i A ' ‘ v/*r vj.- [Whole Number 233 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR THE 'STE.A.R 1895-96. NO LONGER PROPERTY OP FALVEY MEMORIAL LIBRARY Volume 1. CO^X^IjSrHSTGr PART I. WASHINGTON’: GOVERNMENT PRINTING - O* FlCE. OF EDUCATE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION MAR 2 8 2013 400 MARYLAND AVENUE S.W. WASHINGTON. DC. 20202 THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION. Created as a Department March 2, 1S67. Made an Office of the Interior Department July 1, 1869 , COMMISSIONERS. Henry Barnard, LL. D., March 14, 1867 , to March 15, 1870 . John Eaton, Pb. D., LL. D., March 16, 1870, to August 5, 1886, N A THANIEL H . B. ‘ DAWS ON,' >Lr*H . D . . o .• *■ .* 21 7 August 6, 1886, [fm^^Aem mn £fi&89. Williazvi T. Harris, Ph. D., LL. D., September 12 , 1889 , to date. u III ,R3 Vo » % CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1. THE COMMISSIOHER’S IHTBODT7CTIOH. Page, Total enrollment in schools and colleges . IX The common schools of the United States . IX Average amount of schooling per inhabitant . . . XIV Graphic exhibit of school statistics . XIV City school systems . XIX City school supervision . XXII Constitution and powers of city school hoards . XXVI Secondary schools . XXVI Hormal schools . XXXI Higher education . XXXI English education hill . XXXV Education in Great Britain . . XXXVI Public, society, and school libraries . XXXIX Commercial education in Europe . XLIII Education in Scandinavia . XLIII Education of the colored race . XLIV STATE COMMOH SCHOOL SYSTEMS. Total population, school population, adult male population . . LVH Relation of school population to total population and to the adult male population ; proportion of white school population of foreign birth ; percentage of foreign horn in total population . L VILE School ages of the several States; State school censuses . LIX Humber of pupils enrolled in the common schools at various periods, and relation of enroll¬ ment to school population . LX School enrollment of 1895-96, classified by sex . LXI Per cent of school population enrolled in the public schools for a period of years . LXII Average daily attendance at various periods and its relation to enrollment . LXI II Average length of school term at various periods ; aggregate number of days’ schooling given to all pupils . LXTIV Length of school term ; average number of days’ schooling given each child . . LX VI Humber and sex of teachers; proportion of male teachers . LXVI Average monthly salaries cf teachers . LXVIII Private schools . LXIX Receipts of school moneys . LXX School revenue . LXXI Progress of school expenditure . LXXTT School expenditure classified . LXXILE Expenditure per pupil . LXXIV Expenditure per capita of population . LXXV PART I. Chapter I. — Laws Relating to City School Boards. The typical city school system . . . Members of school boards . Some notable systems . Control of revenues . The superintendent . Selection of teachers . Ul 3 4 C 9 10 11 2 13 IV CONTENTS. Page. Details of the system in New York City . 12 Chicago, Ill . - . 21 Philadelphia, Pa . 23 Brooklyn, N.Y . 26 St. Louis, Mo . 27 Boston, Mass . . - . 29 Baltimore, Md . - . . . - 30 City and county of San Francisco, Cal . - . 33 Cincinnati, Ohio . - . 35 Cleveland, Ohio . 37 Buffalo, N. Y . . - . . 38 New Orleans, La . 39 Pittsburg, Pa . - . 41 District of Columbia (Washington City) . 45 Detroit, Mich . 54 Milwaukee, Wis . 57 Minneapolis, Minn . 59 St. Paul, Minn . 60 Denver, Colo . 62 Indianapolis, Ind . 63 Charleston, S. C . <55 Hartford, Conn . 66 The city of Savannah and county of Chatham . 72 Summary of laws relating to the school boards of certain cities . 74 Chapter II.— The English Education Bill of 1896. Purpose of the bill . 79 Historical importance . 80 Speech of Sir John Gorst on presenting the bill . . . 87 Mr. Asquith's speech in opposition . 97 Mr. Chamberlain’s opinion . 106 Mr. Harcourt on the bill . 108 Beview of the bill by Sir Lyulph Stanley . . . 112 Chapter III.— Education in Great Britain and Ireland. Educational statistics . 123 Outline of the English educational system . 125 Bemarks of Sir John Gorst on the educational condition . 129 Mr. Yoxall on the position of rural schools . 132 Chapter IY. — Education in Central Europe. Articles on education in central Europe published in previous reports . 137 Public industrial education in Berlin . 138 Salaries of teachers in the people’s schools in Germany . 147 Average salaries in German cities in 1889 . 152 Salaries of teachers in the people’s schools of Austria . . 156 Beform schools in the Grand Dutchy of Baden, Germany . 158 Statistics of German, Austrian, and Swiss universities, polytechnica, agricultural, veterinary, forestry, and mining academies . 165 Foreigners in universities and other higher institutions of learning in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland . 150 Chapter Y. — Music in German Schools. What part should music have in education . 187 History of singing in German schools . 190 Present state of method in Germany . 197 Selection and arrangement of ma ter . __ 199 Details of the American method of teaching singing . 201 Details of the German method of teaching singing . . 204 The value of folksongs (volkslieder) . 211 List of poets of German folksongs . 212 List of composers of German folksongs . 213 Bibliography of German books . 215 CONTENTS, V Chapter YI.-^-The American Common School in New York, New Jersey, and Penn¬ sylvania DURING THE FIRST HALE CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC.— By Dr. A. D. Mayo. Page. New York . 219 Dr Eliphalet Nott . 231 Emma "Willard . 240 New Jersey . 247 Pennsylvania . . . - . 255 Chapter YII.— The American Common School in the Southern States during the First Half Century of the Republic, 1790-1840. — By Dr. A. D. Mayo. The inauguration and direction of popular education . 267 The progress of education in Virginia . 269 Maryland . ...'. . 274 Delaware . 278 North Carolina . - . 281 South Carolina . 288 Georgia . 295 Florida . 299 Alabama — . - 300 Mississippi . 302 Louisiana . 307 Tennessee . 312 Kentucky . 316 Arkansas and Texas . 325 Iowa . - . 328 Missouri . 329 The District of Columbia . 331 Chapter YIII.— Public, Society, and School Libraries. References to preceding publications on libraries . 339 Number of libraries and of volumes . 341 Volumes and pamphlets added and books issued . 342 Sources of support and classification . 343 Income from various sources. . ; 346 Distribution of libraries and of volumes . 348 Chart showing relative number of volumes to each 100 of population in 1896 . 350 Summary of statistics of libraries in 1875 of 300 volumes and over . 351 Summary of statistics of libraries in 1885 of 300 volumes and over . 352 Libraries entirely free to the public and having 3,000 volumes and over . 355 List of public, society, and school libraries in the United States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 . . . . 370 Chapter IX.— Library Legislation in the United States. Legislation for the incorporation of library associations, societies, etc . 523 District and township libraries . 524 Free public libraries supported by the State . 525 Recent State library laws . 526 Resume of library legislation . 528 State library laws : Arizona . 532 California . 533 Colorado . 536 Connecticut . 538 District of Columbia — Florida . 539 Idaho — Illinois . 540 Indiana . 541 Iowa . 545 Louisiana . 546 Maine . 548 Maryland . 549 Massachusetts . 549 Michigan . 566 Minnesota — Missouri — Nebraska . 568 New Hampshire . . 571 YI CONTENTS. State library laws — Continued. Page. New Jersey . 572 New York. . 572 North Carolina . 57G North Dakota . 584 Ohio . - . 585 Pennsylvania . 587 Rhode Island . - . 5S8 Utah . 590 Vermont . 592 Virginia . .... . 595 "Wisconsin . 595 "Wyoming . 597 Chapter X. — Comparative Study op Popular Education among Civilized Nations : Administration op Popular Education. Popular instruction during the nineteenth century. . . 601 Mutual relations of the school, religion, and the church . 604 Relations of primary instruction and politics . 608 Chapter XI.— Education in Prance. Topical outline . . 611 The system in general . C12 State inspection of primary schools . 614 Communal obligations, . 615 Status of primary schools as regards enrollment . 615 The teaching service . 617 School savings banks and funds in aid of poor children . . . 618 Department of secondary instruction . 619 The lye6e ideal and attempted modification . 619 Department of superior instruction . 620 Requirements for admission to the French faculties . 629 Translation hy the author from his “Voyage in Europe in 1895 ” . 635 Chapter XII.— Education in Mexico and Central America.— By F. F. Hilder. Historical notes . G41 Provisions of the law of 1891 . 644 National college of engineers and mining . 646 Medical college . 647 National medical institute . 647 National college of agriculture and veterinary surgery . 648 Commercial college . 649 National school of fine arts . 650 National conservatory of music . 651 National law school . 652 National military college . 652 Normal schools . 655 National schools of arts and trades . 656 Beneficent, industrial, and correctional schools . 657 Guatemala . 662 Salvador . 66i Honduras . 635 Nicaragua . 666 Costa Rica . 666 British Honduras . 667 Chapter XIII.— The Fifth International Prison Congress.— By C. D. Randall. Place of meeting . 669 Opening addresses . _ _ 670 Programme of questions reported and discussed . 676 "Who are recidivists . 679 Transportation of criminals . 689 Indemnity for the injured party . 6S5 Compensation for prison labor . 6S7 CONTENTS. VII Page. Custody of prisoners’ earnings . G8S Prisons in the United States . G3S Problems relating to dependent and delinquent children . 600 Conclusions of tho congress . 695 Chapter XIT.— The Letters of Rabbi Akibah, or the Jewish Prefer as it was Used in the Public Schools Two Thousand Tears ago.— By Haphtali Herz Imber. Preface by the Commissioner of Education . 701 History and nature of the primer . . . 701 The translation . 702 Chapter XT. — Commercial Education in Europe, Particularly in Austria, France, and Germany. General observations on commercial education . 721 Higher commercial instruction in Austria . 725 The Commercial Academy in Vienna . 728 Academic intermediate school of commerce . 729 Synopsis of curriculum in the one and three year courses in the Vienna Commercial Academy . . 734 Commercial Academy of Prague . 1 . 748 Higher commercial instruction in France . 761 School of Higher Commercial Studies in Paris . 776 Official programme of the courses of the School of Higher Commercial Studies and of the pre¬ paratory school connected with the same . - . 787 Xotes on the commercial schools of France . . 809 Higher commercial instruction in Germany . 829 The Public Commercial Institute at Leipsic . 829 Chapter XVE.— Early Educational Life in Middle Georgia. Vacation time . 839 Academies . 858 A manual labor school . 866 The university . 874 Chapter XVII.— Horace Mann. Address on Horaca Mann before the Xational Educational Association at Buffalo, X. Y., July 7, 1896, by William T. Harris, Commissioner of Education . 887 Bibliography of Horace Mann, by B. Pickman Mann . . 897 Chapter XVIII.— Correlation of Studies. Isolation and unification as bases of courses of study, by Emerson E. White . 929 The correlation of elementary studies, by George H. Howison . 934 Chapter XIX.— Educational .Directory. List of State superintendents of education . . 939 City superintendents . A. . 939 College presidents . 948 Principals of normal schools . 957 - - REPORT OE THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington , D. €., October I, 1896. Sir : I have tlie honor to submit herewith the annual report of this office for the year ending June 30, 1896. total enrollment in schools and colleges. There were enrolled in the schools and colleges, both public and private, during the school year 1895-96, 15,997,197 pupils, being an increase of 308,575 over the preceding year. On pages xii and xm the detailed classification is given, showing the numbers in elementary, secondary, and higher education, the number in public institutions being 14,465,371 and in private institutions 1,531,826. Various special schools and institutions, including business colleges, trade schools, conservatories of music, schools of art, of oratory and elocution, schools for defective classes, reform schools, Indian schools, evening schools, and other schools of a miscellaneous character, enroll¬ ing in the aggregate 418,000 pupils, should be added to obtain the complete enrollment in schools of all kinds.1 This gives 16,415,197 as the grand total. THE COMMON SCHOOLS. The term u common schools” is used in this office to include public schools of elementary (first eight years of course of study) and sec¬ ondary (ninth to twelfth years of course of study) grades, no institu¬ tions of higher education being included even though supported by public taxes. The following table gives a condensed summary of the common- school statistics compiled from the data furnished this office by the State superintendents. The details of this table are given on pages lv to lxxv. The increase in pupils over last year is seen to be 177,326. 1 The enrollment in some of these classes of institutions is quite large, as for example — Evening schools . 202, 773 Business colleges . 80, 852 Indian schools . 23, 572 Defective classes . 21, 930 [Foot note continued on page x.] ED 96 - 1* IX X REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, In tlie succeeding table (pp. xii-xiii) tbe number in private schools and the totals of higher education have been added to the number in the common schools to show the instruction by grades for the whole country and for each of the five census divisions. Common-school statistics of the United States. 1870-71. 1893-94. 1894-95. a 1S95-S6. a I. — General statistics. Total population (estimated) . 39, 500, 500 68, 064, 250 68, 748, 950 70, 595, 321 Number of persons 5 to 18 years of age (estimated) . - . 12, 305, 600 20, 137, 521 20, 328, 147 20, 865, 377 Number of different pupils enrolled on the school registers . 7. 561, 582 13, 995, 357 14, 201. 752 14, 379, 078 Per cent of total population enrolled . 19.14 20. 56 20. 65 20. 37 Per cent of persons 5 to 18 years of age enrolled . 61. 45 69. 50 69. 85 68.83 Average daily attendance . 4, 545, 317 9, 263, 350 9, 387, 507 9, 747, 015 Ratio of same to enrollment . 60.1 66.2 66.1 67.8 Average length of school term (in days) . . . 132.1 139.5 141.4 140.5 Aggregate number of days attended . 600, 432, 802 1, 292, 751, 289 1, 327, 953, 863 1, 369, 882, 914 Average number for each person 5 to 18 years of age . 48.7 64.2 65.3 65. 7 Average number for each pupil enrolled. . . 79.4 92.4 93.5 95.3 [Foot note continued from page ix] . Reformatories . 19, 327 Benevolent institutions, chiefly orphan asylums, that do not send to outside schools . 