H. H. Richardson ... _ ..... 4698 4697 4698 4699 4700 4701 4702 4703 4704 4705 4706 4707 4708 4709 4710 4711 4712 4713 4714 4715 4716 4717 4718 4719 4720 4721 4722 4723 4724 4725 4726 4727 4728 4729 4730 4731 4732 4733 4734 4735 4736 4737 4742 4743 4744 4745 4746 1140 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 0 7 8 9 RHODE ISLAND — continued. 4747 Providence . Providence Athenseum . 1836 Soc . 0. C. S. B. 61,974 4748 . do . Public Library . 1878 Gen . 0. B. F. B. 88, 723 4749 . do . Rhode Island Historical So- 1822 His . 0. B. S. B. 20, 000 ciety. 4750 . do . Rhode Island Medical So- 1879 Med . C. F. B. 12, 500 ciety. 4751 . do . Rhode Island Normal School. Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 4752 . do . Sacred Heart Convent Li- Seh . C. Fr. B. 3,150 brary. 4753 . do . St. Francis Xavier Academv. 1851 Sch . . . c. S. B. 1, 100 4754 . .do . State Law Library . 1868 Law . T. F. R. 26, 500 4755 . do . Union for Christian Work. . . . 1868 Soc . R. C. F. C. 5,247 4756 Providence (519 Y. M. C. A. Library . 1853 Y.M.C. A. C. S. B. 4, 000 Westminster St.). 4757 Providence (112 Young Women’s Tea Room 1S88 Gen . R. c. S. B. 1,400 Mathewson st.). Library. 4758 Riverside . Free Public Library . 1879 Gen . O. T. F. B. 3,498 4759 Saunderstown .... Willetteville Free Library... 1886 State . 0. T. F. B. 1,074 4760 Raylpsville ... Sayles Free Public Library 1886 Gen . B. F. B. 1,267 Association. 4761 Shannock . Clarks Mills W. C. T. U. Free 1SS9 Soc . R. T. F. B. 1,660 Library. 4762 Slatersville . Slatersville Library . 1848 Gen . C. S. B. 1,900 4763 Summit . Free Library* _ ." . 1892 Gen . R. T. F. B. L 600 4764 Tiverton . . Whitridge Hall Free Library. 1875 Gen _ T. F. B. 3* 890 4765 Tiverton Four Union Public Library . /. . Gen . R. B. F. B. 2, 539 Corners. 4766 Valley Falls . Free Public Library . Gen _ T. F. B. 2,500 4767 Warren . George Hail Free Library. . . . 1871 Gen . O. T. F. B. 8, 000 4768 Warwick . League Free Library . 1883 Gen .... O. T. F. B. 3^ 373 4769 Westerly . Public High School . Sch .... T. Fr. B. 1, 202 4770 _ do . Public Library . 1894 Gen . O. C. F. B. 12, 519 4771 Wickford . Free Library . Gen .... 0. T. F. B. 2, 543 4772 Woonsocket . Harris Institute . 1865 Gen . B. F. B. 15; 000 SOUTH CAROLINA. 4773 Aiken . Schofield Normal and Indus- 1868 Sch . C. Fr. C. 2,000 trial School. 4774 Anderson . Patrick Military Institute ... Sch C. Fr. B. 1,000 4775 Cedarspring . South Carolina Institution State . T. Fr. B. 1, 200 for the Education of the Deaf and Blind. 4776 Charleston . Charleston Orphan Home ... 1790 Gen . C. Fr. B. 4,125 4777 . do . College of Charleston . 1785 Col . c. S. B. 14, 000 4778 . do . Library Society . 1748 Soc . 0. c. S. B. 20, 000 4779 . do . Medical Society of South Med . c. Fr. B. 3, 000 Carolina. 4780 . do . Smith’s (Mrs. Jet) Private Sch . R. c. Fr. R. 2,000 School Library. 4781 . do . South Carolina Military 1842 Col . T. Fr. B. 4,000 Academy. 4782 . do . Y.M.C. A. Library . Y.M.C. A. C. S. B. 1,500 4783 Clemson College. . Clemson A. and M. College 1893 Col . T. Fr. B. 5, 600 Library. 4784 Clinton . Presbyterian College of 1895 Col . C. F. R. 1,400 South Carolina. 4785 . do . Thorn well Orphanage ( N ellie 1875 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 6, 352 Scott Library). 4786 Columbia . Benedict College Library. . - . 1870 Col . c. Fr. R. 2,600 4787 . do . Columbia Theological Semi- 1830 Theo . c. F. R. 20, 000 nary. 4788 . do . Library Association . 1897 Gen . R. c. S. B. 1,500 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1141 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 IB 14 15 1G 17 18 1,306 53, 327 $7, 936 $35, 800 $18, 000 Jos. Le Roy Harrison . 4747 20, 000 2,840 105, 230 $10, 200 135, 125 450, 000 W. E. Foster . 4748 45' 000 ' 396 300 1,500 4, 456 24, 050 50, 000 C. S. Brigham . 4749 350 230 Geo. D. Hersey . 4750 Mable Brown . 4751 A. Schulten . 4752 148 Sister Margaret Mary . 4753 1,400 3,500 3,500 J. H. Bongartz . 4754 ' 146 12, 292 146 Zeph Brown, president . 4755 50 1,331 183 100 H. L. Calder . 4756 150 4,500 364 Mary N. Falconer . 4757 193 4,555 425 679 2,500 Mary W. Blodgel . 4758 257 90 1,164 75 79 Miss R. A. Arnold . 4759 12 '684 71 563 W. T. Asquith . 4760 5 1,297 75 110 75 200 C. F. Kenyan . 4761 W.H. Sandford . 4762 4763 75 120 1,451 121 174 Mary J. Seaburv . 4764 58 2, 015 96 125 E. J. Manchester . 4765 94 2,024 84 180 C. A. Dexter, treasurer . 4766 153 11 ' 028 800 800 _ 4767 200 106 4; 400 221 221 4768 4769 4, 000 571 27, 216 Ethan Wilcox . „ 4770 124 10, 275 500 706 2, 350 7,000 C. B. Reynolds . 4771 300 32, 000 200 200 Miss A. H. Ward . 4772 1, 000 Martha Schofield . 4773 4774 N. F. Walker, superintend- 4775 ent. 193 85 3, 904 Miss A. R. Irving, principal . 4776 1,268 155 Harrison Randolph, presi- 4777 dent. 790 30, 804 2,177 60, 000 Miss E. N. Fitzsimons . 4778 4779 Leslie Strode . 4780 25 W. G. Martin . 4781 W. €. Loire, secretary . 4782 500 600 10, 000 1,000 1,000 4783 2,000 150 50 A. E. Spencer, president . 4784 800 251 2,582 310 2, 500 Wm. P. Jacobs, president _ 4785 1, 000 250 400 A. C. Osborn . 4786 250 10, 000 R. C. Reed . 4787 500 300 9, 600 Mrs. Eugene Cramer . 4788 1142 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States 4789 4790 4791 4792 4793 4794 4795 4796 4797 4798 4799 4800 4801 4802 4803 4804 4S05 4806 4807 4808 4809 4810 4811 4812 4813 4814 4815 4816 4817 4818 4819 4820 4821 4822 4823 4824 4825 4826 4827 4828 4829 4830 4831 4832 4833 4834 4835 4836 4837 4S38 4839 Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 ( y i°r 4 8 9 SOUTH CAROLINA — continued. Columbia . Public School Library . 1883 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,000 . do . South Carolina College Li- 1805 Col . T. Fr. B. 32, 783 brary. . do . State Library . 1816 State ..... T. Fr. B. 50, 000 . do . Supreme Court Library . Law . T. F. R. 10,000 Conway . Borroughs School . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,500 Darlington . Darlington Guards Library . . 1896 Gen . R. c. S. B. 1,500 . do . St. John’s High School . Sch . T Fr. B. 1.646 Duewest. . Erskine College and Theo- 1840 Col . c. Fr. R. 3,000 logical Seminary. . do . Euphemian Literary So- 1843 Soc . O. C. S. B. 3, 000 cietv. f . do . Philomathean Society . . . 1839 Soc . O. C. S. R. 3,000 j Georgetown . Win yah Indigo Society . Gen . O. c s. B. 10, 000 1 Greenville . Furman University . 1851 Col . O. c. Fr. R'. 4,500 Marion . Public Library . . 1898 Gen . c F. B. 1,400 Newberry . Newberry College Library... 1859 Col . c. Fr. R. , 7,000 . do . Phremakosmian Literary 1860 Soc . c. Fr. R. 1, 200 Society. f 1 Orangeburg . Graded School . 1893 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,200 . do . Claflin University (Lee Li- 1899 Sch . C. Fr. B. 5,000 brary). Williamston . Williamston Female College. Col . C. Fr. B. 3,000 Rock Hill . Winthrop Normal and In- 1895 Col . T. Fr. B. 4, 565 dustrial College. Society IT ill . Society Hill Library . 1822 Gen . O. C S. B. 2,000 Spartanburg . Converse College Library . . . 1891 Col . 0. c. s. R. 4, 500 . do . Kennedy Free Library . 1883 Gen . 0. c. s. B. 3, 500 . do . W ofEord College . . 1854 Col . c. Fr. B. 10, 000 SOUTH DAKOTA. Aberdeen . Free Library . 1890 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3,800 Brookings . State Agricultural College . . . 1885 Col . c. F. R. 5, 370 Canton . Augustana College . 1870 Col . T. S. B. 1,000 Deadwood . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. L 210 Huron . Huron College Library . 1883 Col . c. Fr. R. 1,500 Lead . Public High School . 1895 Sch . C. s B. 1 , 000 Madison . State Normal School . 1883 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,805 Mitchell . Dakota University . Col . C. Fr. B. 2, 553 Pierre . State Library . 1889 State . T. Fr. R. 5, 000 Redfield . Redd eld College . 1888 Col . C. Fr. B. 2, 400 Sioux Falls . All Saints Library . . 1885 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 . do . Free Public Library . . 1899 Gen . T. F. C. 5, 000 . do . Lutheran Normal School Li- 1889 Sch . C. S. B. 1,200 brary. 1 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 . do . Sioux Falls College . 1S83 Col . C. S. B. 2,000 i . do . State Penitentiary . 1883 State . C. Fr. B. 2,600 Spearfish . State Normal School . 1887 Sch . B. F. B. 14, 000 Springfield . . do . 1897 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 Tyndall . Herbert Gopfert Library . Gen . C. S. B. 1,000 V ermilion : . School and Reference Library 1892 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1, 550 . do . University of South Dakota 1883 Col . T. Fr. B. 5; 280 Library. Watertown . Public High School . Sch . T. F. R. 1,200 Webster . Public High School Library . 1888 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,000 . do . Public School Library . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1,156 W e s s i n g t o n Wessington Springs Seminary 1887 Sch . C. F. B. 1,000 Springs. Yankton . Yankton College . 1881 Col . C. F. B. 7, 346 TENNESSEE. Athens . U. S. Grant University . 1869 Col . n Fr. C. 6,000 Bellbuckle . Webb School Library . 1886 Sch . c. S. B. 2,800 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. 1143 Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 100 4,000 $125 $132 E. S. Dreher, superintendent 277 Miss M. H. Rion . 25, 000 3,000 3,000 Mrs. P. F. Barham . 50 500 500 T. S. Moorman . R. C. Newton . 75 540 Emma Williamson . 500 100 F. Y. Pressly, president . 600 275 $5, 000 S. R. Lathan . 252 280 2,000 1,500 8, 000 T. b. Hamley . 225 ' 150 150 J. S. Meggs . 1,000 150 S. J. Derrick . 25 . do . 500 150 100 A. J. Thockston, superin- tendent. 3, 000 1,000 L. M. Dun ton . 98 700 6, 107 1,000 1,017 Ida J. Dacus . 25 48 250 Miss S. S. Wilson . 1, 000 300 3,000 500 $5, 000 3,000 Ben). Wilson . 40 103 2, 000 Miss Ohpelia Dawkins . 348 4, 280 $1, 186 1,204 G. E. Countryman . 9, 500 549 675 R. F. Kerr . 200 70 450 96 192 Mrs. A. G. Tune . Alexander Strachan . 300 C. A. French . 100 3,000 124 W. E. Smead . 300 D. M. Girton . 2,000 200 Philip Lawrence . '800 200 E. H. A. very . Agnes Hutchinson . 900 20, 000 3,000 3,000 H. T. George . 300 50 650 199 Prof. C. M. Christianson . 300 300 100 A. W. Norton, president . 100 4, 800 294 L. S. Tyler, clerk . . 850 1,000 F. L. Cook, principal . 300 ' 150 200 75 150 J. S. Frazee, president . Herbert Gopfert . 1,000 6 Sister M. Vincentia . 500 275 823 825 H. L. Lathrop . 150 150 C. A. Farley . W. D. Burcalow . 110 50 959 25 J. G. Hallock . 400 E. G. Burritt, principal . 4,500 500 350 2, 500 C.W.Lay . 200 400 E. C. Ferguson . 76 595 W. N. Webb . 4789 4790 4791 4792 4793 4794 4795 4796 4797 4798 4799 4800 4801 4802 4803 4S04 4805 4806 4807 4808 4809 4810 4811 4812 4813 4814 4815 4816 4817 4818 4819 4820 4821 4S22 4823 4824 4825 4826 4827 4828 4829 4830 4831 4832 4833 4834 4835 4836 4837 4838 4839 1144 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2- 3 4 5 t» 7 8 9 TENNESSEE — COn. 4840 Bristol . King College Library . 1870 Col . O. C. Fr. B. 5, 000 4841 . do . Public High School . 1895 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 4842 Brownsville . Female College Library . 1851 Col . C. F. R. 2,500 4843 . do . Longfellow Literary So- 1885 Soc . c. S. R. 2,500 cietv. 4844 Chattanooga . Baylor University School Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 Library. 4845 . do . Chattanooga College (Hod- 1890 Col . c. Fr. R. 1, 600 der Librarv). 4846 Chattanooga (1010 Library Association . 1887 Gen . R. c. S. B. 5, 223 Market st.). 4847 Chattanooga . Normal University Library . . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 4848 Clarksville . Library Association . . . 1894 Gen . B. S. B. 2,000 4849 . do . Southwestern Presbyterian 1879 Col . C. Fr. B. 6,000 University. 4850 . do . Washington Irving So- 1S71 Soc . B. Fr. R. 2,000 ciety Library. 4851 Columbia . Columbia Athenaeum . 1852 Sch . c. S. B. 8, 826 4852 . do . Columbia Institute . 1878 Sch . c. S. R. 10, 000 4853 Culleoka . Culleoka Academy (Reading 1880 Sch . c. s. B. 1,000 Club). 4854 Cumberland City. Academy Library . 1893 Gen . c. s. R. 1,000 4855 Dickson . Normal College Library . 1892 Col . c. s. R. 2, 000 4856 Fayetteville . Dick White College . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 4857 Fountain City .... Holbrook Normal College _ 1893 Col . c. Fr. R. 3' 000 4858 Franklin . Tennessee Female College _ 1856 Col . c. Fr. R. 1,300 4859 Grassy Cove . Grassy Cove Academy . Sch . c. F. B. 1,700 4860 Harriman . American University . Col . c. Fr. B. L 500 4861 Hiwasse.fi College. Hiwassee College . 1849 Col . c. F. B. 3^ 000 4862 Huntingdon . Southern Normal University 1891 Col . c. s. R. 3, 000 Library. 4863 Jackson . Lane College Library . Col . c. Fr. B. 1,500 4864 . do . Memphis Conference Femal e 1.843 Col . O. c. S. B. 6^ 385 Institute. 4865 . do . . Southwestern Baptist Uni- 1887 Sch . c. Fr. B. 3, 500 versitv. 4866 Johnson City . Public Library . 1894 Gen . R. c. S. B. 1,000 4867 Jonesboro . Graded School Library . 1897 Sch . c. Fr. R. R000 4868 Knoxville . Baker - Himel University Sch . c. Fr. B. l, ooo School. 4869 Knoxville (1322 Cosmopolitan Industrial Li- 1895 Sch . O. c. S. B. 1,500 Clinton st. ). brary. 4870 Knoxville . Knoxville College Library... 1875 Col . c. Fr. B. 2,000 4871 . do . Knox Countv Teachers’ Cir- 1892 Gen . c. S. B. 1,500 dilating Library. c 4872 . do . Lawson McGhee Library . 1886 Gen . O. c. S. B. 11,403 4873 . do . Public School Library . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,500 4874 . do . Tennessee Deaf and Dumb 1872 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,200 School. 4875 . do . University of Tennessee . 1807 Col . c. Fr. B. 16, 770 4876 Lebanon . Cumberland University . 1842 Col . c. S. B. 12, 000 4877 McKenzie . Bethel College Library . Col . c. Fr. B. 1,000 4878 Maryville . Maryville College . Col . c. Fr. B. 13, 000 4879 Memphis . Bar and Law Library Associ- 1874 Law . c. S. R. 15, 000 ation. 4880 . do . Christian Brothers College. . . 1872 Col . c. Fr. B. 6,000 4881 . do . Cossitt Librarv . 1888 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 15, 924 4882 . do . Higbee School* . Sch . c. Fr. B. 2, 300 4883 . do . I. o. O. F. Library . 1877 I. O. O. F.. 0. c. F. B. 5, 000 4884 . do . Le Moyne Institute Public 1875 Sch . c. F. C. 3,200 Library. 4885 . do . Medical College Library . 1878 Med . c. Fr. R. 3,000 4886 . do . St. Agnes’ Academy . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1, 300 4887 Memphis! 366 Pop- St. Mary’s School Library _ 1873 Sch . c. Fr. R. 1,300 lar st.). 4888 Milligan . Milligan College . 1882 Col . c. F. B. 1,800 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1145 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 2, 000 50 150 $50C Tilden Schever . 4840 L S Loudon . 4841 1,000 1,500 $500 R. E. Hatton . 4842 1,000 2,600 . do . 4843 4844 J. L. Cooper, president . 4845 Margaret Dunlap . 4846 4847 200 $100 310 Mrs. Lena D. Beach _ _ _ 4848 . 1,000 500 J. A. Lyon . 4849 J. L. McKinstry . 4850 1,590 R. D. Smith, president . 4851 3 10 Mary A. Bryant . 4852 200 15 J. P. Graham . . . 4853 200 40 250 J. H. Bayer . 4854 200 100 250 T. B. Loggins . . . 4855 4856 200 W. C. Bleesingame . 4857 50 J. H. Chiles. ~ . 4858 200 500 Hubert S. Lyle, principal _ 4859 4860 J. C. Willis . 4861 1,200 300 300 J. A. Baber . 4862 200 50 Geo. A. Payne . 4863 2,131 40 125 Rev. A. B. Jones . 4864 1,200 75 W. G. Mahaffey . 4865 165 100 Mrs. E. G. Hart . 4866 50 Newton Hacker, president.. 4867 4868 " 173 . 17 3, 000 Miss M. J. S. Moore . 4869 500 80 100 R. W. McGranahan, presi- 4870 dent. 100 50 30 P. D. Duggan, superintend- 4871 ent. 790 18, 743 4872 W. T. White, principal . 4873 150 50 T. L. Moses, principal . 4874 5, 000 700 2,520 1, 600 $20, 000 Hettie S. Jarnagin . 4875 100 400 W. P. Bone . 4876 200 B. G. Mitchell, president _ 4877 4878 400 2, 000 E. A. Cole, secretary . 4879 Brother Anthony . 4880 8, 000 3,122 35, 989 5,240 5, 969 78,913 C. D. Johnston . 4881 4882 50 2,000 Jennie L. Davis . 4883 iool 1, 200 100 A. J. Steele . 4884 W. A Rogers, M. D . 4885 4886 4887 500 100 J. Hop wood, president . 4888 1146 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United Slates Location. Name of library. 1 2 TENNESSEE — COn. 4889 Mossycreek . 4890 Nashville . 4S91 . do . 4892 . do . 4893 . do . 4894 . do . 4895 . do . . 4896 . do . 4897 . do . 4898 . do . 4899 . do . 4900 . do . 4901 . do . 4902 . do . 4903 Neboville . 4904 New Market . 4905 Petersburg . 4906 Pulaski . 4907 Rogersville . 1 . 4908 Rugby . 4909 Sewanee . 4910 Spencer . 4911 Sweetwater . 4912 . do . 4913 Tusculum . 4914 Washington Col- lege. TEXAS. 4915 Abilene . 49 i 6 Alvin . 4917 Austin . 4918 4919 4920 4921 4922 4923 4921 .do .do . do . . do . . do . . do . Belton 4925 I Bowie . 4926 I Brackettsville 4927 I Bren ham . 4928 Brownwood . . . 4929 4930 4931 4982 4933 4934 4935 Chapelhill . Cleburne . College Station. Comanche. Commerce. Carson and Newman College, Central Tennessee College Library. Fisk University . Masonic Library Association. Montgomery Bell Academy Library. Roger Williams University Library. St. Cecilia Academy Library. State Library . . . Teachers’ Elliott Library _ Tennessee School for the Blind. University of Nashville, Pea¬ body Normal College. Vanderbilt University Li¬ brary. Ward Seminary . Watkins Institute (Howard Library). Public High School . New Market Academy . Elizabeth Training School. . . Martin Female College . Synodical Female College... Hughes Free Public Library. University of the South _ _ _ Burritt College . Sweetwater College . Sweetwater Seminary for Young Ladies. Greeneville and Tusculum College. Washington College Library. Simmons College Library. . . . Public High School . Institution for the Blind Li¬ brary. St. Edward’s College Library. State Library . tX) 1866 1869 1878 1879 1865 1890 1886 1844 1825 1875 1891 1898 1885 1875 1849 1852 1888 Corsicana . Dallas (175 Olive st.). Supreme Court Library . Tillotson College Library.... University of Texas Library. Y. M. C. A*. Library . Baylor Female College Li¬ brary. Public High School . I Post Library, Fort Clark, TexJ Blinn Memorial College . j Howard Payne College Li- j brary. Chapel Hill Female College.! Public High School . j Agricultural and Mechanical j College. Comanche College . I East Texas Normal College Library. Public High School Library Central Academy . . 1795 1892 1890 1856 1881 1839 1846 1881 1884 1894 O Col Gen . State Sch.. Sell . . Col . Col . Sch. Gen Sch. Sch. Sch. Col . Col : Gen Col . Col . Col . Sch. Col . Col . Col . Sch, Sch. Col . Col . Col . Mas Sch. tc ' o 5 03 r* si pa is o p 3 CO O. R. Gen . State Law . Col . Col . Y.M.C.A. Col . . Sch. . ! Gar. . ! Col . 1890 Col . 1852 Col . Sch . Col . 1876 Sch. 1890 j Col . . 1 Sch . 1882 Sch. 6 R. C. c. c. c. c. c. T. B. T. C. C. C. B. C. C. C. C. C. c. B. C. C. c. c. c. T. T. C. T. T. C. C. C. C. T. T. C. C. C. c. _o +3 o on 3! 0) V S-i fa Fr. S. Fr. S. Fr. Fr. S. F. Fr. Fr. S. Fr. S. F. Fr. Fr. S. Fr. Fr. S. s. Fr. Fr. Fr. F. F. f! Fr. S. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. S. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. C. S. T. Fr. T. Fr. Fr. F. cf r-5 3 o O T. Fr. C. i Fr. B. B. B. R. R. B. R. R. B. B. R. B. R. B. B. R. B. B. B. B. R. B. B. B. B. B. B. B. B. B. R. R. R. B. B. B. B. R. B. R. B. B. B. B. B. B. B. a 3 3 > 9 3.100 5, 000 6, 778 3.500 1,000 5,146 3,000 40, 000 5, 000 2,283 15, 000 32, 000 2.500 10, 000 1,000 1,011 1,000 1,200 1.500 7,000 21,020 3,852 1.500 1.100 8,200 2.500 3,963 5,000 3,000 4,115 12, 800 12, 000 2,000 34, 000 1,500 1,500 1,000 1.500 1, 500 2,000 1,000 1,300 3,000 1,300 3.500 1,000 3,500 1147 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. c EH io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ] 8 1,000 T. A. Tartson . 146 300 30 $331 1, 250 $1, 750 E. C. Stickel . 1,000 100 B. A. Phillips . S. M. D. Clark . 150 2,000 260 107 600 4, 000 200 1,025 25 Sister Angela . $1,100 100 1, 100 424 Miss J. E. Lauderdale _ 2,000 3,640 3,000 D. Moore Andrews . J. V. Armstrong, superin¬ tendent. Miss E. R. Clark . 5, 000 8,000 250 800 2,900 Edwin Wiley . J. D. Blanton _ . 2, 000 500 16, 020 J. S. Carets . 5 H. L. Higgs . Carl H. Elmore . 250 50 1,500 21,516 424 15 20 Mrs. B. E. Atkins _ 10(1 22 612 322 . W. M. Graybill, president _ 161 1,564 240 Miss L. F. Gallehia . 1,625 $107 50 W. N. Billingsley . Leo. Slierrilf . . 200 1,000 C. H. Mathes . 2,000 2,000 1,000 1,000 O. C. Pope, president . M. Z. Spahar . 500 700 700 M. H. Brasher . 2,540 9,000 500 B. Stanislaus . . . 705 500 1,990 1, 250 1,990 1,250 C. W. Raines, acting libra¬ rian. C. S. Morse . ~ 10,000 1,800 18, 000 3, 000 Benj. Wyche . Jno.Gibson . 100 W. A. Wilson, president . 15 J. L.Neu . 500 500 75 J. H. Grove . 50 80 100 30 210 L. F. Smith, president . 700 V. M. Fulton . 210 Chas. Pur year . 450 200 150 Wr. L. Mays . 300 40 . j Waldeman Malcalmson . 4889 4S90 4891 4892 4893 4894 4895 4896 4897 4898 4S99 4900 4901 4902 4903 4904 4905 4906 4907 4908 4909 4910 4911 4912 4913 4914 4915 4916 4917 4918 4919 4920 4921 4922 4923 4924 4925 4926 4927 4928 I 4929 1 4930 ! 4931 4932 4933 4934 4935 l 1148 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 texas — continued. 4936 Dallas . Public Librarv . 1900 Gen . 0. B F. B. 5,000 4937 El Paso . . do . 1895 Gen . B. S. B. 2,000 4938 Ennis . J. C. Watkins Public School 1890 Sch . C. S. B. 1,998 Library. 4939 Ferris . Ferris Institute Librarv . 1896 Sch . c. s. B. 1,497 4940 Fort Worth . Carnegie Public Library . Gen . o B. F. B. ioi 000 4941 . do . Commercial Club . 1885 Soc . 6. C. s. R. 3, 600 4942 . do . Fort Worth Universitv . 1881 Col . C. s. B. 4,000 4943 . do . Polytechnic College Library . 1891 Col . o c. s. R. 2, 500 4944 Galveston . Ball High School . 18S1 Sch . T Fr. B. 1,500 4945 . do . Court of Civil Appeals . 1893 Law . T F. R. 5' 000 4946 . do . Public Librarv . 1882 Gen . R. T F. B. 8* 000 4947 . do . St. Mary’s University Library Col . C. F. R. 7' 000 4948 . do . Ursuline Academv . 1847 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,000 4949 Georgetown . Southwestern University .... 1873 Col . c. S. B. 3j 500 4950 Greenville . Burleson College . 1896 Col . c Fr. R. 1,000 4951 Honeygrove . Wall School Library . 1888 Sch . c. s. B. 2, 500 4952 Houston . Houston Lyceum and Car- 1856 Gen . R. B E. B. 7, 416 negie College. 4953 . do . Public High School . 1889 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,500 4954 Huntsville . Sam Houston Normal Insti- 1879 Sch . B. S. B. 9,000 tute (Peabody Memorial) . 4955 . do . State Prison Library . 1880 State ..... T. Fr. B. 3,000 4956 Jasper . Southeast Texas Male and Sch . .... C. Fr. B. 1,000 Female College. 4957 Kingston . Calhoun College Library . 1885 Col _ C. F. R. 1, 000 4958 Laredo . Cattie Hogue Library . 1883 Sch . . C. Fr. B. 1,000 4959 Marshall . Bishop College Library . 1881 - Col _ c. Fr. B. 2; 700 4960 . do . Wilev University Library . . . . 1873 ; coi . c. Fr. B. 3,500 4961 Mexia . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 4962 . do . Public School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,750 4963 Omen . Summer Hill School Librarv . 18S4 Col . c. s. B. 1,200 4964 Paris . Female College . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,800 4965 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 4966 San Antonio . Public Librarv . 1892 Gen . R C. s B. 6, 000 4967 . do . St. Mary’s College . 1852 Col . c. Fr. R. 2,000 4968 Savoy . Savov College . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,200 4969 Sherman . Austin College Library . 1849 Col . c. S. R. 6, 000 4970 . do . Mary Nash College Library.. 1877 Col . c. Fr. R. 3, 000 4971 . do . North Texas Female College. 1879 Col . c. S. B. 1,000 4972 . do . Public High School Library . 1895 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 4973 Tehuacana . Trinity Universitv . Col . C. Fr. B. 5, 000 4974 Temple . Public High School Library . 1888 Sch . T Fr. B. 1,200 4975 Victoria . Nazareth Academy . Sch . C. Fr. B. 2,000 4976 Waco . Add-Ran University Library. Col . c. Fr. B. 3,600 4977 . do . Baylor Universitv . . 1850 Sch . c. Fr. R. 5,000 4978 . do . Douglas Schuler School . Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 4979 . do . Paul Quinn College . 1883 Col . c. Fr. R. 1,500 4980 Waxahachie . Public High School . Sch . T. S. B. 2, 000 4981 Weatherford . Public School . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 4982 . do . Weatherford College . 1889 Col . c. S. B. 1,542 4983 Whitewright . Gravson College . 1886 Col . c. Fr. B. 4; 000 UTAH. 4984 Fairview . Sanderson Free Public Li- 1897 Gen . R. c. F. B. 1,000 brary. 4985 Logan . A gricultural College Library. 1S90 Col . c. Fr. B. 7,000 4986 . do . Brigha.m Young College . Col . c. F. R 2, 433 4987 Mount Pleasant . . Wasatch Academy . 1S80 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,000 4988 Provo . Brigham Young Academy _ Col . c. S. B. 4; 732 49S9 Salt Lake Citv. . . . All Hallows College . 1891 Col . c. Fr. B. 2, 500 4990 . do . Firemen’s Library . 1871 Gen . c. Fr. C. i; 600 4991 . do . Free Public Library . 1897 Gen . T. F. B. 13, 374 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1149 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. ft a cj ft io 100 127 1,000 1,500 ”500 200 'i,'si2 be G ft ft d 0> ft ^ 03 © t/3 ft © a G 11 100 110 300 50 150 50 56 300 fcOra G G u © ft a ^ o ftA o3 M oS a p ft 13 ^ « >• ft © .ft S'S 0 ft-t-3 f-l ft’-c O 11 o H 15 o ft c r ft 16 17 Name of librarian. 18 S60 4,000 100 350 1,650 $1, 120 500 4,000 10, 000 250 250 350 1,650 $50,000 J.M. Dickson, chairman of building committee. Alice Nord . H. F. Triplett . 72, 800 45, 000 800 A. C. Speer . . Mrs. J. C. Terrel, secretary. . . N. I. Stubbs, secretary . Mrs. O. L. Fisher _ '. . W. F. Mister, chairman of faculty. W. A. James, A. M., secretary H. M. Knight . Mrs. M.C. Felton . J. J. B. Remy . 4936 4937 4938 4939 4940 4941 4942 4943 4944 4945 4946 4947 4948 4949 4950 4951 4952 4953 4954 4955 4956 4957 4958 4959 4960 4961 4962 4963 4964 4965 4966 4967 4968 4969 4970 4971 4972 4973 4974 4975 4976 4977 4978 4979 4980 4981 4982 4983 4984 4985 4986 4987 4988 4989 4990 4991 1,000 400 200 1,000 500 200 50 816 200 500 '366 • 100 2, 400 2, 400 . ; 500 500. 1, 486 100 125 150 F. B. Carroll . E. T. Kemp, president. . S. V. Wall, jr., secretary W. W. Barnett, superintend¬ ent. H. C. Pritchett, principal _ S. H. Morgan . 300 300 300 50 25 900 500 500 10 270 Tom Hughes . N. E. Holding . . Albert Loughridge, president R. S. Loringood . 535 100 40 1,125 286 24 R. B. Cousins A. W. Orr _ 100 9,092 527 30 M. E. Kaighn, secretary Geo. Deck, principal . . . 1,000 2,000 1,000 1,000 100 50 100 200 '400 200 20 250 4, 000 * i ,’666 800 D. F. Eagleton . A. Q. Nash, president . Mrs. E. L. Strother . P. W. Horn, superintendent B. E. Looney . J. E. Blair, superintendent . 200 N. Harris, regent 8 500 75 500 1,000 970 400 2,700 1,500 50 1, 124 300 50 200 15 186 75 65 481 593 25 354 250 13 1,661 300 100 500 20, 205 I. N. Burgan, president . W. L. Acker, superintendent J. B. Rogers, superintendent D. S. Switzer, president . J. F. Anderson . O. M. Sanderson. $100, 000 250 61, 232 $6, 314 900 237 75 6,660 Sarah G. Goodwin . H. Ballew, jr., secretary. Miss Amma Stanley G. M. Cope . T. J. Larkin . Reuben Simpson . Miss A. E. Chapman . 1150 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 utah — continued. 4992 Salt Lake City _ Gordon Academy and Train- Sch . C. Ft. B. 2,100 ing School for Teachers. 4993 . do . Latter Day Saints College * . . Sch . R. C. Fr. B. 1, 568 4994 . do . Public High School Library . 1892 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,500 4995 . do . State Law Library . Law . T. F. R. 10, 000 4996 . do . University of Utah . Col . T. Fr. R. 20, 000 VERMONT. 4997 Barrs . Goddard Seminary (W. It. 1S97 Sch . C. Fr. B. 3, 000 Shipman Library). ' 4998 _ .do . Library Association . 1873 Gen ... . R. B. S. B. 4,000 4999 Bellows Falls . Rockingham Free Public 1888 Gen . T. F. B. 7,200 Library. 5000 Bennington . Free Library . . 1865 Gen . O. B. EL B. 6, 032 5001 Bennington Cen- Old Academy Library . 1896 Gen . B. Fr. B. 1,039 ter. 5002 Bradford . Merrill Library . Sch . c. Fr. B. 2,100 5003 . do . Woods Public Library . 1895 Gen . 0 C. S. B. 2,900 5004 Brandon . Ladies’ Book Club . Soc . O. c. s. C. 2,807 5005 Brattleboro. . . . Free Library . 1882 Gen . O. T. F. B. 11,545 5006 . do . Retreat Library . 1870 Asv _ C. Fr. B. 4,000 5007 Brookfield . Town Library . . 1791 Gen . R. C. S. B. 2,400 5008 Burlington . Bishop of Vermont Library.. 1894 Theo _ O. C. Fr. B. 4, 234 5009 . do . Edmunds High School . . 1899 Sch . T. Fr. R. 3,000 5010 . do . Fletcher Free Library . 1874 Gen . T. F. B. 40, 000 5011 . do _ Parish Library . Gen . C. F. C. 1, 600 5012 . do . St. Mary’s Academy . 1877 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,500 5013 . do . University of Vermont . 1791 Col . 0. c. F. B. 59^ 433 5014 Calais _ Circulating Library . 1832 Gen . c. S. c. R 050 5015 Castleton . Free Public Library . 1897 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1,120 5016 _ do _ State Normal School . Sch . T. Fr. R. 2* 000 5017 Cavendish . Fletcher Town Libras . 1870 Gen . R. T. F. B. 6, 000 501S Chelsea . Public Library in Alden 1892 Gen . O. T. F. C 1,200 Speare Memorial Library B'lilding. 5019 Chester . Whiting Free Library . 1888 Gen . O. B. F. B. 2,802 5020 Craftsbury Craftsbury Academy . Sch . c. Fr. B. 2, 150 5021 Danville . Ladies’ Library Association.. 1580 Gen . O. C. S. B. 1,500 5022 Enosburg. . . . Public Library . 1896 Gen . c. Fr. B. 1, 383 5023 Fairhaven . . do . * . 1886 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3' 488 5024 Fetch ville .... Reading Free Library . 1896 Gen . O. B. F. C. 1,527 5025 Grafton . Public Library . 1858 Gen . B. F. B. 2, 500 5026 Guilford Center .. Guilford Free Library . 1891 Gen . O. T. E 'B. 1, 071 5027 Hardwick . Gendevine Memorial and 1897 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1,265 Hathaway Free Library. 5028 Hartford . Hartford Library . 1892 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 2, 960 5029 . do . Wilder Club Library . . 1899 Soc _ c. Fr. B. 1, 048 5030 Hydepark . Public library . 1896 Gen . c. Fr. B. 1, 000 5031 Johnson . State Normal School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 3' 500 5032 Ludlow . Black River Academy . 1897 Sch . B. Fr. B. 1,500 5033 . do . Florence Memorial Library.. 1891 Gen . C. F. B. 2| 200 5034 Lyndon Center... Lvnclon Institute . 1870 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1,186 5035 Lyndonville. . Lyndon Free Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. F. C. 1,565 5036 Manchester _ Burr & Burton Seminary .... 1833 Sch . C. Fr. B. R000 5037 . do . Burton Pastoral Library . 1850 Theo . c. Fr. R. R000 5038 . do . Mark Skinner Library . 1897 Gen . 0. c. Fr. B. 11,000 5039 Marshfield . Jaquith Public Library . 1899 Gen . T. F. B. R 873 5040 Middlebury . Ladies’ Library Association. . 1866 Gen . R. C. S. C. 4; 338 5041 . do . Middlebury College Library. 1800 Col . O. c. F. B. 23, 492 5042 . do . Sheldon Art Museum Library 1881 Gen . O. c. F. R. 4,300 5043 Middletown Ladies’ Library . 1875 Gen . R. B. S. B. R000 Springs. 5044 Montpelier . Kellog-Hubbard Library _ 1894 Gen . O. c. F. B. 10, 00() 5045 . do . Montpelier Seminary . 1868 Sch . c. F. B. 1,000 * Statistics of 1895-96. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1151 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. io 11 12 13 11 15 16 17 18 750 $200 F. W. Smith, principal . 4992 400 4993 300 25 Geo. A. Eaton . 4994 800 $4, 000 4, 000 L. P. Palmer, secretary . . 4995 10, 000 1,300 14 Geo. Coray . . . i . 4996 100 120 $500 O. K. Hollister, principal .... 4997 40 150 4 058 300 504 Mrs. L. L. Boyce . . . 4998 300 21, 800 $900 1,016 4999 13 12, 000 100 100 Mary B. Merrill . 5000 28 83 E. S. Chandler, treasurer .... 5001 Mrs. A . C. Spaldinp- . 5002 50 2, 000 85 5,000 $8,000 . do . . . 5003 Margaret Forbes . 5004 479 17, 885 1,200 1,514 19, 000 Wm. C. Bradley . 5005 650 S. E. Lawton . 5006 40 ....... 38 200 Mrs. S. E. Fallansher . 5007 Geo. B. Johnson, chaplain.. 5003 2, 600 100 100 Isaac Thomas, principal.... 5009 '760 52, 005 2, 200 3, 165 10,000 15, 000 Sarah C. Hagar . \ . 5010 59 875 ' 40 1,000 Effie Moore . 5011 Sisters of Mercy . . . . 5012 30 882 3,376 4, 250 75, 000 153, 000 Edith E. Clark. . 5013 200 8 Mrs. C. E. Robinson . 5014 80 300 5,451 100 189 M. A. Rice . 5015 P.R. Leavenworth, principal 5016 4, 000 200 200 2, 000 E.G. White . 5017 2. 752 50 57 6, 000 Geo. Stow, trustee . . . 5018 76 5, 916 200 469 4,100 7,000 C. G. Pollard . 5019 Ida G. Dustan . . . 5020 2, 080 40 1,000 4,500 5021 Miss Annie Gaines . 5022 15, 256 600 630 Ellen F. Dewey . . 5023 912 1 , 795 74 Minnie C. Fay . 5024 60 2,900 100 407 L. A. Phelps . 5025 32 2 1,500 40 40 1,000 500 Mrs. W. G. Warden . 5026 40 39 200 C. P. Bridgman . 5027 50 100 7, 800 420 3,700 4,000 F. L. Wright . 5028 L. M. Hodgkins . 5029 Miss Alice Goddard . 5030 Alice E. Dickinson . 5031 200 100 19 A. G. Bugbee, principal ..... 5032 275 D. F. Cooledge, chairman _ 5033 30 60 F. L. Prigsley, principal . 5034 292 5, S00 326 366 E. M. Campbell, secretary _ 5035 6 100 E. F. Botsford, principal . 5036 800 Geo. T. Smart, I). D . 5037 400 1,048 13, 774 1,557 C. M. Chamberlain . 5038 1,600 350 2, 510 4, 000 1,000 E. C. Pitkin, secretary . . 5039 141 '295 Susan D. Parker, president. . 5040 2.500 289 4, 861 500 50, 000 C. E. Printiss, assistant sec- 5041 retary. 3, 800 112 15 415 6,000 4,000 H. L. Sheldon . 5042 200 25 25 50 Ellen J. Paul, president . 5043 3,100 26, 480 2,720 125, 000 65, 000 Mary E. Macomber . 5044 50 100 W. M. Newton . 5045 1152 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1800. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 VERMONT— cont’d. 5046 Montpelier . State Library . 1825 Gen . O. T. F. R. 35, 000 6047 . do . Washington County Gram- Seh . T. Fr. B. 2,307 mar School. 5048 Morrisville . Morristown Centennial Li- 1890 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2,000 brary. 5049 Newbury . Tennev Memorial Library _ 1897 Gen . O. B. F. B. 3,440 5050 Newfane . Moore Free Library . 1898 Gen . O. C. F. B. 2, 400 5051 Newport . Goodrich Memorial . 1898 Gen . O. B. EL B. 6” 500 5052 North Bennington Public Library . 1900 Gen . R. B. F. C. l'ooo 5053 North Craftsbury. Craftsburv Academv . 1879 Sch . C. E B. 2, 200 505-1 Northfield . Free Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1 ’ 695 5055 . do . Norwich University . 1817 Col . C. Fr. B. 6’ 000 5056 Norwich . Public Library . 1886 Gen . R. C. S. C. 2, 270 5057 Peacham . Peacham Juvenile Library 1810 Soc . B. s B. 1,848 Society. 6058 Tittsford . Maclure Library . . 1839 Gen . O. B. F. B. 4, 645 5059 Post Mills . ; . Peabody Library . 1866 Gen . O. C. F. B. 6, 000 5060 Poultney . Public Library . 1895 Gen . T. F. B. 3' 260 6061 . do . Troy Conference Academy . . Sch . C. Fr. B. 2, 100 5062 Proctor . Free Public Library . 1881 Gen . B. S. B. 4, 500 5063 Proctorsville . Fletcher Town Library . 1861 Gen . R. T F. B. 5* 500 5064 Quechee . Quechee Association Library. Gen . C. s. C. L000 5065 Randolph . Public Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2, 720 5066 Randolph Center. Randolph State Normal 1867 Sch . B. Fr. B. 3, 300 School. 5067 Reading . Free Library . 1896 Gen . c. Fr. B. 1,525 5068 Richford . Arvin A. Brown Public Li- 1895 Gen . C. Fr. B. 1,126 brary. 5069 Richmond . Free Library . Gen . R. B. F. B. 1,000 5070 Rockingham _ _ _ . do . 1888 Gen . C. Fr. B. 1, 200 6071 Rutland . . do . 1886 Gen . B. F. B. 12; 030 5072 . do . II. H. Baxter Memorial Li- 1890 Gen . O. C. F. R. 15; 000 brary. 5073 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1, 300 6074 St. Albans . Free Library . Gen . T. Fr. C. 3,' 600 5075 St. Johnsbury _ St. Johnsburv Athenseum _ 1871 Gen . O. C. F. B. 16', 018 5076 Saxtons River .... Vermont Academv Library.. 1876 Sch . C. Fr. B. 4,000 5077 Springfield . Town Library . 1871 Gen . O. B. Fr. B. 4,000 5078 Stockbridge . Belcher Library . 1897 Gen . C. Fr. B. 2, 277 5079 Stowe . Free Library . 1866 Gen . T. F. B. 2' 107 5080 Strafford . Harris Library . 1855 Gen . O. B. F. C. 4,600 5081 Thetford . Latham Memorial Library... 1S76 Gen . O. C. F. B. 3; 000 6082 . do . Peabody Library . 1876 Gen . C. Fr. B. 5, 500 5083 . do . Thetford Academy . Sch . c. Fr. B. 3' 000 5084 Vergennes . Vergennes Library . 1876 Gen . . R. B. S. B. 3,209 5085 Wallingford . Gilbert Hart Library . 1894 Gen . O. B. F. B. 2, 600 6086 Waterbury . Public Library . Gen . C. S. B. 1, 850 5087 Wells River . Library Association . . . 1858 Gen . O. C. S. C. 1,400 6088 West Rutland .... Public Library . 1888 Gen . R. T. F. C. 1,500 6089 Wilder . Wilder Club and Library . . . . 1899 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1,048 6090 Williamstown .... Social Library . 1801 Gen . C. S. C. 3; 000 5091 Windsor . Library Association . 1882 Gen . O. B. Fr. B. 8,500 5092 Woodstock . Norman Williams Public Li- 1883 Gen . O. C. F. B. Hi 668 brary. VIRGINIA. 6093 Ashland . Randolph-Macon College _ 1832 Col . c. Fr. B. 8,500 5094 Arvonia . Seven Islands School . Sch . c. Fr. B. ROOO 6095 Bellevue . Bellevue High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 3; 200 6096 Bethel Academy . Washington and Lee Society. 1875 Soc . c. Fr. B. 1,200 5097 Blacksburg . Virginia Polytechnic Insti- 1872 Col . c. F. B. 3,000 tute. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1153^ of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations— State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1,400 $800 $1,500 $50, 000 T. L. Wood, first assistant li- brarian. N. J. Whitebill, principal .... 100 275 7,500 185 235 $500 F. G. Fleetwood . 362 5, 600 150 200 2,000 1,500 F. M. Atkinson . 100 100 2, 000 Mrs. C. P. Moore . 25 50 23, 988 $400 400 2,067 30; 000 25, 000 Lizzie M. Sargent . 250 50 100 250 F. P. Davison . 25 A. C. Cole, principal . 108 4, 667 Miss E. L. Brown . 4,000 150 H. R. Roberts . 50 Miss S. J. Burton, chairman of trustees. 33 139 Annie E. Renfrew . . 296 7,653 219 • 331 1,350 20, 000 Bertha M. Shaw . 500 100 1,000 125 2; 300 2, 000 Harvey Dodge . 215 9, 760 600 622 Addie Kilborn . 225 5,589 359 2, 000 A. C. Freeborn . W. W. Adams . . . 65 Mrs. H. A. Allen . 118 9,987 300 400 W. H. Du Bois, secretary . . 125 250 350 Edward Conant . Minnie C. Fay . Mrs. A. K. Brown . 2, 500 80 1 400 Anna Horton . Mrs. Nellie A. Plan tier . 550 46, 843 2,035 3,397 L. D. Cheney . Mrs. Ella C. Riker . S. H. Erskine . 574 20, 562 600 951 B. C. Jennison . 635 3, 031 52, 000 E. S. Truax . 50 50 6 000 A. R. Huntington . 180 12, 000 250 448 2,583 18, 000 M. Goodnow . F. E. Steele . 40 2,200 110 110 Mrs. A. M. Jenney . 1,500 125 2,200 42 115 1,050 1,500 M. C. Hatch . . 62 1,600 100 A. E. Lambert . . . Harvey Dodge . 93 2, 400 260 533 Mary P. Tucker . 500 10ft 7,824 320 420 8, 000 Wm. C. Mason . 30 90 M. R. H. Ladd . 30 1,800 102 A. K. Bigelow . 143 5,748 303 554 Miss A. H. Spencer . 52 2, 656 50 Mayette F. Maiston . 35 1,000 25 Geo. E. Wilber . 365 10, 478 400 1,091 10, 000 3, 500 Edward N. Goddard . 356 18, 396 2, 720 33 j 000 Mrs. O. B. Jaquith . 300 410 Rich. Irby, secretary . . Philip B. Ambler, principal. W. R. Abbot, princioal . 500 75 Col. R. A. McIntyre, super- intendent. 1,000 500 1, 200 E.T. Waller, B.S . . . 5046? 5047' 5048 • 504ft 505ft 5051 5052 5053 5054 505ft- 5056- 5057' 505S' 505ft' 506ft. 5061 5062 506ft' 5064. 5065 5066- 5067 506ft 5069' 507ft 5071 5072:. 507ft. 5074 5075. 5076 50777' 507ft. 507S-' 5080 5081" 5082. 5083 ■ 5084" 5085. 5086'' 5087 5088 5089" 5090' 5091 5092' 509ft- 5094 5095 5096 5097? ED 1900 73 1154 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 3 4 5 t> 7 8 9 VIRGINIA — cont’d. 5098 Blackstone . Hoge Memorial Military 1893 Sch . C. Fr. R. 2,500 Academy. 5099 Bridgewater . Bridgewater College . 1884 Col . c. S. B. 1,000 5100 Bristol . Southwest Virginia Institute. Col . C. Fr. B. 1,000 5101 Charlottesville . . . University of Virginia . 1819 Col . 0. B. Fr. B. 49' 473 5102 . do . Leander McCormick Ob- 1885 Scien . Yy. Fr; R. 1,000 servatory. 5103 Dayton . Shenandoah Institute . 1876 Sell . C. Fr. R. 1,000 5104 Emory . Emory and Henry College. . . 1837 Col . C. S. C. 8, 000 5105 Farmville . State Female Normal School. 1885 Sch . B. s. R. 4,500 5106 Flovd Oxford Academy . Sch . C. Fr. B. l' 000 5107 Fort Defiance . Augusta Military Academy. . 1879 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1 , 500 5108 Fort Monroe . Post Library . 1868 Gar . C. Fr. C. 2, 325 5109 . do . United States Artillery 1824 Gov . T. Fr B. 12, 000 School. 5110 Fredericksburg _ Fredericksburg College . 1893 Col . B. S. B. 1, 000 5111 . do . Fredericksburg Library . 1876 Gen . C. S. B. 2, 500 5112 Haleford . Classical and Normal School. Sch . C. Fr. R. 2, 500 51] 3 Hampton . Hampton Normal and Agri- Sch . c. F. B. 10, 000 cultural Institute. 5114 Hampden Sidney. Hampden Sidney College. . . . 1776 Col . 0. c. Fr. B. 13, 000 5115 Harrisonburg . Graded and High School . 1890 Sch . T. Fr. R. 2, 000 51 16 Hollins . Hollins Institute (Alumnae Gen . C. S. B. 2; 000 Library). 5117 Lebanon . The Russell College . Sch . C. Fr. B. 1,000 5118 Lexington . Virginia Military Institute .. 1839 Col . C. S. B. ll' 492 5119 . do . Washington and Lee Univer- 1800 Col . 0. c. S. B. 36, 000 sitv Library. 5120 . do . Law Library . 1868 Law . 0. c. Fr. R. 7, 000 5121 Lvnchburg . Randolph-Macon Woman’s 1893 Col . c. Fr. B. 2,300 College. 5122 . do . Virginia Baptist Seminary _ Sch . c. Fr. B. 1 , 600 5123 Miller School . Miller Manual Labor School. 1878 Sch . c. Fr. R. 2' 680 5124 National Soldiers’ National Soldiers’ Home Li- 1871 Gen . T. Fr. B. 9; 650 Home. brary. 5125 Norfolk . Norfolk and Portsmouth Bar Law . C. s. R. 2,430 Association. 5126 . do . . Norfolk Mission College . 1885 Col . c. Fr. B. 1,500 5127 . do . Philips (Miss E. F. ) School Sch . c. Fr. R. 1, 052 Library. 5128 . do . Public Library . 1870 Gen . R. B. s. B. 10,500 5129 Onancock . Margaret Academy . 1880 Sch . C. Fr. II. ]’000 5130 Petersburg . Benevolent Mechanics’ As- 1868 Gen . c. Fr. B. 8; 568 sociation. 5131 . do . Southern Female College _ 1S63 Col . c. Fr. R. 2,000 5132 . do . Virginia Normal and Colle- 18S3 Sch . T Fr. B, giate Institute. 5133 . do . Young Men’s Christian As- Y.M. C. A. c. S. B. 2,000 sociation. 5134 Richmond . Grand Lodge A. F. & A. M ... 1778 Masonic c. Fr. R. 3,000 5135 . do . Hartshorn Memorial College. 1883 Col . c. Fr. B. 1,100 5136 . do . Richmond College . 1866 Col . c. Fr. C. 13, 440 5137 . do . Rosemary Public Library.... 1891 Gen . R. B. Fr. B. 6,675 5138 Richmond (230 S. St. Andrews Free Parish Li- 1894 Gen . c. S. B. 1,625 Laurel street). brary. 5139 Richmond . Southern Historical Society.. 1869 His . c. s. R. 2,000 5140 . do . State Law Library . Law . T Fr. B. 14; 000 5141 . do . State Library . 1823 State . T. F. R. 96, 000 5142 . do . Union Theological Seminary 1820 Theo . c. Fr. R. 23, 000 Library. 5143 . do . University School . Sch . C. Fr. R. 6,000 5144 . do . Virginia Historical Society .. 1831 His . O. C. S. B. 10,' 000 5145 . do . Virginia Union University _ 1867 Col . C. Fr. B. 7,000 5146 . do . Woman’s College Library. . . . Col . C. Fr. B. 1,500 5147 . do . . Young Men’s Christian' As- 1854 Y.M.C. A. C. S. B. 3,000 sociation. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AISTD SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1155 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 1 5 1C IT 18 Col. E. B. Fishburne presi- dent. 200 100 500 $125 $12, 000 J. S. Flory . 1,221 9, 144 6,788 450 7,500 $60, 000 F. W. Page . Ormond Stone . 250 George P. Holt, secretary. . 270 J. S. Miller . 3,000 300 $300 1,050 Robert Frazer . Rev. J. K. Harris . 85 $200 233 T. J. Raller . 15 8,890 30 R. S. Granger, 2d It., IT. S. A . 2,474 1,500 1,252 1, 275 1,275 J. P. Wisser, captain, Sev- enth Artillery." G. C. Moseley . 1, 000 5, 875 4 30 Mrs. V. M. Fleming. . 100 60 William E. Duncan . . 754 960 L. E. Herron . . 2, 000 200 500 260 571 10,000 H. R. Mcllwain . 50 VV. H. Keister . 100 283 Miss Mattie L. Cocke . 5, 629 652 1,700 480 R. A. Marr . 5, 000 508 1,500 1, 350 20, 000 A. R. White . . 1, 000 1,500 500 30, 000 W. R. Vance, professor of law. 540 ,T. L. Armstrong . 1,947 55 Mrs. M. S. Gordon . '400 109 41,625 J. W. Steele . Bronaugh & Dabney, attor- neys at law. 10 600 4 50 W. McKirahan, principal ... 50 20 662 24, 731 1,500 . 9 999 Wm. H. Sargent . ’ R.A. Robinson . 200 5,240 Mrs. Ida S. Gray . 1,000 50 A. O. Da.vis . . 92 1,002 . N.S. Miller . 28 1,846 _ ! J. H. Sherrill _ 500 75 2,000 • G. W. Carrington, secretary. . . 1... . Lyman B. Tefft, principal... 1,000 220 1,800 900 20, 000 C. H. Ryland . 268 500 1, 500 5' 000 100 14, 446 32 Miss Fannie L. Bull _ _ 1,000 100 B. A. Brock . 300 2, 500 700 700 C. W. Turner . ' 2,500 389 1, 157 W.W. Scott . ! | G. B. Strickler . 425 i 4, 377 2, 800 400 500 800 1 175 3, 800 G. R. Hovey . 1 25 11 R. N. Watts . 1 • 5098 5099 5100 5101 5102 5103 5104 5105 5106 5107 5108 5109 5110 5111 5112 5113 5114 5115 5116 5117 5118 5119 5120 5121 5122 5123 5124 5125 5126 5127 5128 5129 5130 5131 5132 5133 5134 5135 5136 5137 5138 5139 5140 5141 5142 5143 5144 5145 5146 5147 1156 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. 1 2 Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. 4 5 6 Sch . C. Col . c. Sch . c. Sch . T Sch . C. Y.M.C. A. C. Theo . c. Col . c. Col . c. Col . c. Sch . T. Sch . T. Sch . T. Gen . C. I. O.O. F.. c. State . R. T. Soc . O. C. Gen . c. Col . c. Theo . c. Law . c. Gen . R. T. Gen . T. Law . T. Sch . C. Col . c. Gen . T. Col . O. C. Sch . T. Sch . C. Sch . c. Masonic . . R. c. Sch . T. Gen . T. Col . R. C. Gen . T. Sch . T- Col . O. c. Gen . R. T. Col . C. Sch . T. Col . C. Col . C. Sch . C. Law . T. Hist . C. Sch . . C. VIRGINIA — cont’d. 5148 Roanoke . 5149 Salem . 5150 Staunton . 5151 . do . 5152 . do . 5153 . do . . 5154 Theological Semi- nary. 6155 Williamsburg .... 5156 Winchester . WASHINGTON. 5157 Burton . 5158 Cheney . 5159 Davton . 5160 Ellensburg . 5161 Everett . 5162 Olympia . 5163 . do . 5164 . do . 5165 Port Townsend.. . 5166 Pullman . 5167 Ross . 6168 Seattle . 5169 . do . 5170 . do . 5171 . do . 6172 Snohomish . 5173 South Park . 6174 Spokane . 5175 . do . 5176 . do . 5177 . do . 6178 Tacoma . 5179 . do . 5180 . do . 5181 . do . 5182 . do . 5183 Vancouver . 5184 . do . 5185 . do . 5186 Walla Walla . 5187 . do . WEST VIRGINIA. 5188 Athens . 5189 Barboursville . 5190 Bethany . 5191 Buckhannon . 5192 Charleston . 5193 . do . 6194 . do . Allegheny Institute . Roanoke College . Mary Baldwin Seminary _ Public School Library . Virginia Female Institute ... Y. M. C. A. Library . Virginia Theological Semi¬ nary. William and Mary College. . . Episcopal Female Institute*. Vashon College . State Normal School . Public School . Washington State Normal School. Public Library . Olympia Lodge, I. O. O. F . State Library . Tacoma Free Library* . Townsend Library Associa¬ tion. Washington Agricultural College. Alexandrion Library . Law Library . Public Library . University of Washington... Law School Library . Puget Sound Academy . College of Our Lady of Lourdes. City Library . Gonzaga College . Public High School . St. Catherine’s Academy of the Holy Name. Annie Wright Seminary . Masonic Library Association. Public High School . Public Library . Puget Sound University . Public Library . Public School Library. St. James’s College Public Library . Whitman College.., Concord StateNormal School. Barboursville College . Bethany College . West Virginia Conference Seminary. State Library . West Virginia Historical and Antiquarian Society. Stephenson Seminary . 60 .9 'S a a o O 0> a Q 1858 1868 1888 1874 1856 1699 1890 1886 1898 1890 1854 1872 1898 1890 1893 1896 1891 1882 1899 1887 1894 1894 1887 1891 1884 1891 1891 1886 1890 1890 1890 1856 1897 1859 1888 1841 1890 1868 1890 * Statistics of 1895-96. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 7 8 9 Fr. B. 1,000 S. B. 22, 000 S. R. 2,500 Fr. B. 1,200 Fr. B. 1, 200 S. B. 3, 000 Fr. B. 18, 000 F. R. 13, 000 Fr. B. 1,100 S. R. 1,208 F. R. 3, 000 F. B. 1,200 F. R. 3,000 F. B. 1,368 Fr. B. 1,200 F. B. 27, 000 F. B. 1,500 S. B. 1,120 s. B. 5, 519 F. B. 1,100 S. B. 4, 000 F. B. 19,877 F. B. 10, 987 F. R. 2, 000 Fr. B. 1,050 Fr. R. 1,000 S. B. 7,000 Fr. R. 8, 000 Fr. B. 1,400 F. B. 3,500 Fr. B. 2, 000 F. B. 1,000 S. R. 1,150 F. B. 9, 700 F. R. 2,750 F. B. 1,350 F. B. 1,500 Fr. B. 2, 098 F. C. 2,500 S. B. 6, 239 Fr. R. 1,000 Fr. R. 1,500 Fr. R. 2,500 S. R. 4,900 F. R. 14, 000 F. R. 8,000 F. R. 1,000 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1157 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. d o +-> c3 X c3 4-> a o Fh fa Appropriations— State, county, or city. a5 a o o a •rH o H 10 11 12 13 14 15 1G 17 18 5,000 560 . $400 W. F. Morehead . 500 50 42 50 375 J. H. Baden . Miss M. P. Duval . 150 3, 200 $3, 500 W. D. Hoge, secretary . . M. B. Worthington . . 200 200 R. M. Jones. . . . 600 200 590 220 $1,000 1,928 140 450 89 J. H. Miller, principal . 150 2,846 J. L. Dumas, superintendent. Sue O’Bannon Porter . . 7,663 Gretclien Hathaway . 200 J. I. Lehnherr . . . . Herbert Bamford . 500 301 1,369 300 150 1,952 600 2, 000 6 50 1,400 2,000 2, 665 2,095 275 1,780 200 600 14, 058 Miss Laura Plummer ....... 1,505 500 $1,500 Gertrude Saxton . Alex Burr . Charles E. Shepard, treas¬ urer. C. W. Smith . 869 12, 000 137, 941 14, 058 H. C. Coffman . John T. Condon . . 500 200 2,000 4,000 E. R. Loomis, principal . Brother Philip . *. . 34, 307 2, 000 2, 584 7,644 100 526 Mrs. E. D. Wheatley . Robert J. Smith, S. J . 70 85 Sister M. Geraldine . Theresa G. Williams, prin¬ cipal. Edward R. Hare . 7,000 175 4, 000 3,000 600 300 897 100 70 2, 150 150 H. F. Wegener, principal _ Rev. B. S. MacLafferty . 67, 935 6.820 13, 709 G. F. Johnson, financial sec¬ retary. J. J. Beeson, city clerk . 100 200 300 1,000 100 149 C. W. Shumway, city super¬ intendent. Brother Zenonian, director. 400 270 1,200 1,200 1,200 145 1, 200 Arminda L. Fix . 500 100 51 125 200 460 100 S. F. McClung, president _ Oscar Schmiedell . 28 2, 000 W. O. Mills . 3,000 1,500 3, 000 1,500 P. S. Shirkey . 900 Pearl Martin . C. N. Campbell, principal ... 5148 5149 5150 5151 5152 5153 5154 5155 5156 5157 5158 5159 5160 5161 5162 5163 5164 5165 51C6 5167 5168 5169 5170 5171 5172 5173 5174 5175 5176 5177 5178 5179 5180 5181 5182 5183 5184 5185 5186 5187 5188 5189 5190 5191 5192 5193 5194 1158 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Public , society , and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 D WEST VIRGINIA— continued. 5195 Clarksburg . Public High School . 1890 Sch . . . T. F. B. 1,500 519G . do . Public School (colored de- 1894 Sch . T. F. B. 1, 292 partment). 5197 Fairmount . Fairmount State Normal .... 1877 Sch . T. Fr. R. 3, 000 51 9S Glenville . Glenville State Normal . 1871 Sch . T. F. C. 2, 500 5199 Harpers Ferry .... Storer College (Roger Wil- 1867 Sch ... _ C. Fr. B. 5, 250 liams Library). 5200 Huntington . Marshall College . 1837 Col . C. Fr. B. 3, 000 5201 Lewisburg. . Lewisburg Female Institute . 1893 Col . C. Fr. B. 1,400 5202 Martinsburg . Public Librarv . 1897 Gen . R. C. F. B. 1, 900 5203 Morgantown . West Virginia University . . . . 1868 Col . C. Fr. B. 15, 200 5204 Parkersburg . Library Association . 1891 Gen . n Fr. B. 2,000 5205 . . do . Public High School . 1900 Sch . T. F. B. 1, 800 5200 Salem . Salem College . 1889 Col . C. F. B. 2,250 5207 Shepherdstown . . . Shepherd College, State Nor- 1872 Col . T. Fr. B. 1,800 mal School. 5208 West Liberty . Normal School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 2, 500 5209 Wheeling Academy of the Visitation _ 1848 Sch . C. p B. 5 000 5210 . do . Public Library . 1882 Gen . R. T. F. B. 17, 200 WISCONSIN. 5211 Antigo . High School . . . 1883 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,200 5212 Appleton . Free Librarv . 1896 Gen . T. F. C. 5, 550 5213 . do . Lawrence University (Ap- 1854 Col . C. F. B. 16, 289 pleton Library). 5214 . do . Ryan High School . Sch . T. F B. 2,000 5215 _ do . Third Ward High School _ 1885 Sch . T. F B. 2, 700 5216 Arcadia . Public High School . 1884 Sch . T. f' B. LOGO 5217 Ashland . North Wisconsin Academy 1897 Sch . C. F. B. 2, 460 (Lathrop Library). 5218 . do . Public High School . 1890 Sch . T. Fr B. 1, 500 5219 . do . Vaughn Public Librarv . 1887 Gen . O. C. F B. 3' 661 5220 Baraboo . Public Library . 1897 Gen . T. F B. 3’ 600 5221 Bayfield . Public High School . 1895 Sch . T. F R. 1, 114 5222 ....'.do . Public Library and Free 1885 Gen . T. F. B. 1,700 Reading Room. 5223 Beaver Dam . Waylancl University . 1860 Col . C. Fr B. 2,000 5224 . do . Williams Free Library . 1884 Gen . O. T. F B. 8, 017 5225 Belleville . Free Library . 1893 Gen . T. F B. • 1,860 5226 Beloit . Beloit College . 1848 Col . O. c. F B. 26, 550 5227 . do . Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. T F B. 7, 782 5228 Berlin . Free Public Library . 1890 Gen . R. T. ir B. 2,000 5229 . do . Markeson Public Librarv _ Gen . T. F C. 2, 079 5230 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 5231 Black River Falls. City Library . 1870 Gen . T. F. B. 1,050 5232 Boscobel . Public High School . 1872 Sch . T. Fr. R. 1,200 5233 Brodhead . School District Library _ 1888 Sch . T. F. B. 1,012 5234 Chippewa Falls. . . Public High School . 1890 Sch . T. Fr. B. 4" 209 5235 . do . Public Library . 1894 Gen . R. T. F. B. 6, 105 5236 Clintonville . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 5237 Columbus . Free Library Association . . . 1876 Soc . C. S. B. 2,000 5238 Darlington . Public Librarv . 1898 Gen .... R. T. F. C. l’ 008 5239 . dcm . Public School Library . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. 1,200 5240 Del afield . St. John’s Military Academy. 1886 Sch . C. F. R. 3, 500 5241 Delavan . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,800 5242 . do . Wisconsin School for the 1860 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,410 Deaf. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1159 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. O 10 b£ -c V r~ Pi a « o 11 be i c : 0) r 0 Receipts. d o — £ 13 100 7 a ’,000 325 +3 O Co O _ t* ^ dol 4" Op * 400 . lOOi . 1, 000 500; 1,000 $750 500 750 o H $750 500 760 1 ii £ >, to Vl £ be 17 Name of librarian. IS F. L. Burdette, superintend¬ ent. S. H. Guss, principal . J. Walter Barnes, principal W. J. Holden, principal _ Claire Sands . . . . . L. J. Corbly, principal 5195 5196 5197 5198 5199 5200 5201 5202 5203 5204 5205 5206 5207 5208 5209 5210 5211 5212 5213 5214 5215 5216 5217 5218 5219 5220 5221 5222 5223 5224 5225 5226 5227 5228 5229 5230 5231 5232 5233 5234 5235 . I 400 : 14,599 3,500 l,915j 11,245 4,650 2, 200 500 100 1,800' $2, 500 300 200 100;. 525 . 50 500 . 1251 . 1, 024: 68, 672 185 1,000 500 6,600 649 . 2, 700 . 661 . 2, 5001 . 200 . 1, 000. . 500'. . I. 6, 720 . D. C. Westemhaver . . . Eliza ,T. Skinner . C. E. Shrewsbury . U. S. Fleming, city superin¬ tendent. . Theo. L. Gardiner, president. $6, 000, J. D. Muldoon, acting libra¬ rian. . ' James M. Skinner . A. B. Wilson. 866 572 . 50 . I 200 84 : 25 6,126 1,400 60 1,601 ’9, 666 78 40 400 800 200 46, 727 2, 254 2, 185 1,000 300 517 1,400 22,129 24, 636 200 45 1,927 1,678 110 119 2, 000 100 i’ioo 140 1,100 no 3, 150 992 50 27, 098 3,000 4, 388 36, 074 7,141 7,085 1,126 123 2, 393 250 250 200 50 15. 100 4, 138: 1, 199 140 ' 1,100 2, 665' $15, 000 128' . 2, 393 300 ! 383' F. F. Showers, superintend¬ ent. Miss Agnes L. Dwight . Zelia A. Smith . Prof. J. F. Geabee. W. F. Winsey . G. O. Banting _ J. T. Hooper, superintendent Tryphena G. Mitchell . H. A. Whipple, superintend¬ ent. M. A. Hester, superintendent J. S. Atkinson . Edwin P. Brown, instructor in English. Hattie A. Doolittle . Mina Oliver . Charles A. Bacon . Martha W. Bell . J. E. Murphy . L. M. Kraege . 40! 170 50' 56 277 1 824 1,365 26, 907 100 4. 290 1,898 64 220 132 45 290 ,190 64 3, 000 100 285 . 600 . 100 300 60 650 100 600 160 G. W. Gehrand . Emma C. Randall . S. B.Tobey, superintendent. L. M. Newman, president of beard. J. M. Bold, principal . Miss Libbie Quckenden Miss Alice Chamberlain James M. Stevens, superin¬ tendent. Sidney T. Smythe . . C. W. Rittenburg, superin¬ tendent. J.W.Swiler . . . . 5236 5237 5238 5239 5240 5241 5242 1160 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society , and school libraries in the United States 5243 5244 5245 8246 5247 5248 5249 5250 5251 5252 5253 5254 5255 6256 5257 5258 5259 5260 5261 5262 5263 5264 5265 5266 5267 5268 5269 6270 5271 5272 5273 5274 5275 5276 5277 5278 5279 5280 6281 5282 5283 5284 5285 5286 5287 5288 5289 5290 5291 6292 5293 5294 6295 5296 5297 5298 Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Wisconsin — cont’d. Do Pcre . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 . do . Public Library . 1875 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 150 Fail Claire . . do . 1876 Gen . T. F. B. 11 330 Evansville . Free Library . 1890 Gen . C. F. B. 2, 091 Fern . Public Library . 1898 Gen . T. Fr. C. 1,250 Florence . Public High School ... . Sch . T. F. R. 2,000 Fond du Lac . Free Public Library . 1877 Gen . R, T. F. B. 17, 500 . do . Grafton Hall . 1893 Sch . C. F. R. 1,500 Fort Atkinson .... Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,600 . do . Public Library . 1892 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2' 000 Franklin . Mission House Library . 1862 Gen . C. F B. 6,012 Galesville . Gale College . Col . C. F. B. 5, 000 Gilmanton . Howard Library Association. 1867 Gen . C. S. B. 1,200 Grand Rapids _ Howe High School . 1872 Sch . T. Fr. B. L 200 . do . T. B. Scott Free Public Li- 1890 Gen . C. F. B. 4,735 brary. Green Bay . Kellogg Public Library . 1889 Gen . R. T. F. B. 7,843 Hayward . Free Library . 1887 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 600 Hillside . Home School Library . 1887 Sch . C. F' B. 2, 963 Janesville . Public Library . 1885 Gen . R. T. F. B. 14, 000 Jefferson . Public School Library . 1850 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 000 Kankauna . Free Library . 1899 Gen . T. F. C. 1, 332 Kenosha . Gilbert M. Simmons Library. 1896 Gen . O. T. F. B. 4, 880 . do . Kemper Hall . Sch . c. S. B. 3, 000 Kewaunee . Public High School . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1 j 689 Killbourn . Public Library . 1898 Gen . T. F. B. R000 La Crosse . . do . 1888 Gen . O. C. F. B. 15, 000 Lake Geneva . . do . 1898 Gen . O. T. F. B. 2, 000 Lake Mills . L. D. Fargo Free Public Li- 1899 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1,000 brary. Madison . Academy of Sciences, Arts, Scien . C. Fr. R. 15, 000 and Letters. . do . Department of Public In- Gen . T. Fr. R. 20, 000 struction. j . do . Free Public Library . 1875 Gen . T. F. B. 17, 000 i . do . Model Township Library _ 1887 Sch . T. Fr. R. L500 . do . State Historical Society . 1854 Hist . 0. T F. R. 110,000 . do . State Law Library . 1836 Law . T. F. R. 34, 188 . do . University of Wisconsin . 1850 Col . 0. T. F. B. 63; 750 . do . Wisconsin Free Library. . . . 1896 Gen . T. F. B. 3,000 . do . Woodman Astronomical T,i- 1882 Scien . C. Fr. R. 3; 000 brary. Manitowoc . Public Library . 1900 Gen . R. c. F. B. 3, 698 Marinette . Free Library . 1878 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4,330 . do . Public High School . Sch . . T. F. B. 1,000 Menasha . Elisha D. Smith Library . 1896 Gen . O. T. F. B. 3,683 Mendota . Mendota Hospital Library . . . 1860 A. and R. . T. Fr. C. 2,180 Menomonie . Memorial Free Library . 1890 Gen . O. C. F. B. 7; 256 . do . Public High School . 1889 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 Merrill . T. B. Scott Free Library . 1891 Gen . C. F. C. 6; 400 Milton . Milton College (Daniel Bab- 1867 Col . C. IL B. 6, 000 cock Library). Milwaukee . Concordia College . 1882 Col . c. s. B. 3,932 . do . Fast Division High School _ 1868 Sch . T. F. B. 3,200 . do . Grand Lodge of Wisconsin, 1843 Masonic . . R. C. .F. R. 1; 000 F. A. M. . do . Law Librarv Association .... I860 Law . c. Fr. B. 8,444 . do . Marquette College . 1881 Col . c. F. R. 9; 650 . do . Milwaukee Academy . 1864 Sch . c. F. B. L200 . do . Milwaukee-Downer College . 1855 Col . O. c. Fr. B. 4,864 . do . Milwaukee Turn Verein . 1853 Gen . O. c. S. B. 8, 000 . do . National German-American 1851 Sch . c. Fr. B. i; 500 Teachers’ Seminary. . do . Public Library . 1878 Gen . . O. T. F. B. 119, 684 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1161 of 1,000 volumes and over in 1000 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. ‘ Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 G 17 - 38 Miss Belle W. Collins . 5243 911 11,000 $175 81,524 . Elizabeth Smith . . 5244 597 1, 546 54, 244 3, 500 3. 620 Ellen D. Biscoe _ 5245 1, 055 7,229 '200 1 ' 700 _ Clara E. Chapel . . . 5246 Mrs. Mary F. Sergeant . 5247 65 3, 000 100 100 J no. R. Hayes . . 5248 1,500 1, 187 47,813 $2, 500 2. 6231 . _ . . . Emma E. Rose . 5249 100 Ruth Nettie Mead . 5250 800 100 890 100 100 . J. A. Hagemann . . 5251 118 7,716 500 520 Sue C. Nichols . 5252 673 41 525 60 J. W. Grosshuesch . 5253 1,000 5254 60 1,000 64 $500 Geo. Sills, secretary . 5255 150 500 150 180 Geo. P. Humbrecht, city su- 5256 perintendent. 542 331 13, 847 544 6, 200 Mrs. W. B. Raymond _ 5257 45, 686 900 2, 028 A. H. Revnolds, secretary . . . 5258 355 200 569 ‘ '578 J. B. Trowbridge, secretary. . 5259 600 200 800 Lloyd Jones . ' . . 5260 40, 000 3, 000 3,000 Mrs. Louise L. Best . 5261 100 100 100 H. L. Van Dusen, principal . . 5262 1,332 9,386 1,094 1,728 Miss Lillian E. Bell . 5263 992 28 | 006 2, 268 $150, 000 Mrs. Clara P. Barnes . 5964 5265 105 4, 065 100 100 Slavy Lunak . 5266 100 2,000 200 200 Lillian Ramsey . 5267 442 38' 000 1,500 2,690 34, 450 14, 000 Annie E. Hanscome . .5268 200 532 9i 299 265 100 587 1,000 C. F. Osborne, secretary of 5269 board. 10, 000 Robt. Fargo, president 5270 board of trustees. William S. Marshall . 5271 500 5272 770 79, 574 3, 500 3,652 Georgia Rodman Hough _ 5273 5274 105, 000 3,560 5, 000 12, 326 35, 000 500, 000 I. S. Bradley . . . . . 5275 1,476 3; 500 3,500 John R. Berryman . 5276 20, 000 5, 150 12, 000 Walter M. Smith . 5277 F. A. Hutchins, secretary _ 5278 2, 500 197 8,200 Geo. C. Comstock, director . . 5279 19,441 1,250 6, 250 Henriette Von Briesen . 5280 400 876 15; 837 1, 316 1, 525 Julia E. Elliott, acting li- 5281 brarian. 5282 340 18, 653 1,250 1,750 10, 000 22, 000 Lucy Lee Pleasants . 5283 5284 643 430 35, 839 2, 150 65, 000 95, 000 Stella Lucas . 5285 5286 1 , 241 29, 931 420 910 7,000 Janet Russell . 5287 2,000 200 973 87 50 Edwin Shaw . 5288 650 124 2,250 275 100 Otto Hallstaldt . 5289 A. J. Rogers . 5290 10, 000 50 2, 500 John W. Laflin . 5291 211 615 Wm.W. Wight . 5292 300 617 220 Victor Putten, S. J . 5293 Julius II. Pratt, S. J . 5294 372 860 265 4, 000 5295 1,000 300 2, 087 Geo. B. Wild . 5296 75 300 100 Emil Dapprich . 5297 10, 500 8, 401 491,458 48, 631 48, 631 500, 000 Geo. W. Peckam. . . . . 5298 1182 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900 Public, society, and school libraries in the United States ' Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 . 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Wisconsin — cont’d. 5299 Milwankp.fi . _ _ Public Museum . 1882 Scien . 0. T F. R. 2, 000 5300 . do . State Normal School . Sch . T. F. B. 7, 000 5301 . do . South Division High School . Sch . T. F. R. 1,500 5302 . . do . West Division High School .. 1895 Sch . T. F. B. 2, 638 5303 Mineral Point, Free Public Library . 1895 Gen . R. c F. B. 2, 900 5304 Monroe . Public Library . 1875 Gen . O. T. F B. 4, 337 5305 Mount Calvary _ Capuchin Monastery Library. 1857 Theo . C Fr. R. 5, 680 5306 . do . St. Lawrence College . 1861 Col . c. F. B. 2,800 5307 Nashotah . Nashotah House Library _ Theo . c Fr. B. 13, 513 5308 National Home. . . Northwestern Branch, Na- 1868 Govt . O. c. Fr. B. 9, 345 tional Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers. 5309 Neenah . Public Library . 1884 Gen . T F B. 8, 450 5310 Neillsville . . do . 1896 Gen . T. F. B. 2,000 5311 New Lisbon . Public High School . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. 1,300 5312 New London . Freehoff Public Library . 1895 Gen . .... T E. C. 1,300 5313 Oconomo woe . Public Library . 1893 Gen . .... R. C. F. B. 2,619 5314 . do . Public School Library . 1892 Sch . T F B. 1,826 5315 Oshkosh . Public High School . 1869 Sch . .. T F B. 1,800 5316 . do . Public Library . - . 1896 Gen . .... O. T F. B. 6, 103 5317 . do . State Normal School Library. 1871 Sch . T S. B. 7, 944 5318 Platte vi lie . State Normal School . 1867 Sch . T F. B. 5, 700 5319 Plymouth . Hub Club Library . 1874 Gen . R. C. S. C. 1, 000 5320 Prairie du Chien. . Sacred Heart College . 1880 Col . C. Fr. B. 9, 570 5321 Prescott . Public School Library . 1880 Sch . T. F. B. 1 , 250 5322 Racine . Junction Library . 1881 Gen . O. c. S. C. 1,478 5323 . do . Public High School . Sch . T F B. 1,010 5324 . do . Public Library . 1896 Gen . R. T. F. B. 7,548 5325 . do . Racine College Library . 1853 Col . c Fr. R. 10, 000 5326 . do . St. Catherine’s Academy . Sch . c F. B. 2' 625 5327 Reedsburg . Free Library . 1899 Gen . T F. C. 1, 365 5328 Rhinelander . Public High School . Sch . T. F. c. l’ 500 5329 . do . Rhinelander Free School .... 1898 Gen . T_ F. c. 1,109 5330 Rice Lake . Free Library . 1897 Gen . T. F. c. 1,193 5331 Richland Center. . . do . 1898 Gen . R. T. E. B. 1,025 5332 Ripon . Public Library...-. . 1885 Gen . T. F. B. 2, 772 5333 . do . Ripon College . 1854 Col . O. C! Fr B. 1 o' 000 5334 River Falls . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 5335 . do . State Normal School . 1 8"4 Sell . T. F. B. 7,210 5336 St. Francis . Catholic Normal School and 1894 Col . C. Fr. B. 2; 832 Pio Nono College. 5337 . do . St. Francis Seminary . 1856 Theo . c. S. B. 12,500 5338 Shawano . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 5339 Sheboygan . . do . 1865 Sch . T. F. R. 6' 265 5340 . do “ . Public Library . 1897 Gen . R. T. F. B. 4, 483 5341 Shell Lake . Public High School . 1890 Sch . O. T. F. B. 1,500 5342 Sinsinawa . St. Clara Academy . Sch . c. S. B. 3' 000 5343 Sparta . Free Library . 1861 Gen _ R. T. F. B. 3, 563 5344 Stevens Point .... Public High School . 1885 Sch . T. F. B. 1,315 5345 . do . Public Library . 1897 Gen . R. T. F. B. 3, 725 5346 . do . State Normal School . 1894 Sch . T. F. B. 7,265 5347 Superior . Free Library . Gen . T. F. C. 13' 721 5348 Tornah . City Library . 1886 Gen . T. Fr c. 1 , 422 5349 Two Rivers . Joseph Marin Public Library. 1891 Gen . O. T. F. B. 2; 500 5350 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,500 5351 Viroqua . Free Library . 1898 Gen . T. F. c. l' 347 5352 Washburn . Congregational Church Par- Gen . C. F. R. T200 ish Library. 5353 . do . Public Library . 1890 Gen . O. T F. B. 1 , 518 5354 . do . Public School Library . . . 1885 Sch . T. F. •c. 1,850 5355 . do . Walker High School . 1890 Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 5356 Watertown . Northwestern University .... 1864 Col . c. Fr. B. 4, 202 5357 . do . Public High School . 1870 Sch . T. F. C. L 100 5358 Waukesha . Free Library . 1898 Gen . T. F. c. 1,300 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1163 [of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. GO CD r~| Ph a Oh Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations— State, county, or city. Total income. io 1 1 12 13 14 15 1 « 17 18 6, 826 205 $21, 033 $22, 117 $1, 000, 000 II. Nehrling . 5299 1,000 800 28, 000 $1, 100 A. McNeil . 5300 ' 500 Mary P. Richardson . 5301 200 $300 300 C. E. McLenegan . . 5302 200 100 437 Mrs. M. Chase . 5303 1,000 367 15, 461 1,000 1,028 2, 500 Alvin F. Rote, superintend- 5304 ent. 300 Rev. Camillus Gnad, O. U. C. 5305 120 Rev. Antonine Wilmer, O. 5306 U.C. Lloyd V . Hixon . 5307 217 31, 757 15,000 Cornelius Wheeler . 5308 833 23, 692 913 930 Robert Shiells, president. . . . 5309 Bess G. Kennedy . 5310 100 70 200 47 57 C. R. Thomson, principal _ 5311 Jennie Rodkey . . . 5312 40 30 9,000 200 ' 420 35 Gabriella Acklev . 5313 200 3' 500 88 250 338 Huldah B. Ilainke . 5314 948 Marion P. Peake . 5315 600 58, 801 2,000 5, 000 75, 000 75, 000 Emily Turner . 5316 930 28, 320 '386 3, 304 E. Parmele . 5317 2, 000 250 Bee A. Gardner . 5318 25 567 21 Hugo Sattler . 5319 70 J. B. Neustich, vice-president 5320 100 33 2, 000 32 32 O. J. Stirratt . . . 5321 92 29 ' 550- 30 1,500 Miss Etta 8. Phelps . 5322 25 80 800 120 ■ 121 Eugene C. Crosby . 5323 322 1, 123 41,022 3,138 3, 305 Mary J. Calkins . 5324 12 Arthur Piper . 5325 Mother M. Hyacintha . 5326 565 461 Hallie C. Swetland . 5327 200 100 150 150 F. A. Lowell, principal . 5328 194 800 816 Erna C. Knecht . 5329 280 357 370 Mrs. James Robbins . 5330 300 220 13, 992 438 622 Mrs. G. H. Stewart . 5331 359 12' 620 618 664 A. W. Tressler, secretary .... 5332 439 1,800 450 C. Dwight Marsh . . . 5333 150 60 110 J. W. Ames, principal _ ..... 5334 413 861 Caroline E. Silliman . 5335 413 711 J. M. Kasel . 5336 1,000 40 110 Rev. J. Rainer . . . 5337 5338 484 7,500 400 400 Frances Gerend . 5339 . 637 28, 495 2, 166 2, 166 Frances Williams, secretary. 5340 90 2; 000 63 63 J. C. Thomson, principal _ 5341 5342 67 6,290 659 659 Jennie Scouten . 5343 5344 586 32, 873 625 300 1, 165 Mollie L. Cat! in . 5345 705 26, 138 1,915 2,090 Elizabeth F. Simpson . 5346 37, 701 4,000 4,000 Miss Lillian McCormick .... 5347 70 100 132 Mrs. Rockwood . 5348 274 6,914 750 850 4, 000 Mabel D. Campbell . 5349 200 2,200 Pearl McDonald . 5350 312 288 711 William Houghton . 5351 5352 144 50 9,210 1 , 500 1, 500 Mrs. R. Greenwood . 5353 10, 000 ’ 165 100 265 W. W. Jones . 5354 15 D. E. Cameron, principal _ 5355 600 443 570 280 J.II.Ott . A . . 5356 80 50 586 200 200 C. F. Viebahm, principal _ 5357 200 600 600 Fannie L. Ells t . . 5358 1164 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Public , society, and school libraries in the United States Location. Name of library. Date of founding. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation, or corporation. Free or subscription. Circulating, reference, or both. Volumes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 W I SCO NSI N — coil t ’ d . 6359 Waukesha . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 2,000 6360 Waupaca . Free Public Library . 1900 Gen . T. F. B. 1,000 5361 . do . Veterans’ Home Library . 1890 Govt . 0. C. F. B. 1,253 6362 Waupun . The Hillever Library . 1858 Gen . C. F. B. 6, 076 5363 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,200 6364 . do . Wisconsin State Prison Li- 1860 A.&R _ T. F. R. 2,222 brary. 5365 Wausau . Free Public Library . 1897 Gen . T. F. B. 2,178 53 G6 Wauwatosa . Evangelical Lutheran Theo- 1878 Theo . C. F. B. 1,200 logical Seminary of the Sy- nod of Wisconsin. 6367 . do . Harwood Public Library .... 1886 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 3,400 5368 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. F. B. 1,000 6369 West Bend . . do . 1889 Sch . T. F. B. 1,100 5370 West De Pere . School District Library . 1882 Sch . T. F. B. 1,200 5371 West Superior .... State Normal School . 1896 Sch . T. Fr. B. 3,500 5372 . do . Superior Public Library . 1889 Gen . R. T. F. B. 11,136 5373 Whitewater . Public Library . 1899 Gen . C. F. B. 3,086 6374 . do . State Normal School . 1868 Sch . T. F. C. 6,500 6375 Winnebago . Northern Hospital for Insane 1875 A.&R _ TL Fr. C. 2,270 WYOMING. 5376 Cheyenne . Laramie County Public Li- Gen . T. F. B. 7,000 brary. 5377 . do . Public High School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1,000 5378 . do . State Law Library . 1872 Law . T. Fr. R. 15, 000 5379 Laramie . Albany County Free Public 1886 Gen . R. T. F. B. 5, 690 Library. 5380 . do . University of Wyoming. . 1891 Col . C. F. B. 9,300 5381 Rawlins . Public High School . Sch . T. E. R. 1,250 5382 Saratoga . Ballard Public Library . 1894 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1,009 6383 Sheridan . . Library Association. . .* . 1888 Gen . R. C. Fr. B. 3,000 1165 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. of 1,000 volumes and over in 1900 — Continued. Pamphlets. Volumes added during the year. Books issued during the year for home use. Receipts. Permanent endow¬ ment fund. Value of library build¬ ings. Name of librarian. From taxation. Appropriations — State, county, or city. Total income. 10 11 13 13 14 15 1« 17 18 150 $200 $200 H. L. Terry, principal . 5359 5, 287 200 743 J. L. Sturtevant, secretary 5360 library committee. 378 56 641 $3, 000 Th. Jeffers, adjutant . 5361 3,000 216 6, 168 90 267 Mrs. Sarah P. Honey . 5362 188 $135 135 G. F. Loomis, principal . 5363 500 610 675 675 Geo. H. Colgrove, assistant 5364 librarian f 225 71 14, 332 57 Nellie C. Silverthorn . 5365 1,000 200 125 Eugene A. Notz . 5366 300 8,000 5,000 Mrs. Agnes B. Roddie . 5367 E. C. Cornelius, principal _ 5368 50 100 900 70 70 140 D. T. Keely . * . 5369 0 60 60 50 Emma M. Mortag . 5370 200 500 750 Mary F. Carpenter . 5371 3,000 1, 100 37, 700 3, 500 • 3, 656 Lillian McCormick . 5372 '269 17' 923 '261 '664 Ella A. Hamilton . 5373 1, 200 46,' 533 Lizzie P. Swan . 5374 15 2, 270 W. A. Gordon . 6375 200 E. Mason Smith . 5376 J. O. Churchill, superintend- 5377 ent. John Slaughter, State libra- 5378 rian. 600 19, 415 Etta M. Roach . . . 5379 5, 500 2,359 300 4,470 5380 A. H. Martel . 5381 300 520 8 2, 000 J. C. Kennedy . 5382 500 200 H. A. Coffeen, president li- 5383 brary association. CHAPTER XVIII. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Great Britain and Ireland, constitutional monarchy; area, England and Wales* 58,186 square miles; population (estimated, 1899), 31,742,588: Scotland, 29,820 square miles; population (estimated, 1899), 4,281,850; Ireland, 32,583 square miles; population (estimated, 1896), 4,535,516. Information on education in Great Britain in previous Reports. Title of article. Report of — Pages. Detailed view of the educational system in England _ _ . _ _ _ 1888-89 78-111 Religious and moral training in public elementary schools. England and Wales- Brief view of the educational system, with current statistics _ _ 1888- 89 1889- 80 438-457 237-248 Educational system of Scotland . _ . . . _ _ _ _ _ 1889-90 187-236 Elementary education in London and Paris . . . . . . 1889-90 263-280 Brief view" of systems of England and Scotland, with current statistics and comparison with 1876 (England); 1880 (Scotland) . . . . Provision for secondary and for technical instruction in G-reat Britain. _ _ 1890-91 1880-91 125-134 135-150 Educational system of Ireland. . . . . . . Elementary education in Great Britain and Ireland, 1892. » _ 1890- 91 1891- 92 151-164 97-104 Technical instruction in Great Britain _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ 189] 92 105-137 203-208 Elementary education in Great Britain _ _ _ _ _ _ 1892-93 Religious instruction under the London school board _ _ _ 1892-93 208-218 Great Britain and Ireland, educational statistics and movements, 1893 . . . 1893-94 165-185 Educational systems of England and Scotland, with statistics and movements, 1893-84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1894-95 257-273 The English education bill of 1896 _ _ 1895-96 79-121 Education in Great Britain and Ireland, 1895-96, with detailed statement of the development of the English system . . . . . . . . . . .. 1895-96 123-135 Education in Great Britain and" Ireland : Statistics, legislation, 1870-1897 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1886-97 3-14 Elementary education in London _ .. . . . . . . 1898-97 15-27 Education in Great Britain and Ireland: Recent measures pertaining to the administration of the system; to the improvement of the teaching force; the extension of the curriculum— Proposals respecting secondary education— Universities and university colleges . . . . . . 1897-98 133-167 3-65 Biief conspectuses of the systems of elementary education in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, with current and comparative statistics —Details of the current movements in England, with especial reference to recent legisla¬ tion— Review of recent universitv movements _ _ _ _ _ _ 1888-99 Topical outline — Part I. — (1) Current statistics— (2) Brief conspectus of the English system of public elementary education — (3) Consideration of the phenomenal progress of the system during the past thirty years as indicated by typical statistics — (4) The urgent present problems, viz, the equalizing of school provisions, especially between rural districts and cities; the adequate provision of high schools for the industrial classes — (5) Retrospective view, 1870-1899, chiefly statistical — (6) Special adjustments and special aid for backward children. Part II .—Secondary education in Great Britain and Ireland: (1) Report of Board of Education on secondary education, summary of work of science and art department (now merged in the board) in fostering instruction in science and art — (2) Agencies for organizing secondary education in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, with current statistics — (3) The question of higher grade schools for the industrial classes virtually part of the problem of secondary educa¬ tion; papers on the subject by Hon. Lyulph Stanley and Sir J. G. Fitch. The minute authorizing the board to recognize a new class of higher elementary schools. Professor Jebb’s speech explaining the minute — (4) The Leeds higher grade board school as a type; description from official report — (5) Retrospec¬ tive table showing the advanced work in elementary schools, 1872-1899. 1167 1168 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 Part III. — Higher * education in Greed Britain and Ireland: Institutions for higher education — Comparative table of students from 1889-1899 — Current notes on universities and university colleges — Appended papers: Salient characteristics of Oxford, George Brodrick, D. C. L., warden of Merton College — Engineer¬ ing department at Cambridge, cited from Nature — New laboratories of King's College— Nature. Table 1. — Summary of current educational statistics — Great Britain and Ireland. Sources of infor¬ mation. Institutions. Date of report. Registered Profes- students sors or or pupils, teachers. Expen di- ture. Great Britain. ENGLAND AND WALES. Statesman’s Year- Book, 1900. Official return. ... Official report, 1899-1900. Universities: Oxford (23 colleges) . Cambridge (19 colleges) . Durham (1 college) . London (2 affiliated colleges).. Detached colleges (12) . University colleges for women (U. Bedford College for Women . Royal Halloway College for Wo¬ men. Technical: City and guilds of Lon¬ don (4 institutions). Secondary schools . Elementary day schools . Night schools . Training colleges for elementary teachers. 1898 1898 1898 1898 1898 1899 1899 1898 1900 1897 1899-1900 1899 1899 a 3, 446 a 3, 016 170 62,565 c8, 736 400 170 110 1,592 95 116 20 209 730 27 27 76 d 891 , 544 5, 654, 092 474,563 5,209 5 c3 S3 2 r “I O > © 3 First return for Board Schools, 1872. EDUCATION" IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1187 Table III. — School accommodation and enrollment, 1899. N umber of schools, Number of departments in which separate head teachers are em¬ ployed. Number of scholars for whom accom¬ modation is pro¬ vided. Actual average number of scholars in attend¬ ance. Denominations. •\ 1* G» ) 1U- stitu- tions under separate manage¬ ment. Boys. Girls. Mixed. In¬ fants. Total. Total number enrolled. Schools connected with National So¬ ciety or Church of England _ 11, 832 1, 765 1,684 9,447 3, 685 16,581 2, 791. 666 2,313,257 1.893.824 W eslcyan schools . _ 459 29 23 427 240 719 182. 644 156, 435 126, 361 Roman Catholic schools _ _ 1.049 241 231 794 519 1,785 391, 793 316, 410 251, 768 British and other schools . 1.104 164 134 875 409 1, 5S2 338.925 277, 078 228, 142 Total volun¬ tary schools. 14,444 2, 199 2. 072 11,543 4, 853 20, 667 3. 705, 028 3, 063, 180 2, 500, 095 School board schools . - 5, 674 1, 885 1.854 3, 656 3, 165 10, 560 2, 736,117- 2, 609. 223 2, 144, 118 Grand total-.. 20. 118 4. 084 3, 926 15.199 8,018 31,227 6, 441, 145 5, 672, 403 4, 644, 213 Increase on previ¬ ous years - 96 175 95, 239 71,154 71,977 The progress of the school hoards is the most significant fact in the history of the school system, because the boards were called into exis¬ tence by the law of 1870 and illustrate the democratic impulses from which it arose. As already stated, they are elected bodies formed upon the initiative of their respective districts, or by the order of the department, if necessaiy. The following table shows the number of boards and the nature of their election (England and Wales): Table IV. — Status of school hoards. Classification of boards. Number. Compul¬ sory election. Volun¬ tary elec¬ tion. Popula¬ tions un¬ der school boards. London. . 1 193 2,333 1 138 1,044 4,232,118 9, 604, 587 6, 230, 772 Countv and municipal borough . . Unincorporated towns and rural parishes . . 55 j a 1, 289 a Of these 203 ordered because of the closing of private schools. School boards v. compulsory school attendance . — The principle of compulsory school attendance was introduced with the school boards, which were empowered by the law of 1870 to make compulsory by-laws. After six years’ experience with this purely permissive measure, it was found that only 55 per cent of the population was under school boards and only 46 per cent subject to compulsory by-laws. The law of 1876 was enacted specially to extend and to enforce this principle. This law first declared that it “ shall be the duty of the parent of every child to cause such child to receive efficient elementary instruc¬ tion in reading, writing, and arithmetic;” parents failing in this duty were liable to the penalties provided in the local by-laws. The law also rendered an employer liable to a penalty who took into his em¬ ployment a child “ (1) under the age of 10 years; or (2) if of the age of 10 years and upward, who had not obtained the required certificate 1188 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. of proficiency in reading and writing and elementary arithmetic or of previous due attendance at a certified efficient school.” It was also ordered by the law of 1870 that in all districts where there was not a school board a school attendance committee should be appointed. The committee was charged with the duty of keeping watch over the matter of school attendance and reporting all cases of the violation of the compulsory law. The whole population of England and Wales was thus brought under the jurisdiction either of school boards or school attendance committees; it was, however, still optional with the local authorities to make by-laws respecting school attendance. In districts where no by-laws were in force, children, in order to qualify for employment, had only to meet the very modest requirements specified in the law of 1870, viz., “ to pass examination in the fourth grade or give proof that they had attended school for 250 times in each year for five 37ears after the age of 5, in not more than two schools.” It was not until 1881 that by-laws became universal under the ele- mentary education law of 1880, which “empowered the education department to make by-laws f or all school districts where local author¬ ities had by the 31st of December, 1880, failed to make them.” The following table shows the extension of school boards for the successive years 1872 to 1899, and also the spread of the compulsory policy during the same time : Table V. — Population of England and T Vales under school boards and school- attendance committees; cdso the population subject to by-laws unt il the elementary education act of 1SS0 made by-laws universal. Year end¬ ing Apr. 1— Total pop¬ ulation of England and Wales. Under school boards. Under by-laws of school boards. Under school attendance com¬ mittees. Under by-laws of school attend¬ ance commit¬ tees. Percent¬ age of popula¬ tion un¬ der by¬ laws. Popula¬ tion. Per¬ cent¬ age. Popula¬ tion. Per¬ cent¬ age. Popula¬ tion. Per¬ cent¬ age. Popula¬ tion. Per¬ cent¬ age. 1S72 . . 022,712,266 9, 711,667 42.7 8. 142, 639 35. 4 _ 35.4 1873 . . 22' 712' 266 9, 994, 582 44.0 8, 926' 349 39.3 39.3 1874 . . 22,712,266 10, 494, 507 46. 2 9, 442' 749 41.5 41 5 1875 . . 22,712,266 11,647,998 51.2 9, 856, 041 43.3 43. 3 1876 . 22,712^266 12, 522, 537 55. 1 10, 467, 615 46.0 46.0 1877 22,712,266 12, 829, 831 56.4 11.221,363 49.4 49. 4 1878 __ 22,712,266 12,994,977 57.2 11,814,946 52.0 9,717,289 42.7 1,702.639 7.4 59.5 1879 . . 22,712,266 13, 150, 219 57. 8 12. 395, 550 54. 5 9, 562, 047 42.1 3, 083, 609 13.5 68.1 1880 . . 22,712,266 13, 192. 722 58.0 12, 605, 453 55. 5 9, 519, 544 41.9 3, 665, 705 16.1 71.6 1881 . _ 22,712,266 13, 318. 492 58.6 13,318,492 5S. 6 9, 393, 744 41.3 9, 393, 744 41.3 100.0 1882 22,712,266 13, 422, 630 59.0 9,289,636 40. 9 100. 0 1883 525,974,439 15' 980, 403 61. 5 9, 994. 036 38.4 100.0 1884 25,974,439 16, 081, 618 61 9 9. 892 821 38. 0 100.0 1885 25,974,439 16, 153, 855 62.1 9. 820, 584 37. 8 100.0 1886 25,974.439 16, 256, 554 62. 5 9, 717, 885 37.4 100. 0 1887 25,974,439 16, 284, 451 62 7 9 6*9.988 37. 2 100. O' 1888 25,974,439 16,313,997 62.8 9. 660, 442 37.1 100. Q 1889 25’ 974 ’439 16,413,395 63.1 9,561,044 36.8 10-!). 0 1890 25,974,439 16,481,753 63.4 9! 492, 686 36. 5 100. 0 1891 25,974,439 16,580,279 63. 8 9, 394' 160 36.1 100.0 1892 25,974,439 16| 614’ 432 63 9 9, 360, 007 36.0 100. 0 1893 r29.002.525 19, 199. 335 66. 1 9, 803, 190 33.8 100. 0 1S94 29,002,525 19, 620, 379 67. 6 9' 382! 146 32.3 100. 0 1895 29.002,525 19, 760, 433 68.1 9, 242, 092 31.8 100. 0 1896 29,002,525 19, 830, 388 68.3 9, 172, 137 31.6 100. 0 1898 29 002,525 19,979,924 68.8 9! 022. 601 31.2 100.0 1899 29^002,525 d20,067, 477 69.1 e8, 935, 048 30.8 100. 0 a Census of 1871. b Census of 1881. _ c Census of 1891. dT'liis population is under the jurisdiction of 2,527 school boards, viz, the London school board, 193 municipal borough boards, and 2,333 parish boards. eThis population is under the jurisdiction of 792 school attendance committees, viz, 119 m municipal boroughs, 92 in urban districts, and 581 in unions. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1189 Although the law of 1880 extended compulsory laws to the whole country, the requirements for either partial or total exemption from the obligation to attend school were still left to the action of local authorities, excepting that the minimum limit of age was fixed at 10 years (raised to 11 by law of 1893) and the school limit fixed at the fourth grade. The wide diversity under by-laws in respect to the latter requirement is shown b}7 Table VI. Table VI. — Showing how the population of England and Wales was distributed ivith regard to the school grades ( standards ) for total and for partial exemption at the dates specified. 1886. a 1895. b Population. Percentage of total population. Population. Percentage of total population. Total exemption standards: N o standard . . . . . 39, 785 3, 576 5, 645, 770 11,978,389 12, 212, 781 ' 1 99 99 A 0.13 .01 19. 46 41.30 38. 60 .42 Ill . 14, 930 8, 230, 109 12,501,077 5,184, 161 0.05 31.68 48.12 19. 95 IV . V . VI . VII . Total . . . . . 25,974,439 29, 002, 525 Partial exemption standards: No standard . . . . I . . . 1, 404, 546 104, 309 2,544,503 15,274, 281 6, 269,374 377, 426 5.40 .40 9.79 58.80 24. 13 1.41 1,952,792 60, 955 1,019,343 10, 867, 523 13, 749, 352 1, 349, 424 3, 136 6.73 .21 3.51 37.47 47. 40 4. 65 .01 ri . Ill . IV . . . . . V . . VI . . . Total . . . . 25,974,439 29,002,525 a At this date 17 jjer cent of the population were under by-laws making school attendance com¬ pulsory only between the ages of 5 and 10 years. b In a few cases included in the statistics for 1895 attendance is only compulsory up to 10 years of age. The most important measure affecting school attendance is the law of 1899, which raised the age for total or for partial exemption to 12 years.1 This law did not affect children already exempt under the by-laws of their respective districts. In the case of children to be employed in agriculture the law provided as follows : The local authorities may make 13 the minimum age for exemption from school attendance, and the children so employed who are over 11 and under 13 years of age and who have passed the standard fixed for partial exemption from school attendance by the by-laws of their respective districts, are not required to attend school more than 250 times in any year. Finally, a law of 1899 empowers local authorities to raise the by-law age for full exemption from school attendance to 14 years. This law also increases the maximum penalty for violation of the compulsory- attendance laws from 5s. to 20s. Partial exemption may be allowed 1 For particulars of the conditions which led to the passage of this law, seer Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1898-99, Vol. 1, pp. 13, 14. 1190 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. iii the case of a child who lias attained the age of 12 years, if such child has made 350 attendances in not more than two schools during each year for five preceding years, whether consecutive or not. The arrangement for partial exemption from compulsory school attendance has given rise to a system of half-time attendance,1 for which special registers are kept in the schools. Finances . — The increase in the annual expenditure for schools since 1870 has been as marked as the increase in their number and their enrollment. Besides the demand for larger resources, arising from the mere growth in numbers, there has been an added demand to meet the constant improvement in the schools. Hence the finan¬ cial statistics serve as a measure both of the increased number and the advancing standard of the schools. In considering these data it should be recalled that the income of the public elementary schools is derived from two sources — govern¬ ment grants and local funds. The latter are derived as follows: (1) For schools under private managers (chiefly denominational), from voluntary contributions, endowments, and fees; (2) for board schools, from local taxes and fees. Table YII shows the total annual expenditure, current and capital, classified b}T sources for succeeding years from 1871 to 1895, inclusive. Table Till presents a comparative view of the per capita current expenditure for board and voluntary schools, and Table IX, the total income for maintenance only, classified by sources for the years 1894- 1899, inclusive. 1 See line 24, Tabie XV, pp. 1201-1202. According to the latest official regulation an attendance means attendance at secular instruction during one hour and a half in the case of a scholar in a school or class for infants; during two hours in the case of a scholar in a school or class for older children, and during one hour and twenty minutes in the case of a half-time scholar. The attendance of a half-time scholar for less than two consecutive hours is not recognized, but such two consecutive hours are reckoned as an attendance and a half. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 1191 Table VII. — Expenditure on public elementary education ( England and Wales), 1871-1895 ( current amd capital). (a) (5) ■(c) (d) (e) (/) (9) w (i) xn CD 2 -t-3 CC A oi •h s* S a o ” n « s' CO g s ■£ 03 rr is StSt a cS £ d Year. lid from ra (Local taxes bo schools only). eluntary subsc: tions and incc from endowmei ital of columns and (6). ies of scholars elementary sch< and students training college )tal of columns (5), and (d). o A r— 1 bo ? a cS P O ■— 1 rQTj* P c/5 o ® o’«g dimated subsc: tions forvolunt school building: rand total of umns (a), (5), (/), and (p). ;ate expendit (education dep ment and scie and art dep: ment). * > pH P CO H 0 02 1871 _ £71 , 181 £509, 262 £580, 116 £516, 421 £1,126, 867 £600 £141,201 £1,568,668 £927,521 1872 . 162, 491 581,011 713, 505 607, 692 1,351,197 63, 487 411,201 1, 855, 885 1,117,878 1873 _ 251, 906 612, 650 891, 556 699, 597 1, 594, 153 861,458 441,201 2, 896, 812 1 , 246, 851 1871 _ 373, 859 709, 712 1,083, 571 826, 241 1, 909, 815 1,539,111 441,201 3, 890,127 1,341,089 1875 _ 588, 815 799. 387 1,388,232 948, 120 2, 336, 352 1,435,989 441,201 4,213,542 1,496,471 1876 . 868, 118 878, 757 1,717.175 1,019,892 2, 797, 067 1,462,956 441, 201 4, 701,224 1,642,283 1877 _ 1,108,316 920, 561 2, 028, 880 1,154,909 3, 183, 789 1,821,330 411,201 5, 446, 320 1, 897, 350 1878 _ 1,328,275 918,390 2, 216, 665 1,292, 615 3, 539, 280 1, 500, 183 441,201 5, 480, 644 2, 191,017 1879 _ 1,186,250 913, 550 2, 399, 800 1,392,289 3, 792, 089 1,083,636 411,201 5, 316, 926 2, 348, 704 1880 _ 1, 579, 752 905, 612 2, 485, 364 1,452,792 3, 938, 158 1, 090, 258 441,201 5, 489, 615 2, 529, 572 1881 _ 1.772,263 897, 279 2, 669, 542 1,530,929 4,200,471 982, 154 411,201 5, 623, 826 2, 636. 936 1882 _ 1,837,566 893, 796 2, 731,362 1, 607, 888 4, 339, 250 975, 245 441,201 5, 755, 696 2, 824, 462 1883 _ 1, 990, 162 891,316 2,881,508 1,684,087 4, 565, 595 850, 05i 441,201 5, 856, 847 2, 866, 260 1881 _ 2,207,806 913, 525 3,121,331 1,759,289 1, 880, 620 1,171,288 441,201 6, 193, 109 3, 135, 813 1885 _ 2, 351,0.16 933, 959 3,287,965 1,818,579 5,106,514 1.198,364 411,201 6, 746, 109 3, 285, 227 1886 _ 2, 515, 192 917, 080 3, 162, 572 1,840,382 5,302,954 691, 601 411.201 6, 435, 756 3, 476. 633 1887 _ 2, 641, 551 923, 985 3, 565, 539 1,862, 042 5,427,581 430, 462 441,201 6, 299, 214 3,511,651 1888 _ 2,631,133 932, 103 3, 563, 836 1,880, 537 o, 4:54, Si 3 401, 114 411,201 6, 296, 688 3, 606, 868 1889 _ 2, 666, 261 941,718 3, 608, 012 1,932, 607 5, 540, 619 571, 828 441,201 6, 556, 648 3, 684,192 1890 _ 2, 968,096 915,111 3,913,210 1,989,032 5, 882, 242 377, 397 441,201 6, 700, 840 3,741,351 1881 _ 3,331,473 962,113 1, 293, 586 2, 000, 676 6, 291, 262 574, 064 111,201 7,309,527 4, 185, 142 1892 _ 3, 462, 356 980, 342 4, 412, 698 1,320.405 5, 763, 103 919, 076 411,201 7.153,380 6, 092, 366 1893 _ 3, 619, 187 960, 012 4,609,179 . 393,261 5,002,440 914, 539 441 , 201 6, 358, 180 6, 495, 841 1891 _ 3, 732, 312 969, 553 4,721,895 360.530 5, 082, 425 1, 557, 8S5 441.201 7, 081, 511 6, 650, 969 1895 _ 3, 887, 790 1.000, 993 1,988,783 342, 900 5, 331, 683 1,889,362 411,203 7, 642, 246 6, 933, 279 Total. 19, 567, 066 21,892, 116 71, 459, 212 32, 283, 715 103, 712, 927 24, 376, 418 11,030,027 139, 149, 372 79, 895, 762 PROPORTION OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE WHICH FELL (a) ON THE CENTRAL FUNDS OF THE STATE, (6) ON OTHER SOURCES OF REVENUE. A ear. S Lclt)0. Other sources of income. Year. State. Other sources of income. Year. State. Other sources of income. 1871 . . 37.16 62.84 1886 . 35. 08 64.92 1893 . .. 50. 54 49.46 1876 . 25. 89 74.11 1891 . 36.41 63.59 1894 . . 48.41 51.56 1881 _ 31. 93 68.07 1892 . . 46.00 54. 00 1895 . . 47.68 52.32 Table YIII. — Average expenditure ( on maintenance only) per scholar in average attendance. Year ending August 31. Board schools. Voluntary schools. Year ending August 31. Board schools. V oluntary schools. £. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d. 1870 . . 1 5 5 1885 . . . 2 5 4 1 15 94 14 1871 1 5 6f 1886 . . . 2 4 Ilf 1 16 1S72 . 1 8 u 54 1 rf 5 1887 . 2 4 74 1 16 44 1873 .... 1 11 1 9 id 1888 . 2 4 74 1 16 4 1874 . 1 15 44 1 10 104 1889 . 2 4 64 J 16 41 1875 . . 1 16 11 1 11 io| 1890 . . . . 2 5 114 1 16 114 1876 . . . 2 1 44 1 13 1891 . 2 J If 1 17 8" 1877 . . . . 2 1 44 1 13 9 4 1892 . . 2 8 4! 14 1 17 94 1878 2 1 9f 1 14 0 1893 . 2 8 1 17 6| 1879 _ _ _ 2 2 0} 1 14 6 1891 . . 2 8 9f 1 18 If 1880.. . . 2 1 Ilf 1 14 7f 1895 . 2 10 If 1 18 1U 68- 1881 . . 2 1 6 1 14 114 1896 . 2 11 Ilf .1 19 1882. . 2 1 6} 1 11 6f 1897 . 2 13 24 2 0 6 1883 . . 2 1 34 1 14 10} 1898 . 2 13 94 2 2 4f 1884 . . 2 1 84 1 15 2 1899 . 2 15 2 5 ii * The law of 1870 authorized school boards to borrow money on the security of local taxes (rates) for the building of school houses. Up to the 1st of April, 1899, the education department had sanctioned loans to the amount of £37,150,310 ($185,751,550). The new accommodation thus furnished is sufficient for 2,595,251 children. The estimated cost per child is thus about £11 6s. ($71). The department has also sanctioned loans to the amount of £85,967 to 8 school boards for providing accommodation for 508 blind and deaf children. Table IX. — Income for maintenance only. BOARD SCHOOLS. 1192 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Other local sources X © to to ©to Hh tO rH CO © to - to 021^ Hi ©02 X 02 H Oi GO to l- rH to to l- 02 X to r^ l- © X H tO rH Of tO rH X X X r}< r^ r^ l- rH © x X © CO tO h © © X © © © 01 © to of to GO of x" © X X X rH -H rH © to X GO 02 i i i i i i ZD 02 © -H rjn 02 © Oi © -H rH 02 i i i i i 1 1© C'l rH c© © ZD © 02 -H © © © X s 3t3 1 i 1 1 1 I »— I CO 02 rH © tO HCONHOO rH q rj H • i*iii 02 r2< rH^ zD tO Of rH rH tO ZD tO l- Oofi » i t ■ i i ro 02 Dot® 1- rH to 02 © CO rH 02 l— Oi Oi r-H X © 02 -H to rH © -HI— x © H X © -T X © rH x X rr l- © x © 02 02 l- X © © to © © -H © -H © 02 l— X X © tO 02 © r* X 02 © rH H © X* © -H to X -H Of 02 tO © rH of -P © X rH to X X to to © l- X Oi 02 rH X 02 l- © rH CD CO i-4 Pi CP UP T-I N©hWHN X P3 H t-h" of of of of h r-H of of 02 Oi X rH Actual average number of scholars in at¬ tendance in those schools. t— XOit— ~HtO l— rH tO l— X -H rHOli-^XX l- 02 © to © X rH rH t— to L- X l- © ZD ZD Of l— co" x" l- to" ©" l— l— iO rH l— X ZD l— X © 0 2 —T 1- X © © © rH r-H rH rH rH rH rH Ci 02 Of rH 02 Is— rH © © r-H HH ZD ZD —H CO © X l- © © © H^NtoVxV -rH tO rH 02 © tO X © © rH rH 02 r-T rH of Of of Of 1 1 1 1 1 • 1 1 1 Num¬ ber of schools in¬ spected rH © 02 -H tO 02 02 rH © rH tO X X © X 02 » O X ©©XXrHX © Oi rH to to © 02 rH to l— © © ip up' UP UP ip' »P HrtHHr-i ol X rH 02 to © to X © © 02 rH l- ©* ZD ZD l- l- L- c 1 1 / 1 1 1 1 Rate per scholar in actual aver¬ age attendance. 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X X rH rd iO i - CO 02 02 rr rH -H i-» 1 — 1 CM O X lO rH X C5X rH ir O ICO 05 rH X 02 02 L- t- 02 rH X 02 rH rH id rH LO 'd rH 02 cd of >0 LO LO 1 0 LO LO 02 rH rH rH rH r*- rH rH X X w ■ i • i i i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 rH 1 & ! u >3co ! •H ; 0 • C i i i ■ III! -rood rirUlOONODCl O Cl CM <31 05 Ci d co qd co co oo oo > H (3 Eh Hi Hi M M X © r— I d! c3 Eh O -tJ o PI -1-3 o o =1-1 © in a o u Cfl © >3 © -l-> © a-©! S§ C O 0,0 o o o 03 dJ a a a cc id a © © -+J H 0 £ h> 0rd 03 o o H 2 © CM O 03 ,nj ^ tfl >rH ?H n3 c8 -2 £ A © d +-> i— ' '3-1 O cs "a o O fc. © 5 foa Ss.2 of -a ? O m coA », o © 2 p,a5 © g S §« a "H a td CA 03 2 © > -£ o 05 ©3 ,a cs HfH 1194 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. By reference to Table VII, column 10, it will be seen that the Govern¬ ment grants or state expenditure, which in 1872 amounted to <£927,324 (84,637,620), had increased in 1895 to £6,963,279. In 1899, as will be seen by reference to columns 10-13, Table IX, the grants for main¬ tenance only amounted to £7,831,204. If to this sum be added grants for training colleges, administration, pensions, etc., the sum total of £8,723,538 (843,617,690) is reached- — about ten times the amount in 1872. The increase in the appropriations from the public treasury is a striking proof of the growing sense of national responsibility and of national concern in respect to the intelligence of the masses. State aid, consisting originally of the annual grant, has been augmented by grants from the science and art department, by the fee grant, and in private schools by the special aid grant. Grants from the science and art department were allowed for drawing as early as 1854; subse¬ quently grants from the same source were allowed for science instruc¬ tion and for manual training, and thus the extension of the course of study was specially encouraged; the fee grant provided by law of 1891 for all schools remitting fees has had the effect of making elementary education gratuitous for nearly all children. The aid grant for voluntary schools only, allowed under a law of 1897, was a discriminating measure which has caused much discontent and has not so far accomplished the purpose of raising the denominational schools to the level of the board schools. The amounts received from these several grants in the successive years 1894-1899 are shown in columns 10-13, Table IX, and an analysis of the severed grants show¬ ing source and purpose for 1899 in Table X. « Table X. — Expenditure from education a rants (1890) classified accordinq to object of grant (1899). 1. Annual grants for day and even-fday . ing scholars. . (evening.. 2. Fee grants for day scholars . . 3. G rants for blind and deaf children . . 4. Grants to school boards in poor districts ... 5. Annual grants to training colleges. . 6. Pensions and gratuities to teachers _ 7. Administration: £. s. cl. Office in London. . 80,579 18 2 Inspection . 209,532 13 4 Contingenciesofoffi.ee.-- 1,832 0 7 8. Organization of districts... . . 9. Office of director of special inquiries and reports . . 10. Special inquiries . . . 11. Aid grant . . . 12. Refund of cost of training recovered from teachers . . . For year ended Dec. 31, 1899. Compared with year ended Dec. 31, 1898. Increase. Decrease. £. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. cl 4,734,973 8 1 266, 885 4 7 181,338 3 4 9,329 13 8 2,310,764 19 2 35,567 17 8 19,103 5 3 1,063 10 3 167,284 6 8 63,948 14 5 178,477 13 5 5,684 9 0 38,890 18 7 3,056 8 10 291,944 11 1 10, 108 10 0 669 13 9 82 13 6 1,713 6 8 108 14 3 39 4 0 143 15 3 798,259 14 10 82,768 4 1 79 8 11 186 7 9 8,723,538 13 9 405,323 12 2 73,608 11 1 Total EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1195 The annual grant which was originally distributed on the results of individual examinations is now allotted chiefly at a certain rate per capita of average attendance — in infant schools at the rate of 17s. or 16s. per capita, and in schools for older scholars at the rate of 22s. or 21s. per capita. In the case of both classes of schools the inspectors’ reports, which determine the rates allowed, must be explicit in respect to the following points: (a) The suitabilitj^ of the instruction to the circumstances of the children and the neighborhood. (5) The thoroughness and intelligence with which the instruction is given. (c) The sufficiency and suitability of the staff. (d) The discipline and organization. Special grants are still allowed (1) for girls who meet the require¬ ments in cookery, laundry work, or household economy, and (2) for boys who meet the requirements in cottage gardening or manual training. This simplified basis replaces a complicated scheme of fixed and variable grants which was a serious hindrance to efficient instruction.1 Improvement in the teaching force.— The progress of elementary schools in England has been marked by great improvement in the qualifications of teachers and in their living conditions. Progress in this particular, so far as it can be shown by statistics, appears (1) in the increase in the proportion of teachers to the number of enrolled pupils — an increase from 1 teacher for every 60 pupils in 1870 to 1 for every 40 pupils in 1899; (2) in the increase in the proportion of adult as compared with pupil teachers, the ratio in 1870 being 49 tier cent to 51 per cent, and in 1899 78 per cent to 22 per cent; (3) in the increase of average salaries. Tables XI and XII give a comparative view of the status of the teaching force at specified dates in the period 1870 to 1899, inclusive. 1 For details of the former system of fixed and variable grants, see Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1888-89, Vol. 1, pp. 101-103; also Report for 1889- 90, Vol. 1, p. 245. 1196 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Table XI. — Number of teachers in public elementary day schools. Year ending Aug. 31 — 1870. 1875. 1880. 1885. 1890. 1 1895. 1899. Certificated teachers: Men — Trained . 7,548 2,284 9,546 3,975 11,287 5,026 12. 770 5,934 15, 023 6, 200 a 17, 436 6, 817 Untrained . Total . 6,395 9,832 13,521 16,313 18, 704 21,223 24,253 Women: Trained . . . 7,324 3,787 9.347 8,554 11,371 13,022 12, 873 14,962 15, 616 16, 102 - - 618,584 19, 248 Untrained _ _ Total . .. 6,072 11,111 17,901 24, 393 27, 835 31, 718 37,832 Assistant teachers: Men. . . Women . . . 487 775 6,384 8,228 984 1,729 10, 842 18, 403 2, 681 4, 971 10, 822 21,306 2,352 5,104 11,514 7,625 20, 113 4,292 5,254 16,530 7.695 23, 467 5,210 5, 047 22, 914 7,246 26, 757 11, 678 4, 725 25, 508 6,643 26, 706 16, 717 Pupil teachers (including probationers) : c Boys . . . . . Girls . . . . . Additional teachers, women. Total men . 13,266 15, 775 21 , 656 31.243 27. 024 46, 530 29, 042 60, 312 31,653 73,042 33,516 93, 067 35, 621 106, 763 Total women d . . . Total . 29,041 52, 899 73, 554 89, &54 104,695 126, 583 142,384 Per cent of men . 45. 68 41 36. 74 32.5 30.23 26.46 25.01 a 11,383 trained for two years or over; 641 trained for less than two years. b 17,603 trained for two years or over; 981 trained for less than two years. cYear ending Dec. 31 for years 1870,1875, and 1880. d Including pupil teachers and probationers, the latter numbering 2,656 in 1899 are not included in number of teachers given in Tables I and XIV. Table XII. — Proportion of each class of teachers to the total number. Year. Certifi¬ cated teachers. Assistant teachers. Pupil teachers, including proba¬ tioners. Total. Percentage of total teach¬ ers. a Certifi¬ cated. Assist¬ ant. Pupil. 1870 . 12, 467 1,262 14, 612 28,341 44.0 4.4 51.6 1875 . 20, 940 2,713 29,245 52, 898 39.6 5.1 55.3 1880 . . 31,442 7,652 32, 128 71,202 44.1 10.8 45. 1 1885.. . 40, 706 16,618 27, 738 85, 062 47.9 19.5 32.6 1890 . . . 46, 539 21, 784 31,162 99. -485 46.8 21.9 31.3 1895 . 52, 941 27, 961 34, 003 115, 905 46.1 24.3 29.6 1899 . 