13, 309 Total . 361.763 These items are in part estimated. The item “taught in benevolent institutions ” is given in detail as follows : Children under 16 years of age in benevolent institutions in 1890. Total. Male. ! Pemale. The United States . . 63,011 36, 491 31, 520 Taught in institution . 13, 309 5,133 ! 49, 569 7,440 2, 835 26, 216 5, 869 2 298 23] 353 Taught in public school . Is ot taught in either . North Atlantic Division . 38, 243 21, 328 16, 915 Taught in institution . . 2,758 2, 521 32, 964 4,323 702 1, 343 19,283 1,847 2, 056 1, 178 13, 6S1 2,476 Taught in public school . Not taught in either . South Atlantic Division . Taught in institution . 3,597 209 517 17,017 1,492 96 259 9, 357 2, 105 113 258 7, 660 Taught in public school . . Not taught in either . North Central Division . Taught in institution . 5, 940 1, 400 9, 677 4,026 4.993 853 3,511 1, 720 947 547 6,166 2, 306 Taught in public school . Not taught in either . South Central Division . Taught in institution . 371 389 3, 266 4,402 83 190 j 1,447 2,239 288 199 1, 819 2,163 Taught in public school . Not taught in either . Western Division . Taught in institution . 643 | 614 3,145 170 j 353 1,716 1 473 261 1, 429 Taught in public school . Not taught in either . a The figures for 1S94-95 and 1395-96 are subject to revision. COMMON SCHOOLS, XI Common-school statistics of the United States — Continued. 1870-71. 1893-94. 1894-95. a 1895-90. a 1. — General statistics — Continued. 90, 293 129, 932 125, 402 263, 547 128, 376 267,951 130, 366 269, 959 220, 225 388, 949 396, 327 32.4 400, 325 32.6 41 32.2 Average monthly wages of teachers — $44. 76 $37. 48 238, 423 $46. 82 $39. 41 237, 416 $439, 071, 690 $47. 37 $40 24 240, 968 $455, 948, 164 132, 119 $143, 818, 703- $428, 238, 256 11. — Financial statistics. Receipts: $8, 440, 959 32, 749, 646 112, 785, 117 16, 428, 458 $8, 336, 612 33, 252, 941 119, 019, 984 16, 988, 154 $7, 646, 152 35, 280, 153 123, 219, 526 15, 248, 597 Total revenues _ - . . 170, 404,180 177, 597, 691 181, 394, 428 Per cent of the total revenue derived from — Permanent funds . . . 1 5 4. 7 4.2 State taxes . . . . . 19.2 18. 7 19.4 T,nea,1 taxes . . . . 66. 2 67 67.9 All other sources . 9.6 9.6 8. 5 Expenditures : For sites, buildings, furniture, libra¬ ries and apparatus _ _ _ _ $30, 007, 688 109, 202, 405 33, 292, 750 $31, 900, 525 113, 664, 874 32, 650, 157 $32, 408, 270 116, 377, 778 35, 667, 732 For salaries of teachers and superin¬ tendents . . . . $42, 580, 853 For all other purposes.... . Tefal expert rlitn res _ . . 69, 107, 612 1.75 172, 502, 843 2. 53 178, 215, 556 2. 59 184, 453, 780 2. 61 Expenditure per capita of population . Expenditure per pupil (of average attenJ- ance) : For sites, buildings, etc . . 3.24 3. 40 3. 32 For salaries . . . 9.37 11. 79 12. 11 11. 94 For all other purposes. . . . . 3. 59 3. 47 3.60 Total expenditure per pupil - _ _ _ 15. 20 18. 62 18. 98 18. 92 Per cent of the total expenditure devoted to — Sites, bnildinP's, etc _ _ _ 17.4 17. 9 17. 6 Salaries . . . . 61.6 63. 3 63.8 18. 3 63. 1 Other purposes . 19.3 19. 3 Average expenditure per day for each pu¬ pil (in cents) : For tuition . 7. 1 8.4 8. 6 8.5 For all purposes . 11.5 13.3 13.4 13.5 a Tlie figures for 1894-95 and 1895-96 are subject to re vision. XII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Total number of pupils and students of all grades in both public and private schools, 1S95-9G — Continued. WHOLE NUMBER OF PUPILS AND STUDENTS. XIII XIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. AVERAGE AMOUNT OF SCHOOLING PER INHABITANT. Ifc is useful to state the above results in another form to answer the questions, How much schooling is each inhabitant receiving on the basis of present attendance? If the conditions existing the past year were continued indefinitely, what would be the average amount of schooling per individual, counting it in school years of 200 days each? In answer to this inquiry, the average for the nation and its five census divisions is given, estimated in Table 2 for the common schools alone, and in Table 1, including also the higher education and the private schools. The results are shown in comparative form, beginning with 1870: Average total amount of schooling ( including all grades of both public and irrivate schools) each individual of the population would receive under the conditions actually existing at the different dates given below. [Expressed in years of 200 scliool days each.] 1870. 1880. 3890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. United States . . . 8. 32 3. 59 4. 41 4.51 4.41 4. 48 4. 63 4.75 4.84 Nor tli Atlantic Division . 4. 98 5. 77 5. 94 6. 04 6. 08 6. 09 6.32 6. 54 6. 48 Soutli Atlantic Division . 1.20 2.13 2. 68 2. 72 2. 68 2.73 2.90 2.85 2. 98 South Central Division . 1.09 1.81 2.48 2.60 2. 62 2. 58 2. 88 2. 88 2. 79 North Central Division.. . 4.00 4. 75 5. 28 5. 37 5. 14 5. 30 5.30 5.46 5.75 Western Division . 3.46 4. 06 4. 44 4. 65 5.00 4. 83 4. 92 5.21 5. 46 Average total amount of schooling received per inhabitant , considering only public elemen¬ tary and secondary schools. [Expressed in years of 200 school days each.] 1870. 1880. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. United States . 2.91 3.45 3.85 3. 93 3. 97 3. 99 4. 13 4. 24 4. 28 North Atlantic Division . 4. 43 4. 84 4.99 5. 06 5.10 5. 10 5. 28 5.50 5. 61 South Atlantic Division . 0. 80 1.90 2. 42 2. 46 2.46 2.51 2. 70 2. 66 2. 67 South Central Division . 0. 78 1.57 2. 20 2. 31 2.41 2. 38 2. 64 2. 65 2. 45 North Central Division . 3. 71 4.19 4. 67 4.74 4. 75 4. 84 4.85 5.00 5. 16 Western Division . 2.77 3.57 3. 98 4. 16 4. 46 4.39 4. 49 4.76 4. 95 GRAPHIC EXHIBIT OF SCHOOL STATISTICS. The following nine graphic views have been prepared 1 to show at a glance the trend of the chief items of educational statistics. Especial attention is called to diagrams G and 7, and to the note (a) explaining the change in methods of counting the secondary enrollment after 1889. Also see note (&), which explains the sudden increase in public high- school enrollment by counting not merely those in cities, but all others. In diagrams 8 and 9 the rapid increase after 1888 is in part due to the adoption of coeducation in the colleges for men and the establishment of women’s colleges. By tlie expert in State systems, Mr. F. E. Upton. COMMON SCHOOLS. XV Diagram 1. — Xumher of pupils enrolled in the common schools of the United States each year since 1870-71. I O I4 V/L, ION 1874-75 § 1 £ 22 * QO 25 1889 -9o\ $ 1 13 • 13 // 10 - 9 8 School Year. 1870- 71 1871- 72 1872- 73 1873- 74 1874- 75 1875- 76 1876- 77 1877- 78 1878- 79 .1879-80 1880-81 1881-82 1882- 83 1883- 84 1884- 85 1885- 86 1886- 87 1887- 88 1888- 89 1889- 90 1890- 9/ 1891- 92 1892- 93 1893- 94 1894- 95 1895- 96 * Subject t Pupils. 7,561,582 7t 8/5,306 8,003,6/4 8,444,25 1 8,785,678 8,869, 1/5 8,965,006 9,438,883 9.504,458 9,867,505 10,000,896 10,2/1,578 10,651,828 10,982^364 11,398,024 11,664,460 .1 1.884,344 12,182,600 12,392,260 12,722,58 1 13,050,132 ' 13,255,92 / 13,483,340 13,995,357 14,201,752* 14,424,500 * 0 CORRECT/OH. 7 Mil, JON s. 6 S 4 3 2 1 XVI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, Diagram 2. — Showing the percentage of the total population enrolled in the common schools by years since 1870-71. rx Ci lx <0 X 20 °Eft Cej IX 00 X ■r. „ / 67 9- 80 G> 00 i 00 Co 06-699/ 1 7894-95 • / !8 /6 74 /2 \ School Year. 1870- 71 1871- 72 1872- 73 / 873 -74 1874- 75 1875- 76 / 876 -77 1877-78 7878- 79 7879- 80 7880- 8/ 7887-82 7882-83 7683-84 7884- 85 7885- 86 7886- 87 7887- 88 7888- 89 7889- 90 7890- 97 7897-92 7892- 93 7893- 94 7894- 95 7895- 36 Per Cent. 79.74 79.37 79.29 79.84 20. iO 79.76 79.44 79.9 / 79.50 79.67 79.5/ 79.47 1985 20.0C 20.27 20.36 2024 20.33 20.26 20.32 20.42 20.4/ 20.34 20.56 20.56 20.65 1 10 ) 6 1 i i ! 4 2 0 COMMON SCHOOLS, XVII Diagram 3. — Showing t e average number of days the schools were Tcept each year since 1870-71. l S 140 Day s. & t s § 1 s 5 03 > 03 5 06-689/ $31 “/30 \ 120 HO too 90 .80 School Year. 1870- 11 1811-12 1872- 13 1873- 74 1874 - 75 1875- 76 1876- 17 1871- 18 1818-19 1879- 80 1880- 81 1881-82 1882- 83 1883 - 84 1884 -85 1885- 86 1886- 87 1887- 83 1888- 89 1889- 90 1890- 91 1891- 92 1892- 33 1893- 94 1894- 95 1895- 96 * Subject to c Days. 132.1 133.4 129.1 128.8 130.4 133.1 1321 132.0 130.2 130.3 130.1 131.2 129.8 129.1 130.7 13G.4 131.3 132.3 133.7 134.7 135.7 136.9 136.3 139.5 141.4* 142.2* ORRECT/ON. 70 so so 40 30 20 iO 1 • XVIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Diagram 4. — Showing the amount expended per capita of population each year since 1870-71. R R 2.8 1 7 874-75 / 87 9 -80 £ erformance. Heating, ventilating, sewerage, lighting, cleaning — all these things must be under his control in the last resort, although their routine may be managed by an independent officer of the board. The construction of school buildings requires at every step the advice of an expert in educational methods. The superintendent, too, must prescribe what statistics are to be kept, for he is the one to know what is essential to indicate the charac¬ ter of the management and the needs and necessities of reform or change. Of course, too, the financial concerns ot the schools, the grades of salaries, the cost of apparatus and incidental supplies should have the superintendent’s consideration, no matter how efficient the school board committee may be; for the excellence of the school is condi¬ tioned largely by teacher’s wages and by the apparatus of the school¬ room. These mechanical and financial essentials being once provided for, the superintendent in the capacity of educational expert has to do with teachers, pupils, parents, the school board, and with the community at large. The average school board (or “ school committee,” as called in some of the Atlantic States) may be said to have three classes of men repre¬ sented in its composition : First, the business man, chosen from the class of merchants, teachers, manufacturers, or professionals who have no personal ends to serve and no special cause to foster or protect other than the general efficiency and business management of the schools. CITY SCHOOL SUPERVISION. XXIII Second, there are the men representing the element of reform or change, and who have some pet scheme that they wish to introduce. These men are honest and well-meaning, but their enthusiasm is prone to unbalance their judgment regarding educational values. They become so much impressed with the importance of their pet schemes that they can not see the true significance of the studies already in the course. A third class of men that gets represented on a school board is the self- seeking or ambitious men who have political ends to accomplish, for which they are willing to sacrifice to some degree the efficiency of the schools. This element usually enters the board as a result of partisan politics and varies in its amount according to the influence of politics in the government of the schools. There may be in this third quota of the board some who seek higher political offices, a seat in the town council, the State legislature or Congress, and who will aim at noto¬ riety by their actions in the school board 5 others, a few, will perhaps seek profitable contracts for their friends. Now the superintendent will find the first class, the conservative business men, his best support in his administration. He will find the third element untrustworthy for his support in any measure for the public good. It is the second element of the board, composed of honest but unbalanced men, that he must study carefully and endeavor by all upright means to educate into broader views. He must labor to unite the first and second quotas of his board, the business men with the men of reform. There is in every board a natural antipathy between the honest business man and the honest reformer. The busi¬ ness man is apt to regard the latter as a visionary. But the balance of powTer in the board is quite often in the hands of the latter class. It is sure to be the case sooner or later in the vicissitudes of municipal politics. The discontented, the critical, the opinionated in matters of school management have to be approached often by the superintendent and their statements heard with patience, their arguments turned over and over with fairmindedness. If there is to be any progress in the school system it is to come in by their proposed reforms. The superintendent therefore must learn to see what elements of the proposed measures he can adopt after freeing them from all features of danger to the schools7 best interest. He must study to make a synthesis of many of these points severally proposed by the reformers on the board. He must above all endeavor to make the members of the second quota of the board conscious of the educational value and bearing of what already belongs to the course of study. He can in some cases show that the main object sought by the proposed reform is already met by the course of study as it is. The superintendent in his endeavor to educate the one-sided school directors will educate himself into all-sideclness if he is always careful to be true and honest in his dealings with these men. If he yields to XXII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. school, even with a good teacher. Although bad methods are possible with poor teachers, even in a graded system, yet they are no longer necessary, and experience tends to eradicate them altogether. CITY SCHOOL SUPERVISION. The functions of the office of the superintendent of public schools have become better defined from year to year. They included at first functions as widely diverse as janitor work and the formulation of a course of study. One after another have been eliminated — the mechan¬ ical elements of curatorsliip, purchasing supplies, keeping records, supervising the construction of buildings. Finally the superintendent has arrived at the work of the educational expert and confines himself more and more to directing the course of study, teaching methods of instruction, inspiring the teachers with the spirit of self-culture, acting as counselor and advisor of the school board or school committee, and fashioning or shaping the educational thought of the community. But still the work of the superintendent must include at least a directive oversight in those mechanical spheres, and a mere theoretic superin¬ tendent who confines himself exclusively to examining pupils and dis¬ cussing methods of instruction and discipline would prove a failure. He may reasonably be relieved of the mechanical drudgery, but he should retain the supervisory control over its performance. Heating, ventilating, sewerage, lighting, cleaning — all these things must be under his control in the last resort, although their routine may be managed by an independent officer of the board. The construction of school buildings requires at every step the advice of an expert in educational methods. The