62, 085 30,233 33,349 125, 667 49.4 24.1 26.5 a Not including additional women teachers first employed in 1880. The change in the relative proportion of certificated, assistant, and pupil teachers, as indicated in Table XII, deserves special attention. The requirement that a school sharing in the Government grant must be in charge of a certificated teacher antedates the Forster law, and the proportion of certificated teachers remains about the same as in 1870, viz, 44 per cent. The marked change in the character of the teaching personnel lias been the decline in the proportion of pupil teachers from 51 per cent, of the total to 23 per cent, with an acconn panying increase in the proportion of older assistant teachers, viz, from 4| per cent to 24 per cent of the total (omitting the new class of additional teachers). EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1197 Candidates for position as assistant teachers must be above the age of 18 and must have passed a Government examination.1 The increase in the proportion of women teachers is a noticeable fact in the history of the school system. With respect to this subject the board of education in its first report says: In 1869, for every 100 teachers of each class 48 certificated teachers. 60 assistant teachers, and 57 pupil teachers were women and girls. These proportions increased in 1880 to 58 certificated teachers, 66 assistant teachers, and 68 pupil teachers; and in 1899 to 61 certificated teachers, 84 assistant teachers, and 80 pupil teachers. The number of girl pupil teachers in 1869 was 7,278; they now number 24,702, an increase of nearly 240 per cent. The boy pupil teachers, who numbered 5,569 in 1869, now number 6,081. * Taking all classes of teachers — certificated, assistant, additional, and pupil teachers — we find that whereas in 1869 the women and girls were not 53 per cent of the total, they now number nearly 75 per cent. Table XIII gives the average salary of certificated teachers at stated dates from 1870 to 1899, inclusive. Table XIII. — Average salaries of certificated teachers. Year. Masters. Mistresses. Average salary of—* Percentage in receipt of salaries over £300. Average salary of — Percentage in receipt of salaries over £200. Princi¬ pal teach¬ ers. Assist¬ ant teach¬ ers. All teach¬ ers. Princi¬ pal. All teach¬ ers. Princi¬ pal teach¬ ers. Assist¬ ant teach¬ ers. All teach¬ ers. Princi¬ pal. All teach¬ ers. 1870 . £94 £57 1875 . 199 65 1880 . . . 121 1.05 73 .51 1885 . . £1.32 £90 121 2.11 1.56 £79 £63 74 2. 05 1.34 1890 . . 134 90 120 2.95 2. 01 83 66 76 2. 75 1.68 1895 .. . 138 98 122 3. 21 1.97 88 73 81 3. 51 1.93 1899 . . 144 102 125 3.54 1. 97 94 76 84 3.95 1. 85 The financial status of teachers has been improved also by the recent passage (1898) of a superannuation law. Under this law retire¬ ment is comjmlsory for teachers who have reached the age of 65 years, save under exceptional circumstances. In the year ended March 31, 1900, superannuation allowances amounting to <£6,304 4s. 2d. were awarded to 196 teachers (134 men and 62 women). The certificates of 92 teachers over 65 years of age (60 men and 32 women) were extended on account of special fitness. In the same period “disablement allowances” amounting to £4,882 8s. 2d. were awarded, as shown in the following table, to 167 teachers under 65 years of age who had become permanently incapable, owing 1 For f ull particulars relative to the pupil-teacher system, see summary of the report of a special committee on the subject. — Commissioner's Report, 1897-98, Vol. 1, pp. 160-165. 1198 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. to infirmity of mind or body, of being efficient teachers in public elementary schools : Between the ages of — Men. Women. Total. 30 and 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 11 15 40 an d 50 _ _ _ _ _ _ 31 27 38 50 and 60 . 32 32 36 6S 60 an d 65 _ _ _ . .. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 14 46 Total . . 79 88 167 Table XIY shows the number of students in the training colleges at specified dates: Table XIV. — Students in residence and in day training colleges, a Year. College. Men. Women. Total. 1870-71 . Residential . . 1, 112 1,203 2, 315 1899-1900 . „ . _ do . . 1,424 542 b 2, 580 654 4,004 1, 196 Total . . . . . . . Day . . 1,966 3, 234 5,200 Increase in 29 years _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 854 2,031 c2, 885 a Day training colleges were first opened in 1890. b Includes 138 day students. cOr 121.6 per cent. The provision for the training of teachers has been greatly extended and a new spirit imparted to the work by the day training schools attached to university colleges. Prior to the establishment of these schools (1890) the only training schools were the residential colleges, 41 in number. Of these, 35 are church schools and apply a doc¬ trinal test to applicants for admission. The unsectarian day colleges are conducted in a more liberal spirit and under conditions more stim¬ ulating to the mind and to the social sympathies. The importance of securing persons of broad, liberal culture for the service of elementary education is further recognized by permitting candidates for admis¬ sion to training colleges to offer in lieu of the entrance examination the certificate of a university examination. Graduates or persons who are qualified by examination to become graduates in arts or science of any university in the United Kingdom may also be recognized as certificated teachers, provided that they hold a certificate of profi¬ ciency in the theory and practice of teaching issued by a university or collegiate body and approved by the department. The recent experiment of sending selected students from the train¬ ing colleges for a third year of professional study in France and Germany has proved highly successful. With all the development that has taken place, the provision for the training of teachers is neither in quantity nor quality equal to the EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1199 requirements of an efficient school sj^stem. It is estimated that the existing training colleges would supply the annual waste in a staff of 42,000 teachers, hut the English schools employ 62,000 certificated teachers, and, including all classes of teachers, a total number of 140,000, so that the training colleges could supply only one-third of the new teachers annually required. The duration of the college term — two years — is evidently too brief, considering that it comprises both the academic and the professional training of the future teachers. Course of study. — The extension of the programme of studies is also a marked feature of the general progress of the elementary schools of England. Under the regulations that prevailed from 1870 to 1875, the obligatory subjects were reading, writing, arithmetic, and (for girls) plain needlework and cutting out. Choice was also allowed of two studies from a given list for pupils in the three higher grades (IY-YI) and extra grants allowed for all pupils passing examination in the same. These “specific” subjects, as they were called, were geography, history, algebra, language, elements of Latin, French, or German, physical geography, and animal physiology. In 1875 the programme was divided into obligatory, class, and specific subjects, and geogra¬ phy, history, and grammar were transferred to the second category. The class subjects remained optional, but if taught at all were to be taught throughout the school and to be judged and paid for accord¬ ing to the proficiency of classes as a whole and not like the specific subjects on the results of the examination of individual pupils. By the regulations of 1882 a great advance was made in the scheme of instruction. A seventh grade (standard) was added to the six already existing, which themselves underwent certain modifications. English, or literature, and physical geography, the latter of which had proved to be among the most popular of the specific subjects, disappeared from the list, and a portion of their matter was incor¬ porated in the class subjects of English and geography. Meanwhile the schedule of specific subjects was enlarged and arranged under twelve heads, but instead of being accessible as before to a pupil in the fourth grade, specific subjects were thenceforth limited to those who had passed that grade. Subsequently one class subject was made obligatory for all older pupils in any day school. Complaints that the schools were too literary in their tendencies led generally to the introduction of domestic arts for girls, and drawing, manual work, and cottage gardening for boys. Finally, as shown in the following extract from the regulations of 1900, specific subjects have been abolished.1 1 For a detailed statement of the extent to which pupils have availed themselves of the provision of specific subjects see Table XVI, page 1228. 1200 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. COURSE OF INSTRUCTION AS PROVIDED IN THE REGULATIONS FOR ELEMEN¬ TARY DAY SCHOOLS FOR 1900. THE DAY-SCHOOL CODE (1900). The course of instruction in infant schools and classes should, as a rule, include suitable instruction in the elementary subjects, simple lessons on common things, appropriate and varied occupations, needlework (or drawing for boys), singing and physical exercises. The course of instruction in schools for older scholars is as follows: To be taken as a rule in all schools: English, by which is to be understood read¬ ing, recitation, writing, composition, and grammar in so far as it bears upon the correct use of language; arithmetic; drawing, for boys; needlework, for girls; les¬ sons, including object lessons, on geography, history, and common things; sing¬ ing, which should as a rule be by note; physical exercises. N. B. — It is not necessary that all these subjects should be taught in every class. One or more of them m^y be omitted in any school which can satisfy the inspector and the department that there is good reason in its case for the omission. One or more of these is to be taken when the circumstances of the school, in the opinion of the inspector, make it desirable: Algebra. Euclid, mensuration, mechanics, chemistry, physics, elementary physics and chemistry, animal physi¬ ology, hygiene, botany, principles of agriculture, horticulture, navigation, Latin, French, Welsh (for scholars in schools in Wales), German, bookkeeping, short¬ hand, according to some system recognized by the department, domestic economy or domestic science. For girls: Cookery, laundry work, dairy work, household management.1 For boys: Cottage gardening, manual instruction.1 Where manual instruction is taken, it is desirable that suitable occupations leading up to it should be taken in the lower classes. Any subject, other than those mentioned in article 15 may, if sanctioned by the department, be included in the course of instruction, provided that a graduated scheme for teaching it be submitted to, and approved by the inspector. Instruction maybe given in other secular subjects approved by the department, and in religious subjects, but no grant is made in respect of any such instruction (elementary education act, 1870, sec. 97 (1)). The regulations include examination schedules arranged for each grade (I-V1I) and for every subject. These schedules practically determine the grading of the school years. The progress of this system of schools which has here been reviewed' is summarized in the following table. The financial showing is incom¬ plete, comprising only the appropriations from the treasury, made under the head of annual grants: Special grants are allowed for these subjects. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 1201 Table XV. — Comparison of the last ten years wit'll 1S70 and 187G. Year ending August 81 — 1870 (Revised [ 1876. 1890. 1891. 1S92. 1893. Code). Schools (institutions) in- spected by Her Maj esty ’s inspectors - . _ _ 8, 281 8,281 11, 273 12, 677 19,419 11, 743 19 508 19, 515 11, 681 19, 577 Voluntary schools _ Board schools . 14.761 1, 747 11.673 1,901 ] , 596 4, 676 1,831 Departments under sepa- rate head tea.chers in those schools . . 12, 061 20, 782 29, 839 29, 533 29, 672 29,804 Scholars for whom accom- modation is provided _ 1,878,581 3, 126, 318 5, 539, 285 5, 628, 201 5, 692, 975 5, 762, 617 Percentage to estimated population . 8.50 11. 13 18.81 19. 35 19. 36 19. 38 Scholars on the school reg- isters _ „ _ _ 1, 693, 059 2, 913, 774 4, 804, 149 1, 824, 683 5, 006, 979 5,126,373 Percentage to estimated population . . . 7. 66 12. 08 16.31 16. 59 17. 03 17.24 Scholars in actual average attendance a . 1,152,389 1,984,573 3, 717,917 3, 719, 958 3, 870, 771 4, 100, 030 Percentage to estimated population . _ . 5.21 8.10 12.61 12. 89 13.16 13. 79 Percentage to scholars on the school registers 68. 06 67.42 77. 39 77.72 77.31 79.98 Average attendance for payment in infant schools and classes - . . . 1,107,805 1,121,990 1,180,782 1,276,302 Average attendance for payment in schools for older scholars. . 2, 632, 731 2, 650, 960 2, 712, 969 2, 816, 519 Average attendance of scholars who earned grants upon examination in class subjects . 2, 192, 918 2, 521,974 2, 595, 127 2, 752, 261 Scholars qualified for grant in specific subjects _ 78, 611 90, 087 90, 070 100, 120 Number of departments in which singing was taught: By ear . . . 18, 823 3, 815 13, 051 16,227 11,833 17,645 10, 623 18, 996 9,655 By notes . . 20, 106 Number of schools in which were taught— Military drill . . 1,056 1,411 1,365 145 1, 352 285 1,316 430 Manual instruction. ... Science . . 420 513 557 Physical exercises . 1.411 1.703 1,938 Half-time scholars . . 201,281 175, 437 4,401 2,498 173! 010 172, 363 184, 01S 5, 832 8,548 School libraries. . 1,967 2, 629 5, 580 Ravings banks . . 6! 383 Certificated and provision- ally certificated teach¬ ers b . . . . 12, 167 1,282 23, 053 3,173 543 ' 46, 539 21, 781 47, 823 23, 508 48, 772 49, 340 25, 123 Assistant teachers . . 23! 558 Additional teachers . 5,210 5, 681 6,951 26, 961 £3, 581, 300 8,534 Pupil-teachers . 14. 304 32,231 £1,316,864 29,810 28, 131 27, 288 £3,783,237 “Annual grant” . . £562, 611 £3, 326. 177 £3,131, 759 Year ending August 31— 1891. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Schools (institutions) in- spected by Her Majesty's insTDectors . - . 19, 709 11, 628 19, 739 19, 818 11,116 5,132 19, 958 11, 434 19, 937 14, 382 20, 064 14, 432 Voluntary schools _ 11, 479 Board schools . . 5,081 5, 260 5,521 5. 555 5, 632 Departments under sepa- rate head teachers in those schools . 30, 033 30,237 • 30,521 30, 847 30,911 31.173 Scholars for whom accom- modation is provided _ 5, 832, 911 5, 937, 288 6, 072, 371 6, 215, 199 6, 316, 866 6,417.514 Percentage to estimated population . 19.41 19. 53 19. 71 20.01 20.11 20. 21 Scholars on the school reg- isters . . 5, 198, 711 5, 299, 469 5, 122, 9S9 5,507,039 5, 576, 866 5, 654, 092 Percentage to estimated population . 17.29 17.43 17.60 17. 73 17. 76 17. 81 a In Table II will be found separately the average attendance in board and voluntary schools. b Men teachers and women teachers are given separately in Table XI. ED 1900 - 76 1202 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900, Table XV. — Comparison of the last ten years with 1S70 ancl 1S7G — Continued. Year ending August 31- 1894. 1895. 1 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Scholars in actual average attendance a _ . . 4, 225, 834 4, 325, 030 4, 422, 911 4, 4S8, 543 4, 554, 165 4,636,938 Percentage to estimated population . — 14.06 14.23 14.35 14.45 14. 50 14.60 Percentage to scholars on the school registers 81.29 81.61 81. 55 81.50 81.66 82.01 Average attendance for payment in infant schools and classes . . 1,318, 478 1.333, 6S0 1,370,392 1,391,091 1,428,321 1,476,309 Average attendance for payment in schools for older scholars. _ 2, 926, 629 3, 008, 798 3. 070. 550 3,117,469 3. 14S, 851 3. 195, 671 Average attendance of scholars who earned grants upon examination in class subjects . . 2, 884. 196 2, 980, 948 3, 052, 692 3.107,051 3, 143. 618 3, 192, 794 Scholars qualified for grant in specific subj ects . . 113. .384 128.012 138. 814 156,314 175. 6S9 346, 301 Number of departments in which singing was taught : By ear . _ . 8, 690 7.892 7,204 6, 536 5, 899 5. 250 By notes . 21, 300 22. 302 23, 280 24, 284 24, 991 25. 901 Number of schools in -which were taught — Military drill _ _ 1,343 1,572 1,903 2, 418 2, 5oo 2, 659 Manual instruction _ 677 949 1. 178 1.274 1,335 1.587 Science. . . 573 633 783 901 951 1.075 Physical exercises . 2,259 3. 185 5, 333 7, 845 8,569 9,115 Half-time scholars _ _ 140, 831 126, 896 119. 747 110, 654 103, 678 95,621 School libraries. . . . 6,225 6,381 6, 550 7,066 7, 398 7. 875 Savin gs banks . . . 8,668 8,410 8, 065 7, 489 7, 393 7, 337 Certificated and provision¬ ally certificated teach¬ ers b . . . . 50. 6S9 52, 941 56, 712 58,814 59, 874 62,085 Assistant teachers. . . 26. 067 27, 961 25, 393 25. 206 26, 736 30, 233 Additional teachers _ 10, 196 11,678 12, 83S 14, 155 15, 136 16,717 Pupil-teachers. . . “Annual grant” . 23, 739 31.476 33, 529 32, 598 31, 038 30, 783 £4,081.281 £4, 217, 506 £4,339,739 £4, 554, 932 c£4, 835, 055 a In Table ll will be found separately the average attendance in board and voluntary schools. b Men teachers and women teachers are given separately in Table XI. c Annual grant only. The total grant from the public treasury, including fee grant and special grants, amounted to £8,723,538. Special adjustments for backward children. — One of the most impor¬ tant outcomes of the system of elementary education as it has been maintained in England is the conviction it has produced of the need of special adjustments for children suffering from vicious propensities, from poverty, or from physical infirmities. The efforts to which this conviction lias given rise have generally been of local origin and con¬ fined to particular cities or districts. In some instances these local efforts have led to a general provision sanctioned by law. The most difficult of all the problems relating to the welfare of backward children is that of habitual truancy, an evil which affects chiefly the large cities. It is estimated that in London, with 758,337 children enrolled in the schools 142,000 are absent every time the schools are open. Of this number 100,000 are classed as unjustifiable absences, and according to official estimates 50,000 are the same children every time. Other cities show similar conditions. The problem excites at this time widespread attention because of flagrant acts of lawlessness committed by bands of vicious youths. Public meetings have been held, the press is full of the subject, and every¬ where remedial measures are discussed. The endeavor made in some EDUCATION 1 1ST GEE AT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1203 quarters to charge this evil to the influence of nonsectarian schools signally fails wherever the facts are investigated. A committee of representative citizens of London, among others the chairman of the London county council, the Bishop of Stepney, and Dr. Macnamara, M. P., was appointed to inquire into the rowdyism, or as it is popu¬ larly termed, the “Hooliganism,” which has been terrorizing certain parts of the city. After a searching investigation, the committee submitted a report in which the following conclusions are presented: Overcrowding in the homes or neglect by parents, which prevents the healthy development of family life, rendering the presence of the younger members in the house at once distasteful to themselves and inconvenient to their parents. Boys and girls in such houses break loose from authority, and their departure from home is a welcome release. The irregular attendance at school of a large proportion of the children of the poorest class, who thus fail at any time to come under the healthy discipline of school life or to reap the advantages of education and training. Over 140,000 chil¬ dren are absent from school every day out of a total number of 755,940 children on the registers of the public elementary schools of London. It appears that some 13,000 never attend at all, and inquiries show that these form the nucleus of some of the notorious gangs of street roughs. The absence of adequate opportunity for healthy exercise and organized amuse¬ ment. Children of school age and still more older lads and girls too often use the streets as their only playground in which to romp or play or obtain their neces¬ sary recreation. The insufficient police control in many districts and inadequate lighting of many streets. Street corners and cul-de-sacs become established centers of gambling, frequently with a boy sentry posted to give warning of any likelihood of inter¬ ference. The early age at which the working-class hoys and girls go out into the world and become wage-earners, and thereby to a great extent independent, except dur¬ ing the hours of their employment — an age when children of the upper and mid¬ dle classes are still at school. An improvident industrial system, under which boys are employed in various forms of unskilled labor during the years when they should have an opportunity of learning trades, and as they' approach manhood are cast on the streets to swell the ranks of the casual laborers or to settle down in despair as permanent loafers. An atmosphere of vice and crime surrounds a certain proportion of the poorest class from infancy, an atmosphere from which other children are jealously guarded. Children of this class are almost educated in a contempt for law and order and become active centers of evil influence among the youthful population of the streets. One of the most serious hindrances to school attendance and to effi¬ cient school work on the xiart of the children of the poorer classes is their enforced labor. A Parliamentary Return recently issued shoves that more than 30,000 of the children on the roll of London elementary schools are known to be working for wages, or employed for profit. The evil affects children of the tender age of 7; no less than 23,945 are 12 years old or under; 23,295 work from 10 to 60 hours per week; 26,463 are paid at rates varying from under 6d. np to 3s. Many have to be out in the streets in the early morning, midday, and again late at night. They get little time for meals and still less for recreation, 1204 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. often coining to school wet and in a state of hunger and weariness which entirely unfits them for receiving instruction. All joy is crushed out of their lives by slavish toil. This evil may be partially reached by an improvement in the laws relating to child labor, but poverty, to which in part the enforced labor of children is due, would still remain. Practically the problem of the school attendance of the poorest children is one to be solved by local authorities, and the school boards of the great cities have shown a deep sense of their responsibilities in this matter. Arrangements for feeding poor children are made in many cities, either by benevolent associations acting in unison with the school boards, as in London, or by means of voluntary subscriptions placed at the disposal of the boards, as in Manchester. The experiments in London, although conducted on a liberal scale and with great persistence, have led to the conviction that public funds should be appropriated for this work and that it should be a recognized feature of the elementary school administration. A com¬ mittee of the London board appointed in 1898 to investigate the matter, after a year’s consideration, submitted a report in which the following conclusions were announced: It should be deemed to be part of the duty of any authority by law responsible for the compulsory attendance of children at school to ascertain what children, if any, come to school in a state unfit to get normal profit by the school work — whether by reason of underfeeding, physical disability, or otherwise — and that there should be the necessary inspection for that purpose. That where it is ascertained that children are sent to school “underfed” it should be part of the duty of the authority to see that they are provided, under proper conditions, with the necessary food. That the authority should cooperate in any existing or future voluntary efforts to that end. That in so far as such voluntary efforts fail to cover the ground the authority should have the power and the duty to supplement them. That where dinners are provided it is desirable that they should be open to all children and should be paid for by tickets previously obtained which parents should pay for, unless they are reported by the board's officers to be unable by misfortune to find the money, but in no case should any visible distinction be made between paying and nonpaying children. That where the board's officers report that the underfed condition of any child is due to the culpable neglect of a parent (whether by reason of drunkenness or other gross misconduct) the board should have the power and the duty to prose¬ cute the parent for cruelty, and that in case the offense is persisted in there should be power to deal with the child under the industrial schools acts. The vice-chairman of the Manchester hoard, Mr. S. J. Broadfield, who has had charge of the school hoard free meals, in an interview on the subject with a representative of the press expressed the opinion that the work can he carried on successfully in Manchester without special legislation. The maximum number of dinners provided in that city was 103,200 in 1894-95; the following winter only 95,399 were required. Severe winters naturally increase the demand. Mr. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1205 Broadfieid believes that there is no difficulty in raising the funds or in determining the necessitous cases. The teachers have a general knowledge of the circumstances of the children, and the school attend¬ ance officers supplement that with the necessary inquiries. The meals are served entirely by the teachers whose devotion and interest are beyond praise. The enterprise, in fact, could hardly be carried on without their aid, for they not only help in the work, but they obtain many subscriptions, and also augment the income by jumble sales, etc. In reply to a question as to the probability of the free meals being- abused, Mr. Broadfieid said he had no fears of this. Many of the children might have worthless or drunken parents; but his colleagues were hardly likely to allow these to suffer for the short-comings of their parents, besides they invariably found that as the weather became more open or trade improved there was a diminished demand upon the charity. Mr. Broadfieid stated further that there was not the slightest doubt as to the undertaking being a beneficial one. Not only had they an assurance that a good substantial meal was served once a day to a multitude of children who would otherwise have but “short com¬ mons,'’ but they had seen that the physical condition of the children was greatly improved by the regular meals and sensible food they received. With regard to the contributions, the only appeal made to the public he said, was through the press, every winter, and by send¬ ing out copies of the annual report they endeavor to retain old sub¬ scribers. Though the work is in the hand of a committee all the members of the board are deeply concerned in the success of the scheme; they are all equally responsible for its continuance, and no section lias a monopoly of interest in it. Apart from the special aid to poor children, the educational authorities, both central- and local, recognize the need of making the schools attractive to the children and of adjusting the training to their aptitudes and demands. Legislative provision has been made for the training of blind and deaf children (law of 1893) in day and in boarding schools which are under the supervision of and receive grants from the education department. In 1899 there were 1,167 blind pupils in boarding schools, and 290 in day schools, or a total of 1,457 in both classes of institutions, and the same year 1,629 deaf children in public boarding schools and 1,030 in public day schools — total 2,659. By this provision it is possible to give these unfortunate children the special attention which they require. The school boards of the chief cities have carried this shifting proc¬ ess still further, and maintain special schools for defective and back¬ ward children. London, which led in this work, reports 2,030 children in 43 centers, under the supervision of the eminent specialist in this work, Mrs. E. M. Burgwin. 1206 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. The importance of this provision was so clearly demonstrated by the success attending the work that a law was passed in 1900 authoriz¬ ing school authorities throughout the country to make special pro¬ vision for defective and epileptic children, and specifying the condi¬ tions upon which grants in aid of such special classes or schools may be secured. Tlius the educational authorities are becoming constantly more and more involved in the work of social reform. Part II. — Secondary Education in Great Britain and Ireland. The extended scope of the English education department is empha¬ sized in the first report of the new board by a special volume on secondary education. This volume deals chiefly with the work of the science and art department (now merged into the board) for the year ending Decem¬ ber 31, 1899. Under the head of science instruction and of art instruction the report presents'the following summary: I.— Science Division. AID GIVEN TOWARD THE PROMOTION OF INSTRUCTION IN SCIENCE. Science schools. The following table gives the number of schools, classes, and pupils under instruction in science for the decennial period from 1890 to 1899. In this table each institution in which instruction was provided in science, whether it was in several branches of science or only in one, is counted as a science school. Up to and including the year 1897 the table deals with the schools in England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland; but thereafter the schools in Scotland are not included, having been transferred for their grants to the Scotch education department. Making allowance for this, there has, during the period referred to in the table, been a considerable increase in the number of pupils under instruction. The fact that the table does not show a corresponding increase in the number of schools is doubtless due to the absorption of the smaller schools in the larger and better equipped schools maintained or established by local authorities under the technical instruction acts. Year. Schools. Classes. Students under in¬ struction in schools eligible for grants. 1890. . . 2,063 2. 164 2,553 2, 754 2.602 2,673 2, 583 2,424 2,023 2, 056 7, 756 8,568 10, 352 10, 341 9,433 9,545 10, 500 9,102 11, 723 12, 580 133, 821 148, 408 ISO, 410 193, 431 183, 120 193, 404 194, 354 197, 796 158, 370 174,670 1891... . . . 1892 . . 1893 . . . . . . 1894... . . . . 1895 . 1896.. . . 1897 . 1898.. . 1899 . EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1207 In 1899 there were 169 schools of science, with 28,450 students. This is a con¬ siderable increase on the preceding year, when the number of these schools was 159 with 21,193 students. Schools of science in Scotland are not included in these figures. Two thousand and fifty-nine of the schools examined in 1899 were in England and Wales and 861 in Ireland. This is an increase on the previous year of 115 in Eng¬ land and Wales and an increase of 7 in Ireland. The number of individual stu¬ dents who came up for examination from these schools was 78,496. Besides these, 13,227 self-taught students and pupils from classes ineligible for grants presented themselves for examination. The day examinations in certain of the science subjects, which -were commenced in 1897, have been continued. They were held in June, and were confined to the elementary and advanced stages of subjects chiefly taught in day schools and train¬ ing colleges, the papers set being as nearly as possible of the same standard as those at the evening examinations. The number of papers worked at the day examinations in 1839 was 44,245, an increase of about 6,009 on the previous year. The following table gives, for the same ten years' as in the preceding table, the results of the annual examinations. It shows the number of students examined, the number of papers worked, the number of papers which were passed in one class or another, and the number which obtained a first class in the elementary or in the advanced stage. This table includes pupils in Scotch schools who were examined by the board of education: Year. Individual students examined. Papers worked. Papers passed. First classes in elemen¬ tary and advanced stages. 1890 . - . . . . . 86, 318 83, 659 108, 858 162, 853 179, 549 114,245 115,610 136, 778 83,511 82, 406 34, 027 28, 448 35,932 46, 099 49, 990 49,861 41,419 43, 073 39, 800 41,319 1891 . . . . . 1892 . . . . . . . . 203. 317 201,597 1893 . . . 110.398 103, 396 113.398 1894 . 188, 773 202, 868 1895 . . 85. 303 1896 . 99; 818 101,526 152, 630 62, 886 62,261 94,475 98, 549 1897 . ___ 151,212 150, 401 158, 618 1898 . 103, 897 104,500 1899 . . * * * For the year 1899 the grants to science schools in England, Wales, and Ireland, exclusive of those made to training colleges, amounted to £195,245 15s. 9d. The grants for 1898 amounted to £169,604 3s. 3d. The former sum was made up as follows: (a) £94,667 15s. 7d. to science schools for attendance grants and £1,617 8s. 8d. on results of examination (honors only) ; total, £96,285 4s. 3d., as against £86,476 16s. Id. the previous year. (b) £98,849 12s. 4d. to schools of science for capitation and attendance grants and grants on results of examination, the amount in the previous year being £82,998 15s. lOd. (c) £110 19s. 2d. to one navigation school (Plymouth) for attendance grants under the special rules applying to these schools. In the previous year the amount under this head was £128 11s. 4d. The figures under (a) 'show an average payment in 1899 of 12s. 8fd. for each individual student under instruction in science schools, while the average pay¬ ment per student under instruction in schools of science ( b ) was £4 4s. 3d, Until the session 1896-97 the grants, except to organized science schools (now 1208 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. schools of science) , were computed on the results of the individual examinations of the students. In that session the managers of schools were allowed to elect whether they would receive their grants under the rules for payments on results, or under the rules which had been promulgated in 1896 by which the grants were made mainly on attendance. Under the new rules, which were made compulsory in all schools in the session 1897-98. grants are made for each registered attend¬ ance (up to a certain maximum) in each subject. In honors payments continue to be made on the results of examination. II. — Art Division. AID GIVEN TOWARD THE PROMOTION OF INSTRUCTION IN ART. Art instruction in local schools of art and art classes. The number of art schools and classes (including 40 science schools which take art subjects) examined in art in 1899 was 1,745, as against 1,700 (which included 6G science schools) in 1898, showing an increase of 45. The number of students under instruction was 180,126 in 1899, as compared with 120,771 in 1898. These numbers are exclusive of schools of art and art classes in Scotland, but these con¬ tinue to participate in the national competition and other examinations in art under this hoard. Of the 1,745 art schools and classes which were examined in 1899, 263 art schools and 1,870 classes are in England and Wales, and 12 art schools and 60 classes in Ireland. The number of students who sat for examination in 1899 was 76,494, as compared with 81,809 in 1898, for which year the number in respect of Scotland is included. In 1899, 163,739 exercises were worked by students of schools and classes, 39,682 being worked at the day examinations in June. Of these exercises 127,652 were in elementary stages (including 13,267 exercises in geometrical drawing) and 35,701 in advanced stages, or in subjects not divided into stages, the number suc¬ cessful being 84,256 (including 8,614 in geometrical drawing), or 66 per cent for the elementary stage (including geometrical drawing), and 25,789, or 72.24 per cent, for the advanced stage, while in the honors division 386 exercises were worked, of which 152, or 39.38 per cent, were successful. But in addition to the papers worked by these students, 11,668 papers were worked by external candi¬ dates and candidates from classes not receiving payments on results, of which 7,730, or 66.25 per cent, were successful. In 1899, 101,492 works executed in the schools and classes during the session by 24,808 students were submitted for examination at South Kensington. In 1893, 101,492 works by 25,038 students were sent up. Local scholarships (art), royal exhibitions (art), national scholarships (art). — There were 172 competitors for the 20 local scholarships and the 10 royal exhibi¬ tions. Of these local scholarships 4 are held at the Royal College of Art, 3 at the West Bromwich School of Art, 2 at the Aberdeen (Grays) School of Art, 2 at the Glasgow School of Art, and 1 at each of the following schools of art: Brighton, Bristol (Merchant Venturers), Bristol (Queen’s road), Cardiff, Chester, Croydon, Dover, Edinburgh (female), and Nottingham. The 10 royal exhibitions are held at the Royal College of Art, to which 9 new national scholars were also admitted. Local exhibitions (art). — Four local exhibitions— toward each of which the board provides £25 per annum on tlie locality contributing a similar amount— were awarded in 1899. These are being held at the Royal College of Art. The payments on results and attendances for England, Wales, and Ireland amounted in 1899 to £77,794 10s. Gd.. as against £72,128 in 1898. From April 1, 1898, the payments of grants to Scottish schools has been transferred to the Scotch education department. The average payment per student under instruction in England. Wales, and Ireland for 1898 was 11s. ll^d. , while in 1899 it was 11s. 11-Jd. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1209 According to the returns to the board the fees paid by students in schools of art and art classes in the last three years have been as follows: Years. Schools of art. Art classes. Total. 1897 . £ s. d. 40,260 8 7 29; 489 8 1 28,389 2 0 £ .s. d. 16, 581 15 7 £ s. d. 56, 842 4 2 1898 (England, Wales, and Ireland only) . 1899 (England, Wales, and Ireland only) . 16,181 13 2 13,244 1 3 45,671 1 3 41,633 3 3 The county council scholarships. — The county council for the county palatine of Lancashire has awarded 7 scholarships, the county council for the West Riding of Yorkshire 5, the London county council 5, the county council for Surrey 4, the county council for Chester 2, the county council for the North Riding of York¬ shire 2, and the county councils for Carmarthen and for Gloucester have each awarded 1 scholarship, the 27 scholarships being held at the Royal College of Art. Tasmania, New Zealand, and the Isle of Man, Jersey, and Guernsey, have sub¬ mitted works and examination exercises from their schools to the board for exam¬ ination, while Natal and Barbados have submitted examination exercises only, and South Australia has submitted works only for examination. As the vote for the board does not apply to these places, the expenses for examination are borne by the local authorities. The facilities hitherto possessed by the colonies for obtaining specimens of art works have this year been extended. In March, 1899, the colonial office, on the initiative of the department of science and art, issued a circular to colonial gov¬ ernors offering to the colonies, upon certain terms, collections of works which had been submitted for competition, and of exercises done at the personal exami¬ nations. The Cape of Good Hope, Natal, New Zealand, and Malta have already availed themselves of this offer, and cases of works have been dispatched to them, the cost of the works and carriage being borne in each case by the colonial gov¬ ernments. The colonies of Ontario, Ceylon, and Mauritius have also applied for similar collect ons of works. Three hundred and fifty-one art class teachers' certificates were issued during the year, besides 188 art masters’ certificates of the first group, 13 of the second group, 2 of the third group, 5 of the fourth group, 3 of the fifth group, and 7 of the sixth group. The question of the adequate supply of high schools for the indus¬ trial classes, already considered under the head of elementary educa¬ tion, may properly be regarded as a part of the general problem of secondary education. The current English views on this subject are shown by the appended articles from well-known leaders in educa¬ tional affairs. The chaotic state of secondary education in England is in striking contrast to the aspect of the same interest in other divisions of the Kingdom. Under the Welsh intermediate education law (1889) there is consti¬ tuted for the inspection and examination of secondary schools in Wales and Monmouthshire an intermediate education board. This board consists of 80 members appointed by the county and county borough councils, the school- governing bodies, and other interested bodies. By the agency of this board the extent and the character 1210 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899*1900. of tie provision for intermediate education have been ascertained, the various classes of schools have been to a great degree system¬ atized and unified, and the public appropriations for secondary and technical education judiciously applied. The number of schools examined in 1898 was 88, being 20 for boys, 20 for girls, 41 dual, and 7 mixed. The permanent teaching staff numbered 408 (219 male and 189 female), exclusive of 178 visiting teachers. The number of pupils examined was 6,912, of whom 3,274 were girls. The education law of Scotland (1872) placed the administration of the burgh schools of various names, i. e., grammar, high schools, etc., under the school boards. In 1885 the education department of Scotland undertook the inspection and examination of all secondary schools seeking the service. Subsequently, as in England, secondary education was granted increased support from public funds (i. e., under the customs and excise act of 1890 the surplus of the liquor duties, and under the local taxation account act of 1892 an annual sum of £ GO, 000). Thus the secondary education of Scotland is well organized and liberally fostered by government. The education department (Scotland) reported in 1899 the number of secondary schools under insxiection to be 8G. Of these, 32 were high-class public schools, 25 endowed schools, and 29 under private management. The number of candidates examined for the Leaving Certificate was 1G,262, as against 972 in 1888. For Ireland there is an intermediate education board, with a yearly income from public funds of “£33,049 in 1898, besides local taxation revenues amounting to £54,175.” Its functions are to examine all candidates who present themselves. In 1898 the number was 9,073 (G,705 boys and 2,368 girls), as compared with 8,877 in the previous year and 6,952 in 1881. In 1898 grants on the results of the examina¬ tion amounting to £49,455 were x>aid to the managers of 371 schools. The development of high-grade schools under the managers of ele¬ mentary schools and the relation of these schools to the general prob¬ lem of secondary education is presented in the following articles from current English sources: HIGHER ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. [Article by Hon. E. Lyulph Stanley, vice-chairman of the London school board, in Contemporary Review, November, 1900.] A question which has lately excited a great deal of attention is, What are the limits of elementary education, and where, if at all, should the line be drawn between elementary and secondary education? Another question, closely related to the first, is whether managers of elementary schools, and specially the great urban school boards, have violated the lav/ and are giving instruction beyond that which the law allows them to give. There is a third question as to the action of the board of education and their policy in refusing, at any rate, as far as Parliamenty grants are concerned, public aid to the more advanced range of popular education. If a limited and narrow view of wbat should be brought within the reach of the EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1211 industrial class should prevail — if both the range of knowledge and the age of the scholar should be limited and cut down — there will be a tendency to say that what¬ ever the law may be now it should at any rate be made clear for the future that the expansion of popular education shall not be permitted, and those who are in favor of limiting the range of popular instruction will sympathize with a board of education which uses its administrative power in this direction. But in reference to the working class and to the lower middle class, who are those who almost entirely fill our elementary schools, what, if any, should be the upward limit to which they should be encouraged to send their children to school? The law now establishes the presumption that the age of compulsory attendance should extend up to 14. School boards, by their by-laws, can prescribe the seventh standard as the stand¬ ard of exemption, and 14 as the age up to which The by-laws shall apply. There seems to be a notion floating in the air in the neighborhood of Whitehall that henceforward the obligations imposed on the unwilling parent shall be the measure of the rights of the self-denying parent who desires to extend his child's educational opportunities. The law gives a parent the right to demand free education for his child up to the age of 15, and imposes on school boards the duty of supplying that free education. But there is no doubt that there are indications of policy in the present board of education which show that this legal right and this legal obligation are in danger of being undermined. Certainly we can not hope that in the present state of public opinion and in the present social and material condition of the working class a large percentage of scholars will stay beyond 14. But is it desirable to close the door of the school in the face of those who continue to seek admission? It is generally recognized that in the skilled trades the age either for apprentice¬ ship or for the informal entry into the lower stages of the craft is at youngest 15, and generally nearer" 16. If a boy is turned out of school at 14 he rapidly loses in the two critical years that follow the knowledge and the aptitude which might have been strengthened and developed. The parent’s desire for the boy's earnings encourage him to let the boy drift into the class of errand boys or find himself perched at the end of a van, and so as his age and strength increase the boy goes to swell the ranks of unskilled labor. It certainly seems reasonable that we should welcome and encourage those who will make an effort to secure a brighter future for their sons. In the case of the girls there is rather more readiness to keep them at school, and it is certainly quite as desirable that they should stay on. Our teaching staff is more and more as years go by composed of women who enter the profession as pupil teachers. These must be over 15 when they are accepted (except in rural districts), and as they are almost entirely recruited from the elementary schools, they should be encouraged to continue as scholars until the time comes for them to be indentured. In London the board pupil teachers are mainly recruited from the board’s higher- grade schools, where girls desirous of this career have been in the habit of staying up to the age of 15 or 16. It seems difficult to argue this question of the retention in school of those who wish to stay and study, because it is hard to imagine any reasonable person wish¬ ing to turn them out. And hitherto the policy of the education department has in this respect been fairly friendly to the prolongation of education. But we now have intimation, in official documents and in the speeches of officials, that this policy is being reversed. If we look to Scotland, the popular education in which is under the same Duke 1212 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. of Devonshire who is the titular head of the English department, we find that the Code for Elementary Schools (art. 6. c. d.) lays down (art. 25) that attendances are reckoned for scholars from the age of 3 to 18, and, moreover, very liberal grants are provided for scholars who have passed the “ merit” certificate exam¬ ination— equal to the work of Standard VI — that is for scholars from about the age of 12 up to 18. And for many years the English code also recognized attendance of scholars in the day school, and paid grants for them, whether working in the standards or beyond the standards, up to the age of 18. This year, for the first time, it is declared by tli9 code that the attendance of a scholar over 14 who has worked for a year in Standard VII, is not to be recognized, and the education act of 1890 further deprives the managers of the fee grant to which they were entitled for such scholars up to the age of 15. Undoubtedly these enactments and the sub¬ stitution of the block grant for the previous grant, while largely aiding the more backward and rural schools where children leave early and are principally in the lower standards, have tended to inflict serious financial loss on the better town schools, especially those managed by boards, and the general operation of the changes is to accentuate the more strictly elementary side of our popular educa¬ tion. Much dissatisfaction was roused by these proposals, and it is no secret that an active opposition organized in the northern counties, and led by Conservatives, caused serious apprehension to the Government. Mr. Balfour and the whips had to come into extion and check the zeal of Sir John Gorst, who openly makes the boast that as he failed by legislation to supersede school boards by county coun¬ cils, he will do administratively what he can not do by law. The consequence of the intimations of defection from Parliamentary supporters led to the sudden production of what is known as the Higher Elementary Schools Minute. This minute, though it contains many matters needing amendment, and though it cuts down the liberty hitherto enjoyed by school boards in the higher sections of their work, was welcomed as an indication that the Government did intend to some extent to compensate for the injury which their new code indicted upon higher elementary education. It had long been felt by many that the organization of a ‘‘School of Science,” which was the form in which most school hoards had sought for more liberal State aid for their higher grade schools, was not the best way to prepare the indus¬ trial classes for active life. It might suit some industrial towns, but it was not generally applicable to the country, and it was especially unsuited for the higher education of girls. When the subject came on for debate in the House of Commons, Professor Jebb was put forward, we might almost say put up, to give a conciliatory exposition of the minute, in which he spoke of the projected schools as of a new type, and indi¬ cated that the board of education would be open-minded in considering practical criticisms. Sir John Gorst took occasion to say that after the clear exposition of the minute by his friend and colleague he had nothing to add, and peace and harmony united with declarations of confidence in the Government to smooth the way. But waiving other criticisms on the scheme indicated by the new minute, two serious drawbacks revealed themselves as soon as the danger of Parliamentary opposition was passed. (1) It was announced that the schools to be recognized must be closely similar to the elementary course of a school of science, and before recognition must be fully equipped with laboratories. (2) That the number of schools to be recognized would be strictly limited. A full analysis of the corre¬ spondence between the board of education and numerous school boards shows that the department are not only construing their own minute most narrowly, as EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1213 against those who would set up these schools, but are actually importing into the minute matter which is not there. Thus the minute asks for the time-tables to be submitted, and states that the inspector, who, by the context, would naturally be taken to be the Government inspector for the district, shall report and make a recommendation on the suit¬ ability of the instruction to the circumstances of the scholars and the neighbor¬ hood. And }ret we are now told that for boys and girls alike in commercial towns, manufacturing towns, residential towns, there must be one curriculum of a domi¬ nant scientific type. The board of education have even gone beyond their own directory, and are ask¬ ing for more time to be spent on practical science than the directory requires in a school of science. This conduct is the more extraordinary in the case of London, when it is remem¬ bered that only about a year ago the board of education urged upon the school board for London, in the case of the district of Hammersmith and Fulham, that they should organize their higher grade school, not on the lines of a school of science, as suggested by their South Kensington section, but with a more modern curriculum, giving more prominence to languages and literary subjects. This suggestion led to a conference between the school board and the chief in¬ spector of the board of education, who was authorized to attend it, and as a conse¬ quence the school board adopted the recommendations of the board of education. When the school board forwarded applications, with time-tables framed on this agreement, they were surprised to be told that these were not the schools which the department intended to encourage. The excuse then given was, that as such schools were not as costly as schools of science, the grants were outonppoofrir ot to the probable expenditure.1 This excuse could easily have been disproved, for, in fact, the cost of these schools will be determined by the quality and number of the staff, and the school board for London could have shown very soon that these modern schools of theirs are better staffed and cost more per head than many schools which will be allowed recognition. Since then the Duke of Devonshire has been encouraged to put forward another excuse, which will no more bear examination than the other. In his speech at Manchester, at the opening of the Central Higher Grade School, he said that Par¬ liament had recognized science teaching. It had recognized elementary teaching, but it had not recognized commercial teaching, and it would be an improper thing for his board to go beyond the indicated desire of Parliament. As a matter of fact, Parliament has imposed no such limitations, and the edu¬ cation department has never hesitated by its minutes to vary the previous indica¬ tions of Parliamentary sanction. Some years ago “schools of science’’ were much more scientific than they are now. The science and art department thought fit by a minute, which is not even laid before Parliament as a preliminary to its operation, materially to alter the conditions under which grants are paid to schools of science (see Directory LVII) : “A school of science must provide a thorough and progressive course of education in science, combined with literary or commercial instruction, adapted to students whose education is such as would fit them to enter Standard VII of the English Code for a public elementary school,” and further on it is provided “not less than ten hours must be given to literary subjects.” A stroke of the pen might have varied the proportions between science and literature, as they have been varied before. But if we want further to test the worthlessness of the statements, which appar- 1 Answer of Sir J. Gorst to Mr. Lough, M. P., House of Commons, July 27, 1900. 