superintendent, too, must prescribe what statistics are to be kept, for he is the one to know what is essential to indicate the charac¬ ter of the management and the needs and necessities of reform or change. Of course, too, the financial concerns of the schools, the grades of salaries, the cost of apparatus and incidental supplies should have the superintendent’s consideration, no matter how efficient the school board committee may be; for the excellence of the school is condi¬ tioned largely by teacher’s wages and by the apparatus of the school¬ room. These mechanical and financial essentials being once provided for, the superintendent in the capacity of educational expert has to do with teachers, pupils, parents, the school board, and with the community at large. The average school board (or “ school committee,” as called in some of the Atlantic States) may be said to have three classes of men repre¬ sented in its composition: First, the business man, chosen from the class of merchants, teachers, manufacturers, or professionals who have no personal ends to serve and no special cause to foster or protect other than the general efficiency and business management of the schools. CITY SCHOOL SUPERVISION. XXIII Second, there are the men representing the element of reform or change, and who have some pet scheme that they wish to introduce. These men are honest and well-meaning, but their enthusiasm is prone to unbalance their judgment regarding educational values. They become so much impressed with the importance of their pet schemes that they can not see the true significance of the studies already in the course. A third class of men that gets represented on a school board is the self- seeking or ambitious men who have political ends to accomplish, for which they are willing to sacrifice to some degree the efficiency of the schools. This element usually enters the board as a result of partisan politics and varies in its amount according to the influence of politics in the government of the schools. There may be in this third quota of the board some who seek higher political offices, a seat in the town council, the State legislature or Congress, and who will aim at noto- riet3r by their actions in the school board 5 others, a few, will perhaps seek profitable contracts for their friends. Now the superintendent will find the first class, the conservative business men, his best support in his administration. He will find the third element untrustworthy for his support in any measure for the public good. It is the second element of the board, composed of honest but unbalanced men, that he must study carefully and endeavor by all upright means to educate into broader views. He must labor to unite the first and second quotas of his board, the business men with the men of reform. There is in every board a natural antipathy between the honest business man and the honest reformer. The busi¬ ness man is apt to regard the latter as a visionary. But the balance of power in the board is quite often in the hands of the latter class. It is sure to be the case sooner or later in the vicissitudes of municipal politics. The discontented, the critical, the opinionated in matters of school management have to be approached often by the superintendent and their statements heard with patience, their arguments turned over and over with fairmindedness. If there is to be any progress in the school system it is to come in by their proposed reforms. The superintendent therefore must learn to see what elements of the proposed measures he can adopt after freeing them from all features of danger to the schools7 best interest. He must study to make a synthesis of many of these points severally proposed by the reformers on the board. He must above all endeavor to make the members of the second quota of the board conscious of the educational value and bearing of what already belongs to the course of study. He can in some cases show that the main object sought by the proposed reform is already met by the course of study as it is. The superintendent in his endeavor to educate the one-sided school directors will educate himself into all-sidedness if he is always careful to be true and honest in his dealings with these men. If he yields to XXIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. the temptation to play the demagogue with them, his course will prove fatal to himself and disastrous to his cause, no matter how good it is nor how great his temporary victory. Hence in this dangerous and difficult part of his duties the superin¬ tendent must go no faster than he can see his way with perfect frank¬ ness and honesty. He must espouse sincerely so much of the proposed reform as he finds salutary to the school system under his charge. This policy will lead to a slow and beneficial change in the educational sys¬ tem and to the addition of features which will prove permanent ele¬ ments of strength and perfection. It is difficult to lift this policy of the superintendent on to a plane so high as to exclude all taint of demagoguery, and it should not be attempted by one who can not hospitably entertain ideas radically dif¬ ferent from his own, and turn them over and over earnestly seeking their good sides. The superintendent who is not disposed to make any further progress, nor to admit any changes into the school system under his charge, will side with the conservative business men on his board and allow the reformers and discontented members to go without his sympathy or attention. The ultimate consequence of this will be a combination of the second and third quotas of the board — the reformers and the self- seekers. If the well-balanced conservative members do not keep in their party the honest but discontented members, the latter will get under the power of the less scrupulous members, and the consequence will be revolution instead of reform, for the third quota of members of the board are willing to yield to the reformers anything in the line of theoretical doctrine or educational practice provided they can get for themselves political consequence. The highest type of superintendent is therefore the one who has gen¬ uine political skill — the skill to correct and persuade mistaken men and combine them harmoniously with the honest business men in behalf of good and wise measures. If his skill is not sufficient to per¬ form this without deceit and demagoguery, it is not genuine political skill but a piece of political corruption not to be justified by any tem¬ porary success in defending a good cause. The superintendent of the most advanced type, in his relations with his teachers, aims to organize them into a body of investigators of the history and practice of education. He should do one kind Of work with his principals and another kind of work with the teachers at large, meeting them in classes or in assemblies for this purpose. He should discuss with the principals such questions as those relating to the proper selection of the branches of the course of study; exactly what each branch contributes to the intellectual development; how each should be taught ; what should be the manner, form, and spirit of the discipline ; what new experiments in teaching have been recently pro¬ posed in the city or elsewhere, and what their merits. CITY SCHOOL SUPERVISION. XXV Tlie superintendent will perhaps do a still more valuable work by inspiring his teachers to form literary societies for the study of the great world poets — Dante, Shakespeare, Homer, Goethe, and the lesser lights. There is no field more important for the teacher to enter than the field of aesthetic culture — the study of the great works of art in sculpture, architecture, painting, and music, as well as in poesy. The teacher is exposed to a certain paralyzing influence arising from the necessity of his vocation which places him in a position wherein he must keep a constant pull against the arbitrariness and caprice of the child. This produces what has somewhere been called the u pedagogical cramp.” There is no cure for this equal to the study of literature and art. Hence the importance which the good superintendent will give to the encouragement, by precept and example, of such studies on the part of his teachers. The superintendent should be fertile in devices which work silently and gradually toward improving the method of instruction or the method of discipline. Take for example a device having the twofold effect of rendering the discipline in the schoolroom mild and free from petulance while at the same time correcting the pupil’s waywardness or negligence, and, besides these good effects, superadding a wholesome influence on the parent. This device is the suspension of the pupil for repeated and inexcusable absence or tardi¬ ness, or for persistent and willful violation of the order of the school. The suspended pupil can not return without a permit from the superin¬ tendent, and to obtain this the parent must visit him at his office hour. This affords occasion for a friendly comparison of views between the superintendent and the parent regarding the whole case. If the parent cherishes ill-feeling toward the teacher, the superintendent suggests a transfer of the pupil to another teacher out of the district. A transfer usually works a complete cure of these cases of brittle temper or blame¬ worthy negligence. About two in a hundred will need another transfer to complete the cure. The teacher, it was quite possible, had not shown sufficient patience and had done something to justify the parent’s ill- feeling. The transfer contains in it sometimes a gentle suggestion to the teacher t-o correct his or her own petulance; frequent transfers are sure to be understood clearly in this light. There collect in many school districts discontented critics of the school management wTho object strongly to the rigid district system; but this system of transfers is the best means of removing the cause of this unpopularity of the schools. Another device very effectual in strengthening the novitiate teacher in her power of governing a school is the practice of placing teachers weak in discipline on the u substitute” list and letting them fill vacan¬ cies here and there as they occur through the temporary absence of the regular teacher. Teachers who had become chronic failures in dis¬ cipline have been entirely reformed by a few weeks of such experience. The first-class superintendent is a sort of pilot for the whole system, XXVI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. and must watch the rocks and breakers and the winds and clouds of public opinion and ascertain the drift of his course. The educational journals give him the trend of education elsewhere. He has to direct his own labors and the labors of all his teachers toward making their schools strong in the community. First, the teachers must do good work, and second they must make the community feel that it is good work. To neglect public opinion in a representative government is to rebel against it and court defeat and discomfiture. The teachers must not do anything except what they conscientiously believe to be right. But it is their duty to show to their clients, the people, the grounds of their convictions and the efficiency of their work. The efficient superintendent therefore sets into working order these educative influences to support the one great work of education in the school system, namely, an educative influence for the members of the school board leading toward correct insight and the adoption of wise measures; second, an educative influence resulting in the acquisition of good methods, a growth in personal self-control, and, besides these, progressive studies in literature, art, and science; third, for the com¬ munity an enlightened public opinion, which knows what the schools are actually doing and can intelligently explain their merits and defects, and tell what changes are desirable for onward progress. CONSTITUTION AND POWERS OF CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. The plans that have been devised for the treatment of matters of organization have not ail been equally successful in meeting the con¬ ditions incident to rapid urban growth, and there is a general inquiry for means of betterment and a demand for data concerning the organ¬ ization of other systems. The structure of the city school system is determined as a rule by the respective State legislatures, though in some cases that power has been delegated to the general government of the city. In Chapter I, pp. 3-78, are set forth the legal provisions concerning the systems of 23 cities selected to show the principal types of organi¬ zation that exist in this country. A discussion of these types precedes the detailed description, and at the end of the chapter is a convenient epitome, in tabular form, of the laws mentioned. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. In diagram Ho. G and the accompanying table (p. xxix) a condensed statement of the progress of secondary instruction for twenty-five years is given and illustrated graphically. Up to 1887 the number of second¬ ary pupils (in ninth to twelfth years of course of study) in private academies and preparatory schools exceeded those in the public high schools. In 1895 the public high schools enrolled 350,099, while the private academies and preparatory schools enrolled only 118,347. But SECONDARY SCHOOLS. XXVII these were all pupils in the secondary course of study. In 1871, and for nearly twenty years thereafter, such schools reported their entire enrollment as secondary pupils, although the larger proportion were really pursuing elementary studies. In 1887 the Bureau of Education began to collect information as to the actual numbers in each of the several branches of secondary study, such as algebra, Latin, physical geography, geometry, general history, natural philosophy (or physics), chemistry, French, Greek, etc. By 1890 it became possible to separate completely the secondary from the elementary pupils. The statistician has accordingly revised the returns of enrollment for the years 1S71 to 18S9 on the basis of the data furnished since 1890. Before 1890 the public high schools outside of cities were not tabu¬ lated. Since that date those in rural districts have been included, and, as will be seen in the diagram and table, the increase for that year appears to be 77,000 instead of a normal increase of 10,000 or 20,000. The number of pupils in secondary studies now amounts to about 7 persons in each 1,000 inhabitants, not counting the secondary pupils that are enrolled in elementary schools, which may amount to one-tenth of the entire number. It is important to observe that more than one- sixth of these students are preparing for college. One-half are study¬ ing Latin and one-twentieth are studying Greek. XXVIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION Diagram 6. — Showing the number of secondary students in public and private high schools. Note. — Id connection with this diagram, see the accompaayiag table and explanation, p. xxix. STUDENTS IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOLS. XXIX A dumber of secondary students in public and private high schools. Secondary students. Year. In public high schools. Per cent of popu¬ lation. In private high schools. Per cent of popu¬ lation. In both classes of schools. Per cent of popu¬ lation. 