1214 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ently are furnished to the Duke by the permanent officials, who ought to know the facts of their department, let us turn to Scotland, where, as has been said before, the Duke is also the titular head of the education department. In Scotland higher grade elementary schools for scholars from 13 to 18 are liberally subsidized by the State. This has been done by departmental minutes, and all that Parliament has to do is to vote the money. Private members may try to refuse the money if they disapprove, but the initiative as to its application rightly rests with the executive. I quote from the most recent report for 1900 of the Scotch department, signed “Devonshire,” and 1 find there, page 15, that these higher grade schools or depart¬ ments *• are intended to provide systematic training in science or in subjects apper¬ taining to commerce or specially suited to girls, or to special classes of pupils on a liberal scale.’’ Here we have at least four optional courses of study, and I read on the same page: “In the framing of courses for advanced departments a large discretion has been left to managers.” It would be cruel to comment on the state of things shown by the Scotch Code and the South Kensington Directory and then revert to the utterances at Manchester of the official head responsible for the above official action. Much further information bearing out the above quotations may be found in the same report, especially in chapter 9 of the Scotch Code, where the important and useful provision will be found (art. 138) that a higher grade school may be recognized as giving two or more alternative courses, a provision most essential, especially in mixed schools. But it is needless to prove further what has already been demonstrated. Let me now turn to the legality of the action of school boards in carrying popu¬ lar education beyond the standards. The Duke of Devonshire, in his later phase of life as president of the council, in an administration which he tells us will do nothing unfavorable to the denominational party, suggests that school boards have gone beyond their legal powers in giving education such as is found in their higher grade schools. He is careful to limit his remarks to day schbols. Now, the range of teaching of school boards is limited by the fact that their schools must be public elementary schools, and we find the definition of an ele¬ mentary school in the act of 1870. It is there defined as a school at which elemen¬ tary education is the principal part of the education given and where the ordinary payments from-each scholar do not exceed 9d. a week. Thus there is an element in the school which need not be elementary. How far this may go we see by previous English codes and the present Scotch code, which aids elementary education up to the age of 18, and clearly the higher elementary school minute, by aiding schools where scholars may remain up to an age between 15 and 10, shows that these schools, with their curriculum, satisfy the definition of the act. The fact that the board of education are reluctant to spend public money on aiding more than a few of them can not affect the fact that the range of teaching does not go so high as to make the principal part of the teaching higher than elementary. The Government for the time being has an absolute right to give or to withhold grants other than those secured by act of Parliament, but should they withhold all grants for scholars over 12 and studying beyond Standard V, that would not make it illegal for school boards to educate them, though they might impose a heavier burden on the locality. What is happening is not that school boards are going beyond their legal rights, but that the board of education are endeavoring from year to year, by alterations in the code and in the directory, to introduce illegality where none existed. We are told now that it is illegal to provide education for scholars aided by the science and art department. No one dreamt of this in connection with elementary schools at the passing of the act of 1870. Thus in the directory of that year, pages 10, 17, there will be found provisions for founding elementary school scholarships for scholars between 13 and 10, worth £5 a year, and tenable at an elementary day school on condition that the holder obtain at least a second class in the elementary EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1215 stage of some one or more branches of science at succeeding May examinations, and on the same page other scholarships of £10 a year, to he held in elementary schools on somewhat stricter conditions, are also mentioned. It is notorious, if the Duke of Devonshire attaches so much importance to the intentions of Parliament, that the science and art department and its grants were founded and maintained for many years for the benefit of the industrial classes, and the limits of income for those who took advantage of it were closely restricted. Nowall those limits have disappeared, and those grants are being converted into the endowment of secondary and middle-class education. They even go to swell the dividends of trading companies. But if anyone would know what was the former conception of the function of that department, let him read the following quotations from Mr. T. Huxley, so long a conspicuous official of that department. In volume 3 of Huxley's Collected Essays, page 131, will be found notes of a speech delivered by him in 1869 at the Liverpool Phiiomathic Society. He there says: “In advocating the introduction of physical science as a leading element in edu¬ cation I by no means refer only to the higher schools. On the contrary, I believe that such a change is even more imperatively called for in these primary schools, in which the children of the poor are expected to turn to the best account the little time they can devote to the acquisition of knowledge. A great step has already been made in this direction by the establishment of science classes under the department of science and art, a measure which came into existence unnoticed, but which will, I believe, turn out to be of more importance to the v/elfare of the people than many political changes over which the noise of battle has rent the air.” I should like to quote more of this passage, but space forbids. The follow¬ ing quotation is also important. In 1876 Mr. Huxley delivered a formal address on the opening of the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore. He then said (Essays, vol. 3, p. 252): “ There is not the slightest difficulty in giving sound ele¬ mentary instruction in physics, in chemistry, and in the elements of human physi¬ ology in ordinary schools. * * * I am. not saying this without full practical justification for the statement. For the last eighteen years we have had in Eng¬ land a system of elementary science teaching, carried out under the auspices of the science and art department, by which elementary scientific instruction is made readily accessible to the scholars in all the elementary schools of the country.” If we turn to the code of 1871, at the outset of the school-board system, we find, article 21: “No grant maybe claimed for specific subjects on account of any scholars for whose proficiency in the same subject grants are made by the science and art department.” These* subjects included algebra, geometry, natural phi¬ losophy, physical geography, animal physiology, etc. The misfortune in connection with this question of higher elementary education Is that the board of education in the last two or three years has been rapidly drift¬ ing into a position of dogged hostility to school beards, and consequently takes up a position of hostility to all expansion of elementary education. In 1897, when the question of delimitation between elementary and secondary education was coming to the front, an important conference was held at the edu¬ cation department, under the presidency of Sir George Kekewich, where repre¬ sentatives of the head masters of secondary schools and of the head masters of higher-grade schools and schools of science met. They came to the conclusion that the elementary school system should include higher-grade schools, where the course of instruction might include three years’ work beyond the standards — that is, up to the age of 16 at least; that these schools should have varied curricula, not necessarily that of a school of science. They held that the discrimination between these schools and secondary schools -would be found partly in the fact that these higher-grade schools would grow out of the elementary school, and would therefore handle the subjects taught more with a view to practical life, whereas secondary schools would aim more at general culture. Secondly, they 1216 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. desired these schools to be free, so as to reach the social class who mainly frequent the elementary schools. Had the Government given effect to this agreement they might have done much for popular education. They may yet redeem the past by granting to the industrial classes of England what the same classes enjoy in Scotland — the free expansion of the popular school into a higher section wherever there are found scholars ready and willing to stay on. The narrower limitations of the minute will have to disappear sooner or later; but it is grievous that those who should encourage and foster education should be those who by illusory minutes and strained interpretation keep the word of promise to our ear and break it to our hope. Whatever may be the illusions fos¬ tered by a large Parliamentary majority, the Government will find that the nation can not afford to have the popular education, on which so much of the super¬ structure must rest, crippled, hampered, or degraded. The Trades Union Congress has passed a weighty resolution on this education question, in which they specially deal with the attacks on higher-grade education. No doubt working-class opinion is not easity moved on this question, but if roused it will be unanimous in demanding that the laboring classes shall not be robbed of their best and almost their only inheritance, the right to the best educa¬ tion that can be given to their children wherever they will cooperate to receive it by f oregoing the wages of child labor. The school boards are their representatives, and are generally willing to go forward and secure for them this free gift, and no glamour from South African victories will long blind them to their domestic inter¬ ests and their best aspirations. Might I. in conclusion, address an appeal to the president of the council? Twenty-four years ago he took an active part in an educational debate in Parlia¬ ment, and if he has forgotten what he then said others have not. Let him cast his eyes over the forgotten pages of Hansard and refresh his memory with what he then said and may still find to have weight. Even more recently he has had flashes of sympathy with education, but his flashes are intermittent and serve chiefly to make the darkness visible. But at Derby on January 19, 1899, he said that we could not have technical, scientific, or artistic training to any great extent or in any valuable degree except as a part of a sound general system of secondary education. We could not graft scientific or artistic education upon the stunted stem of deficient elementary educa¬ tion; and on January 5, 1900, when he opened the exhibition of works from ele¬ mentary schools in the presence of the Prince of Wales at the Imperial Institute, he said that — We must, one and all. fulfill our due part in the great national duty of provid¬ ing, not for own suns and daughters only, but for all the sons and daughters of our country, the noblest education, the best training, and the finest discipline that the wit of man and the love of God can together produce and inspire.” These sentiments are generous and even noble. But it is not phrases hut actions by which we must be judged. There is a fable recorded in the later part of the Republic of Plato, telling how we carelessly choose our lot in life, and how one who had been nurtured by tradi¬ tion in good principles, but lacked philosophy, chose hastily a position of power and authority; but he failed to take heed and notice that with the lot was coupled this fate, that he should ultimately devour his own children. It is no doubt a good thing to be nurtured in the traditions of a great Whig house, to have known from one's infancy that for generations one’s ancestors have invoked the principles of peace, retrenchment, and reform, civil and religious liberty throughout the world. They do not sum up the whole of human duty, but if well assimilated they are EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1217 good guiding principles. But tradition will not suffice. We have to make these hereditary principles our own; otherwise the day may come when, as the price of high political station, we devour our own offspring, the generous thoughts and convictions that issued from our heart and brain at a time when principles had a firmer hold and popular sympathy was keener. There are many who are glad to see men of high social station step naturally into a position of political leadership, and they rejoice to see such men inspired by an hereditary belief in the people, in liberty, in popular self-government, and in progress. But a line of patriotic ancestors should be a call on the living to emu¬ late them rather than to rest upon them. “ Miserum est alienee incumbere f anise.” Those who have received the torch of progress and who have once accepted its sacred responsibility are in honor and in duty bound to keep it alight and to trans¬ mit it unquenched to those who shall come after them. THE HIGHER GRADE BOARD SCHOOLS. [Article by Sir J. G. Fitch in the Nineteenth Century, February, 1901. The recent decision of two judges of the high court in the case of the Queen v. Cockerton is a very significant fact in the history of popular education in England. Whether that decision is sustained or overruled on appeal to a higher tribunal, further legislation will become necessary in order to determine how far and under what conditions the work now performed by the higher grade board schools in London and in the great industrial towns shall be continued in the future. Mean¬ while it seems expedient that the public should consider on its own merits, and apart from the technicalities of codes, judicial decisions, and acts of Parliament, the question: What is meant by a higher elementary school, and what, if any, is its claim to public aid and recognition? Perhaps the former question may be best answered by a brief reference to the higher elementary schools in France. In a memorandum which I was instructed to prepare in 1890, and which was presented to both Houses of Parliament in the following year, the following passage occurs: “Besides the primary school proper, which is not designed to carry education beyond the fourteenth year, the French system comprises a class of schools (ecoles primaires superieures) to which the nearest analogue is to be found in one or two of our own great towns under the name of higher grade board schools. In some respects, also, they resemble the Real-Schulen of Germany. They receive scholars from the age of 18 to 16, and give advanced education suited to that age. No scholars are admissible to them who have not passed successfully through the ordinary primary course and obtained the leaving certificate. They are officially described as ‘designed for those scholars for whom elementary education, prop¬ erly so called, is not sufficient, and for whose needs secondary instruction would be inappropriate. ’ They are not, in fact, secondary schools, but they form an integral part of organized primary instruction. No Latin or Greek is taught in them, they stand in no relation to the lycees or the colleges, and they form no part of a scheme providing a ‘ladder’ from the kindergarten to the university. Their aim is not to lift the pupil out of the ranks of the industrial class, but to enable him to occupy a higher and more honorable place within that class. They seek to provide education specially fitted for the skilled artisan or merchant's clerk, and their chief attention is given to drawing, to account-keeping, to science, especially to physics, chemistry, and mathematics, to the acquisition of one mod¬ ern language, and to advanced exercises in French composition. In several of these schools special attention is given to manual training, to the use of tools and instruments, and to the learning of trades. “The total number of these higher primary schools in France is 239, and the number of pupils in them is 22,696, In places not large enough to sustain a sepa¬ rate school of this kind, a cours complementaire or higher department is attached to the ordinary elementary school, in which the pupils are retained for one or two years after reaching the age of 13. The returns enumerate 820 such departments, with an aggregate number of 11,384 scholars.” From the fuller and more recent account of the French system of higher pri¬ mary schools, contributed by Mr. R. L. Morant to the volume of Special Reports on Educational Subjects in 1897. I take the following extract descriptive of the scope and purpose of schools of this exceptional class. “The function of the true higher primary school has become limited to provid¬ ing an education suitable for the still considerable proportion of ex-elementary ed 1900 - 77 1218 EDUCATION REPOST, 1899-1900. scholars who do not require specific trade teaching, but rather a general education on practical lines, to develop their faculties, to sharpen their dexterities, and to render them ready, quick, and apt in whatever direction employment may open out to them. In fact its object is to provide a good general primary education bear¬ ing directly on the more practical branches of knowledge, and of such a character as to be readily assimilated by ex-elementary scholars, and to be completed within the very limited time that its students are likely to remain at school.” The demand for continued instruction of this type on the part of English parents who avail themselves of the public elementary schools is comparatively recent, and is a direct product of the excellence of chose schools, and of the desire for advanced instruction which has been fostered in them. In board and voluntary schools alike, it is found that there are many scholars who, at the age of 14, hav¬ ing successfully passed through the “standards,” and completed the ordinary course of elementary instruction, are willing to stay to pursue their studies for a year or two longer. That at a very critical age, just when the work of a good elementary school is beginning to tell on the character and intellectual tastes, 7/early increasing numbers of the parents are ready to forego the earnings of their children in order to give them a better start in life, ismne of the happiest and most promising signs of our times. Another year of serious application after “reach¬ ing” the seventh standard means far more in the right development and equip¬ ment of the future citizen than the routine lessens of any two previous years. And it is of the highest national importance that the number of such scholars should be multiplied, and that the sacrifice so honorably made by their parents should be encouraged. But for this class of learners it is manifest that transference to a grammar school, or other of a purely secondary type, is neither appropriate nor practically useful. The true secondary school has its own aims and its own curriculum fash* ioned from the first on the hypothesis that the learners will remain at school till 10 or later, and that some of them will proceed to universities or other places of advanced education. To derive the full advantage from such a school, the pupil should enter not later than the twelfth year, and should receive all his elementary instruction in full view of the wider and more conrprehensive course of which that instruction is to form a part. To introduce into such a school at the age of 14 a hoy who has com¬ pleted the ordinary elementary course, in the expectation that a year or two’s “finishing” would serve his purpose, would be a grave mistake. It would be to break the continuity of his studies and to give him a mere fragment of a larger scheme for which his previous training furnished no adequate preparation. The terminus a quo relatively to the secondary school is not identical with the termi¬ nus ad quern of the primary-school course. On the other hand, the higher grade primary school, which takes the pupil who has successfully passed through all the classes to the age of 14, and gives him what is called in Belgium instruction a programme developpe, and on the same general lines as before, is exactly suited to meet his needs. For it does not aspire to lead directly up to a university, although it may not unfrequently lead to a science college or a technical school. And it ought to be regarded mainly as an institution for continuing the work of the elementary school up to 15 or 16, and not strictly either as a primary or a secondary school. j;‘ Some confusion exists in what is called the public mind as to the strict meaning of immarv and secondary instruction, and as to the line of demarcation which separates them. But if any such line is to be drawn, it can not be determined by considering the nature and extent of the “subjects” of such instruction. The true distinction, pointed out thirty years ago by the schools inquiry commission, depends mainly on the age to which the education is or is intended to be prolonged. A course designed to be completed at the end of the fourteenth year is an elemen¬ tary course: a coarse contemplating the stay of the scholar till 16 or 17 is a sec¬ ondary or intermediate course. A school fitted to receive boys or girls beyond that age and intended to be in close relation to the universities is educationally an academic institution of the first grade. But the “subjects ” which can best fulfill these primary conditions can not be positively prescribed. They must he deter¬ mined by many local and personal conditions, by the needs and probable destina¬ tion of the scholars, and in part the special aptitudes of the teachers. This view has been long adopted by the education department, which has offered for the dis¬ cretionary use of teachers in the higher classes of elementary schools a varied and abundant list of “specific subjects,” from which a selection may be made. In the official instructions to Her Majesty's inspectors the following significant passage has during many years been included: “In large schools, and where the circumstances are favorable, the scholars of EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1219 Standard V and upward may bs encouraged to attempt one or more specific sub¬ jects appropriate to the industrial and other needs of the district. “ It is not the intention of my lords to encourage a pretentious or unreal pursuit of higher studies, or to encroach in any way on the province of secondary educa¬ tion. The course suited to an elementary school is practically determined by the limit of 14 years of age, and may properly include whatever subjects can be effectively taught within that limit. It may be hoped that year by year a larger proportion of the children will remain in the elementary schools until the age of 14; and a scholar who has attended regularly and possesses fair ability may reasonably be expected to acquire in that time, not only a serviceable knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic, of the words he uses, and the world in which he lives, but also enough of the rudiments of two higher subjects to furnish a solid foundation for future improvement.” It is in full conformity with the conception thus formed of the true character of elementary education that during the last ten or twelve years managers, both of board and of voluntary schools, have made special efforts to extend their cur¬ ricula beyond the strict limit of the elementary subjects, and by means of evening continuation schools, ex-seventh standard classes, organized science schools, and higher elementary schools, have succeeded in retaining many of their most indus¬ trious and persevering scholars, and prolonging their period of study. In all such efforts they have received generous sympathy and substantial aid from the heads of the education department. And whatever may be the future official relations between such managers and the newly constituted board of education, it is mani¬ fest that under some name or other these facilities for advanced education should continue to exist. The higher primary school supplies a real need, and a perma¬ nent place must be found for it as an integral part of our national system. The problem, however, is rendered somewhat intricate and difficult by reason of two or three facts which do not affect its abstract merits, but are the result of the tentative and somewhat incoherent fashion in which English legislation has dealt with the subject of popular education. The act of 1870 defines an elemen¬ tary school as “a school or department of a school at which elementary education is the principal part of the education there given. ” Such a school is further defined as one “ conducted in accordance with the conditions required to be fulfilled by an elementary school in order to obtain a parliamentary grant.” Now the code, as modified from year to year, prescribes as one of these conditions that “no attend¬ ance is as a rule recognized;” that is to say, no grant is paid “for any scholar who bus been under instruction for more than one year in the three elementary sub¬ jects in Standard VII, and is upward of 14 years of a ge.” Thus, tlie ordinary grant from the central department ceases to be paid in the case of children above 14. But the science and art department which was created in 1864, and is empowered to make special grants for technical and scientific instruction, has been subject to no such limitation. Hence the special aid which that department administers is for that particular kind of instruction only, and managers desiring to give their best scholars opportunities of prolonged education have been impelled, simply for financial reasons, to give that education a scientific character. Experience may have led those managers to believe that a “ continuation school,” in which language, history and literature, and the “ humanities” are cultivated pari passu with technology and the elements of science, would he more useful to the majority of their elder pupils than a purely science school. The}7 may desire that the higher grade school should have the same liberty to frame its own cur¬ riculum as the ordinary elementary schools have under the Whitehall code; but they have not been at liberty to give effect to their own wishes on this point, because no other knowledge than that described in the South Kensington directory as science and art has been recogmized as establishing a claim for a grant. Now, nothing is more surely fatal to the unity of a school, or to the working of a wise general scheme of instruction, than the practice of making separate grants, by separate examining authorities, for special subjects of instruction. The education department has of late clone much to correct this evil and to estimate the worth of a primary school rather by its work as a whole than by the performances of individual pupils in particular branches of knowledge. The same principle is evidently intended by the board’s minute of the 6th of April to apply to the higher elementary school, although some of the restrictions respecting age and conditions of admission in that minute obviously need to be revised. A second and serious difficulty has arisen owing to the fact that the London and some other school boards have determined to make the instruction in their higher schools and their evening continuation schools gratuitous and to charge the whole expense not already met by the South Kensington grant upon the local rates. We ought not to withhold a full acknowledgment of the zeal of Mr. Lyulph Stanley 1220 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. and the progressive members of the board, and of their genuine interest in the progress of intelligence among the working classes, when we read in the lucid judgment of Mr. Justice Wills a condemnation of this policy. They were conscious of a great public want; they saw that hundreds of young xreople just released from the primary schools sorely needed opportunities of self-improvement; that no exist¬ ing machinery was adequate for the purpose; and that, with the practical concur¬ rence of the ratepay . rs, it seemed possible to supply the needed education by means of a fuller development of the board school system. They knew that in the matter of education, unlike that of commerce, supply often creates and precedes demand; that the appetite for advanced knowledge among oar young artisans needs to be stimulated; and they therefore sought to render both the day and evening continu¬ ation schools attractive bv making them gratuitous. Some considerations on the other side are, however, too important to be overlooked. Parliament has provided, by means of the fee grants, the means of releasing parents from the payment of fees up to the fourteenth year, which is the limit of compulsory attendance. But at present Parliament has not deliberately sanctioned the principle that instruction beyond that limit, whether in evening schools, higher primary schools, or in sec¬ ondary schools proper, shall be provided wholly from public funds. Some day perhaps the legislature may assent to this principle; but meanwhile it is, as the judges have pointed out. most undesirable that this assent should be anticipated, and that school boards or other local bodies should, on their own motion and in an indirect way, settle a fundamental question of national policy on which neither statesmen nor the public are }?et agreed. Hence the problem would have been greatly simplified if, from the first, moderate fees had been charged in both the evening and day continuation schools. There are other than merely economical reasons in favor of such a course. While the law compels attendance, it is reasonable that schools should be free, but after the age of compulsion is reached, and young people, some of whom are presumably able to earn something for their own support, join evening or other advanced classes, the public has a right to expect them to make some effort to pay for what they receive. It is a substantial part of their own education in manliness and self- respect that they should not be wholly dependent in their efforts after self-improve¬ ment on the help oc others. They value more that which they pay for, and although exact statistics are wanting, it is generally found that attendance at gratuitous classes is more desultory than that in institutions in which fees are paid. The recreative element in the programme of such classes is often encouraged to a disproportionate extent. But we ought to be able to assume that the learners are bent on serious application and that the arrangements should be made mainly, if not exclusively, in view of the requirements of such learners. The effect of making the board continuation schools and classes free to ail comers is often seri¬ ously embarrassing and in some causes disastrous to other institutions. Polytech¬ nics, mechanics’ institutes, young men’s and women's Christian associations, and the evening continuation schools attached to voluntary schools are often giving, with excellent effect, help and guidance to students of the same class and age. But the managers of all those institutions find it necessary to impose fees. They could not exist otherwise, since none of them have command of the funds derived from rates. The school board alone enjoys this privilege, and is therefore able to under¬ sell, and pro tanto to hinder and discourage, all institutions which receive no sub¬ sidies from the rates. This unequal competition between schools which are doing the same work under such different conditions is not for the public interest. The remedy needed is the general adoption of a moderate scale of fees for ail ordinary students. At the same time it should be within the discretion of the board to make a generous provision of free places and scholarships for all scholars who at the elementary school or otherwise had shown exceptional diligence and promise. Higher and advanced education would then assume its true position in board schools as a privilege, to be partially paid for by the rank and file of scholars, but to be offered as a boon to those who were specially qualified to appreciate and to use it. It follows from these considerations that we need in every district one local authority which shall have cognizance of all the educational agencies of that dis¬ trict. If school boards are to limit themselves to the care of elementary schools, while county and county borough councils administer the funds available under the excise act, or if a new local authority, such as is recommended by the royal commission, is formed to concern itself with secondary and technical education only, friction, overlapping, and waste of power are inevitable. In particular, the position and control of the higher and technical schools, already much disputed between the advocates of school boards and county councils, respectively, would continue to present to the local administrators some difficult x>roblems. What is EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1221 needed in every educational area is a body of responsible men and women possess¬ ing the public confidence, well acquainted with the needs and resources of that area, and exercising in the first place the powers now possessed by school boards, .and also such other powers as Parliament may intrust to them in relation to lo al scholarships and endowments, and to technical and secondary education generally. This body should be largely representative of the ratepayers, but should be com¬ posed in part of such qualified persons as are described in sections 4G to GG of the royal commissioners’ report of 1895. An excellent precedent for such a measure of consolidation exists. The board of education act of 1899 was the result of the experience of the Government in dealing with such separate authorities as the education department at Whitehall, the science and art department at South Ken¬ sington, the charity commission, and the board of agriculture. This bold and val¬ uable measure sought the unification of all these different departments by placing them in due correlation under one central authority. A corresponding policy is needed in dealing with the difficult problem of the local authority. That authority should be one and undivided, although, as in the case of the board of education itself, it might with advantage create within itself separate subordinate committees for dealing with specific classes of work. Exact lines of demarcation between ele¬ mentary, secondary, technical, and higher education and manual and intellectual training have not been laid down, and are, indeed, at our present stage of experi¬ ence, not easy to trace. But it is certain that whoever undertakes to control any one of these departments ought to know something of them all and to perceive how each of them ought to be related to the others. The ideal school board of the future therefore, with a wider area and larger responsibilities, should, though not concerning itself with nonlocal institutions such as Eton and Harrow, be so constituted as to represent the best attainable experience and the fullest knowl¬ edge of the educational wants of each district. Such a simplification of the machinery employed in local administration would greatly facilitate the solution of some problems which must in the near future demand the attention of statesmen. One of the first of these is concerned with what is called the “religions difficulty,” and with the relations which ought to subsist between the churches on the one hand and the municipal and State authorities on the other. W e should find it necessary, if the due simplification of local authority were effected, to divest ourselves of some of the associations which we have already formed with the name “school board,” and to use that term in a wider and more general sense. It would then become desirable to establish school boards every¬ where, though not necessarily board schools. It would also be desirable to give to the school boards, under certain conditions, the power to subsidize efficient denom¬ inational schools by means of the rate fund. This was the intention of the fram¬ ers of the act of 1870, and from the first it has been the desire of those who have administered that act to enlist, on behalf of national education, the sympathy and the services of educated and religious people who supported schools in connection with Christian churches. Mr. W. E. Forster, in introducing that measure, said, in reference to the powers to be intrusted to the boards: “We give them the power of either providing schools themselves or of assisting the present schools. * * * We do not think it right to insist on the school board assisting the present schools. We give them, however, power to do so if they please. They have a certain educational destitution to supply. They may do it either by setting up their own public elementary schools, or by assisting the present public elementary schools; those schools, I need not remind the House, being efficient up to a certain standard of secular efficiency and having the con¬ science clause, as I have described.” It is well known that the clause embodjfing this wise and generous provision was ultimately withdrawn, owing to the pressure brought to bear on the Govern¬ ment. To many members of the Liberal party, and especially to some prominent Nonconformists, it appeared then that though there was no objection to give aid to denominational schools from the imperial taxes it would be a grave departure from principle to allow any aid to be afforded from the local rates. Thirty years have wrought a great change in public opinion, and in particular have shown that this somewhat illogical objection is no longer tenable or consistent with the facts of later experience. At the end of the century the average attendance of scholars in the schools of the Church of England was 1,893,824; in Wesleyan schools, 126,361; in Roman Catholic schools, 251.788, and in school board schools, 2,144,118. Mr. Forster, in the speech just quoted, said in reference to his proposal to grant a year’s grace to managers who might desire to increase the supply of denomina¬ tional schools: “ Here for a time we shall test the voluntary zeal of the district. Not only do we not neglect voluntary help, but, on the condition of respecting the rights of parents and the rights of conscience, we welcome it.” Later legislation 1222 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. has shown the willingness of Parliament to make special grants for the sustenance of voluntary schools, and the public has now learned to acquiesce in the general conclusion that although the ratio of scholars in the board schools has a decided tendency to increase year by year, yet the denominational school is an integral part of our national system and has made good its claim to full recognition. Effect would be given to this view if the reconstituted and universal school boards were permitted to grant out of the money raised from the ratepayers to every efficient denominational school in the district an annual subvention equal in amount to the sum raised by the voluntary managers end their friends, provided that such contribution did not exceed a certain fixed sum per head on the average attendance. A further condition would be necessary, that whenever such grant was made out of local funds, the board should have the power to nominate per¬ sons, not exceeding one-third of the whole number on the managing committee of the aided school. Those who pay have the clear right to control. It is not to be supposed that Parliament will long continue to leave to private management the sole administration of large and increasing sums of public money. In 1870 it was roughly computed that of the total cost of public elementary education one-third was borne by the parents in the shape of fees, one-third was provided by voluntary subscriptions, and one-third by the Parliamentary grant. The statistics for 1900 show that while the total grant administered by the education department for the previous year amounted to £8,723,538, and the total sum accruing from the rates and administered by the school boards to £2,704,564, the amount derived from voluntary subscriptions was £787,231, or about one-sixteenth of the whole sum devoted to elementary education. It is obvious that this enormous propor¬ tionate increase in the sum derived from public sources ought in equity to be attended with a corresponding increase in the amount of influence exerted by those who represent the public. Some very substantial advantages would be the consequence of such an arrangement. The managers of good voluntary schools would gain substantial help and a new guaranty for the permanence of those schools. They would retain the power to give the distinctive religious teaching to which they attach the highest importance, and the choice of the teachers would practically remain with them. They would, it is true, no longer be able to leave the entire management in the hands of one man who could claim the institution as l,my school,” and they wTould be obliged to accept the cooperation of some of their neighbors with whom they had not been accustomed to work, while one or two of these nominees might possibly, though not very probably, be members of other communions than their own. But this would be in some respects a clear advantage, for it would make a larger number of the inhabitants cognizant of the real merits of the school, would help the denominational managers to become better acquainted with the feelings and wishes of the inhabitants, would secure more of the public confidence, and above all would entitle the institution more truly to the name and character of a “national school.” The condition of a closer and more active cooperation of the State with the churches is not that the State shall make itself more denominational, but that the denominations shall make themselves more national and shall vie with the school boards in interpret¬ ing the true intellectual needs of the community, in providing generally for the supply of those needs, and in maintaining a high and constantly improving ideal of what a good school ought to be and to do. The technical difficulty which has arisen in determining the legal status of the higher primary and evening continuation schools will prove to have had salutary effects if it brings into greater prominence the indispensable importance of main¬ taining those schools by some means or other in unimpaired efficiency, and if it makes Englishmen more conscious of the inadequacy of our present provision for carrying forward the best work of the elementary schools and enabling it to bear its legitimate fruit. We must not, however, rely too confidently on legislative machinery for the attainment of this object. A great step will be taken, it is true, if. after the present lawsuit shall have ended, regulations are made which will legalize the advanced work of the board schools and place it on a stable foun¬ dation. But this alone will not suffice. Law and government can, after all, do little more than give expression to the best public opinion of the time, and become the instruments for giving effect to the highest national ideals. And it is the formation of that public opinion and of those ideals which constitutes the chief task of reformers and philanthropists, of statesmen and public instructors. The great need of our time is a stronger conviction of the value of trained intelligence in all departments of our social, professional, civic, and national life. The comfortable optimism which leads us to assume that British pluck, British industry, and British patriotism will in the long run carry everything before them has received some rude shocks of late, and will need to be superseded by a truer EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1228 estimate of ourselves and of our national deficiencies. The theory that brain power and scientific training are of less practical value than the dogged persist¬ ence which enables Englishmen to “muddle through” the problems of life, is not yet extinct among us, although daily experience is doing much to discredit or at least to modify it. We have reached, at the beginning of the twentieth century, a Pisgah height whence we can look across the Jordan of sectarian and political controversy to the fair land of promise which stretches out beyond it. It is an animating prospect. In it we may descry a great department of the state, repre¬ senting all the noblest aspirations of the community, knowing how to take . Occasion by the hand, and make The bounds of freedom wider yet; giving aid and guidance to those who need it, leaving full liberty to those who khow how to use it, and placing itself in such relations to churches, municipalities, universities, and voluntary helpers as will coordinate their work, prevent con¬ fusion of authority and waste of power, and obtain from each of them the best public service it is capable of rendering. And concurrently with improved admin¬ istration in government, in philanthropy, and in local agencies we may hope to witness a steady growth in the popular conception of true education— one which will keep ever before parents and teachers the right relation between the pursuit of learning and the claims of active life; so that, without prematurely considering the requirements of a trade or a profession, they shall seek first of all to cultivate the seriousness of purpose, the mental breadth, the strength and beauty of char¬ acter, and the love of truth which lie at the basis of all real success in trades and professions alike. It is because the newly devised continuation schools promise to play a very important part in the educational development of the future, and because they are calculated to do eminent service to a class of young persons for whom other¬ wise little or no provision has hitherto been made, that any question which affects the usefulness and the permanence of these institutions deserves for the moment to be regarded as one of exceptional public interest. The present attitude of the Government with respect to the prob¬ lem of secondary education for the industrial classes is indicated by the following provision: [Minute of the board of education, April 6, 1900, establishing higher elementary schools.] A public elementary school may he recognized by the board of education (here¬ inafter called the board) as a higher elementary school under the following con¬ ditions: 1. The school must be organized to give a complete four years’ course of instruc¬ tion approved by the board. 2. No child shall be admitted into a higher elementary school unless he (a) has been under instruction at a public elementary school other than a higher elemen¬ tary school for at least two years, and ( b ) has been certified by an inspector of the board to be qualified to profit by the instruction offered in the higher elementary school. 8. The fitness of any child to continue, or be promoted from one year’s course to another, in a higher elementary school shall he certified by an inspector of the board. 4. (a) Attendances may not be recognized in a higher elementary school for any scholar who is upwards of 15 years of age, and (5) no scholar may remain in a higher elementary school beyond the close of the school year in which be or she is 15 years old. The average attendance for any period is found by dividing the total number of attendances made during that period by the number of times for which the school has met during such period. For the purpose of reckoning the average attend¬ ance at a higher elementary school an attendance shall mean attendance during two and one-half hours. 5. ( a ) The school year of every higher elementary school is the year ending on July 31, and no scholar may be admitted for an}7 year's course later than Novem- 1224 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ber 1. (b) After November 1, 1900. scholars newly admitted into a higher elemen¬ tary school must commence with the first-year course. 6. Temporary article. — Up to August 1, 1901, the qualification for admission to the first-year course shall, as a rule, be competency to pass Standard IV of the code as shown to the satisfaction of an inspector of the board. 7. (a) The school must be shown to the satisfaction of the board to be necessary in the locality, and (b) the premises must be recognized by the board as suitable for the purposes of a higher elementary school. 