1871 . a 38, 280 0. 097 1872 . a 48, 660 .120 1873 . a 56, 640 .137 1874 . a 61. 860 .145 1875 . a 68, 580 .157 1876 . 22, 982 0. 051 a 73, 740 .164 96,722 1 0. 215 1877 . 24, 925 .054 a 73, 560 .160 98,485 1 .214 1878 . 28, 124 .059 a 73, 620 . 155 101, 744 .214 1879 . 27, 163 .056 a 74, 160 .152 j 101. 323 .208 1880 . 26, 609 .053 a 75, 840 .151 102, 449 .204 1881 . 36,594 .071 a 80. 160 .156 116, 754 . 227 1882-83 . 39,581 .074 a 88, 920 ,166 128, 501 '.240 1883-84 . 34,672 .063 a 95, 280 .174 129, 952 .237 1884^85 . 35,307 .063 a 97, 020 .173 132, 327 .236 1885-86 . 70,241 .122 a 86, 400 .150 156, 641 .272 1886-87 . ; 80, 004 .136 a 83, 160 .142 163, 164 .*278 1887-88 . ! 116, 009 .194 a 69, 600 .116 185. 609 .310 1888-89 . 125. 542 .205 a 79, 440 .130 204. 982 .335 1889-90 . i b 202, 963 6.324 94; 931 .152 297; 894 .476 1890-91 . 1 211, 596 .331 98, 400 .154 309, 996 .485 1891-92 . 239, 556 .369 100, 739 .155 340, 295 .524 1892-93 . 254. 023 .383 102, 375 .154 356, 398 . 537 1893-94 . 289, 274 .425 118, 645 .174 407, 919 .599 1894-95 . 350, 099 .509 118-, 347 .172 468, 446 .681 a From 1871 to 1887 this Bureau did not ask principals of private high schools and academies to report the number of students jjursuing each secondary study. Prior to 1890 the number of stu¬ dents reported by a large number of these private schools included the total number in attendance, the elementary pupils as veil as the secondary students. For the past six years the two classes of students have" been reported separately. Taking the reports from 1890 to 1895 as a basis, the number of secondary students in private high schools from 1871 to 1889 has been carefully estimated for each year. b Previous to 1890 only the pupils in public city high schools are given. From 1890 onward all pub¬ lic high schools are included. XXX REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Diagram 7. — Showing what percentage of the population was enrolled as secondary students in public and private high schools. Isote. — See explanation to diagram 6. NORMAL SCHOOLS. XXXI NORMAL SCHOOLS. There was an increase of 3,862 in the number of students pursuing normal or teachers’ training courses, as will be seen from an inspection of the tabular summaries in Chapter XXXVIII, the total number reported for the year ended June, 1896, being 84,400. The number of students in public normal schools was 40,421, an increase of 4,145 over the previous year; the number in private normal schools was 20,777, a decrease of 1,150. There were 7,026 normal students in universities and colleges, an increase of 624. The number of students pursuing teach¬ ers’ training courses in public high schools was 8,246, an increase of 1,437 ; the number in private high schools and academies was 7,930, a decrease of 1,194. There was an increase in the attendance in public normal schools in each geographical division except the Xorth Central, where there was a decrease of 43. The decrease in the number of students in private normal schools was in the Xorth Atlantic and Xorth Central divisions ; in the other divisions the number was in excess of the attendance of the previous year. The increase in the number of normal students in universities and colleges was in the Xorthern and Western divisions ; There was a very small decrease in the Southern divisions. The increase in the number of students in teachers’ training courses in public high schools was in all the divisions except the Xorth Atlantic, where there was a small decrease. The decrease in the private secondary schools was in all the divisions except the South Atlantic, where there was a small increase. It is gratifying to note the increased support extended to public normal schools by States, counties, and cities. The amount appropriated for the support of these institutions for the year ending June, 1896, was $2,187,875, an increase of $270,500 over the previous year. HIGHER EDUCATION. Universities and colleges. — The total number of universities and col¬ leges for men and for both sexes (Chapter XXXIX) reporting during the year was 484, of which number 345 admit women to undergradu¬ ate courses of study. There are 188 institutions which have not as yet any endowment, 54 have endowment funds less than $25,000, and only 4 institutions have endowments exceeding $5,000,000. In a large number of the institutions a comparatively small part of the work is collegiate. There are at present 278 institutions having less than 100 students in undergraduate collegiate courses. The number of instruct¬ ors reported by the 484 institutions was 12,277, while the number of students of all classes, secondary and higher, was 159,372. Of the lat¬ ter number 47,014 were in preparatory departments, 68,629 in collegiate departments, 4,673 in graduate departments, and 25,438 in professional departments. The property reported was as follows : V olumes in libra¬ ries, 6,453,677 ; value of material equipment, $134,093,435; endowment XXXII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. funds, $109,562,433. The Denefactions for tlie year, so far as reported, amounted to $8,342,728, and the income, excluding benefactions, was $17,918,174. Colleges for women. — The 162 colleges for women had, in 1894-95, 2,552 instructors and 24,663 students. The material equipment was valued at $15,568,508 and the endowment funds amounted to $5,308,558. The income was $3,456,983 and the benefactions received during the year amounted to $611,245. Schools of technology. — The number of schools of technology, exclud¬ ing technological departments of universities and colleges, was 48, having 1,118 instructors and 12,816 students. The total value of all property was reported at $24,105,242, of which amount $10,384,293 was reported as endowment funds. The income of these institutions was $3,526,018, of which amount $2,402,332 was appropriated by the General and State governments. The gifts and bequests received by the schools of technology amounted to but $96,133. Diagrams 8 and 9 show in graphic form the trend of higher educa¬ tion since 1872. HIGHER EDUCATION, XXXIII Diagram 8. — Showing number of college students each year since 1872. r\ r\ QO^O CQ & CO £ 5 fcl 51 5 cp R] Op di O CO 5 Oo 00 CVj CO 00 \ 80, co °0 CO 00 X 000 Wo CO 1 * CO 5 co co CO 00 5 28-989/ co i IX CO CO CO > CO CO 5 00-688 / \ CO CO CO 5 {Jj Ob \ CO CO X CO Ob t On 5° Ob 1 co CO 5 bo Ob CO § / School Year. 1872 /873 1874 7875 7876 7877 7878 7879 7880 788/ 7882- 83 7883- 84 7884- 85 7885- 86 7886- 87 7887- 88 7888- 89 7889- 90 7890- 97 7897-92 7892- 93 7893- 94 7894- 95 College Students. 23,392 30,900 32,775 32,540 32,107 32,728 37,442 38,227 39,048 39,755 39,769 47,464 42,573 40,42 7 47,737 42,535 45,949 54,920 59,699 66,746 71, 67/ 77,487 87,952 70, 000 / / i 60, 000 / / 50, 000 / 40. 000 > / 1/ \j | y30„000 1 80, 000 10, 000 ED 96- ■II XXX IY REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Diagram 9. — Showing what per cent of the total population was enrolled as college students during each year since 1S72. N.f''- Too X CO £ ^0 Co r>. rs CD N R 5 R 5 CO 03 CO \ CO CD 00 1 CD 1 & 05 CD CD CD CVJ CD 1 N CD CO N CD CD 1 £ * CD CD CD CO § 5 f5o ~/oo / / ML TOO / / too / / -S_ too / / 7 I / oof / T /_£_ l/oo OF 1 PER CEU T. School Yeah. 7872 7873 7874 7875 7876 7877 7878 7879 7880 788/ 7882- 83 7883- 84 Per 7 oo cent. 0.059 .074 .076 .074 .072 . 07 7 .079 .078 .078 .076 .074 .075 .076 .070 .077 .07/ .075 .088 .093 .702 .708 .174 .779 -C-i: ~ 4- /OO ■ 3 too 7§5 7884- 85 7885- 86 7886- 87 7887- 88 7888- 89 7889- 90 7890- 97 7891- 92 7892- 93 7893 -94 7894-95 1 1 i Tod OF 1 PER CEN ; ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL. XXXV Professional schools. — There are 155 schools of medicine in the United States, 141 of theology, 73 schools of law, 46 of dentistry, and 44 of pharmacy. The number of students in schools of theology shows but little variation from year to year, but in schools of law, dentistry, and medicine there is a rapid increase. Of the 144 schools of theology 57 are in the North Central Division, 45 in the North Atlantic, 19 in the South Atlantic, 17 in the South Cen¬ tral, and 6 in the Western Division. Of the 155 medical schools, 116 are regular, 20 homeopathic, 8 eclec¬ tic, 2 physiomedical, and 9 graduate. The whole number of medical students of all classes was 24,437, and the number graduating was 4,947. The number of law students was 9,780, dental 6,399, and phar¬ maceutical 3,873. ACCORDING TO THE EUROPEAN STANDARD. The question is often asked, How many students are there in higher education in the United States, measured by the European standard® It is well known that the gymnasium and realschule of Germany, the lycee and communal college of France, and the u public school'’ or college of England include in their course of study not only what is included in the curriculum of the secondary schools in the United States, but also some portion of the course in the colleges. I have caused a table to be prepared for the United States, showing the number of students in higher education on the European standard. For this purpose it was necessary to omit the freshman year, and in most cases even the sophomore year in colleges, and make a corre¬ sponding reduction in the professional schools. The result for the United States and each of its census divisions is given in the following tables : States. Juniors. Seniors. . Post gradu¬ ates. Law. Medicine Theol¬ ogy- 1 | Total. United States . North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division . South Central Division . . . North Central Division . W esfcern Division . 15, 025 12,249 5, 316 5,541 16, 772 8, 071 62, 974 i 5, 293 2, 095 1, 915 4,902 820 4, 690 1, 482 1 1,314 4, 198 565 2,148 501 305 j 2, 068 1 294 | 2, 234 786 242 2, 074 205 6, 155 1,829 1, 675 I 6,591 j 522 I 2, 891 | 2, 886 | 1,054 3, 149 91 23, 411 7. 579 6, 505 22,982 2, 497 ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL. Chapter II presents a detailed account of the most important event in the recent history of education in England, namely, the attempt in the current year to secure the passage of a new education bill. The need of legislation in the interests both of elementary schools and of secondary education has long been recognized and was urged by the royal commission on elementary education of 1886 and the more recent commission on secondary education. The fact that the bill dealt with XXXVI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. both phases of the problem, and was the measure of a party the strongest in point of numbers that has controlled the Government in recent years, gives peculiar significance to its postponement. This occurred early in the committee stage, after the bill had passed its second reading by a majority of 267. Although the measure was the outcome of causes that had long been operating, it was precipitated by promises of further aid to parochial (voluntary) schools made during the campaign of 1895 by the leaders of the Conservative party. The necessity of increasing the efficiency of these schools that are educating more than one-half (56 per cent) of the children was unquestioned, and the Government was bound not less by considerations of the public welfare than by party demands to redeem the pledges that had been made. Unfortunately, as the sequel shows, the measure was weighted with proposals that seemed at least to favor sectarian ascendancy in the schools. It was further compli¬ cated by proposals as to local authorities, which, although they were on the lines of recent reforms in local government, seemed to threaten the independence of the boroughs. These two vulnerable features roused intense and determined opposition. The bill proposed to make every county and county borough a district of educational administration or altogether 126 new local authorities. It is interesting to note in this connection the immense increase in the urban population in recent years. In 1891 it comprised 71.7 per cent of the entire population, or an increase of 15.3 per cent in ten years as against an increase of 3.4 per cent for the total population. If only towns of 10,000 inhabitants are considered, the ratios of their popula¬ tion to the total are found to be 56.3 per cent in 1881 and 61.5 per cent in 1891. The balance of power, it will be seen, has gone over to the towns. A vigorous review of the bill is presented from an article by Sir Lyulph Stanley, a leader of the progressive school party. EDUCATION IN GREAT ERITAIN. CURREXT STATISTICS. Gbajiter III deals with the current statistics of education in Great Britain, and more particularly with those pertaining to England. The Government grant for elementary education amounted in 1895 to §31,324,170, which was 65 per cent of the entire expenditure. In day schools, board and voluntary, the average expenditure per scholar was $10; in board schools only, it rose to $12.50 per capita, of which the Government contributed 58 per cent and local taxes (rates) 39 per cent. The voluntary day schools in which the per capita cost was $9,50 derived 50 per cent from the Government. In the debate on the education bill it was shown that the difference between the average expenditure in board and voluntary schools amounted to nearly $3 ($2.80) per capita of attendance, which was but EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. XXXYII a trifle greater than the difference in the amounts paid for teaching in the two classes of school. This amount was $2.33 less per capita of attendance in voluntary than in board schools. In other words teachers in voluntary schools bore nearly the whole strain arising from the smaller income of volun¬ tary schools, an injustice that would work disaster in the long run It was shown in the debate that while the Government was spending upon the army and navy at the rate of 30 shillings ($7.50) per capita of population, it was expending upon education only 7 shillings ($1.60) per capita. It was urged also that the expenditure per capita of pupils was less than in Scotland, Germany, France, Belgium, and Switzer¬ land, and that the rates of expenditure in the United States per capita (of pupils) were far in excess of those in England. The necessities of rural schools were particularly urged upon the House by Mr. Yoxall, who declared that the rural schools of England and Wales, taken as a whole, u were the worst supported, the worst staffed, and the worst managed of the public elementary schools in Europe.’7 The effects of the law providing for the remission of school fees are seen in the rapid increase in the number of free pupils, comprising 85 per cent of the total in 1895, in the increase of school attendance, and particularly in the increased attendance of pupils over 10 j^ars of age. Among additional statistics presented in Chapter III should be noted a table showing that the voluntary subscriptions to denominational schools have declined with the increase of Government liberality to the same, and a series of tables indicating the status of teachers with respect to qualification, position, and salaries. It is interesting to observe that in five years the average salary of head mistresses has increased by $25, as against an average increase of $15 for head masters. At the same time complaint is made that teachers are poorly paid, not adequately protected in their positions, and subject to unjust discrimination as compared with other public servants, from the lack of a general pension allowance. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. Chapter IY, on Education in Central Europe, contains discussions of some of the peculiar features of the educational systems of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. The first sets forth in the words of Coun¬ cilor Dr. Bertram, superintendent of public instruction in Berlin, the present status of industrial education in the capital of Germany, showing not only the various kinds of schools in existence for the ben¬ efit of trades and industries, but giving in detail their history and sources of support. The fact is revealed that the city of Berlin paid alone for trade schools and industrial evening and Sunday schools the large sum of $209,441 in the year 1894-95. These schools are all ele¬ mentary and secondary, for the royal polytechnic is not counted among those enumerated. XXXVIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. The compensation of elementary school teachers in Germany is dis¬ cussed in the same chapter with the view to finding the minimum averages in the various States of the Empire. The tables accompany¬ ing the article were first submitted to the German educational press by Professor Tews, of Berlin. They show that the teachers in Germany are paid less than in this country, but it must be remembered that they live rent free, or receive indemnity for rent. A similar minute statement regarding teachers’ salaries in Austria is presented in this volume. The following is the result of the inquiry for Austria : 48.8 per cent of the men and 62.9 per cent of the women receive less than 600 florins (or $300); 42.5 per cent of the men and 32.5 per cent of the women receive between 600 and 1,000 florins ($300 to $500), and 8.7 per cent of the men and 4.5 per cent of the women receive more than 1,000 florins (or $500). The work of reform schools in the Duchy of Baden is the subject of the next article. The imperial criminal code of 1876 decrees that no persons can be punished for crime before they are 12 years of age, but may be kept in custody for the purpose of reforming them according to the special State law. Such children may be placed under reform train¬ ing, if both the criminal and orphan courts so decree. The special law in Baden (one of the 25 States of the Empire) fixes the maximum time limit at 16 j^ars of age, and for certain specified cases even at 18 years. The Baden system of reform education recognizes two methods: De¬ praved and neglected children are taken from their homes and are either placed in other homes where they receive proper treatment and discipline, or they are sent to reform schools or reform farms. The account states the results of the two methods and other items of inter¬ est regarding sex, age, religion, cause of detention, and the per capita cost of maintaining reform schools. The statistics of higher education in the German-speaking part of Europe (Germany, Austria proper, and Switzerland), which are pre¬ sented in extensive tables, are complete, except in one point, i. e., the expenditure and income; this point can not be stated with accuracy, owing to the fact that the fees paid to private “docents” and extraor¬ dinary professors for lecture courses are not stated in official reports. A summary of the statistics of attendance is here given for 1894-95. GERMiXT. Xum- ] her. Pro¬ fessors. j Students. j Foreign 1 students. Universities . . . . . 22 9 2, 468 887 77 33,523 8, 153 980 2, 015 900 Polvtechnica _ _ _ _ _ _ _ V eterinary schools . 5 15 A gri cultural academies . . 4 1 101 1,093 310 101 Forestry academies . 5 70 63 Minins? academies .... _ _ _ _ _ _ ... _ 3 59 406 | 133 ° Total . 48 3,662 44,465 3,227 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. XXXIX AUSTRIA. Num- I ber. Pro¬ fessors. 1 Students.! Eoreign students. 10 6 2 1,118 324 44 31 14,343 2, 719 248 230 1,622 90 7 15 Agricultural academics . _ .................... _ .......... iniT'O' opofl ATYliftS . . . . . . Total - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - . . — - 19 1, 531 18, 040 1,734 SWITZERLAND. "t ies _ ............. - ...... 7 635 1 3, 800 1,341 PaI vteelrn i emn . . . 1 135 757 326 Total . 8 770 4,557 1,667 Higher seats of ^earnin0, in Geroian-spsakin ° countries. ........ 75 5, 963 67, 062 6, 628 There is therefore in Germany 1 professor for 12.1 students, an aver¬ age of 78.4 professors and 926.3 students (of whom 67.2 are foreigners) to 1 higher seat of learning. Austria has 1 professor for 11.7 students, an average of 80.5 professors and 949.4 students (of whom 91.1 are for¬ eigners) to 1 higher seat of learning. Switzerland has 1 professor for 5.9 students, an average of 96.2 professors and 569.6 students (of whom 208.3 are foreigners) to 1 higher seat of learning. The following chapter (Y) contains an account of music in the schools in Germany. It gives an historical review of that study and the pres¬ ent status of method. The Annual Eeport of 1894-95, vol. 1, pages 449-471, contained a symposium on the question u Mental fatigue in school,” a subject inti¬ mately connected with child study. In this report (Chapter XXIII) the subject is continued in an article compiled from the statements of leading physiologists and psychologists of Germany, England, and America. A list of all the foreign universities, polytechnica, and higher agri¬ cultural, forestry, and mining schools has been compiled from the Jahr- buch of Prof. K, Trubner, of Strassburg (see Chapter XXXII). The institutions are arranged according to (1) date of founding, (2) number of students, (3) countries, and (4) alphabetically. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. In Chapter YIII is published the Bureau’s quinquennial compilation of the statistics of public, society, and school libraries. The list embraces 4,026 libraries of 1,000 volumes and over, having in the agregate 33,051,872 volumes and 5,444,788 unbound pamphlets. The increase in number of libraries since 1S91 has been only 523, but the increase in number of volumes was 7,074,229, or more than 27 per cent. For the year ending April 1, 1S96, 2,851 libraries reported the addition of 1,591,861 volumes, and 2,233 of these libraries expended $1,574,410 for new books during the year. The aggregate income of 2,437 libra- XL REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. ries reporting was $5,911,6365 600 libraries received $1,679,210 from direct taxation 5 773 received $1,513,352 from State, county, or city appropriations; 591 derived $1,035,052 from endowment funds; 883 received $386,441 from membership fees and dues; 303 collected $38,684 from book rents; 625 received $529,350 from donations, and 1,017 reported the receipt of $729,547 from sources not named. Only 605 libraries re¬ ported permanent endowments, which aggregate $17,570,673. The value of buildings owned by 567 libraries amounted to $33,291,259. In 1891 the average number of people per library was 17,877, while in 1896 the number was 17,376; in 1891 the number of books per 100 of population was 41, while in 1896 the number was 47. The statistician has prepared a chart showing the relative number of volumes to each 100 of popula¬ tion by States. The chapter contains a separate list of the 627 libra¬ ries entirely free to the public having 3,000 volumes and over. These 627 free libraries contain 9,062,363 volumes, and for the year ending April 1, 1896, they had issued 27,015,234 volumes for home use. The statis¬ tician also collected statistics from 3,158 libraries having 300 volumes and over and less than 1,000 volumes. For want of space the list is not published, but the returns are summarized by States, showing that the 3,158 libraries contained 1,544,386 volumes. A comimrison of the statistics of libraries reporting 300 volumes and over in 1875, 1885, and 1896 will indicate the growth of libraries in the past twenty years : Tear. Libraries reporting. Volumes. 1875 . 3,648 | 12, 329, 526 20, 722, 393 34, 596, 258 1885 . 5, 338 1 1890 . 7,184 Library legislation.— The library, in many of the States, is already considered an essential part of the educational system. Public senti¬ ment, the forerunner of all real progress, seems to be making urgent demands for the library as a necessary adjunct to the public school. Cities and towns are agitating the question. The State legislatures, too, are yielding to public opinion and discussing the feasibility of appropriating money for the maintenance of public libraries. In recognition of this growing interest in the subject, a chapter has been prepared (Chapter IX) containing a compilation of the library laws of the several States and Territories. In Chapter X, Mons. E. Levasseur, a member of the Institute of France and a distinguished writer and statistician, has narrated the growth and expounded the doctrine of the education of the common people during the nineteenth century by the several States of Christendom. While not blind to the social unrest the education of the masses produces, he sees in the uncontrollable movement for their enlightenment the most distinguished claim that the present century will have upon the grati¬ tude of posterity. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. XL! FRANCE. The survey of public education in France (Chapter XI) emphasizes the effort made by the Eepubiic to infuse into the centralized system the spirit of professional freedom. The most important departure that has been made from the policy that prevailed under the Empire is the transformation of the State faculties into independent universities. This changes which was advocated in the earliest days of the Republic, and especially by Jules Ferry during his ministry (1879-1882), began to take practical shape in 1885. The successive measures tending to the desired result are noted. Finally (1890) a bill was introduced for organizing the faculties as universities. After varying fortunes the bill passed during the present year, although in a modified form. In fact it adds little more to the changes already effected than the title of minister. This, however, is not an empty name, for, as expressed by M. Rambaud, minister of public instruction, “The institution which is a university in all but the name, lacks legal existence in its true character.” The criticism, that the measure is opposed to the development of specialties, was met by the minister with particulars showing the impulse given to this very feature as the university idea has grown. This portion of the minister’s speech, which is cited in full (pp. 621-625)y affords an interesting view of the efforts made by the faculties to brings their scientific instruction and researches into fruitful relation with local industries. A similar tendency to specialization is noted in the faculty of letters, especially in the creation of chairs of local history and literature. There are indications that under the new order the financial resources of the universities will be increased by private benefactions and by larger municipal subventions. The need of improvement both in the amount and management of the finances is shown by the director of superior instruction, M. Liard, who draws very suggestive comparisons between the budgets of German and French universities (cited, pp. 628-629). The question of the correlation of secondary and superior courses is agitated in France, but in a form quite different from that which it assumes in our own country. The typical secondary schools of France, the lycees, comprise a complete course of liberal education leading to the baccalaureate degree ; the superior courses have been heretofore purely special in their nature. Even the faculties of letters and arts, at least outside of Paris, have been engaged almost exclusively in pre¬ paring intending professors for the licentiate or the examination for special positions (agregation). The endeavor has been for some time to attract other classes of students to these faculties — to make them, in short* centers of general study and thus prolong the period of liberal culture. This it is difficult to do without radical changes in the lycee, ed 96 - -II* XLII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. the oldest and most tenacious feature of tlie French educational sys¬ tem. At present^ discussion centers in the baccalaureate. So long as this remains the goal of the lycee it is difficult to extend the course of liberal training over into the faculties. Hence the proposition to abandon the baccalaureate or to substitute a leaving examination at the end of the lycee as discussed in Chapter XI. The statistics of primary schools presented in the same chapter show a continuance of the decline in enrollment that has been noticed in pre¬ vious years. From 1891 to 1895 the decrease was three-tenths of 1 per cent. This condition excites some attention because (1) the ratio of decline is greater for boys than for girls, and (2) because it takes place only in public schools and secular private schools, chiefly in the former. The opinion is expressed by M. F. Buisson that some error lurks in the figures respecting the enrollment of boys which, it is believed, will be discovered by further investigation. It is interesting to note that of the teachers in public primary schools less than three-tenths of 1 per cent of the men and only 5 per cent of the women were without diplomas. The current obligatory expenditure for public primary schools in¬ creased by very nearly $3,000,000 from 1892 to 1891, reaching in the latter year $37,018,012, or $8.78 per capita of enrollment and 97 cents per capita of the population. If the State expenditure for primary nor¬ mal schools and the optional expenditure for primary schools borne by the communes be included, these per capita are raised to $10.24 and $1.13, respectively. The chapter contains a detailed statement of the requirements for admission to the French faculties (now universities), for which the office is indebted to M. Paul Melon, of Paris, general sec¬ retary of the committee of patronage of foreign students. Following this is a statement as to the status of foreign students of medicine in France, prepared by Mr. Henry Yignaud, charge d’affaires of the United States at Paris. Dr. Alcee Fortier, of Tulane University, Louisiana, has contributed an account of his personal observation of the annual competitive exer¬ cises of the lycee at the Sorbonne, and his subsequent visit to the lycee “ Janson de Sailly,” which gives a very lively conception of the methods and policies of secondary education in France. Chapter XII deals with education in Mexico and Central America. A resume of the history of education in Mexico is followed by an account of the educational convention of 1890 and of the work of the various institutions devoted to engineering and mining, medicine, agri¬ culture, commerce and industry, fine arts, military and normal schools. To this is appended an examination of the educational status of the various Central American States. Chapter XIII contains a report of the fifth International Prison Congress. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. XLIII COAQIERCIAX EDUCATION IN EUROPE. One of tlie most valuable chapters in this report is Chapter XV, u Commercial education in Europe.” To gather material for this report Professor James, its author, visited Europe, and on his return prepared this exceedingly valuable analysis of commercial education in Europe, particularly in Austria, France, and Germany. His object was not to present complete statistical tables as to number of schools, teachers, and students, but to give full information concerning a few typical institutions. The report places all the important information concerning these schools, including their curricula, into a form available •for the use of teachers, principals, superintendents, and others who may contemplate the establishment of such schools in this country. Professor James advocates the commercial high school, which should run parallel with the present high school, and also the commercial school of higher grade, which should rank with the college or be organized in connection with existing colleges and universities. SCANDINAVIA. Chapter XX contains the latest educational information from Swe¬ den, whose school system has been treated in full in previous reports (Peport 1888-89, pp. 196-221; 1891-92, pp. 423-419), as well as the first presentation of the conditions of education in Iceland, the governor- general, Magnus Stephensen, having courteously furnished interesting details. A movement to establish a university in Iceland is fostered by many learned men, natives of Iceland, who have received degrees from for¬ eign universities. At the close of the sessions of the Althing in 1893 a committee of thirty members was formed to promote this object. While in Denmark women are excluded from taking part in the affairs of local government, in Iceland, its dependency, widows and spinsters are privileged to vote in all church and parish matters. In Sweden, as is the case in Xorway and Denmark, church and state unite to educate the people; modern educational movements are dis¬ cussed by the leading men of the country; commissions have investi¬ gated the subject of the health and eyesight of school children, the results of such investigation being to lessen the overj>ressure in the matter of school studies. The ambulatory schools, moved from house to house in the district, are agencies of rural education. Schools for the training of both sexes together are gradually being introduced; the universities of the three countries admit women to full university privi¬ leges. Manual training, which had its birth in these northern countries, is taught more especially from the practical side. In Sweden the secondary schools do not form a continuation of the elementary grades, as in America, but reform movements are contem¬ plated which may do away with one or more of the lower classes of the secondary schools, thus making the elementary schools directly prepar¬ atory to the secondary. . XLIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. Chapter XLII contains the statistics in detail of the 178 schools for the secondary and higher education of the colored race. These schools are distributed over 22 States, North Carolina having 27, Georgia 23, Tennessee 15, Virginia 13, South Carolina 12, Texas and Alabama 11 each. For the year ending June, 1896, these 178 schools had 40,127 students enrolled, an increase of 3,025 over the previous year. There had been an increase of 16 in the number of schools, most of these being public high schools. There were 25,092 pupils in the elementary grades, 13,563 students in the secondary grades, and 1,455 in the col¬ legiate departments. A prominent feature in nearly all these schools except the public high schools is industrial training, the number reported as receiving industrial training in some branch being 12,341. There were 4,672 colored students studying to become teachers. Chapter XXII comprises a study of superior and secondary education in the United States by Dr. Gabriel Compayre, rector of the University of Lyons, France. Dr. Compayre represented the ministry of public instruction, France, at the Columbian Exposition (Chicago, 1893), and took a leading part in the educational congresses. The survey of our superior and secondary education is translated from the official reports of his mission presented to the minister. The study derives special interest from the fact that Dr. Compayre writes as an expert, making the French system his point of departure for the criticism and com¬ mendation of our own. Hence we have here an international study in which salient features of systems wrought out by two distinct peoples are brought into comparison. Chapter XXVIII deals with a subject indirectly yet particularly in¬ teresting to education. It contains an account of the Bertillon system of repressing crime by affording (it is claimed) an infallible means of identifying the habitual criminal, thus making operative the law which increases the punishment for a second offense. The merits of the Ber¬ tillon system have been proved by ten years of trial in France, and are attracting considerable attention elsewhere. In America it has many stanch and distinguished supporters. During the year 1896 Xew York adopted the system in its entirety, and a number of cities employ it. But its efficacy here is almost wholly dependent upon its universal adoption throughout the United States and Canada. In Chapter XXVII the reports made to this Bureau by the presidents of all the colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts are given. The chapter also contains a statement giving the money value of the pro¬ ceeds of the 9,600,000 acres of land granted by the Federal act of 1862, of the organization of farmers’ institutes in the several States, and of the character of the new institution in Germany known as the Mechan¬ ical Engineering Experiment Institute. All of which is respectfully submitted. W. T. Harris, The Secretary of the Interior. Commissioner . FORMS OF INQUIRY. XLV List of Manic forms of inquiry sent out. Schedules. Items. Sched¬ ules tabu¬ lated. Sched¬ ules mailed, about — "Where information is tabulated in report for 1895-96. State systems . 74 50 100 Vol. 1, p. LV. City systems . 39 602 1, 500 Chap. XXXVI, Vol. 2. City and village systems . 20 319 1, 000 Chap. XXXVI, Vol. 2. Public high schools . 46 4,974 15, 000 Chap. XXXVII, Vol. 2. Private high schools . 46 2, 106 7, 500 Chap. XXXVII, Vol. 2. Normal schools . 27 329 1, 000 Chap. XXXVIII, Vol. 2. Universities and colleges . 38 484 1, ooc Chap. XXXIX, Vol. 2. Colleges for women . 22 162 400 Chap. XXXIX, Vol. 2. Schools of technology . 33 48 100 1 Chap. XXXIX, Vol. 2. University extension . 6 20 50 Chap. XXXIX, Vol. 2. Agricultural colleges . 42 65 100 Chap. XXVII, Vol. 2. Medical schools . 15 155 210 Chap. XL, Vol. 2. Theological schools . 13 144 200 Chap. XL, Vol. 2. Law schools . 16 73 98 1 Chap. XL, Vol. 2. Dental schools . 12 46 75 Chap. XL, Vol. 2. Schools of pharmacy . 13 44 70 j Chap. XL, Vol. 2. Veterinary schools . 11 10 14 Chap. XL, Vol. 2. Schools for nurses . 11 177 575 I Chap. XL, Vol. 2. Commercial schools . 17 398 1, 000 1 Chap. X LI, Vol. 2. Schools for the colored race . 33 178 600 Chap. XLII. Vol. 2. .Reform schools . 23 86 300 Chap. XLIV, Vol. 2. Institutions for the blind . 29 37 100 Chap. XLIII, Vol. 2. Institutions for the deaf . 31 87 300 Chap. XLIII, Vol. 2. Institutions for the feeble-minded . 23 28 100 Chap. XLIII, Vol. 2. Public, society, and school libraries... 30 7, 184 15, 000 Chap. VIII, Vol. 1. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION, [From 1867 to 1896.] 1. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1867-68. Barnard. 8°. pp. xl-f-856. Out of print. 2. Special Report of the Commissioner of Education on the condition and improvement of public schools in the District of Columbia. Barnard. 8°. pp. 912. Washington. 1871. (Reprinted as Barnard’s Am. Jour, of Education, vol. 19.) Out of print. 3. Annual Report of tho Commissioner of Education for the year 1870. Eaton. 8°. pp.579. Wash¬ ington, 1870. Out of print. 4. - -1871. Eaton. 8°. pp.715. Washington, 1872. Out of print. 5. - 1872. Eaton. 8°. pp. lxxxviii+1018. Washington, 1873. Out of print. 6. - - 1873. Eaton. 8°. pp. clxxviii+870. Washington, 1874. 7. - 1874. Eaton. 8°. pp. clii+935. Washington, 1875. Out of print. 8. - 1875. Eaton. 8°. pp. clxxiii+1016. Washington, 1876. Out of print. 9. - 1876. Eaton. 8°. pp. ccxiii+942. Washington, 1878. Out of print. 10. - 1877. Eaton. 8°. pp. ccvi-f 641. Washington, 1879. Out of print. 11. - 1878. Eaton. 8°. pp. cci+730. Washington, 1880. 12. - 1879. Eaton. 8°. pp. ccxxx-f 757. Washington, 1881. Out of print. 13. - -1880. Eaton. 8°. pp. cclxii+914. Washington, 1882. Out of print. 14. - 1881. Eaton. 8°. pp. cclxxvii-J-840. Washington, 1883. Out of print. 15. - 18S2-83. Eaton. 8°. pp. ccxciii+872. Washington, 1884. Out of print. 16. - 1883-84. Eaton. 8°. pp. cclxxi+943. Washington, 1885. Out of print. 17. - - 1884-85. Eaton-Dawson. 8°. pp. cccxvii+848. Washington, 1886. Out of print. 18. - 1885-86. Dawson. 8°. pp. xxi-f792. Washington, 1887. Out of print. 19. - 1886-87. Dawson. 8°. pp. 1170. Washington, 1888. Out of print. 20. - 1887-88. Dawson. 8°. pp. 1209. Washington, 1888. Out of print. 21. Illiteracy, derived from census tables of 1860; Educational statistics, translation of article by Dr. A. Dicker; Yirchow on schoolroom diseases; Education of French and Prussian conscripts; School organization, etc. pp. 70. (Circ. inf. August, 1870.) Out of print. 22. Public instruction in Sweden and Norway ; The “folkehoiskoler” of Denmark. By C. C. Andrews. pp. 48. (Circ. inf. July, 1871.) Out of print. 23. klethods of school discipline. By Hiram Orcutt. pp. 14. (Circ. inf. November, 1871.) Out of print. 24. Compulsory education. By L. Tan Bokkelen. pp. 17. (Circ. inf. December, 1871.) Out of print. 25. German and other foreign universities. By Herman Jacobson, pp. 43. (Circ. inf. January, 1872.) Out of print. 26. Public instruction in Greece, the Argentine Republic, Chile, and Ecuador; Statistics respecting Portugal and Japan; Technical education in Italy. By John M. Francis, George John Ryan, F. H. Tanaka, pp. 77. (Circ. inf. February, 1882.) Out of print. 27. Vital statistics of college graduates ; Distribution of college students in 1870-71; Vital statistics in the United States, with diagrams. By Charles Warren, pp. 93. (Circ. inf. klarch, 1872.) Out of print. 28. Relation of education to labor. By Richard J. Hinton, pp. 125. (Circ. inf. April, 1872.) Out of print. 29. Education in the British West Indies. By Thomas H. Pearne. pp. 22. (Circ. inf. June, 1872.) Out of print. 30. The Kindergarten. By Baroness hlarenholtz-Bulow, tr. by Elizabeth P. Peabody, pp. 62. (Circ. inf. July, 1872.) Out of print. 31. American education at the Vienna Exposition of 1873. pp. 79. (Circ. inf. November, 1872.) Out of print. 32. Historical summary and reports on the systems of public instruction in Spain, Bolivia, Uruguay, and Portugal, pp. 66. (Circ. inf. 1, 1873.) Out of print. 33. Schools in British India. By Joseph Warren, pp. 30. (Circ. inf. 2, 1873.) XL VI PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. XLYII 34. College commencements for the summer of 1873, in Maine, Hew Hampshire, Vermont, Massachu¬ setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Hew York, Hew Jersey, and Pennsylvania, pp. 118. (Circ. inf. 3, 1873.) Out of print. 35. List of publications by members of certain college faculties and learned societies in the United States, 1867-1872. pp. 72. (Circ. inf. 4, 1873.) Out of print. 36. College commencements during 1873 in the Western and Southern States, pp. 155. (Circ. inf. 5, 1873.) Out of print. 37. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the national Educational Association, Washington, D. C. (1874). pp. 77. (Circ. inf. 1, 1874.) Out of print. Partial contents: Uniform plan and form for publishing the principal statistical tables on edu¬ cation, by George J. Lucky; Scientific and industrial education and the true policy of the Hational and State Government in regard to it, by Hon. A. D. White; The International Centennial Exposition as a world-wide educator, by W. D. Kelley ; Report by the committee on the relations of the General Government to education in the District of Columbia. 38. Drawing in public schools ; present relation of art to education in the United States. By Isaac Edwards Clarke, pp. 56. (Circ. inf. 2, 1874.) Out of print. 39. History of secondary instruction in Germany. By Herman Jacobson, pp. 87. (Circ. inf. 3, 1874.) Out of print. 40. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the Hational Educational Association. Washington, D. C. (1875). pp. 114. (Circ. inf. 1, 1875.) Out of print. Partial contents: The legal prevention of illiteracy, by B. G. Hortlirop; Brain culture in rela¬ tion to the schoolroom, by A. H. Bell; The origin of the alphabet, by Prof. J. Enthoffer; American education at the Centennial Exposition, by J. P. Wickersham ; Can the elements of industrial education he introduced into our common schools? by John D. Philbrick; Industrial drawing in public schools, by Prof. Walter Smith. 41. Education in Japan. By William E. Griffis, pp. 54. (Circ. inf. 2, 1875.) Out of print. 42. Public instruction in Belgium, Russia, Turkey, Servia, and Egypt. By Emile de Laveleye, M. de Salve, Y. E. Dor. pp. 108. (Circ. inf. 3, 1875.) Out of print. 43. Waste of labor in the work of education. By Paul A. Chadburne. pp. 16. (Circ. inf. 4, 1875.) Out of print. 44. Educational exhibit at the International Centennial Exhibition, 1876. pp. 26. (Circ. inf. 5, 1875.) 45. Reformatory, charitable, and industrial schools for the young. By Julia A. Holmes and S. A. Martha Canfield, pp. 208. (Circ. inf. 6, 1875.) Out of print. 46. Constitutional provisions in regard to education in the several States. By Franklin Hough, pp. 130. (Circ. inf. 7, 1875.) Out of print. 