8. The teaching staff of the school must possess such qualifications as may be laid down from time to time by the board for the purposes of a higher elementary school. # In the first and second year courses there shall be a teacher, accepted as quali¬ fied by the board, for every 40 scholars (or less) ; in the third and fourth year courses there shall be a teacher so qualified for every 30 scholars (or less) in aver¬ age attendance. The grant may be reduced at the rate of not more than 10s. per annum for every unit of annual average attendance above the number for which the school staff is recognized by the board. This reduction will as a rule be one-twelfth of 10s. for every month during which the staff has been insufficient for the annual average attendance. 9. The managers of any school who desire such school to be recognized as a higher elementary school must submit for the approval of the board before July 1 in any year proposals for a curriculum and time-table and such other information as may be required by the board. 10. The grants made to higher elementary schools are as follows: Principal grant. Higher scale. Lower scale. First vear . . s. 27 s. 23 Second year . - . „ . . 35 30 Third year . . _ . . . _ . . _ . . . 47 45 Fourth year . _ . _ . . . . . . 65 55 The board shall decide which, if either, of these grants shall be paid in the case of each year's course after considering the report and recommendation of the inspector upon each of the following four points: (a) The suitability of the instruc¬ tion to the circumstances of the scholars and the neighborhood. (5) The thor¬ oughness and intelligence with which the instruction is given, (c) The sufficiency and suitability of the staff, (c?) The discipline and organization. The inspector will recommend the higher grant unless he is unable to report favorably upon the school under these heads. Grant for practical work. Higher scale. Lower scale. First year _ . . . „ . ... . . . . . . . . . s. 8 12 18 25 s. 6 10 15 18 Second vear . . __ . - . . . . . . . . Third year . . . Fourth year . . . . _ _ . This grant will only be awarded where special provision for such work, as regards premises and equipment, is made to the satisfaction of the board. The board shall EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1225 decide which, if either, of these grants shall be paid in the case of each year's course after considering the report and recommendation of the inspector npon each of the points named in paragraphs (a) to (cl) of this section. 11. No grant maybe received from the board of education by any higher ele¬ mentary school in addition to the grants named in section 10 of this minute, with the exception of the fee grant. 12. No member of the teaching staff may undertake duties not connected with the school which may occupy any part whatever of the school hours. 13. Separate registers and separate accounts must be kept for the higher ele¬ mentary school. 14. No scholar may attend a higher elementary school who is attending an even¬ ing school or class under the regulations of the board. This does not apply in the case of a scholar attending an art class above group 1, under the regulations of the board. In a debate in the House of Commons, Professor Jebb, represent¬ ing Cambridge University, and deeply interested in measures for reorganizing the secondary education of the country, explained the scope of this minute, as follows : 1 That minute made provision for establishing a new type of higher grade school, which must be organized to give a complete four years course of instruction approved by the board. That course would begin from a point represented by Standard V, but would thenceforth be on a higher plane than that of the ordinary elementary school. No scholar would be allowed to remain in such higher grade school after the close of the school year in which he or she was 15 years old. This minute had nothing directly to do with secondary education. It created a type of school which was to crown our system of primary education. But the minute necessarily raised this question: What was the proper relation of primary to sec¬ ondary education? What was the general conception, the principle, which under¬ lay this minute of the board? What view did it imply as to the manner in which primary and secondary schools should be coordinated? Coordination of education. — That principle, that conception, might be stated somewhat as follows: He was not merely giving his own view, but one which was embodied in 1897 in a very instructive and important document — a memoran¬ dum drawn up by representatives of masters of secondary schools on the one part and of head masters of higher grade schools of science on the other part. Their concordat marked the most definite step that had hitherto been taken toward formulating the main principles on which primary might be delimited from secondary education; and it had a most important bearing on the board of educa¬ tion minute which they were now considering. The difference between primary and secondarj7 education did not depend chiefly on the subjects taught; certain subjects must be common to primary and secondary schools. It depended on the aim of the school and on the general character of the instruction given. And in determining these the most important factor was the leaving age of the pupil. For most children day school training ended at 14 or 15 at latest. These usually took up manual or industrial employments. Primary education, ordinary and higher, was, broadly speaking, that which was planned for a leaving age of 15 at the latest. In secondary education there were two main classes of schools: (1) Those in which the normal leaving age was 16 or 17, and (2) those in which it was 18 or 19. The pupils of such schools might take up the higher industrial employments, or commerce and business, or scientific and professional pursuits. They pass on to a technical college, a university college, or university. A child 1 From School Board Chronicle, May 12, 1900, p. 509. 1220 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. in an ordinary elementary school had, or should have, three choices open to him— (1) to stay in that school till he had completed the standards; (2) after passing Standard IV to pass to a higher elementary school; (8) to pass to a secondary school at the same break. Now, the higher grade school set np by the minute answered to the second of these choices. It was to be a higher primary school, not a lower secondary school, and so its course was planned to end at the age of 15 at latest. Primary education aimed at training the mind as well as giving useful knowledge; hut on account of the limited time it was more practical and gave a larger place to immediate utility than secondary education did, where the foremost object was a liberal training of the mind. The general character of higher grade schools established by school boards is shown by. the following account of the higher grade school of Leeds, taken from the official report of the school board : The career of the [Leeds] Central Higher Grade School has been one of develop¬ ment and success. In the higher section, which consists of children who have passed all the standards, and which is recognized by the hoard of education as a school of science, the average attendance has risen from 402 in 1897 to 560 in 1900, an increase of 39 per cent; and the number on the books has increased from 578 to 677. The instruction in the higher section is by no means confined to science; it embraces also English literature, grammar and composition, history, geography, bookkeeping and business methods, shorthand; Latin, French and German; the pianoforte, gymnastics, in addition to manual instruction in woodwork for hoys, and cookery and dressmaking for girls. In this way the foundation of a broad system of education is being laid. The grant in the school of science is calculated upon the average attendance, and is upon a sliding scale of payment determined by the board of education after considering the report of its inspectors upon visits paid during the year and the results of the annual examination of the more advanced pupils. The grant may be taken, therefore, as the hoard of education's estimate of the educational value of the work done in the school. It is gratifying, therefore, to be able to state that the grant this year was £8,633 16s. Id., which is at the rate of £8 10s. lOd. per head, and is £1,271 6s. 5d. in excess of the grant earned at the close of the last triennial period, showing an increase of 53 per cent. In the elementary section the scholars are taught in standards. The continued efficiency of this department is attested by the award of the higher principal and discipline grants, and the higher grants for class subjects, specific subjects, sing¬ ing, and manual instruction. The boys in the elementary section have earned a grant of £1 11s. lid. per head, and the girls £1 9s. 5Id., the highest amounts ever earned in any of the elementary schools under the board. Owing to the smaller number of pupils in one class permitted to teachers in the school of science, and the more advanced and specialized character of the instruc¬ tion, the teaching staff is considerably larger in proportion to the number of pupils than in the ordinary schools, and is of a higher quality. In addition to the princi¬ pal, who holds the degrees of D. Sc. and M. A., there are on the staff 1 D. Sc. and M. A., 12 who hold the degree of B. Sc., 5 B. A,, 3 A. R. C. S., and 1 LL. A. Four teachers devote all their time to the teaching of chemistry, 4 to the teaching of physics, 4 to mathematics, 4 to English, 3 to modern languages, and 1 to Latin. There are 3 manual instructors, a shorthand teacher, a teacher of dressmaking, 2 cookery teachers, and an instructor of physical exercises and gymnastics. The number of trained certificated teachers in the school is 41, some of whom are included under the heads already mentioned. The board have continued to provide free exhibitions (scholarships) for seventh standard scholars from board and voluntary schools. There are 283 of such free EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1227 exhibitioners at the present time. Each exhibition is estimated to be worth £1 10s. per annum. The school has not only proved a preparatory training school for those who require, for professional, commercial, and industrial purposes, a higher education, but it has proved itself to be a secondary school of a high type, in so far as a con¬ siderable proportion of the pupils have taken the university examinations. Dur¬ ing the past three years 43 pupils have passed the matriculation examination of the University of London, and 45 have passed the preliminary examination of the Victoria University. In open competition 81 pupils have taken scholarships ten¬ able at the Yorkshire College, of the aggregate value of £3,102. One pupil has gained, in competition, open to all the science and art schools in the British Isles, a national scholarship of the value of £300. There are at present in the various departments of the Yorkshire College 58 students who received their preliminary training in this school. That such students have fulfilled the expectations formed of them is evident from the rich harvest of university honors they have reaped. In the Yorkshire College, during the past three years, former pupils of this school have gained advanced scholarships of the value of £855, 20 prises, and 1 gold and 1 silver medal. During the same three years the following university honors have been gained by former pupils: University of London. — One B. A., 4 B. Sc. (1 with honors), 3 Inter. B. Sc. (1 with honors andl with honors and medal), 1 Inter. M. B., 2 Prelim. Scientific M. B. Victoria University. — Four M. Sc. (2 with honors), 12 B. Sc. (2 with honors), 18 Inter. B. Sc., 4 B. A., 4 Inter. B. A., 1 medical second examination, 1 Inter. LL, B. Such a record abundantly proves that the curriculum of the school not only enables boys and girls to pass creditably the entrance examinations to the univer¬ sities, but gives such a training as enables them to take, in their university course, a distinguished position. Much of the usefulness of this school, in the matter of higher education, is threatened by the attitude of the board of education in its minute of April last on higher elementary schools. By its provisions all higher education in this school would terminate at 15 years of age, at the very period when education is of supreme value to talented pupils. At the end of last session (May, 1900), there were in attendance 303 pupils who were either 15 years of age or would have been in this session, and who would not have been allowed to be in attendance. This session there are in attendance 441 pupils either over 15 years of age, or who will be over 15 during the session, and these, if the minute were accepted by the school board, would cease to be recognized pupils. The following table shows the development in elementary schools of studies generally recognized as secondary under the provisions of the school law and annual regulations from 1872 to 1899, inclusive: Table XVI. — Day scholars qualifying for grants in the various specific subjects, from the time when extra grants were first offered for every scholar passing a satisfactory examination in these subjects to 1809 , inclusive, a 1228 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1889-1900. \I0}SU30.T TIO SJT3[OipS jo .1 a q in n n ju jo j auj o; sjoapqns orjp -ads joj paijqunb sin qoqos jo aSnjTiaa.ied S' : co cf gi gi cf ^ -rjH r^ cc ' CO ?> G5 rH lO CO t*H rH 5rHrHrHCf of C5 rfl to of o' CO iff of t-l-XOXOXHONX 1-0 C? N Ci N CO 00 H X N Cl X H H X C CO CO C5 CO L-» ZO O O t— : CO O CO CO O CO co -h" -r+T to" of of of cT o o co co oo" to" io 32 ^ to o O O L- l— cr. 05 © r-H 01 coou-^i •suorj'BDgipmb pjoj. iTj CO O'! 1- ~8 V- i-H CO © C5 ~r< 01 Oo-^N O CO -rlHCXOX i>- 0! O'! r8 NNCiLOCiQOLCHOO r-H X - l CC 00 »C iO CO CO O CO — i CO QQ C! CO N i> O x r-1 X O O —t a ^ Cl ^ O X) lO i> X ''f rH O X1 C H t-h -f iff iff 10 io © cf co co of co of 10 ^8 inTr-T co t-h of CO of of iff i - co r*T rH Cl CJ CO ■'H Q CO N CO >r.' i- CO XXXCOXOCCrHr-tOl^^NCC 01 io rH t-h rH t— H r-H —i rH Ol Cl 01 01 r-H r-H r-H r-H t-H «-H *-H 0 ! ‘r+l q'sjoapqns jaqjo O'"! OCliOH)C!^XOCCCCCCOrrCONt> rH r- X Ol t- C O »C Ci LO H ci N X X HfORnH O Ol CO Ol CO C5 01 t- CO H H rH co" -rf ©" •(spnS) irao -11000 o*iq.s0ino(j; O -rH t-h i - CC CD 05 P-- CO Ol it- X ^ O O N Hr 'H >0 N C C! Ci Hi H O. H iCOH-hOhCCCQCH CO lO CO no -h x CD C5 N tH rH Cl X 03 X 1C N CO CO G0 0lC0O5COH8i:*C5CO O -^HHLONi>CC-^^ O'! 05 01 ir- CO Ol rH •qsim • OIC5C5C5CDCOOI -H CO CO lO CO -Hh • G5 co H N o O CO H N ^ X o irHCO'TH'^iOCO'H-luOlCCOt-i.'-O -P P c3 rH tc Pi X ?H o3 i—-! O rP O X •pu'eqpioipg •Smctee^oog; HnCOW 01 05 O iO -rH — . OjCCXN 05 CO 01 CO CO tO 01 CO x8 © © GO co" irf xc cf h of o r-H rH rr rH CO iCXOHOONOrxCO > CO CO CT' CO IO X X H Hi CO I rHCOCOiOOliOQOlOt- _ r-H rH of of of CO CO* •Ajiox.ijoap pun ’lusijeuSnpi •jnaq pun ‘jqSq 'putlog •soisAqj 'HTrfHONOCO^XHOXXHlCN O O LO lO N O CIO X X HH cj CO x c o 01 X c: C! O O C! LO CO H o rr h H 05 CO T-h CO O! <0* O! 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X i> H N CO H O Ol L- Ct N* tC O Cl N CC 05 CC 01 T-H rp CO ^ CC Oi' lO CO CO Cj 0 O CO Ol O 01 O rH co -hh go p- h X H o H 1C Cl C O cc cc i- HH CO Cl CO 00 O CO O 01 O Ol C5 OO Ol i'f'co \o io woco"^" to i^'oo'afofrH' — ■ — » — < — ■ — I— I — I — < — I — 1 1 — I Ol rH 5C5ClXC0C0tftHH05HrHH05 ^ -H o 01 to C5 H CO H >o O X a ^ 5tCHN(MHXHCOX050LOO < rH rH 01 CO CO CO ^H lO tO tO lO CO CO CO GO’c •UIJ'B"! Ol CO CO io Ol CO ^ -HH H CO CO CO hH CO co DO r-H »o CO 00 O lO -rjHXOXXOO O' -8 O 01 C - CONONOO CO Ol r8 O CD i— iO CO Hi OH 01 UO CO rH Ol id CO CO CO CC CO Ol 01 Ol 01 r-H rH Ol CO •soxui3qo0j\[ C5HHHGXX CO CC CO CO Ol O to CO CO 01 to CO CO 1—1 r8 CC' rH o CO CO CO CO t— Ol op I- -p O CO Ol rH 0 1 CT oi cc *3 fo O CO Ol CC CO O C5 hH CO CO O to H Q 01 OOOXOhCCO T-h Ol Ol CO ^8 CO CO ON Ci h tC X O H CO xH iO I- O H HH Ol 01 Ol Ol Ol Ol id •noij,B.insu0]^[ •pipna ) o CD • CD O CO 00 ?>> O CO 00 t8 01 -s O! »C Ol i>- Ol r8 CO Ol CO t-h —t1' CO to lO co CO > »o ! Ol Ci O' CO -’H co co i>- _ ~ O Ol T Ol 01 CO rt- os a co co CD CO T-H ^ i_c0 rH 0 ! ■’H GO O CO 00 CO CO CO 01 CO ^ to CO 00 < 01 T n 05 cc x h a r. oi Ol t-» 05 CO CO to in CO 05 Ol CO ^ »0 O h8 CC’ •'B.iq0SjY » 05 r-rf tf '1- i- CO Hr i - CO tf Ol Ol COT to to 01 Ol O X x N CO iC O O X CU> CO to CO X> iO CO 0> i-O CO CO o OcDCDwt005rHr8010D0! rH T-h" of of GO co" cf ■*£ -^8 -H* rH Ol 01 CO CO CO CO to to CD rH CD CO r -HH D X 01 i - Ol I — 'CO lO rH O -H X H CO rj^ 01 CO CO to rH co Ol CO 01 O -rH CO— " CO CO Hifx' H Ol CO CO CO ^ rH iC rH •Aqd -n,iSoeS jnoisAqg •e.inj -n.iojq qsijSug ifONHHHOXNXCO Ol X r— i CC rH CO C5 CO CO D5 i-H v — DXX'MOT-OhhXN rH of to cf rH rP CO o" CO i-P o" rH rH Ol CO CO rH tO CO r— 01 rH to CO rH cf O rH X.IOJSIJJ to Ol to o 1- to to to rH »0 Tti i>. 0) i>. C3 •.inmuiH^L) •AqdujSoaQ to CO O Ol i— Ol X CO X rH rH CO CO Ol O co" cf CO of to rH 01 Ol 01 Ol o 05 -H Ol CO l- to CC to to -H'l o rH i Tl CL -I I a ; a s G >rH co Ol CO rH to to 00 05 O rH Ol CO ^ )C *D N X 05 O H 'M X O N X C5 I- v^- i - l - i - X’ 00 00 CO CO CO X to 00 CO 05 C5 05 DC1 CD 05 05' 05 05 05 oo co co oo co cc oo co xxx x cocooooocccococooocccococooogooo rH rH t— I rH r-H rH rH r— H rH —H rH t— 1 rH r-H r— t-H rH rH rH rH rH r— 1 t-h rH rH rH rH rH a By the minute of February 20, 1867, incorporated into the Code of 1888, extra grants, limited to £8 a school, were offered, provided inter alia that the time-table of the school provided “for one or more specific subjects of secular instruction beyond ” reading, writing, and arithmetic. The Code of 1871 first offered “a grant EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1229 O © 23 © P o +4> P P P X © d © O © £ 2 eg 13 3 g< CO P © 0 2ft Sj 2 ° pft *-d ■d © 23 £■ © O o m O *H 33 ft be I Pft Jh H bfp-i T CO p 22 •£4 3 3© H> p® co 2 2 re r£? m r© p ft © © ft 33 © • rH P. £_, c3 d ri 5 P o d 7* ,r“2 U ©OP © ■ q+4 © ©J q oft 2 & -7 33 32 _© Jo © CO PS U2 dH 5 fells 3? I d © £ o > I E> co rd SH P 03 3 +=> Oft. P P — o fa'ft p-M P ° 3 33 P © co co S + 2 S3 <1 dJ ©ft! .© © 7H co j X! r© S P 2 P o „ ©ft ■4-3 O rJd r ^rrl >g.gfef_g IS “111 'd .3 © P &fi ^ P rp. +4 O O CO P © 3 o © eg rdft-£ ©b£^ p § 22 ^ w M ©£'-32 © •S ft?7 gft rrj © C|-t P, d P ® ® S 03,2 ^ fl fc-8 2 ©c§ S g g S^o g ^33© g © P-P O CO Pi ft o © _ . - CO 2 3flgh^ . O H © p © eg m rT-2 S'*"1 r-Pl35 P © CO 4-s © co ci *d cj S9l^fe pU'g^g 2 ^ S p. P* P El| h r X S eg ® g>&5. © 2 u’co^ © P ?. P >JCO XI O 2° 2 33 ^ tg § &J3ho^^ ,r"3 rd r“< ' rH ^ -U3 33 .3 P-p O eg pdl-p PC P HI 2 P ” © © -P © ■* 2 2 o © 7 K rP O © © CO — ?-H © 5zi p ^2 © p .© p. © P23 m^h OP 2 1 © CO © . e^s p ° P co ® a p s © p £8 o © -31 be r— H d3 P © 3 P£ 2 *•— < 'S0 CO ^ ,P © © rP P’H © © OPS 4M r 0§2 ^3P -U *4—1 .33 q be © © d3 W O >-.0 p ^ p 33-. O co 2 P P O b*2 P P •P P 2 0 ^ >L co ^ fa P 2 © 43 © 22* p gl p >> 2 © 2 > 2 8 p^ nono •i-H • r— < > P d © .P32 =4-1 . — I ~2 | M p2 p° a © © h O m © ' r.p, 0 ' co ^ M-d: 22 Ps'o -2 «3 5o, S P ®— 1 - 1 -rH -J_d r-^di P-4 4 10 ■ 5 © 'd SH © ftSn ^ © -4 += CO P CO p © C fe: sa " m * P CO CO p © «3 2 © P'd iC'S 2 fe 2, w ^ 2 5<„ © co 33 58 - ^©^ ® rH _n P be : -h> p © P 7ft ft^ -U> ^ p p © 33 33 © © © rO P © ft2 , © c-ft 5o33 cc C * !B 3 © H? O dn co © 2P-h> fe— , Q © r- d Pr © - rt 2 P - CiJ’« — => -.rP.! c3 ^ h— w - © CO PoH ©H? P •co © fa7-2§<^ >>£ S ©ft P4d 2 © P ft P c£ © ft © © CO 33 d Hr _ , Q, H j. © -rH 2 03 « Oft © s£p"i- 33 _g P P rr ft to Jft^sg'2' •q q'd -M " _, 2c£To &c> o © H +4> © rd j_, _g g«SS Ppp© 2 p»k^ 2 ^© ■ft 1— H £H r * - 1 Cj_h ^ ^ ' "" cop ©33 © © « r 2: — d 33 © CO P P +3 © P.30 © q . p . 4^ ’ — ' rT fi -»dH kIPQ p o o rP © m © 44-4 oe o' 00 be bOi P „ o p‘H beg P P ©^ O CO O P •sa 4 ^ 5 33 ft °2 © o © © J, 'd p-qro P o.3c°8.S ©no © ©d a to 33 ©3333 © S «>s © 2^ © >» rr> © q r° ©a ' •q.?Q co k cq © o a © . ft33 P ©^P ft&34i P P ’fad d: CO ft ft P Hi M P >?7 P ^ © 33 be n3 © S3 P P be © ft H3 © +41 p CO © © p o O o ft p © co © • o 1230 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Part III. — Higher Education in Great Britain and Ireland. Higher education is provided in Great Britain and Ireland by uni¬ versities and detached colleges, and professional education by special schools of medicine attached to the principal hospitals and by schools of law and of theology. The number of students in the universities and university colleges for the successive years of the decade 1889-1809 is shown in the fol¬ lowing table : Table XVII. — Attendances at universities of Great Britain . 1S89-1S99. a Students. Universities and uni- Increase versify colleges. 1889. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. or decrease, 1889-1899. GREAT BRITAIN. England and Wales: Oxford (33 col- le°’es) _ 3, 100 3,212 3,232 3, 256 3, 256 3, 365 3,408 3,412 3,446 34o Cambridge (19 colleges) . . Durham (1 col- 3,971 2, 909 3, 913 2,839 2,839 2, 895 2,929 3,019 3, 016 + 45 lege) . University col- 307 212 196 196 171 171 171 174 170 - 37 leges _ _ _ 8,788 7,607 7,300 8,390 11. 778 11,097 513, 411 10, 133 11,301 513 University col- leges for wo- men (4). _ _ 331 371 371 379 393 393 406 400 + 79 Bedford College for Women 146 146 190 180 192 223 170 Royal Holloway College for Women 110 no Technical: City and guilds of London (4 in¬ stitutions) . 1, 515 1,592 Scotland: Aberdeen (1 col- lege) _ _ 909 881 748 695 691 691 755 749 765 - 144 Edinburgh (lcol- lege) . . 3,576 3,208 3,138 2,949 2, 836 3,825 2,812 2, 813 2, 848 - 728 Glasgow (1 col- lege). _ 3, 165 2, 140 2,041 1.878 1,842 1,866 1,789 1,918 2,010 — 155 St. "Andrews (3 colleges) _ _ 208 196 205 199 204 220 236 254 261 + o3 Dundee Univer- sity College - Glasgow (Tech- 307 160 250 107 ' 107 183 175 160 260 116 — 1S1 nip.flD flnllftp'P 251 286 268 Ireland: Du blin U niver- sity (1 college) . Belfast Queen’s 1,193 1,103 1,124 1,123 1,123 1.100 1, 084 1.1C0 c— 93 c— 111 College 422 394 353 353 392 343 343 311 Cork " Queen’s 187 188 c — 67 College . 255 230 253 2?A 206 206 Galway Queen’s 105 105 91 91 c— 19 College . . 110 108 108 108 a The statistics are taken from the Statesman’s Year-Book for the dates specified. b The unusually high attendance this year seems due to excess of evening students, c Decrease from 1893-1899. • EDUCATION IN GREAT BEIT AIN AND IEELAND. 1231 UNIVERSITY NOTES. Oxford . — In 1891 tlie University of Oxford instituted the degrees of bachelor of letters and bachelor of science, which are intended to pro¬ mote and recognize the value of study and research. The require¬ ments for these degrees are a course of special study or research and a residence of two years. As a logical result of this first measure a doctorate in letters and in science has been recently created. Candidates for the same must submit published papers or books containing an original contribution to the advancement of learning or of science. [For an interesting account of salient characteristics of Oxford, see citations from an article by George Brodrick, I). C. L., warden of Merton College, appended, pp. 1237-11.] Cambridge. — The University of Cambridge also admits persons as advanced students. A student of this class who has kept by residence at least six terms and has obeyed the regulations as to examinations, etc., may proceed to the degree of B. A., as also may an advanced student who has obtained a certificate of research. The total amount received by the university (as distinct from the colleges) in response to the appeal of the Duke of Devonshire for a minimum of half a million sterling had reached £82,000 in November of this year. [For an account of increased facilities in the engineering department of Cambridge, see citation from Nature, appended, pp. 1241-43.] Oxford and Cambridge have both suffered severe loss during the year by the death of distinguished professors. Prof. F. Max Muller, who died October 28, was the most widely-known scholar recently identified with Oxford. His special professional work is thus sum¬ med up by an English authority: “By a combination of knowledge, literary power, and unexampled command of a language not his own, he, more than any other man, established and maintained an interest in the young science of philology throughout the whole of the culti¬ vated classes in the country.” Prof. Henry Sidgwick, of Cambridge, who died August 28, 1900, was identified with every recent effort for the development of higher education in England; and, in particular, the cause of university education for woman is indebted to him for invaluable service. Of his university relations an English authority says: His lectures were distinguished by intellectual sympathy, insight, close reason¬ ing, and excellence of literary form, and also by comprehensive grasp and sense of perspective. He never left out of account anything important and always kept to the point, and his examination papers were models of philosophic questioning — each question fresh, stimulating, going to the heart of things; each paper as a whole having a sort of artistic excellence and completeness; each allowing possi¬ bilities to the dull, while opening splendid opportunities to the most brilliant. His individual interest in his pupils, unfailing consideration, and generous help are a living memory to Cambridge moral science students, who, although a small 1232 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. company contrasted with the hosts of candidates in more ancient and endowed triposes, will, for quality, compare favorably with the philosophical output of any other university in the world. The same writer adds: His philosophical works are comprised in his three systematic treatises— on ethics, political economy, and politics — which, together, cover the ground in moral and political philosophy, and combine to form a coherent whole. His influence over students was intensified by the charm of his manner, the fine flower of courtesy making the most shy and helpless feel at ease, while himself most brilliant in the most brilliant company. And all of his grace and readiness and considerateness were simply the unforced and appropriate expression of a rare and exquisite nature, the keenest and most sensitive intellect, the most unsel¬ fish heart, the sunniest temper, the most pure and generous will, an unfailing gentleness, and a delightful humor. The new University of London. —The efforts of the association for promoting a teaching university for London, maintained with varying prospects for sixteen years, have at last reached the stage of positive results. The statutes and regulations drawn up for the university by the commissioners appointed for that purpose were approved by Parliament and received the royal sanction in April of the present year (1900). The governing body was subsequently formed and the work of organization is in progress. The schools of the university, as named in the statutes, are as follows: (1) University College and King’s College (admitting in all the faculties), (2) the 10 medical schools, (3) the 6 theological colleges, (4) the Royal College of Science and the Southeastern Agricultural College (in agriculture only), (5) the City and Guilds Institute (in engineering), (6) the London College of Economics, (7) the Royal Holloway College and Bedford College. To this list the senate may add at its discretion any public educational institution within the prescribed limits. All schools will be open to visitation, and are liable to be removed from the list. The “Inns of Court,” which at first refused to consider the proposal of the commissioners, have since come into the scheme, which insures the organization of a faculty of law. The Journal of Education, in a review of the work of the commis¬ sion, says: Two new faculties are created: (1) Engineering and (2) economics and political science (including commerce and industry). Students in these subjects are not granted distinct degrees, but the diploma of their degree in science will be, so to speak, earmarked. We confidently anticipate that the reconstituted university will be differentiated from the older universities by the growth and expansion of these two faculties. No city in the world can offer the same opportunities as London for the pursuit of these studies, and a vigorous beginning on both sides has already been made. Pedagogy is left out in the cold, not being thought worthy to rank as a faculty, and no training college being admitted as a school of the university. As a sop, a board of studies is recommended for the theory, practice, and history of educa¬ tion. and a hope is entertained that the university will, at some future time, he enabled to establish courses of lectures and create a professorship. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1233 It is worthy of note that three women have been appointed in the senate of the reconstituted university. Among the enlarged faculties of the university may he noted the new scientific laboratories of King’s College, which were opened with impressive ceremonies in October of the present year. (See descrip¬ tion cited from Nature, pp. 1243-41.) University colleges and the new universities. — The rise of university colleges in the great centers of industry is the most important event in the recent history of higher education in Great Britain. These colleges are characterized by their liberal provision for science instruc¬ tion and for technical training, and also by the admission of women on the same terms as men. Private and public resources have com¬ bined in their support, and the last and most striking phase of their development is their ascent into university organization. Owens College, Manchester (dating from 1851); Yorkshire College, Leeds (1874), and University College, Liverpool (1881), are comprised in Victoria University, incorporated in 1880. The three colleges of Wales — Aberystwyth, Bangor, and Cardiff — pertain to the University of Wales, incorporated in 1893, and Mason College, Birmingham, is the nucleus of Birmingham University. The development has been stimulated also by a parliamentary grant which has been appropriated annually since 1889 to be shared by the university colleges1 of Eng¬ land on the condition that they submit reports to the education department. The grant which began at £15,000 was raised to £25,000 in 1897. Upon similar terms the three university colleges of Wales receive each annually £4,000 from the treasury. Victoria University . — The court of Victoria University recently decided, after consultation with the head masters of many secondary schools in Lancashire and Yorkshire, to accept a leaving certificate obtained by examination at the schools as equivalent to a matricula¬ tion test. The character of the examination will of course be deter¬ mined by the university. The appointment of a professor of the theory, art, and practice of education by Owens College marks the progressive spirit of this insti¬ tution. The hope is expressed that Oxford and Cambridge will soon follow this example. Scotland has for many years had two professors of education — one at Edinburgh and one at St. Andrews — and both have made valuable contributions to the literature of education. ’Mason College, Birmingham; University College, Bristol; Dundee University College; Yorkshire College, Leeds; Liverpool University College; Bedford Col¬ lege, London; King's College, London; University College, London; Owens 'Col¬ lege, Manchester; Durham Science College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne; University College, Nottingham; Sheffield University College; three university colleges in Wales (Aberystwyth, Bangor, and Cardiff >. The two London colleges, University (1828) and King's (1828), affiliated with the University of London, are of earlier origin and belong to a different phase of university life. ED 1900 78 1234 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Both Oxford and Cambridge have undertaken the training of elemen¬ tary teachers, and it is probable that before long they will undertake the training of secondary teachers also. The Cambridge syndicate has had courses of lectures for teaching and examinations for teachers for many years. The new chair of education at Owens College has been accepted by Mr. H. L. Withers, since 1893 principal of the Borough Road Training College, at Isle worth. Mr. Withers was elected to a classical scholar¬ ship at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1882, and he obtained a first class in classics both in moderations and in the final honors school. He was assistant master at the Manchester Grammar School, and after¬ wards at Clinton College, and has been an examiner under the Oxford and Cambridge schools examination board. He will have a seat in the senate of the college and on the board of studies of the Victoria University. An assistant and the trustees of method in the women’s college will be associated with the professor in the work of the depart¬ ment. The governors of Owens College have recommended that women should be admitted to the courses qualifying for medical degrees, but subject to provision for separate instruction in some particulars. The Victoria University in adopting this recommendation would come into line with Aberdeen amongst the Scottish universities. The Women’s Medical School in London, which Mrs. Garrett Anderson, was largely instrumental in founding, is an alternative mode of pre¬ paring women for a medical degree. A new physical laboratory is being erected for Owens College, at the cost of £32,000. The Liverpool University College is prepared to spend £35,000 on a similar labora¬ tory. In view of the approaching jubilee of Owens College (1901), a committee, of which the Duke of Devonshire is chairman, has issued an appeal to the public to raise £150,000 to complete the endowment and equipment of the college. More than £20,000 is asked for to extinguish existing debts, especially on the medical buildings, and. a considerable sum is required to make the yearly income of the college balance its expediture. But the committee has also before it the necessity of extending the work of the college in various directions. Among the special objects for which money is sought are the estab¬ lishment of new chairs in English literature, Hebrew, and architec¬ ture, and generally for a further development of the arts side of the college; the establishment of am institution for bacteriological investigation and hygiene; the further increase of research fellow¬ ships, and the creation of a pension fund. Owens College, says the appeal, was the first institution outside London set up to supply the great cities of England with a university education. It is still the largest of them, both as regards the number of its teaching staff and students and the size and completeness of its buildings. The appeal goes on to lay special stress on the number of eminent EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN ARD IRELAND. 1235 men among its old students and the large output of original work from its members, not only in natural science, but in medicine, history, literature, and philology. (Athenaeum, March 2, 1901, p. 27G.) The legal faculty in the Yorkshire College at Leeds is now in work¬ ing order, with a professor and three lecturers on law and lectures on ancient history and logic. The courses are calculated for the Vic¬ toria degree in law and the examinations of the Council of Legal Education and the Incorporated Law Society. Birmingham University . — -Birmingham University starts on a foun¬ dation of half a million sterling, with the prospect of rapid increase of resources. In preparation for the plans of the new institution a deputation was appointed to visit the United States and Canada, with the view of inquiring into the working of some of the leading univer¬ sities. When Mr. Andrew Carnegie made his donation of £50,000 he suggested that some of the features of the American universities should be incorporated in the proposed Birmingham University, and Mr. G. II. Ken rick, Professor Poynting (professor of physics), and Professor Burstall (professor of engineering at Mason College) were deputed to make the necessary inquiries. They left Birmingham November, 1899, and visited Cornell University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology .at Boston, McGill University at Montreal, and all the leading colleges and schools in Chicago, Baltimore, Penn¬ sylvania, and the United States generally, concluding their tour at New York. The deputation will present a report to the university committee embodying their views. Universities of Scotland. — The report of the Scottish universities commission, appointed under the universities (Scotland) act of 1889, has just been issued. It offers a very complete survey of the recent history of the universities and in particular of the conditions that have led to the changes authorized by the commissioners. The most important of these changes are summarized, with comments, in the London Journal of Education as follows: 1. An entrance examination common to the four universities, or some examina¬ tion accepted as equivalent, is now the indispensable preliminary to a course quali¬ fying for graduation. “Junior” or nonqualifying classes in Latin, Greek, and mathematics are still allowed to exist because of the very inadequate provision for secondary education in many districts of Scotland. The commissioners, how¬ ever, distinctly say: “We do not think it desirable that the junior classes should be a permanent part of the university equipment.” 2. The course of the M. A. degree has been made less rigid and more varied by the permission of a choice of subjects within certain definite limits, and graduation with honors has been encouraged. 8. The institution of a common fee fund in each university, with the payment of professors by fixed salaries instead of mainly by class fees, is a great reform and removes the old obstacle of “vested interests” to the recognition of new sub¬ jects and more varied courses of study. 4. Where funds do not admit (as is, unfortunately, too often the case) of the establishment of professorships for the teaching of new subjects, lectureships may 1236 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. be established for short periods without committing the university to a permanent expenditure on what may not prove a successful experiment. 5. By a special ordinance the commissioners gave power to the universities to admit women to graduation. All the four universities have already availed them¬ selves of this power in the faculties of arts, science, and medicine. In these facul¬ ties men and women are now students on the same conditions and a revolutionary change has been very quietly carried out and accepted. The commissioners regret that they have been able to do nothing directly for the better equipment of the libraries, which they admit to be far below those of the universities on the Continent and in America and very far below the requirements of the Scottish universities themselves. Many pages of the report are filled with an account of what is generally but inaccurately spoken of as the dispute between St. Andrews and Dundee. The commissioners explain the principles on which they proceeded in dealing with the relations between St. Andrews University and Dundee College. “We were of opinion that the resources of St. Andrews should be applied mainly to the devel¬ opment of the faculty of arts, and that the subjects which might be taught most usefully at Dundee were law, medicine, and applied science, for the teaching of which St. Andrews affords no proper facilities.” Due condemnation is bestowed on the old St. Andrews system of conferring medical degrees on qualified practi¬ tioners who might never have been students of the university or of any university. “There can be no question that it has subjected the university to unfavorable observation.” The evil system has been happily abolished by an ordinance of the commissioners. Ireland. — The question of a Catholic university for Ireland con¬ tinues to excite discussion, agitation, and effort with no apparent sign of a satisfactory settlement. The existing provision for higher education in Ireland comprises the University of Dublin and the Royal University, an examining body to which are affiliated the three Queen’s colleges. The University of Dub¬ lin (Trinity College) was chartered by Queen Elizabeth. Besides the arts faculty, schools of law, divinity, medicine, and engineering are comprised in this foundation. Roman Catholics were not permitted to take degrees in the university until 1793, when the disability was removed by an act of Parliament. Eighty years passed before they were allowed recognition in the election for fellowships or for scholar¬ ships on the foundation of the college. Meanwhile, in 1854, a class of nonfoundation scholarships was established, which were not restricted to any religious denomination. The final abolition of “tests,” except¬ ing in the ease of professors and lecturers in the faculty of theology, was accomplished by act of Parliament in 1873 through the direct efforts of Mr. Fawcett, at that time postmaster-general. Until 1850 the University of Dublin was the only body in Ireland authorized by law to confer degrees. Higher education for women. — The university education of women in England is generally regarded as dating from 1879, in which year were given the first lectures under the auspices of the association for promoting the education of women in Oxford. In the same year one college lecture was open to women students. The association and the EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1257 older women’s colleges appropriately celebrated their coming of age in 1899. The London Journal of Education calls attention to the fact that the present year the women’s colleges and the departments for women in the universities are filled to overflowing. All the Scotch universi¬ ties have provided halls of residence for women students. At Alex¬ andra College, Dublin, large additions are being made to accommo¬ date more than 300 students. The London School of Medicine for Women also shows an unusually large attendance, the session of 1899- 1900 having opened with 208 students. The school building is now being remodeled and extended dt an estimated cost of more than £30,000. The honor degree courses of Trinity College (Dublin) have, since 189-5, been open to any woman who passed the college examinations for women, and the freshman honors examination opened at the same time. So far, however, no women seem to have made use of this concession, as the whole course was almost unmanageable and neither teaching nor degrees were granted. This year, for the first time, a woman presented herself for examination in the modern liter¬ ature mod eratorship. In the middle of the examination she withdrew, but the papers she had done in French were so good that the exam¬ iners offered to set fresh papers for her if she would complete her examination. This was done and the candidate awarded the rank of gold medalist and senior moderator. It is believed that this case will lead to a more generous and reasonable course for women being opened in the college in the future. The following table shows the attendance of women upon university courses in 1899: Women’s colleges and departments , 1899-1900. Colleges. Women students. Colleges. Women students. Girt on - . _ . . . . 110 Owens College _ _ _ 121 N ewnb sm . . . . . 165 Yorkshire . . . . . . . 130 Bedford . . a 180 Alexandra Hall (Aberystwyth) . 181 Queen’s College _ a 290 Aberdare Hall (Cardiff) - - 57 University College (woman’s depart- Bangor - - - - - 90 ment ) . . 200 Glasgow _ _ _ _ _ _ 333 King’s College (woman’s denartment) 704 Edinburgh. - - - - 6320 Lady Margaret (Oxford). 50 St. Andrews . . . HO Somerville (Oxford) 76 A berdeen . . . 108 St. Hilda’s (Oxford) . . . 25 Alexandria College (Dublin). . . 300 a About 40 resident. 6 Not including medical students, as at Glasgow. UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. [Citation from an article by George C. Brodrick, D. C. L., warden of Merton College, in the Nineteenth Century for August, 1898.] The profound change which has come over the face, and even the spirit, of the university during the present century has been partly due to legislation, parlia¬ mentary or academical, and partly to causes affecting the whole of English society. “The studies of the university were first raised from their abject state by a stat- 1238 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. ute passed in 1S00P’ Such is the deliberate testimony of a royal commission appointed half a century later, and it is amply justified by the facts. This first examination-statute, for which the old hebdomadal board deserves some credit, established an effective pass examination for the B. A. degree, as well as an honor examination which has since been infinitely developed by a series of later statutes. The impulse thus given to undergraduate industry quickly made itself felt, but there was little activity of thought among the senior members of the university until the ice was broken at last by the neo-Catholic revival, popularly known as the “Oxford movement.” This movement was essentiallyreactionary in its origin, as well as Romanistic in its tendency. It discouraged liberal studies and stimulated an unhealthy craze for dogmatism. Still it was a movement, and stirred into activity many ardent spirits, impatient of academical stagnation, who had little sympathy with its ecclesiastical character. Meanwhile the rising tide of Whig policy which carried the reform bill, with other Liberal measures, the Hamp¬ den controversy of 1836, the growth of a new theological school represented by Dr. Arnold, and the general advance of ideas both at home and abroad, exercised a marked influence on the Oxford mind. When the commission of 1850 was appointed by Lord John Russell's government, the university authorities had already begun to set their house in order, and sanctioned very comprehensive amendments of the examination system. The report of the commission recom¬ mended much larger reforms, most of which, though not all, were subsequently embodied in an act of Parliament (1854), and a series of “ ordinances ” framed by a new body of commissioners nominated under that act. Before all these reforms had fully taken root, a third commission was issued (1872) to inquire into the financial resources of the university and colleges. Parliament again intervened in 1874 to abolish university tests; and a fourth commission, instituted by another act of Parliament (1877), effected a sweeping confiscation of college revenues for university purposes, remodeled the whole academical system in various important respects, and seriously" restricted the power of self-government theretofore vested in the colleges. The university, however, now endowed with a representative constitution, soon vied with the legislature in its zeal for innova¬ tion, and the new life of Oxford as it exists to-day is still more the result of forces working from within than of any" impulse applied from without. After all, however, the manifold contrasts between the university in 1798 and the university in 1898 are less the result of any legislation, either external or internal, than of the feverish and progressive movement in every branch of human activity which has marked the present century, and especially the reign of Queen Victoria. * * * If we now look at the university as it is, with the eye of a foreign observer, we shall at once be struck by the fact that it is still essentially collegiate; that is, that a vast majority of its members belong to some one of its twenty-one colleges and regard their colleges in every sense as academical homes. This peculiarity is due to what may justly be called the invention of the college system by" the founder of Merton, and is fully" shared by Cambridge alone among the universities of Europe. ' It is true that the university now has a constitution of its own, more or less independent of colleges; that it maintains a large staff of professors bound to instruct all students who may frequent their lectures, and that for the last thirty years it has received a body of noncollegiate students at present exceeding 200, making special provision for their discipline and tuition. But the noncollegiate body, though it represents the original Oxford “clerks” before colleges were established, forms an insignificant element among some 2,500 undergraduates, especially as the more promising noncollegiate students are constantly drafted into the colleges. The heads of colleges, it is true, no longer monopolize the administration of the university, but nearly a third of the seats on the university EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 1239 council are still reserved to them, and by far the largest share of university teach¬ ing continues to be carried on by college tutors. Indeed, since the introduction of “ intercollegiate lectures” — that is, of college lectures open to all comers from other colleges without payment of a fee --the function of university professors has been to a certain extent superseded. These lectures, often attended by very large classes, including young ladies, can not of course be catechetical; but they can be supplemented by private tuition, and one strong proof of their general merit is that “coaching for honors,” which is still thought so necessary at Cambridge, has become very rare at Oxford. There is one notable exception to the predominance of college over university teaching. Natural science in all its branches demands a costly equipment of laboratories, collections, and. apparatus, with an organized staff of teachers, which can only be provided in some central institution like the University Museum. The consequence is that students of natural science gain almost all their instruction at the museum, and are, so far, removed from college influences. The same applies in some degree to the infant schools of Oriental studies and English, but it may safely be said that Oxford classmen as a body are mainly indebted to college tutors for guidance of their studies in classical literature, history and philosophy, both ancient and modern, political economy, and theology, if not in mathematics and law. It must b3 confessed, however, that a foreign observer, examining closely the institutions of Oxford in the practical working, might find much to surprise him. For instance, the university holds no entrance examination, and imposes no intel¬ lectual test whatever on those seeking admission to it. If a youth ignorant of his letters could persuade a college, or the delegates of noncollegiate students, to accept and imesent him, he would be entered on the books of the university as a matter of course, and might remain upon those books for the rest of his life (with the consent of his college) without passing any examination. The consequence is that no common basis of attainments can be assumed among those who have not passed responsions; and little more can be said of passmen who have scraped through responsions, for the contemptible minimum of Latin, Greek, and mathe¬ matics then required might be expected from any boy of 15, in addition to an elementary knowledge of French, history, and geography, of which responsions take no account. Again, it would not be self-evident to a foreigner, or perhaps to an English engineer, why the whole educational staff and plant of the univer¬ sity and colleges should remain idle for more than half the year. * * * But to propose the slightest abridgment of vacations is now the rankest heresy at Oxford, and men who differ from each other on politics, religion, art, and every other subject, including even the admission of women to degrees, are unanimous in holding that, whereas nature intended all other occupations to be carried on for nine or ten months in the year, there is some occult reason forbidding univer¬ sity education to be carried on for more than six months, divided into three spells of eight weeks each. A like origin or perversity of academical policy is to be traced in the marvelous restlessness and inconsistency of its legislation, espe¬ cially in regard to the examination statutes. Since the large and beneficial changes introduced into these statutes above forty years ago, scarcely a single term has elapsed without their being tinkered afresh; and, as this has often hap¬ pened twice in the same term, they must have undergone, on a moderate compu¬ tation, at least 150 amendments. The consequence is that, although experienced tutors steer their way through ail these mazes with tolerable confidence, mistakes are constantly occurring, and no one could pretend to give a clear exposition of the examination code as a whole. * * * It is now time for ns to consider the influence actually exercised by Oxford in 1898 upon national education. That influence, shared by Cambridge, is far greater than is commonly supposed, and is no more to be measured by the mere number 1240 EDUCATION REPORT, 1889-1900. of its resident members (estimated at 3,000) than the influence of Parliament on national policy is to be measured by the number of Lords and Commoners. Even when the number of students at Oxford and Cambridge was much smaller than at present, Oxford and Cambridge virtually governed the whole course of higher education throughout England. College scholarships, with the prospect of suc¬ cession to college fellowships, were the most substantial rewards open to aspiring schoolboys; and since these, as well as university degrees and honors, were to be won by proficiency in classics and mathematics alone, classics and mathematics were the staple, if not the exclusive, subject of teaching in public schools and grammar schools. Every school of reputation still professes above all to prepare boys for the universities, however liberally it may provide for the requirements of nonacademical careers, such as the army and civil service. On the other hand the universities, by wisely extending their old narrow curriculum, are rapidly bringing the new studies within the sphere of their control, while by undertaking the office of examining boards on a very large scale, they have strengthened to an extraordinary degree their former hold on secondary education. It had long been the habit of thermore eminent public schools and grammar schools to invite the aid of university examiners in awarding'exhibitions or testing the results of school work in the higher forms. But the indirect and irregular influence thus exercised by the University of Oxford through irresponsible examiners was as nothing com¬ pared with the influence now acquired by means of the inspection and examina¬ tions of public schools which it conducts jointly with Cambridge, and the local middle-class examinations which it conducts independently, and of the lectures organized by the delegates for the extension of teaching bejrnnd the limits of the university in a large number of populous centers. To all this must be added the experiment, yet in its infancy, of affiliating not only provincial colleges, but Indian and colonial universities, through a system of privileges and exemptions which facilitate the incorporation of their students; the experiment, also new, of superintending the practical training of teachers, and the generous arrangements made for the academical examination of women, upon which the claim for degrees has been somewhat ungratefully founded. It is not too much to say that by form¬ ing this widespread network of educational control, and occupying the center of it, the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge have virtually made themselves arbiters of learning over a very large proportion of schools above the elementary grade, and assumed some of the most important functions exercised by the ministry of education in other countries. There is another cause of the vast educational power wielded by the University of Oxford in common with that of Cambridge. This is the fact that so many of those destined to guide the educational movements, directly or indirectlj7, have themselves passed under the discipline and teaching of the older universities. All the head masters of the leading public schools, nearly all the head masters of the metropolitan and provincial grammar schools and high schools, and most of the classical assistant masters in these schools are graduates of Oxford or Cambridge, while the academical element largely preponderates among the masters of private schools and private tutors of the superior class. If a university education is no longer the one avenue of approach to the two learned professions which contribute most powerfully to fix the general standard of culture in society, still the great body of clergymen and of barristers, nearly all the English bishops, and a large majority of the judges are alumni of Oxford or Cambridge. By virtue of their connection with the Established Church these universities are specially responsible for the guidance of national education to an extent which it is hardly possible to exaggerate. It is clergymen there educated who are not only the sole representa¬ tives of learning in thousands of country parishes, but chiefly manage the great mass of parochial schools which are not under school boards, and where school EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1241 boards have been established are frequently among the most active and influential members of them. The predominance of the older universities in the direction of national education is still more conspicuous in the personnel of the education office itself. The whole indoor staff of that office, consisting of secretaries and examiners, has been recruited from Oxford and Cambridge, the former having a certain preponderance. More than half of the school inspectors for England and Wales are drawn from Oxford, and the rest from Cambridge with the exception of a few who have been promoted from the rank of subinspectors. Not less marked is the prevalence of Oxford and Cambridge graduates on the staff of the civil service commission, which now superintends the examinations for every branch of the public service. All the commissioners, secretaries, and examiners, with rare exceptions, have been selected from one or other of the older universi¬ ties. It was Oxford and Cambridge men wdio originated and shaped the open competitions for the civil service of India, and the head masters of the great pub¬ lic schools — all Oxford or Cambridge men — have been consulted at every turn in constructing the scheme of army examinations. It may be added that of the last li governor-generals of India 7 have been Oxford men, and if we could follow the same line of inquiry into the whole administrative and political service of the State we should find graduates of our two older universities filling high positions in a ratio out of all proportion to their numbers, even as compared with the wealthier classes of the population. For instance, of the last 9 prime minsters 5 were educated at Oxford and 1 at Cambridge. In the present cabinet 11 ministers out of 19 are Oxford men and 3 Cambridge men; in the last cabinet 7 ministers out of 16 were Oxford men and 6 Cambridge men. The House of Commons per¬ haps contains less of academical culture than it did in former days, as it contains more of the ability represented by success in business, yet above one-fifth of its present members are known to have been educated at Oxford and above one-eiglith at Cambridge, besides many who have graduated in other universities. But per¬ haps the most potent of all agencies in a country like our own is what is known as the press, with its infinite varieties of daily, weekly, monthly, and quarterly publications. If the secrets of anonymous journalism could be unlocked, if it could be ascertained how largely newspapers, as well as periodical literature, are indebted to Oxford and Cambridge men for their special characteristics and how largely English habits of thought are molded by English newspapers and period¬ icals, it would furnish a crowning proof of the all-pervading influence exercised by those universities in national life. Engineering at Cambridge. — A professorship of mechanism and applied mechan¬ ics was founded at Cambridge in 1875, and the first holder of the chair, Prof. James Stuart, established workshops, which afterwards became the property of the university. In these practical instruction was given in pattern making, forging, turning, and fitting. About the same time an examination in mechanism and applied science was established as one of the special avenues to the ordinary B, A. degree. Professor Ewing was appointed to succeed Professor Stuart in 1890, and at once took up the task of forming an engineering laboratory and of organizing a more complete school of applied science. A site was granted by the university; a sum of £5,000 was raised, largely by the efforts of a strong committee of prominent engineers; and this, with an additional £1,000 granted by the university, was applied to adapting and extending the buildings of the old Perse School. At the same time a great impetus was given to the work of rhe department when the university sanctioned the granting of honor degrees by the establishment of the mechanical science tripos. The new laboratory, which was opened by Lord Kelvin in 1894, though sufficient for the 70 students then in attendance, soon became overcrowded until, during the last few years, a considerable proportion 1242 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. of the lectures have been delivered in rooms borrowed from other departments. The growth of the department may be seen at a glance at the following table: Year. Stu¬ dents. Paid in fees. Year. Stu¬ dents. Paid in fees. 1893 . 39 £516 1897 . 103 £2 338 1893 . 71 1,269 1898 . . . 112 123 2 531 1891 . . . . . 73 1,541 1899 . . 2, 915 189.1 . . 84 1,706 1909 . «150 1896 . 88 2, 013 aNow in attendance. The work of the department has been carried on mainly on the lines of the syllabus for the mechanical sciences tripos examination as established in 1893. Regular courses of lectures are given in mathematics, mechanics, principles of mechanism and machine dynamics, strength of materials and theory of structure, heat and heat engines and applied electricity. Instruction is also given in geomet¬ rical and mechanical drawing and in graphic statics. In the laboratory there are regular courses in mechanics, elasticity, heat, the testing of steam, gas, and other heat engines, applied electricity, and hydraulics. In the summer term there are lectures and held work in surveying. Practice in the use of tools for wood work and metal work forms a regular part of the course, and at the same time the workshops, in which a considerable staff is employed, constitute a very useful adjunct to the laboratory. During the past few years research has been taking a more prominent place in the work of the department, and with the larger space and special rooms now available further development in this direction may be looked for. At present a number of research students are at work in the elasticity, the electrical, and the steam laboratories. Evidence of the value of this work may he found in the cur¬ rent volume of the Royal Society's transactions, where two papers, one from Pro¬ fessor Ewing and Mr. Rosenhain, on “The microscopic structure of metals ” (the Bakerian lecture), the other by Mr. J. Muir on “The recovery of metals from overstrain,” deal with work which has been entirely carried on in the department. The university grants an annual sum of between £1,200 and £1,300, from which are paid the salaries of the professor and the two university demonstrators (£1,000 in all), part of the wages of the workshop staff, and some other expenses. From the students’ fees, which form the main source of revenue, are paid the salaries of four or live assistant demonstrators and lecturers, as well as the greater part of the wages of the workmen and laboratory attendants. Many valuable gifts of apparatus have been made to the department during the past six years and many pieces of heavy machinery have been supplied by engi¬ neering firms on specially favorable terms. A high-speed compound combined engine and dynamo set, on which regular tests are made, was presented by Messrs. Mather & Platt in 1894. Recently a coupled set of two dynamos, arranged for the Hopkinson test, has been given by Messrs. Siemens Bros. & Co., and a gas engine of about 10 horsepower by the Forward Engineering Company, of Birmingham. A very valuable microscope, specially designed for the microscopic study of metals, was lately presented by Mr. Thomas Andrews, F. R. S. Among other recent additions are a 5-ton testing machine by Messrs. Buokton & Co,, presented by past and present pupils, and a set, comprising turbine, motor, and pump, sup¬ plied by Messrs. Mather & Platt. Toward the further equipment of the labora¬ tory a sum of £1,200 has recently been subscribed, and there is nowon order from Messrs. Rabe}r & Co. a compound horizontal engine of about 50 horsepower, spe¬ cially arranged for testing purposes. This will form a very useful addition to the steam laboratory. EDUCATION IN BEE AT BEITAIN AND IRELAND. 1243 There can be no doubt that the engineering department has established for itself, under Professor Ewing, a firm foothold among the scientific schools of the university. At the same time, if it is to take, as it may reasonably aspire to do, a foremost place among British schools of engineering, it must look to provide a wider curriculum. The laboratories necessary for the proper teaching of such subjects as mining, metallurgy, and naval architecture, as well as for keeping abreast of the latest developments of the subjects already represented, can not be founded or maintained without an endowment of an amount far exceeding the sums already so generously contributed. While it is admitted that the establishment of the department was looked upon by some with misgiving as an encroachment on the more purely academic studies of the university, it is certainly time now, as the vice-chancellor said on Friday last, that the great majority of resident members welcome the establishment of the department and rejoice in its flourishing and successful state; and it is also true that the growth of this cordial recognition is due in no small degree to the support "which has been so freely given by the engineering world outside the uni¬ versity. This view of the matter is supported by the Times when it says, in reviewing the inauguration we have just described, that “it is pleasant to see one of our old universities, while remaining faithful to all the traditions of its vener¬ able past, at the same time displaying an intelligent appreciation of the wants of the future and affording to the most modern forms of learning the nurture and support which for many centuries it has afforded to those forms with which alone our forefathers were familiar.” (Nature, Feb. 8, 1900, p. 846.) THE NEW LABORATORIES OF KING'S COLLEGE. The following account of the new laboratories is quoted from Nature: “The laboratories area result of a comprehensive scheme of extension and improvement of the teaching accommodation of the college, resolved upon by the council in the summer of 1899, and now practically completed. The biological, architectural, anatomical, and mechanical departments have all benefited to a con¬ siderable extent by the new works, especially the departments first mentioned. The whole south wing of the college has been raised by an additional story, which includes the new geological, comparative anatomy, and botanical depart¬ ments, while the second story of the north wing, comprising the physiological and bacteriological departments, has been largely reconstructed, as has also the very fine room on the first floor now allotted to the architectural department. The reconstruction of the anatomical department and medical museum is also approximately complete; equipment is at present in progress. The department of physiology comprises (1) a spacious central laboratory, seat¬ ing over 100 students; the work tables are suited either for microscope work or for practical work in chemical physiology. There are in addition sixteen separate tables, provided with shafting and all the necessary electrical apparatus for the study of experimental physiology, a branch of the science which is becoming every year of greater importance; (2) a large room for investigations in chemical physi¬ ology; (3) a spacious and well-fitted room for experimental physiology; (4) a dark room for photographic and galvanometer work; (5) a private work room for the professor. These, with the necessary storerooms and accommodations for the laboratory attendants, make up a very complete suite of rooms. In the anatomical department the dissecting room has been nearly doubled in size, and all the accessory rooms necessary in a well-equipped anatomical depart¬ ment are now provided. The section of the college museum which relates to pathology will also be housed in part of the old physiological rooms in the base¬ ment, and a new room has been built for the anatomical portion of the museum. The department of bacteriology contains a practical classroom devoted to the 1244 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. technical education of post-graduate and other students from all parts of the world. Every student with his own hands goes through the whole practical course, and is further assisted by lectures and practical demonstrations. Several students have been especially trained with a view to investigating plague, cholera, ye low fever, inadura, and other tropical diseases, as well as the diseases of farm stock which are prevalent in our colonies and in foreign countries. In the tech¬ nical laboratory research work has been undertaken for the board of agriculture and for colonial governments, while a number of workers have published researches on various bacteriological subjects. The new research room and library is used by advanced students and by the professor. A new feature is the bacteri¬ ological library of about 1,000 volumes and pamphlets, lent by the professor for the use of the bacteriological and physiological departments, and vThich will accommodate about 200 students. The general geological laboratory and lecture room will accommodate 50 stu¬ dents. The room is fitted both for lecturing purposes and practical work, gas, water, and the electric light being laid on. In the practical class the engineering students are divided into several sections; one set of students use the petrological microscope, another set make blowpipe and chemical examinations of minerals, a third draw sections from geological maps, while a fourth set examine and draw fossils. The work of each class follows a regular schedule. The geological research laboratory is used by the professor and the more advanced students who wish to do original research. The room is fitted up similarly to the large labora¬ tory and contains a portion of the teaching collection and the nucleus of a library of geological works and reports. The botanical laboratories consist of two rooms; the general laboratory, for elementary 'work, and the research laboratory, for advanced work and private research. The general laboratory provides table accommodation for 24 students, and is equipped with ail the necessary appliances for the practical study of' plants, either fresh or dry. The botanical research lab¬ oratory provides accommodation for 12 students. In this laboratory provision is made for the practical study of the chief physiological processes of plants and for chemical investigations. The materia mediea and pharmacological collection of specimens used in teach¬ ing is contained in the upper part of the corridor, and is open to students for pur¬ poses of study. The lectures are given in another part of the building. The Wheatstone Physical Laboratory is well equipped for delicate balance work, heat and electrical measurement, and the determination of the general physical constants, A new dark room for spectroscopic work has been specially constructed and a room set apart for magnetic work. (Nature, Nov. 8, 1900, p. 48.) CHAPTER XIX LIST OF EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS IN THE UNITED STATES. (1) ARRANGED BY STATES. Alabama. Birmingham, Educational Exchange, M., 1900, YOl. 15, Normal, Normal Index, W., 1900, vol. 14. Arkansas. Little Rock, Arkansas School Journal, M., 1900, vol . 5. California. Berkeley-, University Chronicle, Bi-m., 1900, vol. 3. San Francisco, Western Journal of Education, M., 1900, vol. 15. Colorado. Denver, Colorado School Journal, M., 1900, vol. 15. Connecticut. Meriden, Connecticut School Journal, W., 1900, vol. 8. New Haven, Yale Review, M., 1900, vol. 9. District of Columbia. Washington, American Annals of the Deaf, Qu., 1900, vol. 46. Washington, Catholic University Bulletin, Qu., 1900, vol. 6. Washington, National Capital Searchlight, M., 1901, vol. 1. Florida. Illinois — Continued. Chicago, Child Garden, M., 1900, vol. 8. Chicago, Child Study Monthly, M., 1900, vol. 6.1 Chicago, Course of Study, Chicago Institute, M., 1900, vol. 1. Chicago, Dial (The), M., 1900, vol. 28. Chicago, Educational Forum, M., 1900, vol. 3. Chicago, Educational School-Record, M., 1900, vol. 1. Chicago, Kindergarten Magazine, M., 1900, vol. 13. Chicago, Manual Training Magazine, Qu.,1900, vol. 2. Chicago, Music, M., 1900, vol. 13. Chicago, Progress, M., 1900, vol. 5. Chicago, School Review, M., 1900, vol. 8. Chicago, School W eekly , W. , 1900, vol. 8. Chicago, University Record, W., 1900, voi. 5. Normal, Illinois Society for Child Study, Qu., 1900, vol. 5. Oak Park, Intelligence, Semi-m., 1900, vol. 20. Oak Park, Journal of Adolescence, M., 1900, vol. 1. Taylorsville, School News and Practical Edu¬ cator, M. , 1900, vol. 14. Indiana. Elkhart, Educational News, M. . 1900, vol. 5. Indianapolis, Inland Educator and Indiana School Journal, M. , 1900, vol. 1. Indianapolis, School Music, M., 1900, vol. 1. Jacksonville, Florida School Exponent, M., 1900, vol. 7. Georgia. Atlanta, Georgia Education, M., 1900, vol 2. Atlanta, Southern Educational Journal, M., 1900, vol. 13. Ioiva. Boonesboro, Boone County Teacher, M., 1900, vol. 11. Charles City. Iowa Teacher, M., 1900, vol. 15. Des Moines, Midland Schools, M., 1900, vol. 15. Dubuque, Iowa Normal Monthly, M., 1900, vol. 23. Illinois. Bloomington, School and Home Education, M., 1900, vol. 19. Chicago, Biblical World, M. , 1900, vol. 14. Chicago, Chicago Teacher, M.. 1900, vol. 2. Kansas. Emporia, State Normal Monthly, M., 1900, vol. 2. Emporia, Paidology, Qu., 1900, vol. 1. Lawrence, Kansas University Quarterly, Qu., 1900, vol. 9. Manhattan, Industrialist (The) , M. , 1900, vol. 27. Topeka, Western School Journal, M., 1900, vol. 17. Louisiana. New Orleans, Teachers’ Outlook, M., 1900, vol. 1. Maine. Farmington, School World, M., 1900, vol. 20. Maryland. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Circular, M. , 1900, vol. 20. Baltimore, New Pedagogue (The), M. , 1900, vol. 2. 1 See also Journal of Adolescence. The two journals have been combined under the title “Child Study Monthly and Journal of Adolescence.” 1245 1246 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Massachusetts. Boston, American Kitchen Magazine, M. , 1900, yol. 13. Boston, American Physical Education Review, Qu., 1900, yol. 2. Boston, American Primary Teacher, M., 1900, YOl. 18. Boston, Boston Academy, Qu., 1900, vol. 14. Boston. Boston Cooking School Magazine, Bi¬ in., 1900, vol. 5. Boston, Bostonia University Quarterly, 1900, vol. 1. Boston, Education, M. , 1900, vol. 21. Boston, Germania, M. , 1900, vol. 12. Boston, Journal of Education, W., 1900, vol. 52. Boston, Literary W orld, Semi-m. . 1909, vol. 31. Boston, Popular Educator, M., 1900, vol. 17. Boston, Posse Gymnasium Journal, M., 1900, vol. 8. Boston, Primary Education, M. , 1900, vol. 8. Boston, School Physiology Journal, M., 1900, vol. 10. Boston, Technological Quarterly, Qu. . 1900, vol. 13. Cambridge, The People, M. , 1900, vol. 2. Springfield, Kindergarten Review, M.,1900, vol. 11. Worcester, Seminary (The), Qu., 1900, vol. 7. Worcester, American! Journal of Psychology, Qu., 1900, vol. 12. Michigan. Detroit, Pernin’s Monthly Stenographer, M., 1900, vol. 13. Lansing, Michigan School Moderator, Semi-m., 1900, vol. 21. Minnesota. Minneapolis, School Education, M., 1900, vol. 19. Minneapolis, Minnesota School Journal, M., 1900, vol. 1. Missouri. Jefferson City, Missouri School Journal, M., 1900, vol. 17. Kansas City, Western College Magazine, M., 1900, vol. 5. St. Louis, American Journal of Education, M., 1900, vol. 33. St. Louis, Evangelish-Lutlierisches Schulblatt, M.,1900, vol. 35. St. Louis, School and Home, M.,1900, vol. 18. Nebraska. Omaha, Nebraska Mute Journal, M.,1900, vol. 28. Santee Agency, VYcr-J Carrier, M.,1900. vol. 29. New Hampshire. Manchester, Notes and Queries, M.,1900, vol. 19. 2s ew Jersey. Ringoes, Journal of Orthoepi and Orthografi, M.,1900, vol. 17. Trenton, Silent Worker (The), M., 1900, vol. 13. New York. Binghamton, Journal of Pedagogy, Qu., 1900, vol. 13. Danville, Normal Instructor, M. , 1900, vol. 8. Malone, Mentor (The), M., 1900, vol. 6. Newark Valley, Educational Review, M.,1900, vol. 1. New York, American School Board Journal, M.,1900, vol. 20. New York, American University Magazine, Bi- m.,1900, vol. 7. New York, Art Amateur (The), M., 1900, vol. 42. New York, Art Education, Bi-m., 1900, vol. 7. New York, Columbia University Quarterly, Qu., 1900, vol. 3. New YTork, Deaf Mutes’ Journal, W., 1900, vol. 29. New York, Educational Foundations, M.,1900, vol. 12. New York, Educational Review, M.,1900, vol. 20. New York, Literary Digest, W., 1900, vol. 20. New YTork, New Education, M., 1900, vol. 13. NewYork, New York Education, M., 1900, vol. 4. New York, Our Times, Semi-m., 1900, vol. 17. New Yrork, Penman’s Art Journal, M.. 1900, vol. 25. New Y"ork, Pratt Institute Monthly, M.,1900, vol. 8. New York, Primary School, M., 1900, vol. 10. New York, School, W., 1900, vol. 12. New York, School Journal, W., 1900, vol. 60. New Y'ork, School Music Review, M., 1900, vol. 9. New York, Sunday School Journal, M.,1900, vol. 32. New York, Teachers’ Institute, M., 1900, vol. 22. New York, Teachers’ World, M.,1900, vol. 12. New York, Werner’s Magazine, M., 1900, vol. 25. Rochester, Educational Gazette, M., 1900, vol. 16. Syracuse, School Bulletin, M., 1900, vol. 27. North Carolina. Greensboro, North Carolina Journal of Educa¬ tion, SI. , 1900, vol. 4. Greensboro, State Normal Magazine, M.,1900, vol. 13. Salem, Academy, M., 1901, vol. 24. Ohio. Akron, Home and School, M., 1900, vol. 2. Cincinnati, Christian Educator, Bi-m., 1900, vol. 11, Cincinnati, National Humane Educator, M., 1900, vol. 12. Columbus, Ohio Educational Monthly, M.,1900, vol. 49. Marietta, Ohio Teacher, M. , 1900, vol. 21. Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma School Herald, M., 1900, vol. 9. Oregon. Salem, Oregon Teachers’ Monthly, M., 1900, vol. 4. EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS 1247 Pe nnsy Ivani a . Allentown, National Educator, M., 1900, vol. 41. Edinboro, Educational Independent, W,, 1900, vol. 8. Harrisburg, School Gazette, M., 1900, vol. 12. Huntington, Juniata Echo, M., 1900, vol. 9. Lancaster, Journal of School Geography, M., 1900, vol. 4. Lancaster, Pennsylvania School Journal, M., 1900, vol. 49. Meadville, Chautauquan (The), M., 1900, vol. 30. Millersville, Normal Journal, Qu., 1800, vol. 14. Mount Airy- Philadelphia Association Review, Bi-m., 1900, vol. 2. Philadelphia, Journal of Franklin Institute, M., 1900, vol. 150. Philadelphia, Stenographer (The), M., 1900, voi. 15. Philadelphia, Teacher (The), IvL, 1900, vol. 5. Scranton, Science and Industry, M., 1901, vol 1. South Carolina. Aiken, Schofield School Bulletin. M., 1900, vol. 11. South Dakota. Mitchell, South Dakota Educator, M., 1900, vol. 14. Tennessee. Nashville, New Century Education, M., 1900, vol. 2. Nashville, Southwestern School Journal, M., 1800, vol. 6. (2) ARRANGED Common School Education , Elementary and Secondary. Academy (The) — N. C. American Journal of Education — Mo. American Primary Teacher — Mass. Arkansas School Journal — Ark. Boone County Teacher — la. Chicago Teacher — ill. Colorado School Journal— Col. Connecticut School Journal — Conn. Course of Study, Chicago Institute — Ill. Education — Mass. Educational Exchange— Ala. Educational Forum— Ill. Educational Foundations — N. Y. Educational Gazette— N. Y. Educational Independent — Pa. Educational News— Inch Educational Review — N. Y. Educational School Record — Ill. Evangelisch-Lutherisches Schulblatt — Mo. Florida School Exponent — Fla. Georgia Education— Ga. Home and School — O. Inland Educator and Indiana School Journal — Ind. Intelligence— Ill. Iowa Teacher— la. Journal of Adolescence — Ill. Journal of Education — Mass. Journal of Education — Tex. Journal of Pedagogy — N. Y. Juniata Echo— Pa. Texas. Austin, Texas School Journal, M.. 1900, vol. 17. Dallas, Texas School Magazine, M., 1900, vol. 3. Stephenville, Erath Journal of Education, M., 1900, vol. 1. Virginia. Hampton, Southern Workman and Hampton School Record, M., 1900, vol. 29. Richmond, Virginia School Journal, M., 1900, vol. 9. Williamsburg, William and Mary College Quar¬ terly, Qu., 1900, vol. 9. Washington. Olympia, Northwest Journal of Education, M., 1900, vol 12. Vancouver, Washingtonian (The), Semi-m., 1900, vol. 9. West Virginia. Charleston, West Virginia School Journal, M., 1900, vol. 21. Wisconsin. Madison, Wisconsin Journal of Education, M., 1800, vol. 30. Milwaukee, Lutherische Schulzeitung, M., 1900, vol. 26. Milwaukee, Mind and Body, M., 1900, vol. 7. Milwaukee, Peedagogisehe Monatschefte, M., 1900, vol. 2. Milwaukee, Western Teacher, M., 1900, vol. 9. BY SUBJECTS. Common School Education , etc. — Continued. Lutherische Schulzeitung — W is. Mentor— N. Y. Michigan School Moderator — Mich. Midland Schools— la. Minnesota School Journal— Minn. Missouri School Journal— Mo. National Capital Searchlight — D. C. National Educator— Pa. New Century Education — Tenn. New Education — N. Y. New Pedagogue — Md. New York Education — N. Y. Normal Index— Ala. North Carolina Journal of Education — N. C. Northwest Journal of Education — Wash. Ohio Educational Monthly— O. Ohio Teacher— O. Oklahoma School Herald — Okl. Oregon Teachers’ Monthly — Or. Our Times— N. Y. Paedagog'isehe Monatshefte — Wis. Pennsylvania School Journal — Pa. People (The) — Mass. Popular Educator— Mass. Primary Education — Mass. Primary School — N. Y. Schofield School Bulletin — S. C. School— N. Y. School and Home — Mo. School and Home Education— Ill. School Bulletin — N. Y. School Education — Minn. 1248 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. Common School Education , etc. — Continued. School Gazette — Pa. School Journal — N. Y. School JSI ews and Practical Educator — Ill. School Weekly — Ill. School World — Me. Seminary — Mass. South Dakota Educator — S. D. Southern Educational Journal— Ga. South Western School Journal — Tenn. Teacher (The)— Pa. Teachers’ Outlook — La. Teachers’ World — N. Y. Texas School Journal — Tex. Texas School Magazine— Tex. Virginia School Journal — Va. Washingtonian (The) — Wash. Western Journal of Education— Cal. Western School Journal— Kan. Western Teacher — Wis. West Virginia School Journal — W. Va. Wisconsin Journal of Education — Wis. Word Carrier — Neb. Kindergarten education. Child Garden— Ill. Kindergarten Magazine — Ill. Kindergarten Review — Mass. Secondary education , exclusively or chiefly. Boston Academy — Mass. Educational Review — N.Y. School Review — Ill. Normal school education. Education Extension — Mich. Iowa Normal Monthly — la. Normal Instructor — N.Y. Normal Journal— Pa. State Normal Magazine — N. C. State Normal Monthly — Kans. Teachers’ Institute— N. Y. University publications. American University Magazine— N. Y. Bostonia University Quarterly. — Mass. Catholic University Bulletin— D. C. Columbia University Quarterly— N. Y. Johns Hopkins University Circular— Md. Seminary (The) — Mass. University Chronicle — Cal. University Quarterly— Kan. University Record — 111. Western College Magazine — Mo. William and Mary College Quarterly — Va. Physical education. American Physical Education Review — Mass. Mind and Body — Wis. Posse Gymnasium Journal — Mass. Religious and moral education. Biblical World— Ill. Christian Education— O. National Humane Educator — O. Sunday School Journal — N. Y. Art education. Art Amateur — N. Y. Art Education— N . Y. Child study and psychology . American Journal of Psychology — Mass. Child Study Monthly — Ill. Illinois Society for Child Study — Ill. Industrial and technical education. Industrial (The)— Kan. Journal of Franklin Institute— Pa. Manual Training Magazine — Ill. Technological Quarterly — Mass. Pratt Institute Monthly — N. Y. j Science and Industry — Pa. j Southern Workman and Hampton School Record — Va. Deaf-mutes' education. American Annals of the Deaf — D. C. Association Review — Pa. Deaf-Mutes’ Journal — N.Y. Nebraska Mute Journal — Neb. Silent Worker— N. J. Domestic education. American Kitchen Magazine — Mass. Boston Cooking School Magazine — Mass. Language and elocution. Germania — Mass. Werner’s Magazine— N. Y. Calligraphy and stenography. Journal of Orthoepi and Orthogran — N. J. Penman’s Art Journal — N. Y. Pernin’s Monthly Stenographer — Mich. Stenographer (The) — Pa. Music. Music — Ill. School Music Review— N.Y. Geography. Journal of School Geography — Pa. Physiology. i School Physiological Journal — Mass. School administration. , School Board Journal— N.Y. ! Literature and criticism. j Chautauquan (The) — Pa. Dial (The)— Ill. Literary Digest— N. Y. Literary World— Mass. Notes and Queries— N. H. Progress — Ill. CHAPTER XX. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY.1 I. —Chief State School Officers. Name. Address. Official designation. J. W. Abercrombie . Sheldon Jackson . Robert L. Long . J. J. Doyne . . . Thomas J . Kirk _ Mrs. Helen L. Grenfell.. C. D. Hine . A. T. Stuart . . W. N. Sheafs . . Gustayus R. Glenn _ Miss Per meal French. .. Alfred Bayliss . John D. Benedict . . Frank L. Jones . R. C. Barrett . . Frank Nelson . H. Y. McChesney _ J . V. Calhoun . W. W. Stetson . E. B. Prettyman _ Frank A. Hill . . . . Delos Fall . . . . . J. W. Olsen . . . Henry L. Whitfield _ W. T. Carrington . . . W. W. W elch . W. K. Fowler . . . Or vis Ring . . Channing Folsom. . Chas. J. Baxter . M.C.deBaca . . . Charles R. Skinner . C. H. Mebane . . . J.M. Devine. . . Lewis D. Bonebrake _ S. N. Hopkins . . J. H. Ackerman . . Nathan C. Schaeffer _ Thomas B. Stockwell ... John J. McMahan . E. E. Collins . . M. C. Fitzpatrick . J. S. Kendall . A. C. Nelson . . . Walter E. Ranger. . Joseph W. Southall _ Frank J. Browne _ Thos. C. Miller . L.D. Harvey . . Thomas T. Tynan. . Montgomery, Ala . . . Sitka. Alaska . Phoenix, Ariz . . Little Rock, Ark .... Sacramento, Cal . Denver, Colo . . New Britain, Conn .. Dover, Del . 'Washington, D. C _ Tallahassee, Fla . Atlanta, Cta . Boise, Idaho . . Springfield, Ill . Muscogee, Ind. T _ Indianapolis, Ind .... Des Moines, Iowa. ... Topeka, Kans . . Frankfort, Ky . Baton Rouged La .... Augusta, Me . . Baltimore, Md_ . . Boston, Mass . . Lansing, Mich . St. Paul, Minn . . Jackson, Miss . Jefferson City, Mo .. Helena, Mont . Lincoln, Nebr . Carson, Nev . . . Concord, N. H . Trenton, N. J . Santa Fe. N. Mex _ Albany, N. Y. . Raleigh, N.C . . Bismarck, N. Dak _ Columbus, Ohio . Guthrie, Okla . Salem, Or eg . Harrisburg, Pa . Providence, R. I . Columbia, S. C . Pierre, S. Dak . Nashville, Tenn _ Austin, Tex . Salt Lake City, Utah Montpelier, Vt . Richmond, Va . . Olympia. W ash _ Charleston. W. V a. .. Madison, Wis . Cheyenne, W yo _ State superintendent of education. General agent of education. Superintendent of public instruction. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Do. Secretary of State board of education. Do. Superintendent of District schools. State superintendent of public instruction. State school commissioner. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Territorial superintendent of schools. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Do. Do. State superintendent of education. State superintendent of public schools. Secretary of State board of education. Do. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. State superintendent of education. State superintendent of public schools. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Do. Do. Do. Superintendent of public instruction. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Do. State commissioner of common schools. Superintendent of public instruction. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Commissioner of public schools. State superintendent of education. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Do. Do. State superintendent of education. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. State superintendent of free schools. State superintendent of public schools. State superintendent of public instruction. 1 Corrected to May, 1901, in so far as changes have been reported to the Bureau. ED 1900' 1249 -79 1250 EDUCATION EE POET, 1899-1900. II.— City Superintendents. ALABAMA. Anniston, D. R. Murphy. Bessemer, W. P. Gunn. Birmingham, J. H. Phillips. Eufaula, F. S. McCoy. Florence, Henry Clay Gilbert. Huntsville, S. R. Butler. Mobile, S. S. Murphy. Montgomery, Charles L. Floyd. New Decatur, W. B. Gibson. Opelika, T. C. Pinckard. Selma, R.'E. Hardaway. Tuscaloosa, James H. Foster. ARIZONA. Tucson, Samuel P. McCrea. ARKANSAS. Fort Smith, J. L. Holloway. Helena, W. W. Rivers. Hot Springs, George B. Cook. Little Rock, J. R. Rightsell. Pine Bluff, J. H. Hinemon. CALIFORNIA, Alameda, Charles C. Hughes. Bakersfield, W. C. Doub. Berkeley, S. D. Waterman. Eureka, A. C. Barker. Fresno, C. L. McLane. Los Angeles, J. A. Foshay. Napa City, J.L. Shearer.1 Oakland, John W. McClymonds. Pasadena, James D. Graham.1 2 Pomona, Frank PI. Hyatt.2 Riverside, Howard L. Lunt. Sacramento, O. W. Erlewine. San Bernardino, - ■. San Diego, F. P. Davidson. San Francisco, Reginald H. Webster. San Jose, Frank P. Russell. Santa Ana, Joseph C. Templeton. Santa Barbara, William A. Wilson. Santa Cruz, D. C. Clark. Santa Rosa, E. M. Cox.2 Stockton, James A. Barr. Vallejo, J. J. Rippetoe. COLORADO. Aspen, F. J. Brownscombe. Colorado Springs, John Dietrich. Cripple Creek, Ezra W. Palmer. • Denver: District No. 1, Aaron Gove. District No. 2, L. C. Greenlee. District No. 7, M. P. Miller. District No. 17, Charles E. Chadsey. Leadville, Edward C. Elliott. COLORADO — Continued. Pueblo: District No. 1, James S. McClung. District No. 20, John F. Keating. Trinidad, Charles V. Parker. CONNECTICUT. Ansonia, William Alexander Smith. Bridgeport, Charles W. Deane. Bristol, C. L. Wooding. Danbury, A. C. Hubbard.3 Derby, J. W. Peck. East Hartford: Joseph O. Goodwin.3 Charles D. Hine.4 Enfield, George T. Finch.5 Greenwich: Newton B. Hobart. 6 Thomas F. Howley.3 Hartford, Herbert S. Bullard. Manchester: Town schools, Herbert O. Bowers. Ninth district (south), F. A. Verplanck. Meriden, Albert B. Mather. Middletown, Walter B. Ferguson. Naugatuck, Frank W. Eaton. Neve Britain, Giles A. Stuart. New Haven, Frank Herbert Beede. New London, Charles B. Jennings. New Milford, Dana C. Wells. Norwalk, A. Blanchard.3 Norwich, Frank T. Maples,3 Nathan Lee Bishop (superintendent central district), John B. Stanton (superintendent West Chelsea dis¬ trict) . Putnam, W. R. Barber,3 E. H. Johnson.7 Rockville, Isaac M. Agard,8 Southington, Mrs. Anna D. Pollard. Stamford, Everett C. Willard. Torrington, Edwin H. Forbes. W allingford, Malcolm Booth. Waterbury, B. W. Tinker.9 West Haven, Edgar C. Stiles. Westport, L. T. Day.3 Willimantic, George E. Plinman. 10 Wiusted, H. Hungerford Drake. 3 DELAWARE. Wilmington, George W. Twitmyer. DISTRICT CF CCLUMBIA. Washington, A. T. Stuart. FLORIDA. Jacksonville, George P. Glenn. Plejr West, C. F. Kemp. 1 1 Lake City, T. H. Owens. 1 1 Pensacola, N. B. Cook. 1 1 St. Augustine, E. H. Reynolds. Tampa, L. W. Buckholz. 1 1 1 Principal grammar school. 2 Supervising principal. 3 Secretary board of school visitors. 4 Chairman school committee. 5 Acting visitor. 0 Principal. 7 School visitor. 8 Superintendent east district schools of Ver¬ non Town. 9 Superintendent high school. 10 Secretary of school committee. 11 County superintendent. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY 1251 GEORGIA. Albany, S. R. De Jarnette.1 Americas, J. E. Mathis. Athens, G. G. Bond. Atlanta, W. E. Slaton. Augusta, Lawton B. Evans. Brunswick, Gustavns J. Orr, jr. Columbus, Carleton B. Gibson. Dalton, B. M. Thomas. Griffin, J. Henry Walker. Macon, D. Q. Abbott. Rome, James C. Harris. Savannah, Otis Ashmore. Thomasville, K. T. Maclean.2 Waycross, E. A. Pound, IDAHO. Boise, John W. Daniels. Pocatello, Walter R. Siders. ILLINOIS. Alton, Robert A. Haight. Aurora: District ISTo. 5 (east side), 0. M. Bard well. District No. 4 (west side), A. V. Greenman. Beardstown, H. J. Jokisch. Belleville, H. D. Updike. Belvidere, Montgomery Moore. Bloomington, Edwin M.Van Petten. Cairo, Taylor C. Clendenen. Canton, Charles S. Aldrich. Centralia, J. L. Hughes. Champaign, Joseph Carter. Charleston, W. T. Gooden. Chicago, Edwin G. Cooley. Clinton, E. B. Bentley. Danville, L. H. Griffith. Decatur, Enoch A. Gastman. Dixon, Charles W. Groves. Du quoin, David B. Rawlins. East St. Louis: District No. 1, John Richeson. District No. 2, range 10, Thomas J. McDonough.1 District No. 2, range 9, 1. Harry Todd.1 Edwardsville, Charles W. Parkinson. Elgin, M. A. Whitney. Evanston: District No. 1, Homer H. Kingsley. District No. 3, North Evanston, Mary H. O’Brien.1 District No. 2, South Evanston, Fred. YvT. Nichols. Freeport, R. S. Page. Galena, James W. Cupples. Galesburg, William L. Steele. Harlem, Frank Curtis. Jacksonville, J. W. Henninger. Joliet, John J. Allison. Kankakee, F. N. Tracy. Kewanee, A. C. Butler. La Salle, J. B. McManus. Lincoln, B. E. Nelson. Litchfield, R. C. Shellenbarger. Macomb, R. C. Rennick. May wood, J. Porter Adams. ILLINOIS— Continued. Mattoon, Benjamin F. Armitage. Metropolis City, Edward Longbons. Moline, William J. M. Cox. Monmouth, James C. Burns. Morris, P. K. Cross. Murphysboro, Ellis H. Rogers. Ottawa, W. A. Furr. Pana, William Miner. Paris, J. D. Shoop. Pekin, O. A. Shotts. Peoria, Newton Charles Dougherty. Peru, W. W. Wirt. Pontiac, Isaac Mitchell. Princeton, C. P. Snow. Quincy, A. A . Seehorn. Rock Island, Herbert B. Hayden. Rockford, P. R. Walker. Spring-field, J. IT. Collins. Spring Valley, R. Y. De Groff. Sterling: District No. 8 (the Wallace schools), H. A. Hollister. District No. 3 (the Sterling schools), H.L. Gnaplin. Streator, John A. Long. Urbana, J. W. Hays. Waukegan, Frank H. Hall. INDIANA. Alexandria, I. B. Busby. Anderson, John Y,L Carr. Bedford, W. E. Alexander. Bloomington, W. H. Glascock. Bluffton, Y7. A. Wirt. Brazil, John C. Gregg. Columbus, John A. Carnagey. Connersville, W. S. Rowe. Crawfordsville, W. A. Millis. Elkhart, D. W. Thomas. Evansville, William A. Hester. Fort Wayne, F. J. Young. Frankfort, H. L. Frank. Goshen, J. F. Rieman. Greenfield, Horace A. J. Reynolds. Hammond, YvT. C. Belman. Huntington, Robert I. Hamilton. Indianapolis, Calvin N. Kendall. Jeffersonville, A. C. Goodwin. Kokomo, Robert A. Ogg. Lafayette, Edward Ayres. Laporte, John A. W ood. Lawrenceburg, T. IT. Meek. Lebanon, James R. Hart. Logansport, Albert H. Douglass. Madison, C. M. McDaniels. Marion, Benjamin F. Moore. Martinsville, W. D. Keriin. Michigan City, Edward Boyle. Mishawaka, B. J. Bogue. Mount V°rnon, Edwin S. Monroe. Muncie, W. R. Snyder. New Albany, C. A. Prosser. Peru, A. E. Malsbary. Portland, Edwin F. Dyer. Richmond, ThomasA. Mott. 1 Principal. 2 County superintendent. 1252 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 INDIANA — Continued. Rushville, A. C4. McGregor. Seymour, H. C. Montgomery. Shelbyyille, James H. Tomlin. South Bend, Calvin Moon. Terre Haute, Wm. H. Wiley. Valparaiso, Charles Henderson Wood. Vincennes, Albert E. Humke. Wabash, Miles W. Harrison. Washington, Wm. F. Axtell. IOWA. Atlantic, William Wilcox. Boone, Geo. I. Miller. Burlington, Francis M. Fultz. Cedar Falls, D. M. Kelly. Cedar Rapids, J. T. Merrill. Centerville, F. E. King. Charles City. George S. Dick. Clinton, O. P. Bostwick. Council Bluffs, W. N. Clifford. Creston, O. E. French. Davenport, J. B. Young. Des Moines: East Side, Amos Hiatt. West Side, Samuel H. Sheakley. Capital Park, Z. C. Thornburg. Dubuque, F. T. Oldt. Fairfield, J. E. Williamson. Fort Dodge, E. N. Coleman. Fort Madison, C. W. Cruikshank. Iowa City, S. K. Stevenson. Keokuk, O. W. Weyer. He Mars, E. N. Coleman. Marshalltown, F. E. Willard. Mason City, A. R. Sale. Mount Pleasant, Frank Whittier Else. Muscatine, F. M. Witter. Oeiwein, L. B. Moffett. Oskaloosa, S. J. Finley. Ottumwa, A. W. Stuart. Red Oak, W. F. Chevalier. Sioux City, R. E. Kratz. Waterloo: East Side, F. H. Bloodgood. West Side, A. T. Hukill. Webster City, C. W. Martindale. KANSAS. Argentine, H. P. Butcher. Arkansas City, W. M. Fisher. Atchison, J. H. Glotfelter. Emporia, L. A. Lowther. Fort Scott, David M. Bowen. Hutchinson, George W. Winans. Junction City, George W. Kendrick. Kansas City, L. E. Wolfe. Lawrence, Frank P. Smith. Leavenworth, Miss Mamie E. Dolphin. Newton. J. W. Cooper. Ottawa, Walter II. Olin. Parsons, N. McDonald. Pittsburg, R. S. Russ. Salina, A. Ludium. Topeka, John W. Stout. KANSAS— Continued. Wellington, H. F. M. Bear. Wichita, Frank R. Dyer. Winfield, J. W. Spindler. KENTUCKY. Ashland, John Grant Crabbe. Bowling Green, Edward Taylor. Covington. John Morris. Danville, W. C. Grinstead. Dayton, E. P. West. Frankfort, H. V. McChesney. Henderson, J. M. McCallie. Hopkinsville, Livingstone McCartney. Lexington, William Rogers Clay. Louisville, E. H. Mark. Maysville, D. C. Hutchins. 1 Newport, John Burke. Owensboro, James McGinniss. Paducah, C. B. Hatfield. Paris, E. W. Weaver. Richmond, J. D. Clark. Winchester, R. M. Shift. LOUISIANA. Baton Rouge, R. C. Gordon. Donaldsonville, Richard McCulloch. Lake City, Jno. McNeese. New Orleans, Warren Easton. Shreveport: C. E. Byrd, principal high school and acting city superintendent under J. C. Moncure, superintendent Caddo Parish. MAINE. Auburn, Bertram C. Richardson. Augusta: Mrs. Caroline S. Fogg, superintendent of suburban and high schools. Charles S. Pettingill, principal of village district. Weston Lewis, principal Williams district. Bangor, Miss Mary S. Snow. Bath, William H. Winslow. Belfast. John R.Dunton. Biddeford, Royal E. Gould. Brewer, Mrs. Mertie M. Curtis. Calais, Stephen E. Webber. Eastport, H. R. "Williams. Ellsworth, W. H. Dresser. Gardiner, L. M. Sanborn. Lewiston, I. C. Phillips. Oldtowi Miss Ardelle M. Tozier. Portland, Orlando M. Lord. Rockland, Frank K. Hill. Saco, John S. Locke. Skowhegan, D. W. Colby. South Portland, James Otis Kaler. Waterville, Elwood T. Wyman. Westbrook, Fred. Benson. MARYLAND. Annapolis, John G. Banncn.2 Baltimore, J . H. Van Sickle. Cambridge, Josiah L. Kerr.2 1 Principal. 2 County school examiner. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY 1253 MARYLAND— Continued. MASSACHUSETTS-Continued. Cumberland, John T. White.1 Frederick, Ephraim L. Boblitz.1 Hagerstown - — . Milton, D. P. Dame. Natick, Albert L. Barbour. Needham, Henry M. Walradt. MASSACHUSETTS. New Bedford, William E. Hatch. Newburyport, William P. Lunt. Abington, W. H. Sanderson. Adams, J. C. Gray. Amesbury, E. O. Perkins.2 Amherst, A. L. Plardy. Andover, George Ellsworth Johnson. Arlington, Frank S. Sutcliffe. Athol, W. Scott Ward. Attieboro, William P. Kelly. Barnstable, F. W. Kingman. Belmont. George P. Armstrong. Beverly, Adelbert Leon Safford, Blackstone. Josiah B. Davis. Boston, Edwin P. Seaver. Braintree, Irving W. Horne. Bridgewater, W. H. Sanderson. Brockton, B. B. Russell. Brookline, George I. Aldrich. Cambridge, Francis Cogswell. Canton, James S. Perkins. Concord, William L. Eaton. Chelsea, Walter H. Small. Chicopee, Clarence A.Brodeur. Clinton, Charles L.Hunt. Concord, William L. Eaton. Danvers, A. P. Learoyd.'2 Dedham, Roderick Whittlesey Hine. Easthampton, W. D. Miller. Easton, Osman C. Evans. Everett, Randall J. Condon. Fall River, William C. Bates. Fitchburg, Joseph G. Eagerly. Framingham, Samuel F. Blodgett. Franklin, Ernest D. Daniels. Gardner, Judson I. Wood. Gloucester, Freeman Putney. Grafton, W. H. Holmes, jr. Granby, Edward H. McLachlin. Greenfield, G. H. Danforth. Haverhill, Rosc-oe D. McKeen. Hingham, Nelson G. Howard. Holyoke, Louis P. Nash. Hudson, David Gibbs. Eydepark, William G. Colesworthy.2 Lawrence, John E. Burke. Leominster, Thomas E. Thompson. Lowell, Arthur K. Whitcomb. Lynn, Orsamus B. Bruce. Malden, George E. Gay. Manchester, George P. Armstrong. Mansfield, Edwards P. Fitts. Marblehead, John B. Gifford. Marlboro, J. Asbury Pitman. Medford, Charles H. Morse. Melrose, Fred. H. Nickerson. Merrimac, F. E. Pease. 3 Methuen, A. Everett White. Middleboro, Asher J. Jacoby. Milford, Charles W. Haley. Millbary, C. S. Lyman. Newton, Albert B. Fineld. North Adams, Isaac Freeman Hall. Northampton, J. H. Carfrey. North Andover, George E. Chickering. North Attleboro, James W. Brehant. Northbridge, S. A. Melcher. Orange, Miss Lizzie A. Mason. Palmer, A. C. Thompson. Peabody, Lester L. Burrington. Pittsfield, Eugene Bouton. Plymouth, Francis J. Heavens. Provincetown, Alvan R. Lewis. Quincy, Frank Edson Parian. Reading, Melville A. Stone. Revere, Frank J. Peaslee. Rockport, Mary L. Lincoln. Salem, John Wright Perkins. Saugus, Charles E. Stevens (Also superintend¬ ent at Stoneham). Somerville, Gordon A. Southworth. Southbridge, John T. Clarke. South Hadley, A. E. Campbell. Spencer, G. I. Clapp. Springfield, Thomas M. Balliet. Stoneham, Charles E. Stevens (also superin¬ tendent at Saugus). Stoughton, Edward P. Fitts. Swampseott, Howard C. Childs.4 Taunton, C. F. Boyden. Turners Falls, Alfred Turner. Upton, W. H. Holmes, jr. Wakefield, U. G. Wheeler. Waltham, William D. Parkinson. Ware, Samuel W. Hallett. Warren, Albert Robinson. Watertown, Frank R.Page. Webster, A. H. Morse. Wellesley, Marshall Livingston Perrin. Westboro. H. C. Waldron, Westfield, Stanley K. Holmes. West Springfield, C. E. Brockway. Weymouth, Andrew S. Thomson. Williamstown, Walter G. Mitchell. Winchendon, Da,vid B. Locke. Winchester, Henry M. Walradt. Woburn, Thomas Emerson. Worcester, Clarence F. Carroll. MICHIGAN. Adrian, A. E. Curtis. Albion, W. J. McKone. Alpena, George A. Hunt. Ann Arbor, H. M. Slauson. Bat tlecreek, William G. Coburn. Bay City, John A. Stewart. Benton Harbor, Eugene A. Wilson. Big Rapids, James R. Miller. Cadillac, James Hamilton Kaye. Calumet, F. Yf. Cooley. 1 County school examiner. 2 Secretary of the school committee. 3 Chairman school committee. 4 Principal. 1254 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. MICHIGAN— Continued. Charlotte, M. R. Parmelee. Cheboygan, William C. Thompson. Cold water, H. E. Johnson. Delray, Prank Cody. Detroit, Wales C. Martindale. Dowagiac, W. E. Conkling. Escanaba, B. D. Ewing. Flint, Warren C. Hull. Grand Haven, John A. Crawford. Grand Rapids, W. H. Elson. Hillsdale, W.L.Shuart. Holland, F. D. Haddock. Ionia, C. L. Bemis. Iron Mountain, L. E. Amidon. Ironwood, L. L. Wright. Tshpeming, Richard Hardy. Jackson, L. S. Norton. • Kalamazoo, O. E. Latham. Lansing, Clarence E. Holmes. Ludington, IT. T. Blodgett. Manistee, Samuel W. Baker. Marquette, E. C. Thompson. Marshall, Eugene F. Lohr. Menominee, O. I. Woodley. Monroe, R. D. Briggs. Mount Clemens, S. C. Price. Muskegon, David Mackenzie. Negaunee, H. B. Krogman. Niles, J.D. Schiller. Owosso, E. T. Austin. Petoskey, W. M. Andrews. Pontiac, Hugh Brown. Port Huron, W. F. Lewis. Saginaw : East Side, E. C. Warriner. West Side, N. A. Richards. St. Joseph, Ernest P. Clarke. Sault Ste. Marie, E. E. Ferguson. Traverse City, C. IT. Horn. West Bay City, N. A. Richard. Wyandotte, C. J. Wilson. Ypsilanti, Austin George. MINNESOTA. Albert Lea, W. J. Schmitz. Anoka, John L. Torrens. Austin, W. F. F. Selleck. Brainerd, T. B. Hartley. Duluth, Robert E. Denfeld. Faribault, George A. Franklin. Fergus Falls, J. A. Vandyke. Mankato, Edwin B. Uline. Minneapolis, Charles M. Jordan. New Ulm, E. T. Critchett. Owatonna, P. J. Kuntz. Red Wing, F. V. Hubbard. Rochester, L. A. Overholt. St. Cloud, Waite A. Shoemaker. St. Paul, A. J. Smith. St. Peter, Edgar George. Stillwater, Darius Steward. Winona, J. A. Tormey. MISSISSIPPI. Biloxi, J. H. Owings. Columbus, J. M. Barrow. Greenville, E. E. Bass. Hattesburg, F. F. Phillips. Jackson, Edward L. Bailey. Meridian, J. C. Fant. Natchez, J. W. Henderson. 1 Vicksburg, Charles Pendleton Kemper. MISSOURI. Boonville, William A. Annin. Brookfield, J. U. White. Cape Girardeau, E. E. McCullough.2 Carthage, W. J. Stevens. Chillicothe, Oliver Stigall. Clinton, F. B. Owen. Columbia, R. H. Emberson. Desoto, A. B. Carroll. Fulton, J. C. Humphreys. Hannibal, E. B. D. Simonson. Independence, W. H. Johnson. Jefferson City, J. W. Richardson. Joplin, Joseph D. Elliff. Kansas City, James M. Greenwood. Kirksville, C. S. Brother. Lexington, C. A. Phillips. Louisiana, A. W. Riggs. Marshall, T. E. Spencer. Maryville, Benjamin F. Duncan. Mexico, D. A. McMillan. Moberly, J. A. Whiteford. Nevada, J. C. Pike. Poplarbiuff, John T. Withers. Richhill, William McGinnis. St. Charles, George W. Jones. St. Joseph, Edward B. Neely. St. Louis, F. Louis Soldan. Sedalia, George V. Buchanan. Springfield, Jonathan Fairbanks. Trenton, W. C. Ryan. Warrensburg, J. Matt Gordon. Webb City, A. G. Young. MONTANA. Butte, R. G. Young. Great Falls, S. D. Largent. Helena, E. A. Carleton. NEBRASKA. Beatrice, W. L. Stevens. Fremont, J. L. Laird. Grand Island, Robert J. Barr. Hastings, J. D. French.