47. Schedule for the preparation of students’ work for the Centennial Exhibition. By A. J. Rickoff, J. L. Pickard, James H. Smart (committee), pp. 15. (Circ. inf. 8, 1875.) 48. Education in China. By William A. P. Martin, pp. 28. (Circ. inf. 1, 1877.) Out of print. 49. Public instruction in Finland, the Hetherlands, Denmark, Wiirtemberg aud Portugal; the Uni¬ versity of Leipzig. By Felix Heikel. C. H. Plugg6, and J. L. Corning, pp. 77. (Circ. inf. 2, 1877.) Out of print. 50. Training of teachers in Germany, pp. 36. (Circ. inf. 1, 1878.) Out of print. 51. Elementary education in London, with address of Sir Charles Reed. pp. 24. (Circ. inf. 2, 1878.) 52. Training schools for nurses. By S. A. Martha Canfield, pp. 21. (Circ. inf. 1, 1879.) Out of print. 53. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the Hational Educational Association, 1877 and 1879, Washington, D. C. ; Proceedings of the conference of college presidents and delegates, Columbus, Ohio, December, 1877. pp. 192. (Circ. inf. 2, 1879.) Out of print. Partial contents: Proceedings of 1877 : The school organization of a State; Hational aid to edu¬ cation; What has been done by the General Government in aid of education, by John Eaton i General appropriation of public lands ; Proceeds of sales of public lands ; Disposition of surplus revenue by States; American education, by George B. Loving; The high-school question, by James H. Smart. Partial contents : Proceedings of 1879: Popular education in Switzerland. byJohnHitz; Pop¬ ular education in France, by E. C. Wines: Technical education, by E. A. Apgar; Kinder¬ garten training, by Louise Pollock; Education in the South, by G. J. Orr; The needs of the United States Bureau of Education; Instruction in governmental ideas, by Wm. Strong; Technical education and industrial drawing, by Walter Smith; Education at the Paris Exposition, by John D. Philbrick; What has been done by the Hational Government in aid of education, by John Eaton; American education, by George B. Loving; The high-school question, by James H. Smart; Collegiate degrees, by John M. Gregory. Partial contents: Proceedings of the conference of the presidents and other delegates of the Stato universities and State colleges of Ohio for 1877 ; Collegiate degrees, by J. M. Gregory ; Scientific studies and courses of study; Report on the military system in State colleges, by Edward Orton. 54. Value of common-school education to common labor. (Reprinted from Annual Report, 1872.) pp. 37. (Circ. inf. 3, 1879.) Out of print. XLVIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. 55. Training schools for cookery. By S. A. Martha Canfield, pp. 49. (Circ. inf. 4, 1879.) Out of print. 56. American education as described by the French commission to the International Exhibition of 1876. By Ferdinand Buisson and others, pp. 37. (Circ. inf. 5, 1879.) Out of print. 57. College libraries as aids to instruction. By Justin Winsor and Otis H. Robinson, pp. 27. (Circ. inf. 1, 1880.) Out of print. 58. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the Rational Educational Association, Washington, D. C., 1880. pp. 112. (Circ. inf. 2, 1880.) Partial contents : Bell’s system of visible speech, by L. A. Butterfield; Education of dependent children, by C. D. Randall; Best system of schools for a State, by J. H. Smart; University education, by David C. Gilman ; Technical education in its relations to elementary schools, by J. D. Philbrick; Technological museums, by J. D. Philbrick; The Tenth Census from an educational point of view, by W. T. Harris; Discussion of the high-school question, by J. W. Dickinson, W. T. Harris, J. P. Wickersham; Congress and the education of the people, by W. H. Ruffner; Laws relating to the State public school for dependent children at Cold- water, Michigan. Outline of the school systems of the various States. 59. Legal rights of children. By S. M. Wilcox, pp. 96. (Circ. inf. 3, 1880.) Out of print. 60. Rural school architecture. By T. M. Clark, pp. 106. (Circ. inf. 4, 1880.) Out of print. 61. English rural schools. By Henry W. Hulbert. pp. 26. (Circ. inf. 5, 1880.) Out of print. 62. Instruction in chemistry and physics in the United States. By F. W. Clarke, pp.219. (Circ. inf. 6, 1880.) Out of print. 63. The spelling reform. By Francis A. March, pp. 36. (Circ. inf. 7, 1880.) Out of print. 64. Construction of library buildings. By William F. Poole, pp. 26. (Circ. inf. 1, 1881.) 65. Relation of education to industry and technical training in American schools. ByE. E. White. pp. 22. (Circ. inf. 2, 1881.) Out of print. 66. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the Rational Educational Association, Rew York, 1881, pp. 79. (Circ. inf. 3, 1881.) Out of print. Partial contents : Uniformity of school statistics, by Andrew McMillan : The conservation of pedagogic energy, by C. O. Thompson; Our schools and our forests, by Franklin B Hough; Museums illustrative of education, by John Eaton; Education and the State, by J. W. Patterson. 67. Education in France, pp. 144. (Circ. inf. 4, 1881.) Out of print. 68. Causes of deafness among school children, and the instruction of children with impaired hearing. By Samuel Sexton, pp.47. (Circ. inf. 5, 1881.) Out of print. 69. Effects of student life on the eyesight. By A. W. Calhoun pp. 29. (Circ. inf. 6, 1881.) Out of print. 70. Inception, organization, and management of training schools for nurses By S. A. Martha Canfield. pp. 28. (Circ. inf. 1, 1882.) Out of print. 71. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the Rational Educational Association, Washington, 1882. pp. 112. (Circ. inf. 2, 1882.) Out of print. Partial contents: Information necessary to determine the merits of the heating and ventilation of a school building, by John S. Billings, U. S. A.; The chemical examination of air as applied to questions of ventilation, by Dr. Charles Smart, U. S. A. ; Obstacles in the way of better primary education, by H. Jones; Chairs of pedagogy in our higher institutions of learning, by G. Stanley Hall; Rational aid to education, from a Rorthern standpoint, by Dexter H. Hawkins; Education in Alaska, by Sheldon Jackson; Resolution respecting a national appropriation for education in Alaska; Some fundamental inquries concerning the common-school studies, by John M. Gregory ; How to improve the qualifications of teachers, by W. T. Harris. 72. University of Bonn. By Edmond Dreyfus- Brisac. pp. 67. (Circ. inf. 3, 1882 ) Out of print. 73. Industrial art in schools. By Charles G. Leland. pp. 37. (Circ. inf. 4, 1882.) Out of print. 74. Maternal schools in France, pp. 14. (Circ. inf. 5, 1882.) Out of print. 75. Technical instruction in -France, pp. 63. (Circ. inf. 6, 1882.) Out of print. 76. Legal provisions respecting the examination and licensing of teachers, pp. 46. (Circ. inf. 1, 1883.) Out of print. 77. ‘ Coeducation of the sexes in the public schools of the United States, pp. 30. (Circ. inf. 2, 1883.) 78. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the Rational Educational Association, Washington, D. C., 1883. pp. 81. (Circ. inf. 3, 1883.) Out of print. Partial contents: Ratural history in public schools, its utility and practicability as illustrated by the methods adopted in Rew York City, by Albert S. Bickmore; Communication respect¬ ing industrial education, by Chas. G. Leland; The educational lessons of the census, by Wm. T. Harris ; If universal suffrage, then universal education, by Atticus G. Hay good ; Consti¬ tutionality of national aid to education, by Wm. Lawrence; Indian education, by B. G. Rorthrup, S. C. Armstrong, Alice C. Fletcher; School supervision : How and by whom the fitness of pupils for promotion is determined, by C. G. Edwards and others. 79. Recent school-law decisions. By Lyndon A. Smith, pp. 82. (Circ. inf. 4, 1883.) Out of print. 80. Meeting of the International Prison Congress at Rome. pp. 11. (Circ. inf. 1, 1884.) Out of print. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. XLIX 81. The teaching, practice, and literature of shorthand. (Second and enlarged edition.) By Julius E. Rockwell, pp. 184. (Circ. inf. 2, 1884.) Out of print. 82. Illiteracy in the United States. W ith appendix on national aid to education. By Charles “Warren and J. L. M. Curry, pp. 99. (Circ. inf. 3, 1884.) Out of print. 83. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association, Washington, D. C., 1884. pp. 176. (Circ. inf. 4, 1884.) Out of print. Partial contents : Supervision of public schools, by John W. Holcombe; Indian education, by J. M. Haworth ; Indian education, by R. H. Pratt. ; Indian education, by S. C. Armstrong ; Arbor day in the public schools, by J. B. Peaslee ; Arbor day in the public schools, by B. G-. Northrop; Recess, by W. T. Harris ; No recess, by S. A. Ellis; How a State superintendent can best advance popular education, by E. E. Higbee; National aid for the support of public schools, by J. W. Dickinson; The educational status and needs of the South, by Robert Bingham; Legislation respecting national aid to education, proposed by the interstate educational convention, with remarks and tables ; The new bill for national aid to public schools, by B. Gr. Northrop; Industrial education, by John M. Ordway; Public instruction in industrial pursuits, by A. P. Marble; Education at the World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition; The new order of Mercy, or Crime and its prevention, by George T. Angell; Education of the normal color sense, by B. Joy Jeffries ; Supplementary reading, by George J. Luckey; Reading, by Chas. G. Edwards; Reading, by J. O. Wilson. 84. Suggestions respecting the educational exhibit at the New Orleans Exposition. 1884-85. pp. 28. (Circ. inf. 5, 1884.) Out of print. 85. Rural schools. Progress in the past; means of improvement in the future. By Annie Tolman Smith, pp. 90. (Circ. inf. 6, 1884.) Out of print. 86. Aims and methods of the teaching of physics. By Charles K. Wead. pp. 158. (Circ. inf. 7, 1884.) 87. City school systems in the United States. By John D. Philbrick. pp. 207. (Circ. inf. 1, 1885.) Out of print. 88. Teachers’ institutes. By James H. Smart, pp. 206. (Circ. inf. 2. 1885.) Out of print. 89. Review of the reports of the British royal commissioner on technical instruction, with notes. By Chas. O. Thompson, pp. 55. (Circ. inf. 3, 1885.) 90. Education in Japan, pp. 56. (Circ. inf. 4, 1885.) Out of print. 91. Physical training in American colleges and universities. By Edward Mussey Hartwell, pp, 183. (Circ. inf. 5, 1885.) Out of print. 92. Study of music in public schools. By Charles Warren, pp. 78. (Circ. inf. 1, 1886.) Out of print. 93. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association, Washington, D. C., 1886. pp. 91. (Circ. inf. 2, 1886.) Out of print. Partial contents: School superintendence a profession, by M. A. Newell ; Duties of county super¬ intendents, by D. L. Kiehle ; Reading circles for teachers, by Jerome Allen ; The coeducation of the races, by Chas. S. Young; National aid to education, by J. A. Lovett; The education and religious interests of the colored people in the South, by S. M. Finger; Forestry in edu¬ cation, by Warren Higley; Language work, by N. C. Dougherty; Growth and benefits of reading circles, by Hei'bert M. Skinner; City superintendence, by J. W. Akers; On the substitution of “Intermediate” for “Grammar” as a designation in the nomenclature of graded schools. 94. The college of William and Mary. By Herbert B. Adams, pp. 89. (Circ. inf. 1, 1887 ) 95. Study of history in American colleges and universities. By Herbert B. Adams, pp. 299. (Circ. inf. 2, 1887.) Out of print. 96. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association, Washington, D. C., 1887. pp. 200. (Circ. inf. 3, 1887.) Out of print. Partial contents : Public education on the Pacific coast, by F. M. Campbell ; The examination and certification of teachers, by Andrew J. Rickoff, and report of committee on; Civil service and public schools: I, by Le Roy D. Brown, II, by Thomas P. Ballard; Powers and duties of school officers and teachers: I, by A. P. Marble, II, by J. M. Green; The best system of county and city supervision, by E. E. Higbee; Industrial education in our public schools : I, by F. W. Parker. II, by W. B. Powell ; The province of the public school, by J. W. Dickinson; What a small city is doing in industrial education, by H. W. Compton ; A sys¬ tem of grading for country schools, by J. W. Holcombe; The best system of State school supervision, by Warren Easton; State text-books, by F. M. Campbell; The nation and the public schools, by H. W. Blair; Education in Alaska, by Sheldon Jackson. 97. Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia . By Herbert B. Adams pp. 308. (Circ. inf. 1, 1888.) Out of print. 98. History of education in North Carolina. By Charles Lee Smith, pp. 180. (Circ. inf. 2, 1888.) Out of print. 99. History of higher education in South Carolina. By C. Meriwether, pp. 247. (Circ. inf. 3, 1888.) Out of print. 100. Education in Georgia. By Chas. Edgeworth Jones, pp. 154. (Circ. inf. 4, 1888.) 101. Industrial education in the South. By A. D. Mayo. pp. 06. (Circ. inf. 5, 1888.) Out of print. L REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. 102. Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association, "Washington, D. C., 1888. pp. 165. (Circ. inf. 6, 1888.) Out of print. Partial contents: How and to what extent can manual training be ingrafted in our system of public schools? by Chas. H. Ham. Discussed by A. P. Marble, Nicholas Murray Butler, H. H. Belfield, M. A. Newell, Chas. H. Ham; What is the purpose of county institutes, and how is it best secured ? by Jessie B. Thayer; Elocution: Its place in education, by Martha Eleming ; How shall the qualifications of teachers be determined ? by A. S. Draper ; Are the normal schools as they exist in our several States adequate to accomplish the work for which they were established ? by J. P. Wickersham. Discussed by J. W. Dickinson, Jerome Allen, Edward Brooks, and A. G. Boyden; Moral education in the common schools, by William T. Harris ; Can school programmes be shortened and enriched ? by Charles W. Eliot ; Alaska, by N. H. E. Dawson ; The relation of the superintendent and the teacher to the school, by A. E. Winship; National aid to education. 103. History of education in Florida. By George Gary Bush. pp. 54. (Circ. inf. 7, 18S8.) 104. Report on school architecture and plans for graded schools, pp. 136. (Reprinted from Annual Report, 1868. ) 105. Suggestions for a free-school policy for United States land grantees, pp. 6. 1872. Out of print. 106. Statement of the theory of education in the United States, approved by many leading educators. pp. 22. 1874. Out of print. 107. National Bureau of Education; its history, work, and limitations. By Alexander Shiras. pp. 16. 1875. Out of print. 108. Educational conventions and anniversaries, 1876. pp. 187. Out of print. 109. International conference on education, held in Philadelphia in connection with the International Exhibition of 1876. pp. 92. 