- Kearney, Jesse T. Morey. Lincoln, C. H. Gordon. Nebraska City, Allen C. Fling. Omaha, Carroll G. Pearse. Plattsmouth, John G. McHugh. South Omaha, II. K. Wolfe. NEVADA. Reno, John Edwards Bray. County superintendent. 2 Principal. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY 1255 NEW HAMPSHIRE. Berlin, H. W. Johnson.1 Concord (Union district), Louis J. Eundlett. Dover, Frank H. Pease. Exeter, John A. Brown.2 Keene (Union district), Thaddeus William Harris. Laconia, J. H. Biaisdell. Manchester, C. W. Bickford. Nashua, James H. Fassett. Portsmouth, H. C. Morrison. Rochester, E. Y. Silver. Somersworth, Elisha C. Andrews. NEW JERSEY. Asbury Park, Fred. S. Shepherd. Atlantic City, Charles B. Boyer. Bayonne, James H. Christie. Bloomfield, William E. Chancellor. Bordentown, William Macfarland. Bridgeton, William Edward Cox. Burlington, Wilbur Watts.3 Camden,- Martin V. Bergen. Dover, J. Howard Hulsart.4 East Orange, Vernon L. Davey. Elizabeth, William J. Shearer. Englewood, Marcellus Oakley. Gloucester, Orville P. De Witt. Hackensack, John Terhune.5 Harrison, John Dwyer. Hoboken, A. J. Demurest. Jersey City, Henry Snyder. Lambertville, Robert H. Dilts. Longbranch, Christopher Gregory. Millville: Harry F. Stauffer.4 A. Duncan Yocum. Montclair, Randall Spaulding. Morristown, W. L. R. Hav^n. Newark, - . New Brunswick, William Clinton Armstrong. Newton, Charles J. Majory.4 North Plainfield, H. J. Wightman. Orange, William M. Swingle. Passaic, F. E. Spaulding. Paterson, Addison B. Poland. Perth Amboy, S. E. Shull. Phillipsburg, H. Budd Howell. Plainfield, Henry MJMaxson. Rahway, Y7. O. Robinson. Bedbank, S. Y. Arrowsmith. Salem, Morris FI. Stratton. Somerville, H. C. Krebs. South Amboy, R. M. Fitch. South Orange, George J. McAndrew. Trenton, Leslie C. Pierson. Town of Union, Otto Ortel.6 Vineland, J. J. Unger. West Hoboken, Robert Waters. West Orange, Edward D. McCollom. Woodbury, J. E. Frey.4 1 Chairman of board. 2 Clerk school board. 3 Principal. 4 Supervising principal. 6 County superintendent. NEW MEXICO. Albuquerque, M. E. Hickey. Santa Fe, J. A. Wood. NEW YORK. Albany, Charles W. Cole. Albion, Willis G. Carmer. Amsterdam, Charles S. Davis. Auburn, Benjamin B. Snow. Batavia, John Kennedy. Bath, Dr. Edwin F. Norton. Binghamton, Darwin L. Bar dwell. Buffalo, Henry P. Emerson. Canandaigua, J. Carlton Norris. Catskill, Thomas A. Caswell. Cohoes, George E. Dixon. Corning, Leigh R. Hunt. Cortland, Ferdinand E. Smith. Dunkirk, John W. Babcock. Elmira, C. F. Walker. Fredonia, George G. Miner.7 Fulton, B. G. Clapp.3 Geneva, William H. Truesdale. Glens Falls, E. Y\T. Griffith. Gloversville, James A. Estee. Green Island, James Heatly. Haverstraw, L. O. Markham. Herkimer, A. J. Merrell. Hoosick Falls, H. H. Snell. Hornellsviile, Elmer S. Redman. Hudson, F. J. Sagendorph. Ilion, Alfred W. Abrams. Ithaca, H. W. Foster. Jamestown, Rovillus R. Rogers. Johnstown, Frank W. Jennie gs. Kingston: Dist. No. 5, “Kingston school district,” Charles M. Ryon (P. O. box 955). Dist. No. 1, P. H. Cullen 3 (post-office, Rond- out). Dist. No. 2, William E.Bunten3 (post-office, Rondout). Dist. No. 3, Henry Powers 3 (post-office, Rondout). Dist. No. 4, William A. McConnell3 (post- office, Rondout). Lansingburg, George F. Sawyer. Littlefalls, Harry E. Reed. Lockport, Emmet Belknap. Lyons, W. H. Kinney. Malone, Sarah L. Perry. Mat-tea wan, Gurdon R. Miller.3 Mechanicsville, L. D. Blakeman. Medina, T. H. Armstrong. Middletown, James F. Tuthill. Mount Vernon, Charles E. Nichols. Newark, Charles A. Hamilton.3 Newburgh, R. V. K. Montfort. New Rochelle, Isaac E. Young. New York: William H. Maxwell, city superintendent.8 6 Superintending principal; post-cffic< , Weeliawken. 7 President board of education. 8 Post-office, New York City. 1256 EDUCATION REPORT, 189S-1S00 NEW YORK— Continued. NORTH DAKOTA. New York — Continued. Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, John Jasper.1 Borough of Brooklyn, Edward G. Ward.2 Borough of Queens, Edward L. Stevens.3 Borough of Richmond, Hubbard R. Aet¬ na an. 4 Niagara Falls, Nathaniel L. Benharn. North Tonawanda, Clinton S. Marsh. Norwich, Stanford J. Gibson. Nyack, Ira H. Lawton. Ogdensburg, Barney Vfkitney. 01ean,Fox Holden. Oneida: Dist. No. 25, Avery Warner Skinner. Dist. No. 26, H. H. Douglas. Oneonta. William C. Franklin. Oswego, George E. Bullis. Owego, Edwin P. Recordon. Peekskill: Drumhill district (Dist. No. 7), John Millar. Oakside district (Dist. No. 8), A. D. Dunbar. Penn Yan, Jay Crissey. Plattsburg, F. H. Davis. Port Chester, E. G. Lautman. Port Jervis, John M. Dolph. Poughkeepsie, Edwin Schuyler Harris. Rensselaer, R. W. Wickham. Rochester, C. B. Gilbert. Rome, Walter D. Hood. Salamanca, Thomas Stone Bell. Sandyhili, Frances A. Tefft. Saratoga Springs, Thomas R. Kneil. Schenectady, Samuel B. Howe. Seneca Falls, C. Willard Rice. Sing Sing, J. Irving Gorton. Syracuse, A. B. Blodgett. Tarry town, Albert W. Emerson. Tonawanda, F. J. Diamond. Troy, John H. Willets. Utica, George Griffith. Waterloo, Thomas C. Wilber.5 Watertown, Frank S, Tisdale. Watervliet, J.Edman Massee. Waverly, IT. J. Walter. Whitehall, Wilber W. Howe. Whiteplains, Sylvester R. Shear. Yonkers, Chai’les E. Gorton. NORTH CAROLINA. Asheville. R. J. Tighe. Charlotte, R. B. Hunter. Concord, C. S. Coler. Durham, J. A. Matkeson. Fayetteville, B. C. Mclver. Goldsboro, J. I. Foust. Greensboro, G. A. Grimsley. Highpoint, George H. Crowell. Newbern, Thomas R. Foust. Raleigh, C. H. Mebane. Salisbury, Charles L. Coon. Washington, Harry Howell. Wilmington, - -. Winston, C. F. Tomlinson. Fargo, F. Everett Smith. Grand Forks, J. Nelson Kelley. OHIO. Akron, Henry Y. Hotchkiss. Alliance, John E. Morris. Ashland, W. S. Robinson. Ashtabula, J. S. Lowe. Avondale, I. R. Henderson. Barberton, W. M. Glasgow. Bellaire, J. R. Anderson. Bellefontaine, Hc-nry Whitworth. Bellevue, E. F. Warner. Bucyrus, J. J. Bliss. Cambridge, C. L. Cronebaugk. Canton, O. A. Wright. Chillicothe, N. H. Chaney. Cincinnati, Richard G. Boone. Circleville, C. L. Boyer. Cleveland, Lewis H. Jones. Columbus, J. A. Skawati. Coshocton. John F. Fenton. Dayton, W. N. Hailmann. Defiance, R. W. Mitchell. Delaware, Horace A. Stokes. Delphos, E. W. Hastings. East Liverpool, Robert E. Rayman. Elyria, Henry M. Parker. Findlay. J. W. Zellar. Fostoria, W. S. Robinson. Fremont, W. W. Ross. Gabon, I. C. Guinther. Gallipolis. Charles J. Britton. Glenville, H. H. Cully. Greenville, Edward M. Yan Cleve. Hamilton, S. L. Rose. Hillsboro, H. C. Minnich. Iron ton, S’. P. Humphrey. Jackson, J. E. Kinniaon. Kent, A. B. Stutzman. Kenton, E. P. Dean. Lancaster, George W. Welsh. Lima, Charles C. Miller. Lorain, F. D. Ward. Mansfield, Edmund D. Lyon. Marietta, W. W. Boyd. Marion, Arthur Powell. Martins Ferry, W. H. Stewart. Massillon, Edmund A. Jones. Middletown, J. E. McKean. Mount Vernon, John K. Baxter. Nelsonville, Aaron Grady. New Philadelphia, G. C. Maurer. Newark, F. Martin Townsend. Niles, Frank J. Roller. Norwalk, A. D. Beechy. Oberlin, E. A. Miller. Painesville, W. W. Boyd. Piqua, C. W. Bennett. Pomeroy, T. C. Flanegin. Portsmouth, Thomas Vickers. St. Marys, J. D. Si ink ins. » Salem, Jesse Johnson. Sandusky, L. J. House. 1 Post-office, New York City. 2 Post-office, Brooklyn, N. Y. 3 Post-office, Flushing, N.Y. 4 Post-office, Tottenvilie, N. Y. 5 Principal. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY. i o K7 IaVU i OHIO— Continued. Shelby, W. S. Lynch. Sidney, E. Hard. Springfield, John S. Weaver. Steubenville. Henry Ney Mertz. Tiffin, C. A. Krout. Toledo, William Wallace Chalmers. Troy, Charles L. Van Cleve. Uhriehsvi'ile, S. K. Mardis. Urbana, William McK. Vance. Vanwerfc, J. P. Sharkey. Warren, C. E. Carey. W ashingtcn Court-House, H. E. McVay. W ellston. Ezekiel Wallace Patterson. W ellsville, Janies L. MacDonald. Wooster, Charles Haupert. Xenia, Edwin B. Cox. Youngstown, F. Trendley. Zanesville, W. D. Lash. OKLAHOMA. Oklahoma, B. F. Nihart. OREGON. Astoria, William W. Payne. Portland, Frank Kig’ler. Salem, G. W. Jones. PENNSYLVANIA. Allegheny, John Morrow. Allentown. Francis D. Kaub. Altoona, D. S. Keith. Archbald, W. A. Kelly.1 Ashland, William C. Estler. Ashley, T. B. Harrison. Bangor. William H. Lindeman. Baever Falls, Charles J. Boak. Bellefonte, David O. Etters. Bethlehem, Fred W. Robbins. Braddock, Geo. H. Lamb. Bradford, E. E. Miller. Bristol, Louise D. Baggs. Butler, John A. Gibson. Carbondale, John J. Forbes. Carlisle, Samuel B. Shearer. Carnegie. W. S Bryan.1 Chambersbtirg, Samuel Gelwis. Chester. Charles F. Foster. Columbia, Daniel Fieisher. Connellsville, J. P. Wiley. Conshohocken, J. Horace Landis, Corry, A. D. Colegrove. Danville, James C. Houser. Dickson, M. J. Lloyd. Dubois, W. L. Greene. Dunmore, E. D. Bovard. Duquesne, A. V. McKee. 1 Easton, William W. Cottingham. Erie, H. C. Missimer. Etna, J. Q. A. Irvine.1 Forest City, C. T. Thorpe.1 Franklin, N. P. Kinsley. Greensburg, A. M. Wyant. Greenville, S. IT. Miller. Hanover, Thomas F. Chrostwaite. PENNSYLVANIA— Continued. Harrisburg, Lemuel O. Loose. Hazelton, David A. Harman. Homestead, John C. Kendall. Huntingdon, Kimber Cleaver. Indiana, W. S. Trainer. Jeannette, John W. Anthony. Johnstown, J. M. Berkey. Lancaster, R. K. Buehrle. Lansford, A. J. Havbaugh.2 Latrohe, A. A. Streng. Lebanon, R. T. Adams. Lock Haven, John A. Robb. McKeesport, H. F. Brooks. McKees Rocks, F. H. Powers. Mahanoy City, William N. Ehrhart. Mauchchunk, James J. Sevan. Meadville, U. G. Smith. Middletown, H. J. Wickey. Milton. A. Reist Rutt. Minersville, H. H. Spayd.1 Monongahela City, E. W. Dalbey.1 Mount Carmel, Samuel Halsey Dean. N anticoke, John William Griffith. New Brighton, Joseph Burdette Richey. Newcastle, J. W. Canon. New Kingston, B. S. Hunnell. Norristown, Joseph K. Got wads. Oil City, C. A. Babcock. Olyphant, M. W. Gumming. Philadelphia, Edward Brooks. Phoenixville, Harry F. Leister. Pittsburg, Samuel Andrews. Pittston, Robert Shiel.2 Plymouth, Frank E. Fickinger. Pottstown, William W. Rupert. Pottsville, B. F. Patterson. Punxsutawney, James L. Allison.2 Reading. Ebenezer Mackey. Renovo, James W. Elliott. St. Clair, Thomas G. Jones. St. Marys, J. W. Sweeney. Scottdale, E. L. Stoner. Scranton, George Howell. Shamokin, William F. Harpel. Sharon, J. A. McLaughry. Sharps burg: C.C. Kelso.2 E. B. McRoberts. Shenandoah. J. W. Cooper. South Bethlehem, Owen R. Wilt. Steeiton, L. E. McGinnes. Sunbnry, Ira Shipman. Tamaqua, Robert F. Ditchburn. Tarentum, Charles Edwin Carter. Titusville, Henry Pease. To wan da, F. W. Robbins.2 Tyrone, l. C. Ellenberger. Uniontown, Lee Smith. Warren, W. L. MaoGowan, W ashington, W. D. Brightwell. Waynesboro, J. H. Reber.2 Westchester, Addison L. Jones, Wilkesbarre, James M. Coughlin. Wilkinsburg, E. J. Shives. 1 Principal. 2 Supervising principal. 1258 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. PE NNSYL VANIA— Continued. ■Williamsport, Charles Lose. York, Atreus Warmer. RHODE ISLAND. Bristol, John Post Reynolds. Burrillville, Allen P. Keith. Central Falls, W endell A. Mowry. Coventry, Charles M. Tyler. Cranston, Valentine Alray. Cumberland, Albert E. Kingsbury. East Providence, George N. Bliss. Johnston, William H. Starr.1 Newport, Benjamin Baker. North Kingstown, F. B. Cole. Pawtucket, Henry D. Hervey. Providence, Horace S. Tar bell. W esterly , C. H. Babcock. W oonsocket, Frank E. McFee. SOUTH CAROLINA. Anderson, Thomas C. Walton. Charleston, Henry P. Archer. Chester, W. H. Hand. Columbia, E. S. Dreher. Greenville, E. L. Hughes. Greenwood, F. M. Sheridan. Orangeburg, A. J. Thackston. Spartanburg, Frank Evans. Sumter, S. II. Edmunds. SOUTH DAKOTA. Lead, E. C. Grubbs. Mitchell, E. J. Quigley. Sioux Falls, Frank C. McClelland, Yankton, C. W. Martindale. TENNESSEE. Chattanooga, A. T. Barrett. Clarksville, J. W. Graham. Columbia, W. E. Bostick and J. H. Kelly.2 Jackson, Seymour A. Mynders. Johnson City, S. C. Brown. Knoxville, J. E. McCallie. Memphis, George W. Gordon. Nashville, Z. H. Brown. TEXAS. A ustin, T. G. Harris. Brenham, Edward W. Tarrant. Brownsville, Thomas P. Barbour.3 Cleburne, V. M. Fulton. Corpus Christi, Charles W. Crossley. Corsicana, H. S. Melear. Dallas, J. L. Long. Denison, William Gay. El Paso, G. P. Putnam. Fort W orth, M. G. Bates. Gainesville, E. F. Comegys. Galveston, John W Hopkins. Gonzales, T. L. Toland. Greenville, J. H. Y an Amburgh. Hillsboro, T. S. Cox. Houston, W . W. Barnett. Laredo, B. F. Pettus. McKinney, J. C. Ryan. TEXAS— Continued. Marshall, W. H. Attebery. Palestine, D. C. Lake. Paris, J. G. Wooten. San Antonio, J. E. Smith. Sherman, J. H. Gibson. Taylor, W. M. Williams. Temple, Justin F. Kimball. Texarkana, W. Owens. Tyler, J. L. Henderson. Victoria, Arthur Lefevre. Waco, J. C. Lattiinore. Waxahachie, W. L. Acker. Weatherford, Joseph B. Rogers. UTAH. Logan, Albert M. Merrill. Ogden, WiJliain Allison. Provo, William S. Rawlings. Salt Lake City, Frank B. Cooper. VERMONT. Barre, O. D. Mathewson. Bellows Falls, Everett W. Lord. Brattleboro, H. K. Whitaker. Burlington, Henry O. Wheeler. Montpelier, J. H. Lucia. Rutland, Willard A. Frasier. St. Albans, Francis A. Bagnall. St. Johnsbury, Clarence H. Dempsey. VIRGINIA. Alexandria, Kosciusko Kemper. Bristol, E. H. Russell. Charlottesville, Frank A. Massie. Danville, Abner Anderson. Fredericksburg, Benjamin P. Willis. Lynchburg, E. C. Glass. Manchester, David L. Pulliam. Newport News, John Sheldon Jones. Norfolk, Richard A. Dobie. Petersburg, D. M. Brown. Portsmouth, John C. Ashton. Richmond, William F. Fox. Roanoke, Bushrod Rust. Staunton, John FI. Bader. Winchester, Maurice M. Lynch. WASHINGTON. Everett, Emma S. Yule. Fairhaven, W. J. Hughes. New Whatcom, E. E. White. Olympia, C. W. Durette. Seattle, Frank J. Barnard. Spokane, J . F. Saylor. Tacoma, R. S. Bingham. Vancouver, C. W. Shumway. Walla Walla, R. C. Kerr. WEST VIRGINIA. Benwood, Charles E. Carrigan.3 Bluefield, C. A. Ful wider. Charleston, Geo. S. Laidley. Clarksburg, F. L. Burdette. Huntington, W. H. Cole. Martinsburg, C. H. Cole. 1 Post-office, Centerdale. 2 Principals. 3 Principal. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY 1259 WEST VIRGINIA— Continued. Parkersburg, U. S. Fleming. Wheeling, YU H. Anderson. WISCONSIN. Antigo, F. F. Showers. Appleton, Carrie E. Morgan. Ashland, J. T. Hooper. Baraboo, H. A. Whipple. Beaver Dam, W. C. Griffis. Beloit, Franklin E. Converse. Chippewa Falls, S. B. Tobey. Depere: East Side, Andrew C. Mailer. West Side, J. D. Conley. Eau Claire, Otis C. Gross. Fond du Lae, L. A. Williams. Greenbay, F. G. Kraege. Janesville, D. D. Mayne. Kaukauna, E. A. Baker. Kenosha, Gerald B. McDowell. La Crosse, John P. Bird. Madison, E. B. Dudgeon. Manitowoc, Fred. Christiansen.1 Marinette, John T. Edwards. WISCONSIN— Continued. Menasha, John Rosch. Menominee, Judson E. Hoyt. Merrill, W.H. Schulz. ' , Milwaukee, H. O. R. Siefert. Neenak, E. A. Williams. Oconto, R. L. Cooley. Oshkosh, H. A. Simonds. Portage, A. C. Kellogg. Racine, George F. Bell. Rhinelander, Myra Gerinond. Sheboygan, H. F. Leverenz. Stevens Point, Henry A. Simonds. Superior, B. B. Jackson. Watertown, Charles F. Viebahn. Waukesha, JI. L. Terry. 2 Wausau, Karl Mathie. West Greenbay, A. W. Burton. Wonewoc, W. F. Freeman. WYOMING. Cheyenne, James O. Churchill. Laramie, Frank V7. Lee. Rock Springs, B. A. Dunbar. III. — College Presidents. I. — Colleges for men and coeducational colleges of liberal arts. Name of president. Frank M. Roof. A. M . - Rev. S. M. Hosmer, D. D . James H. Riddle, Ph. M . . E. R. Eldridge, LL. D . . . Milton S. Harper . . . Rev. Benedict Manges, O. S. B _ Rev. C. S. Dinkins . . Rev. William Tyrrell, S. J . . Jaines K. Powers. LL. D . M. M. Parker, A. M . - G.'C. Jones, A. M . . John W. Conger, A. M . Eugene R. Long, Ph. D . J. T. Perigo . . Rev. A. C. Millar, A. M . . J. L. Buchanan, LL. D . . . Rev. J. M. Cos, A. M.,B. D . . J.F. Howell, A. M . . . . B. I. Wheeler, Ph. D., LL. D. . Rev. F. L. Ferguson, B. D . Rev. Eli McClish, D. D _ Rev. G. W. V/adsworth, A. B _ Rev. J. A. Linn, C. M _ _ Rev. Georgs Cochran, D. D., act¬ ing. Rev. T. G-. Brownson, D. D . Walter A. Edwards, A. M . . Rev. .John P. Frieden, S. J _ Rev. Robert E. Kenna, S. J _ G.H. Wilkinson, Ph.B.. . D. S. Jordan, Ph. D., LL. D _ James H. Baker, LL. D . . Rev. W. F. Slocum, LL. D . Rev. J. J. Brown, S.J . . Rev. Henry A. Buchtel, D. D., chancellor. Rev. G. W. Smith, D.D..LL.D ... Rev. B. P. Raymond, D. D., LL. D Arthur T. Hadley, LL. D. . . Rev. W. C. Jason, A. M.,B. D . . Geo. A. Harter, Ph. D . . Rev. T. J. Conaty, S. T. D,, rector. University or college. Address. Howard College. . Southern University . . Hartselle College . Lafayette College . Line^ille College . St. Bernard College.. . . Alabama Baptist Colored University Spring Hill College . . . University of Alabama . . University of Arizona . . . Arkadelphia Methodist College . Ouachita Baptist College . Arkansas College . . . . Arkansas Cumberland College . Hendrix College . . . University of Arkansas . . Philander Smith College . . Mountain Home Baptist College. _ University of California . Pomona College . University of "the Pacific... . Occidental College. . ." . St. Vincent’s College . . . . University of Southern California.. East Lake, Ala. Greensboro, Ala. Hartselle, Ala. Lafayette, Ala. Lineville, Ala. St. Bernard, Ala. Selma, Ala. Spring Hill, Ala. University, Ala. Tucson, Ariz. Arkadelphia, Ark. Do. Bates ville, Ark. Clarksville, Ark. Conway, Ark. Fayetteville, Ark. * Little Rock, Ark. Mountain Home, Ark. Berkeley, Cal. Claremont, Cal. College Park, Cal. Los Angeles, Cal. Do. Do. > " California College . . . . Tbroop Polytechnic Institute. . St. Ignatius”College . Santa Clara College . Pacific Methodist College . . Leland Stanford Junior University. University of Colorado . Colorado College _ _ _ _ College of the Sacred Heart. . University of Denver . . Oakland, Cal. Pasadena, Cal. San Francisco, Cal. Santa Clara, Cal. Santa Rosa, Cal. Stanford University ,CaL Boulder, Colo. Colorado Springs, Colo. Denver. Colo. University Park, Colo. Trinity College . Wesleyan University . Yale University . State College for Colored Students. Delaware College . . . . Catholic University of America _ Hartford, Conn. Middletown, Conn. New Haven, Conn. Dover, Del. Newark. Del. Washington, D. C. 1 County superintendent. 2 Principal. 1260 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. III. — College Presidents— Continued. I. — Colleges for men and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. Rev. S. H. Greene, D. D.,LL. D., acting. E. M. Gallaudet, Ph. D., LL. D _ Rev. John D. Whitney, S. J. . Rev. Edward X. Fink, S. J- . Rev. J. E. Rankin, D. D. , LL. D . . . Rev. Brother Abdas, F. S. C . John F. Forbes, Ph. D . . Rev. W. F. Yocum, D. D . - Rev. T. G. Lang, A. B . . - . Rev. Charles H. More, Ph. D _ A. A. Murphree, A. B . . . Rev. G.M. Ward, A. M.,B.D _ Walter B. Hill. LL. D. . chancellor Rev. George Sale, A. M . . Rev. Horace Bumstead, D. D . Rev. J. M. Henderson, D. D . Vacliel D. Whatley, A. B . . Joseph S. Stewart. A. M . . P.D. Pollock, LL.D__ . . . Rev. C. E. Dowman. D. D . . _ Rev. C. M. Meiden, Ph. D _ Charles A. Bell _. . Rev. Joseph A. Sharp, A. B . James A. McLean, Ph. D _ Rev. H. D. Clark, D. D.,Ph. D _ Rev. E. M. Smith, D. D. - . . Rev. M. J. Marsile, C. S. V . W. H. Bradley, A. M., chairman. . Rev. Fred L. Sigmund, A. M . Andrew S. Draper, LL. D . . . Rev. Henry J. Dumbach, S. J _ Rev. Wm. R. Harper, Ph. D., D. D., LL. D. W. E. Lugenbeel, Ph. D . . Rev. Daniel Irion . . Robert E. Hieronymus, A. M _ Daniel Bonbright, LL. D., acting . Rev. J. A. Leavitt, D. D . . J. E. Bittinger. A. M . . . . Rev. Thomas McClelland, D. D_ . . Rev. Charles E. Nash. S. T. D _ Wilson T. Hogg, Ph. B. . . Clifford W. Barnes, A. M. _ Rev. J. G. K. McClure, D. D. . . M. H. Chamberlin, LL. D _ Rev. J. L. Goodknight, D.D . Rev. Samuel R. Lyons, D. D . Rev. H. J. Kiekhoefer, Ph. D . Rev. Y. Huber, O. S. B., rector _ Rev. N. Leonard, O. S. F., rector . Charles W. Foss, Ph. D . . Rev. H. Storff, O. S. F., rector _ Rev. Stanley A. McKay, D. D _ Rev. Wm. S. Reese, D. D . Rev. C. A. Blanchard, D. D . . Joseph Swain, LL. D . Rev. W m. P. Kane, D.D . Rev. Jos. Schmidt . Rev. William T. Stott, D.D., LL.D Rev. FI. A. Gobin, D.D . Rev. D. W. Fisher, D. D., LL. D. .. Scot Butler, LL. D . . . Rev. L. J. Aldrich, D. D . . Rev. C. W. Lewis, D.D. . Rev. A. Morrissey, C. S. C. . Joseph J. Mills, LL. D . H. C. Garvin . Rev. A. Schmitt, O. S. B. . Rev. T. C. Reade, D.D . J. H. Scott, A. B. . . Rev. A. Grant Evans . . Rev. S. B. McCormick, D.D. . J. Frederick Hirsch, A. M . O. Kraushaar . Rev. J. C. Calhoun, D.D . Rev. Laur. Larsen . . . . Rev. Wm. B. Craig, D. D., LL. D., chancellor. Columbian University Washington, D. C. Gallaudet College . Georgetown University. . Gonzaga College. . . . Howard University . . . St.John’s College.. . . John B. Stetson University . . Florida Agricultural College . . Florida Conference College . St. Leo Military College. . Seminary West of the Suwanee River. Rollins College . University of Georgia . Atlanta Baptist College . . . Atlanta University. . Morris Brown College _ _ Bowdon College . . . . North Georgia Agricultural College Mercer University . . Emory College . . . Clark University . . . . Nannie Lou Warthen Institute - Young Harris College . . . University of Idaho . . . FTeddin ^College . . Illinois Wesleyan University . . St. Viateur's College . Blackburn Uni versity . . . Carthage College . . . University of Illinois... . St. Ignatius College . . . University of Chicago . Do. Do. Do Do. Do. Deland, Fla. Lake City, Fla. Leesburg. Fla. St. Leo, Fla. Tallahassee, Fla. Winter Park. Fla. Athens, Ga. Atlanta, Ga. Do. Do. Bowdon, Ga. Dahlonega, Ga. Macon. Ga. Oxford, Ga. South Atlanta, Ga. Wrightsville, Ga. Young Harris, Ga. Moscow, Idaho. Abingdon, Ill. Bloomington, Ill. Bourbonnais, Ill. Carlin ville, Ill. Carthage, ill. Champaign, Ill. Chicago, Ill. Do. Austin College . . . Evangelical Proseminary .... Eureka College . . . . Northwestern University.... Ewing College . . Northern Illinois College _ Knox College . . . Lombard College . Greenville College . Illinois College. . Lake Forest University. . McKendree College . Lincoln University _ Monmouth College . . Northwestern College . St. Bede College _ _ St. Francis Solanus College . . Augustana College _ St. Joseph’s Diocesan College Shurtieff College . Westfield College . . Wheaton College . . 'Indiana University . W abash College . Concordia College . Franklin College. . . De Pauw University . Flanover College . Butler College . . . Union Christian College . Moores Hill College . University of Notre Dame.. Earlham College . Ridge ville College . St. Meinrad College . Taylor University . Indian University . . Henry Kendall College _ Coe College - - - Charles City College. . Wartburg College . . Amity College ...^ . . Luther College _ _ Des Moines College . . Drake University . . Effingham, Ill. Elmhurst, ill. Eureka, Ill. Evanston, Ill. Ewing, Ill. Fulton, Ill. Galesburg, Ill. Galesburg. Ill. Greenville, Ill. Jacksonville, Ill. Lake Forest, Ill. Lebanon. III. Lincoln, Ill. Monmouth, Ill. Naperville, Ill. Peru, Ill. Quincy. Ill. Rock Island. Ill. Teutopolis, Ill. Upper Alton, Ill, "Westfield, Ill. "Wheaton, Ill. Bloomington, Ind. Crawfordsville, Ind. Fort Wayne, Ind. Franklin, Ind. Greencastle, Ind. Hanover, Ind. Irvington, Ind. Merom. Ind. Moores Hill, Ind. Notre Dame, Ind. Richmond, Ind. Ridge ville, Ind. St. Meinrad, Ind. Upland, Ind. Bacone, Ind. T. Muscogee, Ind. T. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Charles City, Iowa. Clinton. Iowa. College Springs, Iowa. . Decorah, Iowa. Des Moines, Iowa. Do. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY 1261 III. — College Presidents — Continued. I.— Colleges f or men and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. Rev. John P. Carroll, D. D . Rev. F. W. Hinitt, Pli. D . Rev. Guy P. Benton, D. D . Andrew G. Wilson, A. M . Charles E. Shelton, A. M . - George E. MacLean, LL. D . . R. A. Harkness, Ph. D . . . Carl Summerbell, A. M . . Rev. E. S. Havighorst, D. D. . Rev. Wm ' F.'King' D .’ DULL D " ". A. Rosenberger, A. B., LL. B . Rev. W. S. Lewis, D. D . . . Rev. Harvey Hostetler, A. B . Rev. R. C. Hughes, A. M . Rev. L. Bookwalter, D. D . . Rev. Jacob A. Clutz, D. D . Rev. I. Wolf, O. S. B., D. D . . Rev. L. H. Murlin, D. D . . .. Rev. E. H. Vaughan, Ph. D., D. D . Rev. J. 0. Miller, D. D. . Ambrose P. ilaydon, A. M . E. N. .Johnson, A, M., C. E - Rev. D. S. Stephens, D.D., chan- St. Joseph’s College . Parsons College _ _ _ Upper Iowa University _ Iowa College . Lenox College . . Simpson College . State University of Iowa... Graceland College. . . Palmer College . German College . . . Iowa Wesleyan University . Cornell College . . . Penn College. .. . Central University of Iowa Morningside College . Buena Vista College . Tabor College . . . Western College . Midland College . . St. Benedict’s College . Baker University _ _ Soule College . . . College of Emporia . . Highland University . Campbell University . Kansas City University _ Dubuque, Iowa. Fairfield, Iowa. Fayette, Iowa. Grmnell, Iowa. Hopkinton, Iowa. Indianola, Iowa. Iowa City, Iowa. Lamoni, Iowa. Legrand, Iowa. Mount Pleasant, Iowa. Do. Mount Vernon, Iowa. Oskaloosa, Iowa. Pella. Iowa. Sioux City, Iowa. Storm Lake, Iowa. Tabor, Iowa. Toledo, Iowa. Atchison, Kans. Do. Baldwin, Kans. Dodge City, Kans. Emporia, Kans. Highland, Kans. Holton, Kans. Kansas City, Kans. * cellor. F. H. Snow, Ph. D., LL. D . Rev. C. M. Brooke, D. D . . O. B. Whitaker, A. M., Pd. D . Rev. C. A. Swensson, Ph. D., D.D. J. D. S. Riggs, Ph. D . - . Rev. James McCabe, S. J . .. . Rev. Milton E. Phillips. D. D - Rev. F. M. Spencer, D. D . Geo. M. Herrick, Litt. D . Rev. N. J. Morrison, D. D., LL. D. Rev. A. W. Meyer . - . Frederic C. Demorest, A. M . Rev. J. P. Faulkner, A. M . . Rev. Wm. G. Frost, Ph. D. .. . Wm. A. Obenchain, A. M . . Rev.Wm.C. Roberts, D. D.. LL.D Arthur Yager, Ph. D., chairman. Rev. J . H. Burnett, A. M . A. C. Kuykendall, A.B . J. K. Patterson, Ph. D., LL. D _ Rev. L. H. Blanton, D. D., chan¬ cellor. University of Kansas . Lane University . . . Kansas Christian College . Bethany College . . Ottawa University . St. Mary’s College . . Kansas Wesleyan University Cooper Memorial College _ Washburn College _ _ Fairmount College . . St.John’s Lutheran College . Southwest Kansas College U nion College . . . Berea College . Ogden College _ _ Centre College _ _ Georgetown College. . Liberty College . . . . South Kentucky College . Kentucky University _ State College of Kentucky. .. Central University _ Lawrence, Kans. Lecompton, Kans. Lincoln, Kans. Lindsborg, Kans. Ottawa, Kans. St. Marys, Kans. Salina, Kans. Sterling, Kans. Topeka, Kans. Wichita, Kans. Winfield, Kans. Do. Bar hour ville, Ky. Berea, Ky. Bowling Green, Ky. Danville, Ky. Georgetown, Ky. Glasgow, Ky. Hopkinsville, Ky. Lexington, Ky. Do. Richmond, Ky. Rev. E. S. Alderman. D.D _ _ Rev. John Fehrenbach, C. R.,D.D Thomas D. Boyd, LL. D . . Rev. M. Thouvenin, S. M . Rev. I. W. Cooper, D. D . Rev. John Brislan, S.J . Bethel College . - . St. Mary’s College . . | Kentucky Wesleyan College . I Louisiana State University - j Jefferson College . . . . | Centenary College of Louisiana .. College of the Immaculate Concep¬ tion. Russellville, Ky. St. Marys, Ky. Winchester, Ky. Baton Rouge, La. Convent, La. Jackson, La. N ew Orleans, La. Geo. H. Eel ton, A. M., M.D., acting Rev. L. G. Adkinson, D.D . Oscar Atwood, A . M _ . . E. A. Alderman, D.C.L. . ._ Rev. Wm. D. Hyde, D. D. , LL. D . . Rev. G. 0. Chase, D. D., LL. D _ A. W. Harris, Sc. D . _ Thomas Fell, Ph. D., LL. D . Rev. William P. Brett, S.J - . Rev. Francis J. Wagner, D.D _ Charles W. Reid, Ph. D. . R. W. Silvester . Rev. Brother Abraham . . Rev. C. B. Schrantz, S. S . Rev. Wm. L. O’Hara, A. M.#_ _ Rev. James M. Nourse . . . Rev. Thomas H. Lewis, D.D _ Rev. George Harris, D. D., LL. D. Rev. W. G. R. Mullan, S. J _ Rev. Wm, F. Warren, LL. D . Leland University _ New Orleans University - Straight University . . Tulane University. . . . Bowdoin College . . . Bates College . . . . . University of Maine . Colby College . St.John’s College.. . . . . Johns Hopkins University _ Loyola College.. . . Morgan College . W ashington College . . . . Maryland Agricultural College Rock Hill College _ _ St. Charles College . Mount St Mary’s College . New Windsor College . . W estern Maryland College . Amherst College . . Boston College. . Boston University . Do. Do. Do. Do. Brunswick, Me. Lewiston, Me. Orono, Me. Watervilie, Me. Annapolis, Md. Baltimore, Md. Do. Do. Chester town, Md. College Park. Md. Eliicott City, Md. Do. Mount St. Marys, Md. New Windsor, Md. Westminster, Md. Amherst, Mass. Boston, Mass. Do. 1262 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. III. — College Presidents— Continued. I. — Colleges for men and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. Charles W. Eliot, LL. D .. . Rev. Samuel H. Lee, A. M . . .. Rev. Elmer H.Capen, D.D.,LL.D F. Carter, Ph. D., LL. D . . . G. Stanley Hall, Ph. D. , LL. D... . Rev. John F. Lehy, S. J. . . Rev. David Jones, D. D_ . Rev. John P. Ashley, Ph. D..LL.D Rev. August F. Bruske, D. D . James B. Angell, LL. D . . Rev. James D. Foley, S. J. . Hon. Geo. F. Mosher, LL. D . Gerrit J. Kollen, LL. D . . A. G. Slocum, LL. D . . Rev. W. G. Sperry, D. D . . Rev. P. Engel, O. S. B., Ph. D . Georg Sverdrup . Cyrus Northrop, LL. D . . Rev. J. W. Strong, D. D., LL. D... Rev. John N. Kildahl. . .' . Rev. Geo. H. Bridgman, D. D _ James Wallace, Ph. D . . Rev. M. Wahlstrom, Ph. D . R. M. Lawrence, A. M. . Rev. Wm. T. Lowrey, D. D . Rev. Wm. W. Foster, jr., D. D _ Rev. W. B. Murrah, D. D., LL. D.. R. B. Fulton, LL. D. , chancellor . . J. W. Ellis. . . . . Rev. R. E. L. Burks, D. D . . . Charles R. Wakeland, B. S _ Rev. B. W. Baker, Ph. D., D. D.... D. R. Dungan, LL. D . Rev. E. M. Hopkins, C. M _ W arren I. Moore, A. M . Richard H. Jesse, LL. D . Rev. Geo. W. Mitchell, D. D . E. B. Craighead, LL. D._ . . J. H. MacCracken, Ph. D_ . Rev. C. C. Hemenway, Ph. D _ JereT. Muir, LL.D.. . - . Rev. J. P. Greene, D. D., LL. D.__ Rev. Wm. H. Black, D.D _ Joseph J. Pritchett, A. M . Rev. J. B. Ellis- . . . . J. R. McChesney . L. M. McAfee, A.M., chairman.. Brother Emery, F. S. C . . Rev. W. B. Rogers, S. J . . W. S. Chaplin, LL. D., chancellor. Rev. Homer T. Fuller, Ph.D.,D.D Rev. J. A. Thompson, D. D _ Geo. McA. Miller . Geo. B. Addicks, A.M . Rev. Thomas Van Scoy, D.D _ Oscar. J. Craig, Ph.D. . . Rev. D. R. Kerr, Ph.D., D.D _ W. P. Aylsworth, LL. D... . Wm. T. Bland . . . . Rev. David B. Perry, IX D- . Rev. Geo. Sutherland, D.D . Wm. N. Filson, A.B . . Rev. E. B. Andrews, D.D., LL.D., University or college. Address. Harvard University. . . French- American College. . . Tufts College . . Williams College. . . . . Clark University . College of the Holy Cross _ _ Adrian College _ .1 . . . Albion College. . . . Alma College . . . . . University of Michigan. . Detroit College . . Hillsdale College . . . . Hope College . . . . Kalamazoo College . . . Olivet College . . . . . St. John’s University . Augsburg Seminary . . . . University of Minnesota. . Carleton College . . . . St. Olaf College.... . . . Hamline University . . . Macalester College . . Gustavus Adolphus College. . . Parker College . . . Mississippi College . . Rust University . . . Miilsaps College . U ni versify of Mississippi . Central Christian College. . . Southwest Baptist College . . . Pike College . . . . Cambridge, Mass. Springfield, Mass. Tufts College, Mass. Williamstown, Mass. Worcester, Mass. Do. Adrian, Mich. Albion, Mich. Alma, Mich. Ann Arbor, Mich. Detroit, Mich. Hillsdale, Mich. Holland, Mich. Kalamazoo, Mich. Olivet, Mich. College ville, Minn. Minneapolis, Minn. Do. Northfield, Minn. Do. St, Paul, Minn. Do. St. Peter, Minn. Winnebago City, Minn. Clinton, Miss. Holly Springs, Miss. Jackson, Miss. University, Miss. Albany, Mo. Bolivar, Mo. Bowling Green, Mo. Missouri W esleyan College . . . . Christian University- . St. Vincent College . . . Clarksburg Baptist College - . University of the State of Missouri. Grand River Christian Union Col¬ lege. Central College . . . , . Westminster College . Pritchett College . . Lagrange College . ...... . William Jewell College . Missouri Valley College . Morrisville College . . . Scarritt Collegiate Institute . Odessa College . . . . Park College . . Christian Brothers College . St. Louis University. . Washington University . . . Drury College . . Tarkio College . . Avalon College . . . Central Wesleyan College . Montana Wesleyan University . University of Montana . University of Omaha . . Cotner University. . . . Union College . Doane College . . Grand Island College . . . . Hastings College . . . University of Nebraska. . Cameron, Mo. Canton, Mo. Cape Girardeau, Mo. Clarksburg, Mo. Columbia, Mo. Edinburg, Mo. Fayette, Mo. Fulton, Mo, Glasgow, Mo. Lagrange, Mo. Liberty, Mo. Marshall, Mo. Morrisville, Mo. Neosho, Mo. Odessa, Mo. Parkville, Mo. St. Louis, Mo. Do. Do. Springfield, Mo. Tarkio, Mo. Trenton, Mo. Warrenton, Mo. Helena, Mont. Missoula, Mont. Bellevue, Nebr. Bethany, Nebr. College View, Nebr. Crete, Nebr. Grand Island, Nebr. Hastings, Nebr. Lincoln, Nebr. chancellor. Rev. M. P. Dowling, S. J. . Rev. D. W. C. Huntington, D.D., chancellor. Wm. E. Schell, A.M . Rev. Joseph E. Stubbs, D. D _ Rev. W. J. Tucker, D. D. . LL. D . . Rev. F. Widman, O.S.B., director. Rev. John Harpes, S. J . . . Rev. G. Bien, O. S. B., director.. . Austin Scott, Ph. D., LL. D. . Rev. F. L. Patton, D.D.,LL. D... Rev. John A. Stafford, S. T.L ... C. L. Herrick, Ph. D . . Rev. B. C. Davis, Ph. D . . Rev. Joseph F. Butler, O. F. M...I Creighton University . Nebraska Wesleyan University York College . . . .. State University of Nevada ... Dartmouth College . St. Anselm’s College . . St. Peter’s College. . . St. Benedict’s College . . Rutgers College . . . Pinceton University. . . Seton Hall College - - University of New Mexico - Alfred University _ _ _ _ St. Bonaventure’s College.. _ Omaha, Nebr, University Place, Nebr. York, Nebr. Reno, Nev, Planover, N. H. Manchester, N. H. Jersey City, N. J. Newark, N. J. New Brunswick, N. J. Princeton, N. J. South Orange, N. J. Albuquerque, N. Mex. Alfred, N. Y. Allegany, N. Y. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY 1263 HI.— College Presidents — Continued. I. — Colleges for men and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. Rev. Lawrence T. Cole, Ph.D _ C. H. Levermore, Ph.D . Henry S. Snow, LL. D . Brother Jerome, O.S.F _ Rev, James J. Sullivan, C. M _ Rev. John B. Theis, S. J . Rev. Almon Gunnison, D.D _ Rev. M.'W. Stryker, D.D..LL.D. Rev. Robert E. Jones, D. D. . Rev. George E. Merrill, D.D _ J. G. Schurman, Sc. D.,LL.D _ Rev. D.W. Hearn, S. J.... . Alexander S. Webb, LL.D. . Hon. Seth Low, LL.D-. . Rev. Brother Justin, LL.D . , Rev. Geo. A. Pettit, S. J . Rev. H. M. MacCracken, D. D., LL. D., chancellor. Rev. P. S. MacHale, C. M._ . Rev. Rush Rhees, D.D. . Rev. A. V. V. Raymond, D.D . Rev. J. R. Day, S. T.D., LL.D., chancellor. Rev. Leo Haid, D. D., O. S. B _ P. P. Venable, Ph. D . Rev. D. J. Sanders, D.D _ Henry L. Smith, Ph.D . . Rev. John C. Kilgo, D. D _ _ _ Rev. W. W. Staley, D.D _ L. Lyndon Hobbs, A. M. _ Rev. Robert A. Yoder, D.D . Rev. W. A. Lutz, A. M . C. H. Mebane. . . . . Chas. E. Meserve, A. M. . . A. C. Reynolds . . . Rev. William H. Goler, D.D . Rev. C. E. Taylor, D. D., Litt. B.. Rev. George F. Kirby. . . . . . . Rev. John H. Morley, LL. D . W. Merrifield, A. M . . Rev. E. P. Robertson, D.D . Rev. Ira A. Priest, D. D. . Rev. Albert B. Riser, D.D . Charles W. Super, Ph. D. , LL. D. . Rev. R. M. Freshwater, D.D _ Rev. C. Riemenschneider, Ph. D., D.D. Rev. David McKinney, D.D _ Rev. M. J . O’Connor, S. J . Howard Ayers, Ph. D.. _ _ Rev. Godfrey J. Schulte, S. J _ Rev. C. F. Thwing, D. D. , LL. D. . . Rev. W. O. Thompson, D. D., LL. D. Rev. J. R. H. Latchaw, D. D. . Rev. J. W. Bashford, Ph. D., D. D. Rev. C. Manchester, D. D . . Rev. Wm. F. Peirce, L. H. D . D. B. Purinton, Ph. D., LL. D _ Ely V.Zollars, LL.D . . Rev. S. P. Long, A.M . Alfred T. Perry, A. M . . . Rev. W. A. Williams, D. D . . Rev. Jesse Johnson, D. D. . . Rev. John H. Barrows, D.D. . Rev. David S. Tappan, D. D., LTj d Rev. G. W. MacMillan, Ph. D., D.D. Rev. J. M. Davis, Ph. D. , D. D . Rev. E. J. Gwvnn, Ph. D.,D. D., LL. D. Rev. J. M. Ruthrauff, D.D . Rev. John A. Peters, D.D _ _ Rev. T. J. Sanders, Ph. D . . Rev. S. T. Mitchell, Ll. D _ James B. Unthank, M. S . Rev. Louis E. Holden, D.D. . Hon. Wm. A. Bell, A. M . St. Stephen’s College . Adelphi College . Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn.. St. Francis College . . St. John’s College . . Canisius College . . . . St. Lawrence University . . Hamilton College . Hobart College . Colgate University . Cornell University . College of St. Francis Xavier. . College of the City of New York . Columbia University . Manhattan College . . . St. John’s College . New York University . Annan dale, N. Y. Brooklyn, N.Y. Do. Do. Do. Buffalo, N. Y. Canton, N. Y. Clinton, N. Y. Geneva, N. Y. Hamilton, N.Y. Ithaca, N. Y. New York, N. Y. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Niagara University . . . University of Rochester . . . Union College . . Syracuse University . NiagaraUniversity,N.Y. Rochester, N. Y. Schenectady, N. Y Syracuse, N.Y. St. Mary’s College. . . . University of North Carolina. .. _ Biddle University . . . . Davidson College . . Trinity College . . . . Elon College. . Guilford College . Lenoir College . . . North Carolina College.. _ _ Catawba College . . Shaw University . Rutherford College. . . . Livingstone College . . Wake Forest College . . Weaverville College . Fargo College. . . . University of North Dakota. . Red River Valley University . Buchtel College . Mount Union College . Ohio University . . . . Baldwin University . German Wallace College.. _ _ Belmont, N. C. Chapel Hill, N. C. Charlotte, N. C. Davidson, N. (3. Durham, N. C. Elon College, N. C. Guilford College, N. C. Hickory, N. C. Mount Pleasant, N. C. Newton, N. C. Raleigh, N. C. Rutherford College, N. C. Salisbury, N. 0. ’ Wake Forest, N. C. Weaverville, N. C. Fargo, N. Dak. University, N. Dak. Wahpeton, N. Dak. Akron, Ohio. Alliance, Ohio. Athens, Ohio. Berea, Ohio. Do. Cedarville College . St. Xavier College . . . University of Cincinnati . St. Ignatius College_ . . Western Reserve University Capital University . . Ohio State University . Cedarville, Ohio. Cincinnati, Ohio. Do. Cleveland, Ohio. Do. Columbus, Ohio. Do. Defiance College . Ohio Wesleyan University Findlay College _ Kenyon College . Denison University . Hiram College . Lima College.. . Marietta College . Franklin College. . Muskingum College . . Oberlin College . Miami University . Defiance, Ohio. Delaware, Ohio. Findlay, Ohio. Gambier, Ohio. Granville, Ohio. Hiram, Ohio. Lima, Ohio. Marietta, Ohio. New Athens, Ohio. New Concord, Ohio. Oberlin, Ohio. Oxford, Ohio. Richmond College Richmond, Ohio.' Rio Grande College Scio College . Rio Grande, Ohio. Scio, Ohio. W ittenberg College .... Heidelberg University . Otterbein University... Wiiberforce University Wilmington College _ Universit3r of Wooster . Antioch College . Springfield, Ohio. Tiffin, Ohio. Westerville, Ohio. Wiiberforce, Ohio. Wilmington, Ohio. Wooster, Ohio. Yellowsprings, Ohio. 1264 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. III. — College Presidents— Continued. I. — Colleges for men and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. D. R. Boyd, A. M . Wallace H. Lee, A. M - . Rev. C. C. Poling, Ph. D Frank Strong, Ph. D . . . H. L. Boardman, A. M . Edwin McGrew, M. S. . P. O. Bonebrake . . . . Willis C. Hawlev, A. M . . Rev. W. J. Holland. Ph. D., D. D., LL. D. , chancellor. Rev. Theodore L. Seip, D. D . . Rev. H. U. Roop, Ph. D . Rev. Leander Schnerr, O. S. B ... Rev. Arthur Staples, A. M . Rev. W. P. Johnston, D. D . . Rev. Aug. Schultz, D.D . Rev. G. E. Reed, D. D., LL. D _ Col. C. E. Hyatt, C. E _ _ Rev. Henry T. Spangler, D.D _ Rev. E. D. Warfield, LL. D . Rev. H. W. McKnight, D. D., LL. D. University of Oklahoma . . Albany College . Dallas College . . University of Oregon . i Pacific University . | McMinnville College . . Pacific College . . Philomath College . . . Willamette University . . Western University of Pennsylva¬ nia. Muhlenberg College . . Lebanon Valley College . . St. Vincent College . . Beaver College. . Geneva College . . Moravian College. . . Dickinson College . . . . Pennsylvania Military College _ Ursinus College . . Lafayette College . . . Pennsylvania College . Norman, Okla. Albany, Oreg. Dallas, Oreg. Eugene, Oreg. Forestgrove, Ohio. McMinnville, Oreg. Newberg, Oreg. Philomath, Oreg. Salem, Oreg. Allegheny, Pa. Allentown, Pa. Annville, Pa. Leatty, Pa. Beaver. Pa. Beaverfalls. Pa. Bethlehem, Pa. Carlisle, Pa. Chester, Pa# Collegeville, Pa. Easton. Pa. Gettysburg, Pa. Rev. Theo. B. Roth, D.D _ _ Rev. I. C. Ketler, Ph. D., D. D _ Isaac Sharpless, Sc. D., LL. D _ I. H. Brumbaugh, A. M., acting.. . Rev. J. S. Stahr, Ph. D., D. D ...... John PI. Harris, Ph. D. , LL. D .... Rev. isa,ac N. Rendall, D. D. . Rev. W m. H. Crawford, D.D _ C. A. Bowman, Ph. D-.„- . Rev. Aaron E. Gobble, D. D . Rev. R. G. Ferguson, D.D . Rev. R. E. Thompson, S. T. D _ Brother W oif red . . . . C. C. Harrison, LL. D., provost- -. Rev. M. A. Hehir, C. S. Sp _ Rev. C. W. Reisler, D.D . Thomas M. Drown, LL. D . . G. W. Atherton, LL. D . . W. W.Birdsall,A.M. . . Rev. L. A. Delurey, O. S. A . C. F. Ball . . . Rev. J. D. Moffat, D. D. , LL. D _ A. E. Turner, A. M _ _ _ Rev. W. H. P. Faunce, D. D . . Harrison Randolph, LL. D . . A. E. Spencer, A. M . . Rev. D. H. Johnson, D. D . F. C. Woodward. Litt. D _ Rev. Francis Y. Pressly, D. D _ A. P. Montague, Ph. D. , LL. D _ Geo. B. Cromer, A. M . . Rev. L. M. Dunton, D. D . _ James H. Carlisle, LL. D _ _ _ Rev. C. H. French, A. M. . . . Rev. W. I. Graham, D. D. . Rev. I. P. Patch _ _ Garrett Droppers, A. B . Rev. H. K. Warren, A. M . Rev. John H. Race, D. D . Rev. A. G. Buckner, A. B . Rev. George Summey, D. D., chancellor. J. F. Spence, S. T. D., LL. D., chancellor. Rev. J. E. Lowery, A. M . G. M. Savage, LL. D . . . Rev. R. W. McGranahan, D.D _ Chas. W. Dabney, Ph. D., LL. D .. N. Green, LL. D., chancellor _ Rev. B. G. Mitchell, A. M _ Rev. S.W. Boardman, D.D., LL.D. Brother Maurelian . J. Hopwood, A. M . . J. T. Henderson, A. M . , . Rev. Peter B. Guernsey, A. M _ I Thiel College. . . . Grove City College . . . . . Haverford College . . . Juniata College . . . Franklin and Marshall College . Bucknell University . . Lincoln University . . . Allegheny College . . . Albright College. . . . Central Pennsylvania College . Westminster College . . . Central High School . . La Salle College . . . . . University of Pennsylvania . . Holy Ghost College . . . . Susquehanna University. . Lehigh University . . Pennsylvania State College . Swarthmore College _ _ _ Viilanova College. . . . Volant College . . Washington and Jefferson College . Waynesburg College . . Brown University . . . . College of Charleston . . . Presbyterian College of South Caro¬ lina. Allen University - - - South Carolina College.. . . . Erskine College . Furman University . . Newberry College . Clafiin University . . . . . Wofford College . . Huron College . . Dakota University . Redfield College . . . University of South Dakota . Yankton College . . U. S. Grant University . King College . . Southwestern Presbyterian Uni¬ versity. American University of Harriman . Greenville, Pa. Grove City, Pa. Haver ford, Pa. Huntingdon, Pa. Lancaster, Pa. Lewisburg, Pa. Lincoln University, Pa. Meadville. Pa. Myerstown, Pa. New Berlin, Pa. New Wilmington, Pa. Philadelphia, Pa. Do. Do. Pittsburg, Pa. Selinsgrove, Pa. South Bethlehem, Pa. State College, Pa. Swarthmore, Pa. Viilanova, Pa. Volant, Pa. Washington, Pa. Waynesburg, Pa. Providence, R. I. Charleston, S. C. Clinton, S. C. Columbia, S. C. Do. Duewest, S. C. Greenville, S. C. Newberry, S. C. Orangeburg, S. C. Spartanburg, S. C. Huron, S. Dak. Mitchell, S. Dak. Redfield, S. Dak. Vermilion, S. Dak. Yankton, 8. Dak. Athens, Tenn. Bristol, Tenn. Clarksville, Tenn. Harriman, Tenn. Hiwassee College . . . .. . Southwestern Baptist University Knoxville College . - University of Tennessee . . Cumberland University . Bethel College . Maryville College . Christian Brothers’ College . . . Milligan College . . Carson and Newman College ... . Fisk University..- . Roger Williams University . Hiwassee College, Tenn, Jackson. Tenn. Knoxville, Tenn. Do. Lebanon, Tenn. McKenzie, Tenn. Maryville, Tenn. Memphis, Tenn. Milligan, Tenn. Mossy creek, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn. Do. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY 1265 III. — College Presidents — Continued. I.— Colleges for men and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. Wm. H. Payne, Ph. D., LL. D., chancellor. James H. Kirkland, Ph. D., LL. University of Nashville Vanderbilt University . Nashville, Tenn. Do. D., chancellor. B. Lawton Wiggins, LL. D., vice- chancellor. Walden Univ^sity _ University of the South Do. Sewanee, Tenn. W. N. Billingsley, A. M . . Samuel W. Sherrill, A. M . . Rev. Jere Moore, D.D _ _ Rev. James T. Cooter, A. M . Rev. .John T. Boland, C. S. C _ Wm. L. Prather. LL. D . . J. LI. Grove, A. M . . . T. H. Bridges - . . . . Rev. Oscar L. Fisher, D.D _ G. J. Nunn . . . . . Rev. A. Guyol, S. J _ _ Robert S, Hyer, LL. D., regent E. T. Kemp, A. B . . - Addison Clark, LL. D - Rev. Ivl, W .Dogan,Ph.D . . Rev. John Wolf. . . . Rev. Thomas S. Clyce, D. D_ . L. A. Johnson, Ph. D. , chairman. - Oscar R. Cooper, LL.D _ _ Rev. I. M. B organ. D. D _ 3 ames H. Linford, B. S _ Rev. W. S. Hunt, A. M _ Gen. John Eaton, LL. D _ Joseph T. Kingsbury, Ph. D.,Sc. D Rev. M. H. Buckham, D.D... _ Ezra Brainerd, LL. D _ Rev. Allan D. Brown, LL. D . Rev. Wm. G. Starr, D. D _ W. B. Yount _ _ _ P. B. Barringer, M. D., LL. D., chairman. Rev. R. G. Waterhouse, D.D _ Rev. J. W. Rosebro, D.D _ _ Rev. Richard Mcilwaine, D.D... Henry S. Tucker, LL. D., acting . F. W. Boatwright, LL. D . . M. MacVicar . . . . Julius D. Dreher, Ph. D . . L. G. Tyler, LL. D _ A. C. Jones, Ph. D . . . Frank P. Graves, Ph. D., LL. D., Litt. D. Rev. Geo. De la Motte, S. J _ Rev. Wilrnot Whitfield, D. D _ F. B. Gault, M. S . . . . Brother Zenonian . . . . Rev. S. B. L. Penrose, A. B., B. D._ D. W. Shaw, A. B . . . J. M. Kersey _ _ .* _ Rev. I’. B. Reynolds, D. B. , acting Rev. S. Plantz, Ph. D., D. D - Rev. H. A. Muehlmeier, D.D _ Rev. W. D. Thomas, Ph. D., D. D._ Chas. K. Adams, LL. D _ _ Rev. Wm. C. Whitford, D.D . Rev. M. J. F. Albrecht . Rev. John F. G. Pahls, S. J . Rev. Rufus C. Flagg, D.D _ Rev. A. F. Ernst . . . . Rev. Elmer E. Smiley, D.D . Burritt College . Sweetwater College _ _ Greene ville and Tusculum College - Washington College . . St. Edward’s College . . . University of Texas . . . . Howard Payne College. . . . Henry College . . Fort Worth University . . Polytechnic College . . . St. Mary’s University _ . . Southwestern University _ _ _ Burleson College. . . . . Add-Ran Christian University _ Wiley University . . . . St. Louis College . . . Austin College _ _ _ Trinity University . . . Baylor University _ _ _ _ _ Paul Quinn College . . . Brigham Young College. . Salt Lake College. . . Sheldon Jackson College . . Lniversity of Utah . . . University of Vermont . . . Middlebnry College _ _ _ Norwich University. _ _ _ Randolph-Macon College . . Bridgewater College . . . . University of Virginia _ _ Spencer, Tenn. Sweetwater, Tenn. Tascnlum, Tenn. W ashin gton College Tenn. Austin, Tex. Do. Brown wood, Tex. Campbell, Tex. Fort Worth, Tex. Do. Galveston, Tex. Georgetown, Tex. Greenville, Tex. Hermoson, Tex. Marshall, Tex. San Antonio, Tex. Sherman, Tex. Tehuacana, Tex. Waco, Tex. Do. Logan, Utah. Salt Lake City, Utah. Do. Do. Burlington, V t. Middlebury, Vt. North field, Vt. Ashland, Va. Bridgewater, Va. Charlottesville, Va. Emory and Henry College . Fredericksburg College . . Hampden-Sidney College . . Washington and Lee University ... Richmond College . . . Virginia Union University _ Roanoke College . . . . College of William and Mary _ Vashon College _ _ University of Washington . . Emory, Va, Fredericksburg, Va. Hampden-Sidney. Va. Lexington, Va. Richmond, A7a. Do. Salem, Va. Williamsburg, Va. Burton, Wash. Seattle, Wash. Gonzaga College . . Puget Sound University .. Whitworth College . St. James College _ - Whitman College . - . Barboursville College _ Bethany College . . West Virginia University. Lawrence University . Beloit College . Mission House . . . Gale College . University of Wisconsin .. Milton College . . . Concordia College . . Marquette College . . Ripon College . Northwestern University - University of Wyoming _ Spokane, Wash. Tacoma, Wash. Do. Vancouver, Wash. Walla Walla, Wash. Barboursville, W. Va. Bethany, AY. Va. Morgantown. W. Va. Appleton, AVis. Beloit, Wis. Franklin, Wis. Galesville, AVis. Madison, AVis. Milton, AVis. Milwaukee, AVis. Do. Ripon, Wis. Watertown, AVis. Laramie, AVyo. II. — Colleges for icomen. Rev. Hiram G. Davis, D.D . Henry Y. AVeissinger, A. M. . T nos. F . J on es _ _ _ _ Rev. Robert G. Patrick, D. D. ... Athens Female College . . East Lake Athenaeum . . . Union Female College . . Judson Female Institute . Athens, Ala. Eastlake, Ala. Eufaula, Ala. Marion, Ala. ED 1900 30 1266 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900. III. —College Presidents — Continued. II. — Colleges for women — Continued. Kame of president. Jas. D. Wade, A. M . - . H. S. Roller . . . E. H. Mnrfee, LL. D _ ... Rev. W. F. Melton. Ph. D . . John Massey, LL. D _ _ J.G.Lile, A.M — . . . Mrs. C. T. Mills _ _ Sister Mary Bernardine _ Sister Lid wine . . Mrs. M. A. Lipscomb . . . Cbas.C.Cox.Ph.D _ _ Rev. Homer Bush, A. M . Miss Mabel Head . . C.'H. S. Jackson, A. M_ . A. W. Van Hoose, chairman. . Rufus W. Smith, A. M _ _ Rev. G. A. Nunnally, D. D . . Rev. J, W. Roberts, D.D _ _ T. J. Simmons, A. M . . . John E. Baker _ _ _ _ Rev. Joseph R. Marker, Ph. D _ E.P. Bullard, A.M _ _ Rev. C. W. Leffingwell, D. D., rec¬ tor. Phebe T. Sutliff, A. M . Rev. P. R. Millspaugh, D. D. . . Rev. Ben j. P. Cabell . . Rev. J.C. Ely. D.D . . . Th. Smith, A. M . . Rev. Edmund Harrison, A. M _ B. C. Ragerman, A.M . . . R. B. McClellan. A. M_ . Rev. C. 0. Fisher. A.M... . . Mrs. NT. S. W. Vineyard. . . Rev. T. S. McCall, A. M . . A. G. Murphey, A.M _ _ William Shelton, LL. D . Rev. P. W. Lewis . . . . . G. W. Thigpen. A. M _ T.S.Sligh, A.M _ _ Brandt V\ B. Dixon, LL. D . . O. H. Perry _ _ _ _ Henry E. Trefethen, A. M., act¬ ing. Mary Meletia of Notre Dame _ ReviJohn P. Goucher. D. D _ J. H. Apple, A. M . . . . M.L.Maier.Ph. M . . . Rev. J. H. Turner. A. M _ C. C. Bragdon, A. M . . . Miss Agnes Irwin, dean . Rev. L. Clark Seelye. D. D.. LL. D Mary E. Woolley, Litt. D., L. H. D Miss Caroline Hazard . . . B. G. Lowrey, A. M . . . A. F. W atkins . . . J Rev. George Wharton, D. D^ _ 1 Hon. A. A. Kincannon . 1 J. A. Sanderson, principal _ j L. T. Fitzhugh, A. M . . C. H.Otken.LL.D.. . . J. W. Beeson, A. M . . Hon. James R. Preston, A.M _ j J. W. Malone . j S. Decatur Lucas . . I Mrs. M.H. Meek . . J. M. Hubbard, A.M . . Mrs. W. T. Moore . . Rev. S. F. Taylor, D.D _ _ _ Rev. Hiram D. Groves . ; Rev. T. P. W alton. . . B. T. Blewett, LL. I) _ _ Edward W. White, A. M_. . Rev. Z. M. Williams. A. M. . C. M. Williams. A. M . . J. W. Million, A. M _ _ ... Mrs. V. A. C. Stockard . M. II. Reaser . .1 University or college. Address. Marion Female Seminary . Isbell College . . Central Female College . Tuscaloosa Female College . . . Alabama Conference Female College Central Baptist College . Mills College . . College of Notre Dame . Trinity College . . Lucy Cobb Institute . . Southern Female College . Andrew Female College. . Dalton Female College . . Monroe Female College . . Brenau College . . . Lagrange Female College . . Southern Female College . Wesleyan Female College . . Shorter College _ . _ Young Female College. . Illinois Woman’s College . Academy for Young Women . . St. Mary’s School . . . Marion. Ala. Talladega, Ala. Tuscaloosa, Ala. Do. Tuskegee, Ala. Conway, Ark. Mills College,- Cal. San Jose, Cal. Washington, D. C. Athens, Ga. College Park, Ga. Cuthbert, Ga. Dalton, G a. Forsyth. Ga. Gainesville, Ga, Lagrange, Ga. Do. Macon. Ga. Rome, Ga. Thomasville, Ga. Jacksonville, Ill. Do. Knoxville, Ill. Rockford College . . . College of the bisters of Bethany ... Potter College . . _ Caldwell College . . . Beaumont College . . Bethel Female College . . Hamilton Female College . ... Sayre Female Institute.. . Millersburg Female College . . Jessamine Female Institute . . Owensboro Female College . . Logan Female College . . . Stanford Female College . . Silliman Collegiate Institute . . . Louisiana Female College . Mansfield Female College _ H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial Col¬ lege. Rockford. Til. Topeka, Kans. Bowling Green, Ky, Danville. Ky. Harrodsburg. Ky. Hopkinsville. Ky. Lexington, Ky. Do. Millersburg. Ky. Nicholasville. Ky. Owensboro, Ky. Russellville, Ky. Stanford, Ky. Clinton, La, Keatchie, La. Mansfield, La. New Orleans. La. W estbrook Seminary . . . Maine Wesleyan Seminary and Fe¬ male College. Notre Dame of Maryland . Woman's Coliege of Baltimore _ Woman's College . . . Kee Mar College . . . . . Maryland College for Young Ladies Lasell Seminary for Young Women Radclifi'e College . . Smith College . . Mount Holyoke College . . Wellesley College.. . . . Albert Lea College . Blue Mountain Female College ‘ _ "Whitworth Female College . . Hillman College . . . industrial Institute and College - Central Mississippi Institute _ Belhaven College for Young Ladies. McGomb Female Institute . . Ee.st Mississippi Female College _ Stanton College for Young Ladies.. Woman’s College . . Chickasaw Female College - Pore Gibson Female College ... _ Water Valley Athenaeum . . Christian College . . . . . Stephens College . . Howard Payne College . . . Synodical Female College.. . St. Louis Seminary . . Baptist Female College . Central Female College _ _ Liberty Ladies’ College - - Hardin College . . Cottev College for Young Ladies Lindenwood College for W omen - Woodfords, Me. Kents Hill, Me. Baltimore, Md. Do. Frederick, Md. Hagerstown. Md. Lutherville, Md. Auburndale, Mass. Cambridge. Mass. Northampton. Mass. South Hadley, Ma^s. Wellesley, Macs. Albert Lea, Minn. Blue Mountain. Miss. Brookhaven, Miss. Clinton. Miss. Columbus, Miss. French Camp, Miss. Jackson, Miss. McComb, Miss. • Meridian, Miss. Natchez, Miss. Oxford, Miss. Pontotoc, Miss. Port Gibson, Miss. Water Valley, Miss. Columbia, Mo. Du Fayette. Mo. Fulton, Mo. •Jennings, Mo. Lexington. Mo. Do. Liberty! Mo Mexico, Mo. Nevada. Mo. St. Charles, Mo. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY ■ 1267 IIL— College Presidents — Continued. II. — Colleges for women — Continued. Name of president. F. T. Shultz, A. M . . Truman J. Backus, LL. D _ Rev. A. 0. McKenzie, D. D . . Miss Laura D. Gill, dean _ Rev. J. M. Taylor, D. D.. LL. D _ Archibald A. Jones, A. M . Rev. C. B. King, A. M . . S. A. Wolff, A. M . Bred Peacock, A. M _ _ M. W. Hatton . . ._ M. S. Davis, A. M . . John C. Scarborough. _ _ _ F.P. Hobgood, A.M. . . __i _ Rev. John H. Clewell . . Rev. L. D. Potter, D. D _ Rev. John JEL Thomas, A.M . . Leila S. McKee, Ph. D _ Miss Mary Evans, A.M - - Rev. J. W. Knappenberger, A. M . Rev. J. Mas Hark, D. D — _ Rev. S. B. Linhart, A.M _ M. Carey Thomas, Ph, D., LL. D._ Rev. Samuel A. Martin , E. E. Campbell, Ph. D . . . R. Jane De Yore, A. M . Rev. W. W. Daniel, D. D - . Robert P. Pell, A. B . . Rev. Janies Boyce . ... Lee D Lodge, Ph. D_ . . A. S. Townes . B. F. Wilson . . . . Rev. B. G. Clifford, D. !>., Ph. D... Rev. S. Lander, A. M . . . Rev. S. N. Barker . . . R.E. Hatton, Ph.D . . Robert D. Smith, A. M . . . . T. E. Allen and J. H. Chiles- . Z. K. Griffin, B. S . Rev. A. B. Jones, D. D., LL. D_ . ... Miss Y. O. Wardlaw, A. M . . C. A. Folk, A. B _ _ J. D. Blanton _ _ _ _.. B. E. Atkins and T. L. Bryan _ Wm. M. Gray bill, Ph. D. . Charles Carlton . . . W. A. Wilson, D.D. . . L. F. Smith, A. B _ _ Rev. J. E. Harrison, A. B . . A. Q. Nash, C. E _ _ _ _ Rev. W. M. Dyer, A. M . Miss Kate M. Hunt _ , _ William H. Tharp, A. M . . Rev. L. H. Shuck, D.D . Rev. C. F. James, D. D . . Chas. L. Cocke. A. M . . . W. W. Smith, LL.D _ _ _ Rev. J. J. Scherer, A. M. . . Arthur K. Davis, A. M . . . Rev. Janies Nelson, D.D . . Miss M. P. Duvall _ _ Rev. J.P. Hyde. D.D., LL.D _ R.L. Telford . . . . Mrs. H. L. Field _ Miss Ellen C. Sabin, A. M _ University or college. Bordentown Female College . . j Wells College . . 1 Packer Collegiate Institute _ _ Elmira College _ .j Barnard College . . Yassar College . ^ . Asheville College for Y oung W omen Elizabeth College . Gas ton College . . Greensboro Female College _ Claremont Female College . . Louisburg Female College . Chowan Baptist Female Institute . _ Oxford Female Seminary _ _ Salem Fem ale Academy and College Glendale College . . . . Oxford College . . Western College . . . . „ _ Lake Erie College _ _ _ Allentown College for Women. . Moravian Seminary and College for Women. Blairsville College . . . Bryn Mawr College . . . . Wilson College . . . Irving Female College _ Pennsylvania College for Women... Columbia Female College _ Presbyterian College for Women... Due West Female -College- . Limestone College . . . . Greenville College for Women _ Greenville Female College . . Converse College . . . . . Clifford Seminary . . . . Williamston Female College . . Sulims College _ _ _ _ Brownsville Female College _ Columbia Athenaeum . . . Tennessee Female College. . Howard Female College - Memphis Conference Female Insti¬ tute. Soule Female College _ _ _ _ _ Boscobel College _ W ard Seminary - - - - Martin Female College . . . . Synodical Female College _ _ Carlton College . . . . . . Baylor Female College _ Chappell Hill Female College. . San Antonio Female College.... - Mary Nash College . Martha Washington College . Stonewall Jackson Institute . . Southwest Virginia Institute _ Albemarle College for Young Ladies Roanoke Female College . Hollins Institute . . . . . Randolph-Macon Woman’s College. Marion Female College . . . . Southern Female College . . . Woman’s College - - - - - Virginia Female Institute . . Valley Female College . . Lewisburg Female Institute . . Parkersburg Seminary . . . Milwaukee-Downer College - Address. Bordentown, N. J. Aurora, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. Elmira. N. Y. New York, N. Y. Poughkeepsie. N. Y. Asheville, N. C. Charlotte, N. C. Dallas, N. C. Greensboro, N. C. Hickory, N. C. Louisburg, N. C. Murfreesboro, N. C. Oxford, N. C. Salem, N. C. Glendale, Ohio. Oxford, Ohio. Do. Painesville, Ohio. Allentown, Pa. Bethlehem, Pa. Blairsville, Pa. Br-yn Mawr, Pa. Chambersburg, Pa. Meehanicsburg, Pa. Pittsburg, Pa. Columbia, S. C. Do. Duewest, S. C. Gaffney, S. C. Greenville, S. C. Do. Spartanburg, S. C. Union, S. C. Williamston, S. C. Bristol, Tenn. Brownsville, Tenn. Columbia, Tenn. Franklin, Tenn. Gallatin, Term. Jackson, Tenn. Murfreesboro, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn. Do. Pulaski, Tenn. Roger sville, Tenn Bonham, Tex. Belton. Tex. Chappell Hill, Tex. San Antonio, Tex. Sherman, Tex. Abingdon, Va. Do. Bristol, Ya. Charlottesville, Va. Danville, Va. Hollins. Va. Lynchburg, Va. Marion, Va. Petersburg, Va. Richm ond, V a. Staunton, Va. W in Chester , Va . Lewisburg, W. Va. Parkersburg. W. Va. Milwaukee, Wis. Ill, — Schools of technology Wm. Le Roy Broun, LL. D. . Barton 0. Ayleswortli, LL. D _ Regis Chauvenet, A. M. , B. S - George W. Flint, A. M . . Lyman Hall . . . . Alabama Polytechnic Institute. - Colorado Agricultural College . State School of Mines _ _ _ Connecticut Agricultural College . . State School of Technology - Armour Institute of Technology — Auburn. Ala. Fort Collins, Colo. Golden, Colo. Sfcorrs, Conn. Atlanta, Ga. Chicago, Ill. 1268 EDUCATION REPORT, 1899-1900 III.— College Presidents — Continued. III. — Schools of technology — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. W. E. Stone, Pli. D . Carl L. Mees, Ph. D _ . __ WAX. Beard shear, LL. D _ Ernest R. Nichols, A. M .... _ Commander R. Wainwright, U. S. IN ., superintendent. Purdue University . . Rose Polytechnic Institute _ Iowa Agricultural College _ Kansas Agricultural College.. United States Naval Academy Lafayette, Xnd. Terre Kaute, Ind. Ames, Iowa. Manhattan. Kans. Annapolis, Md. H. Pi. Goodell. LL. D . H. S. Pritchett, Ph. D J. L. Snyder, Ph. D Massachusetts Agricultural College Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ nology. Worcester Polytechnic Institute... Michigan Agricultural College _ Amherst. Mass. Boston, Mass. Worcester, Mass. Agri c u 1 1 u r a 1 College, Mich. F. W. McNair, B. S . J. C. Hardy, A. M . W.H. Lanier, A. B . Rev. James Reid, A. B.. C. S. Murkland, Ph. D .. Michigan College of Mines . . . Mississippi Agricultural and Me¬ chanical College. Alcorn Agricultural and Mechan¬ ical College. Montana College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. New Hampshire College of Agri¬ culture and Mechanic Arts. Houghton, Mich. Agricultural College, Miss. Westside, Miss. Bozeman, Mont. Durham, N. H. Henry Morton, Ph.D.,Sc. D., LL. D. Stevens Institute of Technology Hoboken, N. J. C. A . Colton, E. M. , director . Frederic W. Sanders, Ph. D . Faj'ette A. Jones, C.E , M. E _ Barton Cruikshank, M. E . John H.Peck.LL.D . . . Col. A. L. Mills, U. S. A., supt . James B. Dudley, A. M . George T. Winston, LL. D . Newark Technical School _ New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. New Mexico School of Mines . . Clarkson School of Technology _ Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. .. United States Military Academy. .. Agricultural and Mechanical Col¬ lege for the Colored Race. North Carolina College of Agricul¬ ture and Mechanic Arts. Newark, hi . J. Mesilla Park, N. Mex. Socorro, N. Mex. Potsdam. N. Y. Troy, N. Y. W est Point, N. Y. Greensboro, N. C. West Raleigh, N. C. J. H. Worst, LL. D N orth Dakota Agricultural College . Agri cultural C ollege., N. Dak. Cady Staley, LL. D. . Angelo C. Scott, A. M . . . . Thomas M. Gatch, Ph. D . . . . J ohn H. Washburn, Ph. D . . Asbury Coward, LL. D., supt _ Henry S. Hartzog, B. S . John W. Heston, Ph. D., LL. D... Robert L. Slagle, Ph. D . L. L. Foster. . . . W. J.Kerr.B.S - . J. M. McBryde, LL. D . Scott Shipp, LL. D., supt. . E. A. Bryan, A. M . Case School of Applied Science _ Oklahoma Agricultural and Me¬ chanical College. Oregon Agricultural College . Rhode Island College of Agricul¬ ture and Mechanic Arts. South Carolina Military Academy. _ Clemson Agricultural College . South Dakota Agricultural College . State School of Mines . . . Agricultural and Mechanical Col¬ lege of Texas. Agricultural College of Utah . Virginia Agricultural and Mechan¬ ical College. Virginia Military Institute . . Washington Agricultural College and School of Science. Cleveland, Ohio. Stillwater, Okla. Corvallis, Oreg. Kingston, R. I. Charleston, S. C. Clemson College, S. C. Brookings, S. Dak. Rapid City, S. Dak. College Station, Tex. Logan, Utah. Blacksburg, Va. Lexington, Va. Pullman, Wash. IV.— Principals of Normal Schools. Public normal schools. Location. ALABAMA. Name of institution. Principal. Florence _ Jacksonville Livingston.. Normal . Roanoke _ Troy . State Normal College . _ do . Alabama Normal College for Girls.. Agricultural and Mechanical Col¬ lege for Negroes. Roanoke Normal College . State Normal College . Marshall C. Wilson. Wm. C. Daugette. Miss Julia S. Tutwiler. W. H. Council. Robt. M. Crawford. E. M. Shackelford. ARIZONA. Flagstaff . . Tempe . Northern Arizona Normal School .. A. N. Taylor. Territorial Normal School of Ari- Joseph W. Smith, zona. DU CATION AL DIRECTORY 1269 IV.— Principals of Normal Schools — Continued. Public normal schools — Continued. Location. ARKANSAS. Pine Bluff CALIFORNIA. CLico _ _ Los Angeles San Diego ... San Jose _ COLORADO. Greeley . CONNECTICUT. Bridgeport . . New Britain. New Haven - . Willimantic. . DELAWARE. Wilmington _ _• _ DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Washington Do _ FLORIDA. De Funiak Springs. Tallaiiassee . . GEORGIA. Athens - Milledgeville IDAHO. Albion ... Lewiston . ILLINOIS. Carbondale Chicago, Station O Dekalb . . . N ormal INDIANA. Indianapolis . Terre Haute _ IOWA. Boonesboro . . Cedar falls . . Dexter . . Hawarden _ Rockwell City . KANSAS. Emporia KENTUCKY. Corinth... Frankfort Hazard Louisville LOUISIANA. Natchitoches - New Orleans . Name of institution. Branch Normal College California State Normal School State Normal School . .... .do. . . . . . do . Colorado State Normal School. Bridgeport Training School _ Normal Training School . . State Normal Training School. _ do. . Wollaston School Washington Normal School . Washington Normal School, sev¬ enth and eighth divisions. Florida, State Normal School^ . Florida State Norma,! and indus¬ trial College. State Normal School . . Georgia Normal and Industrial Col¬ lege. Albion State Normal School ... Lewiston State Normal School Southern Illinois State N ormal Uni¬ versity. Chicago Normal School _ _ Northern Illinois State Normal School. Illinois State Normal University ... Indianapolis Normal School . . Indiana State Normal School - Boone County Normal Institute .. Iowa State Normal School . . Dexter Normal School - - Hawarden Public Normal School. Calhoun County Normal School .. State Normal School Northern Kentucky Normal School. State Normal School for Colored Persons. Hazard Normal School . . Louisville N ormal School . Louisiana State Normal School- New Orleans Normal School.... Principal. J. C. Corbin. Chas. C.Van Liew. Edward T. Pierce. Samuel T. Black. James McNaughton. Z. X. Snyder. Besse F. Howes. Marcus Yfhite. Arthur B. Morrill. George P. Phenix. Clara Mendenhall. Mrs. Idaliah G. Meyers. Lucy E. Moten. C. L. Hayes. T. De S. Tucker. S. D. Bradwell. J. Harris Chappell. J. C. Black. Geo. E. Knepper. D. B. Parkinson. Wm. M. GifSn. John W. Cook. Arnold Tompkins. M. E. Nicholson. William W. Parsons. R. V. Veneman. Homer H. Seerley. D. P. Repass. C. H. Brake. D. K. Bond. A. R. Taylor. R. R. Hutchison. James E. Givens. T. H. Brown. W. J. McConathy. B.C. Caldwell. Miss Marion Brown. 1270 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900. IV. —Principals of Normal Schools— Continued. Public normal schools — Continued. Location. MAINE. Castine _ _ _ Farmington - - Fort Kent . . Gorham . Lee . - . . Springfield . . _ . MARYLAND. Baltimore . . . . . MASSACHUSETTS. Name of institution. Principal. Eastern State Normal School . Farmington State N ormal School . . _ Madawaska Training School . State Normal School . . Lee Normal Academy - . . . Springfield N ormal School . Albert F. Richardson. George C. Purington. Mary P. Rowland. W. J. Corthell. James D. Murphy. A. W. Snare. Maryland State Normal School . E. B. Prettyman. Boston . Do _ Bridgewater Cambridge . Fitchburg .. Framingtcn Lowell . . Salem _ W estfield ... Worcester .. Boston Normal School . Massachusetts Normal Art School. . State Normal School . . . ;. Cambridge Training School for Teachers. State Normal School . - do - - - - Training School for Teachers . - do . . . _ do . . . - do . . . Wallace C. Boy den. George H. Bartlett. Albert G. Boy den. Herbert H . Bates. John G- Thompson. Henry Whittemore. Gertrude Edmund. W. P. Beckwith. Charles S. Chapin. E. Harlow Russell. MICHIGAN. Detroit. . Mount Pleasant Ypsilanti . W asliington N ormal Tr aini ng School Michigan Central Normal School Michigan State N ormal School . . MINNESOTA. Mankato . Moorhead St. Cloud. St. Paul . . Winona . . State Normal School . . ... .do . . . .....do . . Teachers’ Training School State Normal School . MISSISSIPPI. Abbeville . . . Blue Springs . Holly Springs ... _ Louisville . . Sherman - - Walnut Grove... . MISSOURI. Cape Girardeau . . Kirksville . . St. Louis . . . W arrensburg . MONTANA. Dillon . . . . NEBRASKA. Peru NEW HAMPSHIRE. Plymouth . . . Abbeville Normal School . Blue Springs Normal College . . Mississippi State Normal School _ Louisville Normal School _ Mississippi Normal Institute _ Mississippi Central Normal School. . State Normal School . . . State Normal School (first district) . Normal and High School _ State Normal School (second dis¬ trict). Montana Normal School . . Nebraska State Normal Training- School. State Normal School NEW JERSEY. Newark . Paterson Trenton NEW MEXICO. Newark Normal and Training School. Paterson Normal Training School.. New Jersey State Normal and Model Schools. Las Vegas . . Silver City . . . NEW YORK. Albany . . . Brockpcrt _ _ New Mexico Normal University - Normal School of New Mexico . New York State Normal College State N ormal and Training School . Oliver G. Frederick. Chas. T. G rawn _ Elmer A. Lyman. Chas. H. Cooper. L. C. Lord. George R. Kleeberger. Sarah C. Brooks. J. F. Millspaugli. K. Harmon. E. W. Cochran. E.D. Miller. J. A. Hall. D. H. Davis. John Run die. W. S. Dearmont. John R.Kirk. W illiam J. S. Bryan. George H. Howe. D. E. Sanders. J. A. Beattie. A. H. Campbell. W.S. Willis. Jefferson R. Potter. James M. Green. Edgar L. Hewett. G.M. Light. Wm. J. Milne. David. E. Smith. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY 1271 IV. — Principals of Normal Schools— Continued. Public normal schools — Con tinned. Location. Name of institution. Principal. new YORK— continued. Brooklyn _ _ _ Training School for Teachers .. John Gallagher. James M. Cassety. Francis J. Cbeney. Buffal o . . . . . _ . . Buffalo Normal School Cortland . . . . State N ormal and Training- School . Fredonia . . . _ do . . . . . . F. B. Palmer. G-eneseo. _ _ _ _ Geneseo State Normal School . . John M. Milne. Jamaica . Normal and Training School . A . C. MacLachlan. New Paltz _ _ State Normal School . . . . Frank S. Capen. A. D. Downing. New York . New York Training School for Do . . . . . Teachers. Normal College of the City of New Thomas Hunter. i ork. Oneonta . . State Normal School . . . . . Percy I. Bugbee. Oswego . Oswego State Normal and Training Isaac B. Poucher. Plattsburg _ _ _ School. State Normal School . . Geo. K. Hawkins. Potsdam _ _ _ State Normal and Training School . Thomas B. Stoweli. Syracuse . . . . Syracuse High School, Normal De- A. B. Blodgett. partmeut. NORTH CAROLINA. Elizabeth City _ _ State Colored Normal School . . . P. W. Moore. Fayetteville . . - . . do . . . . . . E. E. Smith. Franklinton . . . . Albion Academy and State N ormal Rev. J. A. Savage. Goldsboro . . . . - _ School. State Normal School _ _ Henry E. Hogans. Charles D. Mclver- Greensboro . . . State Normal and Industrial School. PlvmoutT) - _ _ _ _ _ Plvmouth State Normal School. _ Chas. M. Eppes. NORTH DAKOTA. Mayville . . _ _ State Normal School _ _ Joseph Carhart. George A. McFarland. Valley City - .... . _ do .. . . . . OHIO. Cincinnati .. _ _ Cincinnati Normal School . . Mrs. Carrie N. Lathrcp. J. W. McGilvrey. Cleveland . Cleveland Normal and Training Columbus . . . School. Columbus Normal School . Margaret W. Sutherland. Grace A. Greene. Dayton . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Dayton Normal School . . . Geneva, . . . .... Geneva Normal School . . J. P. Treat. OKLAHOMA. Alva ... . . . Northwestern Territory Normal James E. Ament. Edmond . . . . School. Territorial Normal School of Okla- Edmund H. Murdaugh. Langston . . . homa. Colored Agricultural and Normal Inman E. Page. University. OREGON. Ashland - - Southern Oregon State Normal W. T. Van Scoy. Drain _ _ _ _ _ School. Oregon State N ormal School . John B. Walker. TvT mi rp on lid State Normal School . . . P. L. Campbell. D. V. S. Reid. W Aston _ do . - . . PENNSYLVANIA. B1 r.nrn sLn rg State Normal School . . . . Judsou P. Welsh. California . . . . Southwestern State N ormal School. Theo. B. Noss. Clarion .. _ _ - .. Clarion State Normal School - A. J. Davis East Stroudsburg . East Stroudsburg State Normal George P. Bible. Ed in boro School. State Normal School _ _ John F. Bigler. D. J. Waller, jr. Indiana . . . - - . Indiana Normal School of Pennsyl- Kutztown . . . . vania. Keystone State Normal School _ Rev. George B. Haueher. Lookhaven . _ _ _ .. _ _ Central Stake Normal School . . J. R. Elickinger. Mansfield . . . . - Mansfield State Normal School _ Andrew T. Smith. Millersville . . . . . First Pennsylvania State Normal E. Oram Lyte. Philadelphia . . School. Philadelphia Normal School for J. M. Willard. Pittsburg . . . . Girls. Pittsburg High School, Normal De- Jane Ralston. Sliippensburg . . . partment. . Cumberland Valley State Normal G.M.D. Eckels. Slippery Rock.. . School. 1 Slippery Rock State Normal School. Albert E. Maltby. . W estc-hester . . ! State Normal School . . . George M. Philips. 1272 EDUCATION RETORT, 1899-1900. IV. — Principals of Normal Schools— Continued. Public normal schools — Continued. Location. RHODE ISLAND. Providence . . SOUTH CAROLINA. Rockbill . . . SOUTH DAKOTA. Madison ... Spearfish . _ Springfield TENNESSEE. Nashville TEXAS. Detroit . Huntsville ... Prairie View UTAH. Cedar City VERMONT. Castleton . Johnson . . Randolph Center. VIRGINIA. Farmville. Hamilton . Petersburg . . WASHINGTON. Cbenev _ . Ellensburi WEST VIRGINIA. Athens..... ...... Fairmont . . Glen ville . Huntington . Institute . . Shepherdstown West Liberty — WISCONSIN. Milwaukee . Oshkosh . Platte ville - River Falls _ Stephens Point. Wausau. . West Superior.. Whitewater .... Name of institution. Rhode Island State Normal School. Winthrop Normal College State Normal School _ do . - do . . . Peabody Normal School. Detroit Normal School.. . Sam Houston Normal Institute _ Prairie View State Normal and In¬ dustrial College. Southern branch of the Stare Nor¬ mal School. State Normal School - do . . - do . State Female Normal School... . Hampton Normal and A gricultural Institute. Virginia Normal and Collegiate In¬ stitute. State N ormal School _ do. . . . Concord State Normal School. . Fairmont State Normal School . Glen ville State Normal School . Marshall College _ _ _ _ West Virginia Colored Institute.... Shepherd College, State Normal School. West Liberty State Normal School State Normal School . _ do . . . _ do . . . . River Falls State Normal School... State Normal School.. . . . Marathon County Training School. Superior State Normal School . State Normal School . . Principal. Fred Gowing. D. E. Johnson. W. H. H. Beadle. F. L. Cook. J. S. Frazee. N. H, Payne. J. Ray. H. C. Pritchett. Ed. L. Blackshear. Milton Bennion. Abel E. Leavenworth. W. E. Ranger. Edward Conant. Robert Frazer. H. B. Frisseil. J. H. Johnston. W. B. Turner. W. E. Wilson. George M. Ford. J. Walter Barnes. W. J.Halden. Lawrence J. Corbly. J. McH. Jones. A. C. Kimler. James M. Skinner. L. D. Harvey. R. H. Halsey. D. McGregor. W. J. Brier. Theron B. Pray. O. E. Wells. J.C. McNeill. Albert Salisbury. Private normal schools. ALABAMA. Huntsville Tuskegee . ARKANSAS. Jamestown . Mount Ida _ _ Pea, Ridge . . Sulphur Rock . Wilmar . . . . W oodberry . Central Alabama Academy. _ A. W. McKinney. Tuskegee Normal and Industrial B. T. Washington. Institute. Arkansas Normal College _ Mount Ida Normal Academy Pea Ridge Normal College _ Sulphur Rock College. . Drew Normal Institute. _ W oodberry Normal Institute J. L-. Grahom. J. W. Stone. B. H. Caldwell. J. W. Decker. J. L. Spence. Andrew Cooper. EDUCATIONAL DIEECTOEY. 1273 IV.— Principals of Normal Schools— Continued. Private normal schools — Continued. Location. CALIFORNIA. Oakland . . . . . . COLORADO. Denver . . DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Washington _ _ _ Do . . . . FLORIDA. Jasper _ _ _ Orange Park . . GEORGIA. Augusta . . . . Macon . . . . Tliomasville . . Waynesboro . . . ILLINOIS. Addison .. Bushneil . . Dixon _ Galesburg Hoopeston Macomb .. Oregon _ Rushville . INDIANA. Name of institution. Principal. Gilson’s Normal and Special Train¬ ing School. J. C. Gilson. Denver Normal and Preparatory School. Fred. Efick. Kindergarten Normal Training Mrs. Louise Pollock. School. Woman’s League Kindergarten Mrs. Anna E. Murray. Training School. Jasper Normal Institute . . Orange Park Normal and Manual Training School. Wm. A. Cate. Ernest R. Latham. Haines Normal and Industrial In¬ stitute. Ballard Normal School . . Allen Normal and Industrial School- Haven Normal School . . Miss Lucy 0. Lavey. George 0. Burr-age. Amelia MerriamT Thomas Tisdeil. German Evangelical Lutheran Teachers’ Seminary. Western Normal College . . Northern Illinois Normal School ... Galesburg Kindergarten Normal School. Greer Normal College . . . Western Illinois hi ormai School and Business Institute. Wells School for Teachers _ Rushville hi ormai and Business Col¬ lege. E. A. W. Krauss. W. AY. Earnest. J. B. Dille. M. Evelyn Strong. J. M. Clary. I. F. Meyer. E. L. Wells. Maxwell Kennedy. Angola . Cory don .... Covington .. Danville Elkhart . Indianapolis Marion . Mitchell .... Muhcie _ Rochester .. Valparaiso . . IOWA. Bloomfield . . Denison . Hu mboldt . . Lemars _ Newton _ Ottumwa ... Perry . Shenandoah Vinton .. AYaukon KANSAS. Tri-State Normal School . . . Ohio Valley Normal School . Indiana Normal College . . . Central Normal College and Com¬ mercial Institute. Elkhart Normal School . . Indiana Kindergarten and Primary Normal Training School. Marion Normal College . . Southern Indiana Normal College. . Eastern Indiana Normal University Rochester Normal University - Northern Indiana Normal School .. L. M. Sniff. E. S. Halle tt. Olive E. Coft’een. J. A. Joseph. J. Ellen Haynes. Eliza A. Blaker. C. W. Boucher. G. W. Dunlavy. F. A. Z. Kumler. AVm. H. Banta. H. B. Brown. Southern Iowa Normal, Scientific, and Business institute. Denison Normal School . . Humboldt College . . . . Lemars Normal College . . Newton Normal College . Ottumwa Normal School. . Perry Normal School - Western Normal College, Shenan¬ doah Commercial Institute and Musical Conservatory. Tilford Academy . . .. Waukon Business College and Nor¬ mal School. A. A. Williams. W. C. Van Ness. -J. P. Peterson. R. E. Hatton. G. W. Worm ley. Martha A. Peck. Will M. Tan*. J. M. Hussey. T. F. Tobin. J.E. Mills. Conway Springs Great Bend _ Marysville . McPherson - Nickerson . Winfield . Normal and Business College . Central Normal College . Modern Normal College . McPherson College, Normal Dep-t Nickerson Normal College . . Southwest Kansas College, Normal Department. S.D. Crane. Porter Young. J. G. Ellen becker. C. E. Arnold. Ed. B. Smith. W. H. Rose. 1274 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1899-1900 IV.— Principals of Normal Schools — Continued. Private normal schools — Continued. Location. KENTUCKY. Blaine . Bowling Green . . . Hardinsburg . Lexington - _ _ Madisonville . Morehead . . Waddy . . MARYLAND. Ammendale . Baltimore. . . . Buckey sto ra . _ MASSACHUSETTS. Boston .... Waltham _ W orcester MICHIGAN. Owosso.. Petoskey MINNESOTA. Madison . . New Ulm _ _ MISSISSIPPI. Burgess. . . luka . Nettleton . . Plattsburg _ Poplar Springs Tougaloo . MISSOURI. Chillicotke _ Gainesville ... Mill Spring . . . Pleasant Hope Stanberry _ NEBRASKA. Fremont _ Santee Agency Wayne . NEW YORK. New York . . . . • NORTH CAROLINA. Asheville . . . . Kings Mountain . . Liberty . . Lumberton . . . .... Raleigh . . Wilmington . . Winton . . . . NORTH DAKOTA. Grand Forks . OHIO. Ada . Canfield. . . Dayton . . Ewington... . Fayette . Name of institution. Principal. Blaine Normal School. . . Bowling Green Business College and Southern N ormal School. Breckinridge Normal College _ Chandler Normal School.. . Western Kentucky Normal School. Morehead Normal School . . Central Normal College. . G. Milton Elam. H. H. Cherry. D. S. Roberts, jr. Fannie J. W ebster. H. Evelyn Brooks. F. C. Button. R. A. Burton. Ammendale Normal Institute . Baltimore Normal School ( colored) . Buckey s town Normal Training School. Brother Christian George Harrison. F. R. Neighbours. Kindergarten Training School Notre Dame Training School . . Kindergarten Normal Class .. Lucy Wheeiock. Sister Georgiana. Anna C. Rust. Oakside School . . . Graves Normal Acadenu^ Mrs. .Josephine M. Gould. M. O. Graves. Normal School of the United Nor- O. Lokensgara. wegiau Lutheran Church. Dr. Martin Luther College . J ohn Schaller. Burgess Normal Institute . Iuka Normal College . . . Spring Hill Normal College _ Winston Normal School . Poplar Springs Normal College _ N ormal Department Tougaloo Uni¬ versity. Cuthbert Spencer. H. A. Dean. C. H. Andrews. J. A. Hall. John D. Mitchell. Frank G. Woodworth. Chiiiieothe Normal Business and Shorthand College. Gainesville Normal School . Hales College . . . . Pleasant Hope Normal Academy... Stanberry Normal School . . Allen Moore. A. P. Selsor. W. H. Hale. J. M. Ricks. D. S. Robbins. Fremont Normal School . . Santee Normal Training School .... Nebraska Normal College . W. H. Clemmons. Alfred L. Riggs. J. M. Pile. Teachers' College James E. Russell. Normal and Collegiate Institute — Lincoln Academy . . . Liberty Normal College. . . Whitin Normal School . St. Augustine’s School . Gregory Normal Institute . Waters Normal Institute . . — Rev. Thos. Lawrence. Lilian S. Cathcart. Thos. C. Amick. DP. Allen. Rev. A. B. Hunter. Geo. A. Woodard. C. S. Brown. Northwestern Normal College John J. Swengel. Ohio Normal University . N ortheastern Old o N ormal College . St. Mary's Academy. . Ewington Academy . . . Fayette Normal University . . H. S. Lehr. James B. Bowman. Brother Michael. F. F. Y ale. P. C. Palmer. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY 1275 IV. — Principals of Normal Schools— Continued. Private normal schools — Continued. Location. Name of institution. Principal. Ohio — continued. Lebanon . . Middlepoint _ New Philadelphia Tremont City - W oodvilie . National Normal University .. Western Ohio Normal School. . John P. Kuhn's Normal School Western Normal University .. Teachers’ Seminary . J. W. Withers. P. S. Morgan. John P. Kuhn. B. L. Barr. • Theo. Mees. PENNSYLVANIA. Ebensburg . . — Mu ncy . - . Pittsburg _ _ — SOUTH CAROLINA. Charleston . . . . Do _ Frogmore . . . . Greenwood _ _ SOUTH DAKOTA. Sioux Palls _ _ _ Ebensburg Normal Institute . . Lycoming County Normal School __ Curry College . . . H.T. Jones. Call P. Bastian. G. H. Kane. Avery Normal Institute . . Wallingford Academy . . Penn Normal and Industrial School. Brewer Normal School . Morrison A. Holmes. Rev. David Brown. Miss Ellen Murray. Rev. J. M. Robinson. Lutheran IN ormal School Rev. A. Mikkelsen. TENNESSEE. Chattanooga . Dickson _ _ Edge wood _ _ _ Fountain City - - Greenbrier _ Holladay _ _ _ Huntingdon . . Jonesboro . . Maryville . . . . Memphis . . Morristown _ Orlinda _ TEXAS. Commerce . . . . Crockett _ _ _ VIRGINIA. Lawrenceville _ _ Reliance . . . . . Richmond _ Rocky Mount . . . Stuart. . . WEST VIRGINIA. Harpers Ferry . Summersville . . . Chattanooga Normal University ... Dickson N ormal School . . . . Edgewood Normal School. . . Holbrook Normal College . . Central Tennessee Normal and Commercial School. Holladay Independent Normal School. Southern Normal University . . Warner Institute . . . . Freedman’s Normal Institute . . Le Moyne In ormal Institute - Morristown Normal Academy . Orlinda Normal College . II. M. Evans. T. B. Loggias. H. D. Fetzer. Jas. C. Blassingame. N. J. Pritchard. A. A. Lindsey. J. A. Baber. H. L. Peterson. L. H. Garner. A. J. Steele. Judson S. Hill. W m. MeNeeley. East Texas IN ormal College Mary Allen Seminary . W. L. Mayo. Rev. John B. Smith, St. Paul Normal and Industrial School. Shenandoah Normal College . . Hartshorn Memorial College . ... Piedmont Normal College . . — Stuart Normal College . . Rev. James S. Russell. J. S. Graver. Lyman B. Telit. J . P. Matthews. I. A. Briggs. Storer Colleg-e . . . . Summersville Normal School Henry T. McDonald. T. L. Bryan. WISCONSIN. Milwaukee _ St. Francis National German- American Teach- Emil Dapprich. ers’ Seminary. Catholic Normal School of the Holy Rev.M. J. Locbemes. Family and Pio Nono College. # ♦ K CHAPTER XXI. TEMPERANCE PHYSIOLOGY. By Mary H. Hunt, in the School Physiology Journal, April, 1901. * * * Nearly all the States, and Congress for all schools under Federal con¬ trol, require this branch to be taught and studied by “ all pupils in all schools.” The reason for this is self-evident. It is the object of this temperance education legislation, which is now national, to insure that the schools shall teach all the future men and women of this country, with other laws of health, the dangerous character and effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics, and to provide that such instruction, by beginning before appetite for these substances is formed, shall be in reality preventive. WHEN AND WHERE THIS STUDY MUST BE PURSUED IN TIME TO SHAPE HABITS. The latest Report of Dr. W. T. Harris, National Commissioner of Education, states that in 1899 the average time during which children in this country remained in school was not quite five years (4.98) . The average in the North Atlantic States was a little less than six and three-quarters years (6.70). 1 If six and three-quarters years is the highest average, then a considerable proportion must get less than six and three-quarters years, for a goodly number of pupils pass up through the grades above the sixth, and some take the entire thirteen years’ course. Those who go into the seventh and higher grades would raise the average above six and three-quarters years if a larger proportion of the children did not have less than this number of years in school. Therefore, according to Dr. Harris’s figures, if the study is excluded from the lower grades many children will fail to get any instruction in this subject, because they will have dropped out of school before they reach it. The fact that compulsory-attendance lav/s in some of the North AtlanticStates may insure that a larger number of pupils reach grades higher than Dr. Harris’s figures imply would not insure that wrong hygienic habits, including cigarette smoking, cider and beer tippling, may not have been formed before the sixth or seventh years are reached. The task in the case of such pupils would become the difficult, sometimes impossible, one of reformation rather than the hopeful work of prevention through education. CHILDREN IN THE PRIMARY GRADES. This instruction is needed in the primary years, even for those who remain longest in school, to guide constantly-forming habits and to create aversion for wrong habits during these most impressible years of child life. “Most of the cigarette smokers in my schools,” writes a superintendent, “ are in the fourth and fifth years.” Faithful instruction through the primary grades and continued in succeeding years might have prevented this state of affairs. Even in tire States with the highest educational ranking some children leave school at the expiration of the third year. If instruction in physiological temper¬ ance is excluded from the first three primary years this class will receive no instruction at ail on that subject. Such children are often from homes where there is little either of temperance teaching or of example. Children of the immigrant are often among these. To deprive them of this school instruction is a wrong to them and a menace to the public. We tempt with the open saloon these people who have come to America 1Psge XIY of the Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1898-99. [The writer has over¬ looked the circumstance that the average time of schooling is given in the Commissioner's Report in years assumed to be of two hundred days each. If the time w’ere stated in years containing the average number of daj^s actually attended (in the case of the whole country about 140), the number of years given in the text would have to be increased in due proportion. — Ed.] 1277 1278 EDUCATION REPOET, 1899-1900. as to the land of hope. In addition, to shut off from their children in these primary years the instruction of the school against what the saloon has to sell would be a double wrong which would come back to smite us as these children become a part of this government of the people. To take oral instruction in tem¬ perance physiology out of the three primary publi c-school years, where of course instruction must be oral, is to provide for the perpetuity of a slum class to be the slaves of alcohol, narcotics, and kindred vices, and a consequent peril to society. THE FOURTH- YEAR PUPIL. Throughout the country regular text-book instruction in other studies, like arithmetic and geography, ordinarily begins in the fourth year of school life. Why should it not in this study? There are important truths to be learned on this sub¬ ject which relate to the pupil’s physical, mental, and moral development. The fourth-year pupil comes up from the primary with a sense of growth that resents what he terms baby methods. He wants a book, because older pupils have a book for a study that means anything, and he should have a book. He is old enough to take in by the eye gate what he reads in the text, as well as through the ear gate what the teacher says. Neither he nor the fifth or sixth year pupil is very responsive to mere exhorta¬ tion. They do not like to he preached at. Truth put into language they can understand, found in their text-books, illustrated by the teacher may be impressed by her with permanent moral effect because they can understand the reason for it. This is a critical year for the child, when careful instruction that respects his consciousness of his own development may save him from temptations which closely beset him at this age. No subject which the school teaches is of more importance to the pupil than that of modern hygiene, including the nature and effects of alcohol and other narcotics, because it touches life, health, and constantly- forming habits. If we were sure that all the children would remain in school up to and during the higher school years, and that before that time they would form no unhygienic habits, including those that relate to alcohol and tobacco; that their minds on these subjects would remain a perfect blank until the time we were ready to give the instruction; that they would possess no inherited tenden¬ cies which should be warned against, or be surrounded by no temptations, the question of the time for the introduction of this study would he unimportant. But with life and its environments what they are to-day, to take graded text-book instruction on this topic from pupils of the fourth year is to do them an irrepa¬ rable wrong. METHODS ARE LEFT TO THE TEACHER. A text-book in the hands of the pupil where other branches are thus studied is only one source of information, and does not as lias been claimed, limit the teacher to any special method, inductive, deductive, objective, illustrative, or experi¬ mental. She may teach by any method she chooses. The book helps a poor teacher and her pupils, especially in a subject in which she has had no training, as is often the case in this one. The good teacher shows the pupil how to use any book in such a way as to get the best from it. Thorough, systematic study of this branch in grades above the primary calls for text-hooks in the hands of the pupils. Keep definite text-book instruction on this subject out of the public schools until some of the pupils have left school, and until many of those who go into the upper grades have a cigarette, cider, or beer drinking I iking' already established, and t he saloon will have as its allies, to vote for and support it, those who were deprived of this instruction. No one who would save the children from this fate and the State from its consequences, or who believes with Webster that it is “the right a,nd k ou n den duty of government to provide for the instruction of all youth r' on matters essential to personal well-being and to good citizenship, could consent to any neglect of the study in this grade, or to its being left to the haphazard methods of so-called incidental teaching. THE FIFTH AH I) SIXTH YEARS. In these days of child study we have learned that a method that does not take into cons deration those moods of the child which are due to his progressive devel¬ opment, and adapt itself to them will fail of the best results. The child is ever looking to the future with an expectant pride in the more advanced things he is to do and learn, and to the year and its lessons just passed with a kind of con¬ tempt, as to a period of infantile studies and immaturity. To do as the big boys and girls do, and to study what they study in the higher classes is the attractive goal for children as they emerge from the fourth year. TEMPERANCE PHYSIOLOGY 1279 The simple lessons and book that interested and taught the fourth-year pnpil to obey the laws of hygiene he conld understand will not hold him another year, if he stays in school, unless those lessons are enlarged and presented in a form adapted to his increased intelligence. Give the child that reaches the fifth and sixth years a larger treatment of the subject, more facts concerning the structure of his body in which he is always interested, and the subject will lose none of its freshness. He can at this age understand more clearly the laws that are written in his own body, laws which must be obeyed to secure a good mental and moral as well as a sound physical development and that success in life which every child craves. Let the appeal come through the intelligence to the reason and moral nature, and the study will not pall on pupils of this age, but will make that warning and restrain¬ ing impression which truth can be relied upon to make when pressed home in this way. A good text-book, adapted to his development, in the hands of the pupil as one help in his study is an essential in this branch as well as in others. Three or four lessons a week at most, for ten weeks each year during the fifth and sixth years, will cover so much of the subject as is adapted to these grades. About this amount of matter is ordinarily covered in an elementary text-book on this subject. If five years are a little more than the average school attendance in this country as a whole, and if six and three-quarters years are a little more than the attendance in the older and more advanced States, to neglect to have this study pursued to the best possible advantage in the fifth and sixth years is to fail to continue the warning instruction when temptations thicken about the child; it is also to rele¬ gate the future majorities of our country to that ignorance concerning the laws of health, including the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks, which will give the saloon the right of way in the future as it destroys our people and their Govern¬ ment. SEVENTH AND EIGHTH YEARS AND THE HIGH SCHOOL. As these years are reached pupils begin to leave school in large numbers to join the industrial ranks. Compared with those who enter the primary classes, the number who go on through the seventh and eighth years is small. But the more education a man or woman has received, other things being equal, the more influ¬ ence for good or bad they will subsequently be able to exert; hence a continuance of this progressive study is urgently needed to enable the pupil to resist the luring temptations that press hard upon him during these years, and to equip these com¬ paratively few scholars to go out into life strong in intelligent conviction for a future of abstinence for themselves and for their countrymen from enslaving alco¬ holic drinks and other narcotics. Where there are nine years below the high school, pupils who have successfully passed tests or examinations in this study from grade to grade can well drop it in the ninth 3Tear, leaving it to to he taken up and completed during the first year of the high school, where a full and more technical treatment can be easily mastered. TOO MUCH TIME OR STUDY IS NOT ASKED The impression that this scheme of study asks for too much attention is dis¬ pelled when an estimate is made of the time it really calls for. The maximum of four text- book lessons per week for ten weeks per year, from the beginning of the fourth school year through the first year of the h gh school, makes only 240 lessons in all, distributed through six years, and these lessons are in the whole subject of physiology and hygiene, with only enough temperance matter to cover that portion of the subject. But there is too much temperance matter, the critics are saying. In the indorsed manuals of instruction for high schools the physiology and general hygiene occu¬ pies all the text except twenty pages, and four-fifths of all the matter in the books for the grades below the high school. Twenty pages in high-school books and one- fifth of the space in manuals for the lower grades, devoted to the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, is barely enough to cover these important facts of the study. Whoever objects to such amount either does not want this subject taught at ail, or has given no study to the question of how much truth should be presented to correct popular fallacies and to present such a progressive body of facts from year to year as will make the pupil intelligent on this question. • WHY DIFFUSE THE SUBJECT THROUGH THE WHOLE SCHOOL COURS . We have shown that to reach all classes, and thus to preempt all the future men and women of this country for an intelligent sobriety, and to guide them to the for- 1280 * EDUCATION EEPOKT, 189S-1900. Hiation of right habits before wrong ones get the right of way, this study must not only begin in the primary classes but continue as a progressive branch through¬ out the grades; that such a scheme takes only a reasonable amount of time in the school course, and that when properly graded it is not a repetition, but the pre¬ sentation of fresh matter in a progressively developing subject. TEXT-BOOKS. “ Why are you so insistent upon text-books in the hands of pupils?” is asked. Because, as we have shown, books rightly used as one source of information are essential to the success of any study, especially when teachers have had no special training as to facts to be taught or to methods of teaching these facts. If the diffusion of the truths contained in geography would prevent the formation of an appetite that supports a great moneyed interest, the friends of geography would have to watch insistently lest text-hooks on geography should be taken out or left out of the schools. ACTION TAKEN BY THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. The department of superintendence of the National Educational Association, at its meeting at Chicago in the early part of the year 1901, adopted the following report relating to temperance instruction in the public schools: “The department of superintendence agrees cordially with the special advocates of the temperance cause in holding that everything which public instruction can do in the battle against intemperance ought to be done, and that both physiology and hygiene should he so taught as to leave in the minds of children and youths an adequate and proper knowledge of the effects of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics on the human system. ‘ 4 Since the last meeting of this department there has been considerable discussion of the question as to whether alcohol under any conditions is properly to be defined as an article of food. Medical authorities are quoted in support of both sides of this question, but no authority has been found to maintain that alcohol is a focal in the ordinary sense of that term. The question of the supposed food value of alcohol is a technical one for medical experts to determine, and not one which needs to concern the man and woman who are engaged in the work of public instruction of children and youth. For them it is enough to know that its use as a beverage is injurious and that all authorities agree in deprecating the formation of the drinking habit and in commending all practicable efforts through public instruction to promote the cause of temperance. 4 4 The questions of highest importance for teachers and superintendents of schools to consider are those which relate to the methods by which temperance instruc¬ tion shall be imparted, the extent to which it shall be carried, and the subject- matter to be presented. 4 4 The educational side of this question is vitally important and demands thorough and systematic study. 44 We therefore recommend that a body of educational doctrine be formulated which may guide temperance instruction in the schools throughout the country, and we further recommend that the scope of the investigation be so enlarged as to cover not only the topics already suggested, but also the whole field of personal by giene, so far as this is a practicable matter for school instruction. 44 We also recommend that this investigation be conducted under the direction of the National Council of Education, in accordance with the regulations of the National Educational Association.” SECONDARY SCHOOLS 2129 schools reporting to this Bureau in 1830-1000. Tabic 44 shows the number of public and private high schools for boys only, for girls only, and the number of coeducational secondary schools in each State. Table 1. — Public high schools — Number of schools, secondary instructors •, secondary students , and elementary pupils in 1809-1000 . f State or Territory. Number of schools. Secondary teachers. Secondary stu¬ dents. Colored stu¬ dents (in¬ cluded in preceding column). Elementary pupils, including all below sec¬ ondary grades. Male. Female. Total. Male. , Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. 1 Total. United States. 6,005 10, 172 10,200 20,372 216,207 303,044 519,251 2,655 5, 740 8, 395 47,311 47, 637 94,948 N. Atlantic Division 1,448 2, 726 3, 925 6, 651 73,333 96, 072 169, 405 365 610 975 7,555 7,825 15, 380 S. Atlantic Division. 440 655 536 1,191 10, 553 16, 460| 27,013 488:1,410 1,893 7,481 6,901 14,382 S. Central Division . 675 996 723 1,719 16,080 23,589! 39.669 769,1, 726 2, 495 9, 705 9,110 18,815 N. Central Division. 3,163 5,209 4, 476 9,685 104,980 1 49,8336 254,816 996 1,909 2,905 22,008 23, 275 45,283 Western Division .. 270 586 540 1, 126 11,261 17,087 28,348 37 85 122 562 626 1,088 N. Atlantic Division: Maine . 154 174 169 343 3,828 4,921 8,749 o #v 5 \ 7 882 894 1,776 New Hampshire 57 70 102 172 1,60*3 2,102 3, 704 2 ' O 295 • 266 561 Vermont . 55 59 92 151 1,482 1 , 956 3, 438 3 3 6 348 3 48 696 Massachusetts. . 237 557 955 1,512 15, 718 20, 226 35, 914 90 114 204 771 782 1,553 Rhode Island ... 20 74 8!) 163 1,476 1,974 S, 450 10 37 47 75 49 134 Connecticut .... 74 130 999 352 3,519 4, 588 8, 107 9 18 27 144 130 274 New York . 378 776 1,434 2,210 29,019 33,347 62, 366 109 139 248 2,461 2, 528 4, 9S9 New Jersey . 96 192 336 528 4,252 7,0-08 11,260 50 90 140 598 636 1,234 Pennsylvania. .. 377 694 626 1,220 12, 437 19, 950 32,387 90 204 294 1,981 2, 192 4, 173 S Atlantic Division: Delaware . 13 17 24 41 402 650 1,052 0 0 0 67 57 124 Maryland . 51 95 • 64 159 1,720 2,236 3, 9.36 71 150 221 893 652 1,515 Dist. Columbia.. 5 55 82 137 1,313 2, 118 3,431 198 506 704 0 0 0 Virginia . 70 82 101 183 1,596 2, 734 4,330 109 438 547 1,166 1,191 2,357 West Virginia .. 32 52 28 80 665 1,290 1,9.55 16 40 56 55 57 ■412 North Carolina. 21 24 18 42 405 538 943 10 40 50 295 284 579 South Carolina . 104 134 76 210 1 , 693 2,305 3,993 49 120 169 2,170 1,985 4, 155 Georgia . 120 150 109 259 2, 202 3,643 5,845 14 65 79 2,344 2, 272 4,616 Florida . 33 46 34 80 557 946 1,503 21 51- 72 491 403 894 S. Central Division: Kentucky . 70 119 113 282 2,312 3, 205 5, 517 203 481 714 607 654 1,261 Tennessee . 101 131 93 224 2, 169 3, 253 5, 422 113 287 400 2,141 1,953 4. 094 Alabama . 62 92 93 185 1,478 2,339 3, 817 25 45 70 1,445 970 2,415 Mississippi _ 100 110 93 203 1,618 2, 434 4,052 87 307 394 1,971 1,955 3. 926 Louisiana . 31 57 59 116 814 1,401 2,215 26 45 71 353 336 689 Texas . . 240 382 220 602 6,078 8,851 14,929 195 358 553 2,314 2,414 4,748 Arkansas . 61 87 42 129 1,371 1,853 3,224 83 190 273 618 715 1,333 Oklahoma . . 6 10 8 18 117 219 336 7 13 20 0 0 0 Indian Territory 4 8 2 10 123 34 157 0 0 0 256 93 319 N. Central Division: Ohio. . 678 1,073 6-44 1,717 19, 753 25, 959 45,712 240 388 628 8,383 8, 461 10, 844 Indiana . 382 738 370 1,108 11,184 15,231 26,415 176 295 471 2, 776 2,941 5,717 Illinois . 344 721 697 1,418 14, 670 22. 776 37, 446 135 223 358 1,246 1,355 2, 601 Michigan . 291 477 610 1,087 12, 146 16, 665 28,811 32 56 88 1,831 2,034 3, 865 Wisconsin . 231 381 409 790 8, 750 11,876 20, 626 5 15 20 514 649 1,193 Minnesota . 115 181 330 511 5,020 7,290 12,310 13 29 42 171 194 365 Iowa . 344 479 582 1,061 11,773 17,249 29, 022 36 71 107 1,528 1,619 3,147 Missouri . . 234 428 317 745 8,208 12, 398 20, 606 197 485 682 1,093 1,232 2, 325 North Dakota . . 27 31 34 65 442 688 1,130 7 5 12 03 79 142 South Dakota .. 61 70 49 119 1,111 1,506 2,617 3 1 4 548 694 1,242 Nebraska . 250 320 226 546 6,053 9, 155 15,208 10 29 39 2,992 3,015 6. 007 Kansas . . 203 310 '208 518 5,870 9, 043 14, 913 142 312 454 833 1,002 1,835 Western Division: Montana . 19 25 43 68 642 993 1, 635 3 5 8 100 J09 209 Wyoming . 7 8 9 17 155 202 357 1 0 1 68] 41 109 Colorado . . 44 127 104 231 2,337 3,573 5,910 11 40 51 77 82 159 New Mexico .... 7 14 6 20 100 143 243 1 1 0 0 0 A rizona 2 5 3 8 57 115 172 0 0 0 Utah . 5 21 18 39 491 624 1,115 2 1 3 0 0 0 Nevada 9 12 10 22 164 267 431 1 1 ai 27 60 Tdaho 8 11 7 18 216 270 486 0 0 0 Washington _ 47 77 60 137 1,326 2, 1.37 3,463 6 7 12 241 210 451 Oregon . . . 17 31 29 60 743 1,173 1,916 1 2 3 43 57 100 California . 105 255 251 506 5,030 7,590 12,620 14 28 42 0 0 0 ED 1900— YOL II - 54 a.