1879. Out of print. 110. List of public-school officials in the States and Territories of the United States, 1875. pp. 62. 1875. Out of print. 111. Manual of common native trees of the Northern United States, pp. 23. 1877. Out of print. 112. Are the Indians dying out? By S. N. Clark, pp. 36. 1877. Out of print. 113. International educational congress to be held at Brussels, Belgium, August, 1880. pp. 10. 1S80. Out of print. 114. Indian school at Carlisle barracks, pp. 5. 1880. 115. Industrial education in Europe, pp. 9. 1880. 116. Vacation colonies for sickly schoolchildren, pp. 4. 1880. 117. Progress of western education in China and Siam. pp. 13. 1880. 118. Educational tours in France, pp. 4. 1880. 119. Medical colleges in the United States, pp. 3. 1881. Out of print. 120. Comparative statistics of elementary education in 50 principal countries. (Folding sheet.) 1881. Out of print. 121. Fifty years of freedom in Belgium; Education in Malta; Third international geographical con¬ gress at Venice, 1881; Illiteracy and crime in France; School savings banks; Education in Sheffield, pp. 8. 1881. 122. Organization and management of public libraries. By William F. Poole. (Reprint from Pub. Librs. in the U. S. A., 1876.) 123. Library aids. By Samuel Green, pp. 10. 1881. Out of print. 124. Recognized medical colleges in the United States, pp. 4. 1881. Out of print. 125. Discipline of the school. By Hiram Orcutt. pp. 15. 1881. (Reprint of Circ. of information. November, 1871.) Out of print. 126. Education and crime. By J. P. Wickersham. pp. 10. 1881. Out of print. 127. Instruction in morals and civil government. ByA.Vessiot. pp. 4. 1882. 128. Comparative statistics of elementary, secondary, and superior education in 60 principal countries. 1880. (Folding sheet.) Out of print. 129. National pedagogic congress of Spain, pp. 4. 1882. Out of print. 130. Natural science in secondary schools. By F. Miihlberg. pp. 9. 1882. 131. High schools for girls in Sweden, pp. 6. 1882. Out of print. 132. Buffalini prize, pp. 5. 1883. Out of print. 133. Education in Italy and Greece, pp. 8. 1883. 134. Answers to inquiries about the United States Bureau of Education. By Charles Warren, pp. 29. 1883. Out of print. 135. Planting trees in school grounds. By Franklin B. Hough, pp. 8. "1883. Out of print. 136. Southern Exposition of 1883-84, Louisville, Ky. (Two pamphlets relating to the exhibit of the United States Bureau of Education.) pp. 17. 1883. pp. 7. 1884. Out of print. 137. Preliminary circular respecting the exhibition of education at the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, pp. 11. 1884. Out of print. 138. Report of the director of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens for the year 1882-83. By Wm. W. Goodwin, pp. 13. 1884. Out of print. 139. Building for the children of the South. By A. D. Mayo. pp. 16. 1S84. Out of print. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. LI 140. Statistics regarding the national aid to education, pp. 3. 1885. 141. Planting trees in school grounds, and celebration of Arbor Day. By Franklin B. Hough and John P. Peaslee. p. 8 + 64. 1885. Out of print. 142. International educational congress at Havre, pp. 6. 1885. Out of print. 143. Statistics of public libraries in the Uni ted States, pp. 98. 1886. (Reprinted from Annual Report, 1884-85.) Out of print. 144. Technical instruction. Special report., 1869. pp. 33 + 784. 8°. Washington (1870). jVote.— First edition incomplete, printed pursuant to a call of House of Representatives, January 19, 1870. Second edition published as Volume XXI of Barnard’s Journal of Education, pp. 807. Out of print. 145. Contributions to the annals of medical progress and medical education in the United States before and during the War of Independence. By Joseph M. Toner, pp. 118. 8°. Washing¬ ton, 1874. Out of print. 146. Historical sketch of Mount Holyoke Seminary. By Mary O. Hutting. Edited by F. B. Hough. pp. 24. 12°. Washington, 1876. Out of print. 147. Historical sketch of Union College. By F. B. Hough, pp. 81. 8°. Washington, 1876. Out of print. 148. Public libraries in the United States of America, their history, condition, and management. Part I. Edited by S. R. Warren and S. N. Clark, pp. xxxv+1187. Rules for a printed dic¬ tionary catalogue; Part II. By C. A. Cutter, pp. 80. 8°. Washington, 1876. Out of print. 149. Contribution to the history of medical education and medical institutions in the United States of America, 1776-1876. By S. X. Davis, pp. 60. 8°. Washington, 1877. Out of print. 150. Sketch of the Philadelphia Normal School for G-irls. pp. 39. 8°. Washington, 1882. Out of print. 151. Historical sketches of the universities and colleges of the United States. Edited byF. B. Hough. (History of the University of Missouri.) pp. 72. 8°. Washington, 1883. Out of print. 152. Industrial education in the United States, pp. 319. 8°. Washington, 1883. Out of print. 153. Art and industry— Industrial and high art education in the United States. By I. Edwards Clarke. Part I. Drawing in the public schools, pp. cclix+842. Washington, 18S5. Out of print. Note. — There are two other editions, with slightly varying titles; one ordered by the Senate, the other by Congress. 154. Outlines for a museum of anatomy. By R. W. Shufeldt. pp. 65. 8°. Washington, 1885. Out of print. 155. Educational exhibits and conventions at the World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposi¬ tion, New Orleans, 1884-85. pp. 962. Foot pagination. 8°. Washington, 1886. Out of print. Contents: Pc. I. Catalogue of exhibits, pp. 240. Pt. II. Proceedings of the International Congress of Educators, pp. 575. Pt. III. Proceedings of the Department of Superin¬ tendence of the National Educational Association, and addresses delivered on Education Days. pp. 148. Now Orleans, 1885. 156. Indian education and civilization. Prepared in answer to Senate resolution of .February 23, 1885. By Alice C. Fletcher, under direction of the Commissioner of Education, pp. 693. (Senate Ex. Doc. No. 95. Forty-eighth Congress, second session.) Out of print. 157. Higher education in Wisconsin. By Wm. F. Allen and David E. Spencer, pp.168. (Circ. inf. 1, 1889.) Out of print. 158. Rules for a dictionary catalogue. By C. A. Cutter, pp. 33. 1st ed., Pt. II of public libraries in the United States, with corrections and additions. (Spec, rep., 1876.) Out of print. 159. Indian education. By. T. J. Morgan, pp. 28. (Bulletin 1, 1889.) 160. Proceedings of Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association. Wash¬ ington, March, 1889. pp. 300. (Circ. inf. 2, 1880.) Out of print. rartial contents: Training of teachers: Psychology in its relation to pedagogy, by Nicholas Murray Butler; City training and practice schools, by W. S. Jackman ; Purpose and means of city training schools, by S. S. Parr; County institutes, by Albert G. Lane; State teach¬ ers’ institutes, by John W. Dickinson; Mauual training, its relation to body and mind, by C. M. Woodward; The psychology of manual training, by W. T. Harris ; Educational value of manual training, by Geo. P. Brown; The work of the city superintendent, by T. M. Bal- liet; The school principal, by George Holland; Teachers’ examinations, by M. A. Newell; The State and higher education, by Fred. M. Campbell, Herbert B. Adams ; Education in the South, by W. R. Garrett; National aid to education, by H. W. Blair. 161. History of Federal and State aid to higher education in the United States. By Frank W. Black- mar. pp. 343. (Circ. inf. 1, 1890.) Out of print. 162. Rules for a dictionary catalog. By C. A. Cutter. 2d ed. of Pt. II of pub. libs, in the U. S., with corrections, pp. 133. 2d ed. (Spec, rep., 1889.) Out of print. 163. History of education in Alabama, 1702-1889. By Willis G. Clark, pp. 231. (Circ. inf. 3, 1889.) Out of print. 164. Honorary degrees as conferred in American colleges. By Charles Foster Smith. No. 1. 1890. pp. 12. (Misc. pub. or bulletin.) * LII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. • 165. English-Eskimo and Eskimo-English vocabularies. Compiled by Roger ‘Wells, jr., and John W. Kelly, pp. 72. (Circ. inf. 2, 1890.) Out of print. 166. Rules and regulations for the conduct of schools and education in the Dist. of Alaska, pp. 7. (Misc. pub. 1890.) Out of print. 167. Teaching and history of mathematics in the United States. By Florian Cajori. pp. 400. (Circ. inf. 3, 1890.) Out of print. 168. Annual statement of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior. 1890. pp. 17. (Misc. pub. 1890.) Out of print. 169. Preliminary report of the general agent of education for Alaska to the Commissioner of Educa¬ tion. — Introduction of Reindeer into Alaska. By Sheldon Jackson, pp. 15. (Misc. ] uh. 1890.) Out of print. 170. Higher education in Indiana. By James Albert Woodburn. pp. 200. (Circ. inf. 1, 1891.) Out of print. 171. Fourth International Prison Congress, St. Petersburg, Russia. By C. D. Randall, pp. 253. (Circ. 2, 1891.) Out of print. 172. Rules for a dictionary catalog. By C. A. Cutter. 3d. ed., Pt. II of pub. libs, in the United States, ■with corrections and additions, and an alphabetical index, pp. 140. (Spec. rep. 1891.) 173. Sanitary conditions of schoolhouses. By Albert P. Marble, pp. 123. (Circ. 3, 1891. ) Out of print. 174. History of higher education in Michigan. By Andrew C. McLaughlin, pp. 179. (Circ. inf. 4, 1891.) Out of print. 175. History of higher education in Ohio. By Geo. W. Knight and John R. Commons, pp. 258. (Circ. inf. 5, 1891.) Out of print. 176. History of higher education in Massachusetts. By Geo. Gary Bush. pp. 445. (Circ. inf. 6, 1891.) Out of print. 177. Promotions and examinations in graded schools. By Emerson E. White, pp. 64. (Circ. inf. 7, 1891. ) Out of print. 178. Rise and growth of the normal school idea in the United States. By J. P. Gordy. pp. 145. (Circ. inf. 8, 1891.) Out of print. 179. Biological teaching in the colleges of the United States. By John P. Campbell, pp. 183. (Circ. inf. 9, 1891.) Out of print. 180. Annual statement of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior, 1891. pp. 21. (Misc. pub. 1891.) 181. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1888-89. Vol. 1. pp. lix+669. Out of print. 182. Same. Yol. 2. pp. vi+ 671-1 669. Out of print. 183. Part I of the Report of the Commissioner of Education for the year 1888-89, with the Commis¬ sioner’s introduction, and the contents of Parts I, II, and IH. Special edition, pp. 274. (Spec, rep. 1891.) Out of print. 184. Report of the general agent of education in Alaska for the year 1888-89. (Reprint from An. Rep. 1888-89. pp. 753-764.) (Misc. pub. 1891.) Out of print. 185. Publications of the U. S. Bureau of Education from 1867-1890, with subject index. (Reprint from An. Rep. 1888-89. pp. 1453-1551.) (Misc. pub. 1891.) Out of print. 186. Southern women in the recent educational movement in the South. By A. D. Mayo. pp. 300. (Circ. inf. 1, 1892.) Out of print. 187. Analytical index to Barnard’s American Journal of Education. 31 vols. 1855-1881. (Spec. rep. 1892. ) 188. Benjamin Franklin and the University of Pennsylvania. By Franklin Uewton Thorpe, pp. 450. (Circ. inf. 2, 1892.) Out of print* 189. Annual statement of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior, 1892. pp. 21. (Misc. pub. 1892.) Out of print. 190. Report on legal education. Prepared by committee of the American Bar Association, and the U. S. Bureau of Education, pp. 207. (Spec. rep. 1893.) 191. Education in Alaska, 1889-90. By Sheldon Jackson. (Reprint of chapter xvii An. Rep. 1889-90. pp. 1245-1300.) (Misc. pub. 1893.) Out of print. 192. Shorthand instruction and practice. By Julius E. Rockwell, pp. 206. (Circ. inf. 1, 1893.) Out of print. 193. History of education in Connecticut. By Bernard C. Steiner. Contributions to American edu¬ cational history, No. 14. pp. 300. (Circ. inf. 2, 1893.) Out of print. 194. History of education in Delaware. By Lyman P. Powell, pp. 186. (Circ. inf. 3, 1893.) Out of print. 195. Abnormal man; being essays on education and crime and related subjects, with digest of literature and a bibliography. By Arthur MacDonald, pp. 445. (Circ. inf. 4, 1893.) Out of print. 196. Higher education in Tennessee. By Lucius Salisbury Merriam. Contributions to American educational history, Ho. 16. pp. 287. (Circ. inf. 5, 1893.) Out of print. 197. Higher education in Iowa. By Leonard F. Parker. Contributions to American educational his¬ tory, Ho. 17. pp. 190. (Circ. inf. 6, 1893.) Out of print. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. LIII 198. Annual Report of Commisioner of Education, 1889-90. Yol. 1. xxvii+601. Out of print. 199. Same. Yol. 2. pp. vii+603-1724. Out of print. 200. Catalog of A. L. A. Library ; 5,000 volumes for a popular library, pp. 592. (Spec. rep. 1893.) 201. Statistics of public libraries in tbe United States and Canada. By Weston Flint, pp. 213. (Circ. inf. 7, 1893.) Out of print. 202. Spelling reform. By Francis A. March. A revision and enlargement of the author’s pamphlet, published hy the U. S. Bureau of Education in 1881. pp. 86. (Circ. inf. 8, 1893.) 203. Education in Alaska, 1890-91. By Sheldon Jackson, pp. 923-960. (From An. Rep. 1890-91.) (Misc. pub. 1893.) Out of print. 204. Annual statement of Commissioner of Education to Secretary of the Interior, 1893. By W. T. Harris, pp. 25. Out of print. 205. Report of the committee on secondary school studies, appointed at the meeting of Hat. Ed. Assoc. July 9, 1892, with the reports of the conferences arranged by this committee, and held Dec. 28-30, 1892. pp. 249. (Spec. rep. 1893.) Out of print. 206. Education in southwestern Yirginia. By A. D. Mayo. (Reprint of chapter xxiv An. Rop. 1890-91. pp. 881-921.) 207. Annual Report of Commissioner of Education, 1890-91. Yol. 1. pp. xxx+654. Out of print. 208. Same. Yol. 2. pp. v-f 605-1549. Out of print. 209. History of education in Rhode Island. By William Howe Tolman. pp. 210. Contributions Am. ed’l hist. Ho. 18. (Circ. inf. 1, 1894.) 210. History of higher education in Maryland. By Bernard C. Steiner, pp.331. Contributions to Am. ed’l hist. Ho. 19. (Circ. inf. 2, 1894.) 211. Annual Report of Commissioner of Education, 1891-92. Yol. 1. pp. xxviii-f 636. 212. Same. Yol. 2. pp. v-f 637-1294. 213. Annual statement of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior, 1894. By W. T. Harris, pp. 29. (Misc. pub. 1894.) Out of print. 214. Education in Alaska. By Sheldon Jackson, pp. 873-892. (Reprint from An. Rep. 1891-92.) (Misc. pub. 1894.) Out of print. 215. Introduction of domesticated reindeer into Alaska, with maps and illustrations. By Sheldon Jackson, pp. 187. (Reprint of Senate Executive Document Ho. 70, 53d Congress, second ses¬ sion.) (Misc. pub. 1894.) Out of print. 216. Art and industry. Education in the industrial and fine arts in the United States. By Isaac Edwards Clarke. Part II. Industrial and manual training in public schools, pp. cxlviii-f 1338. 8°. Washington, 1892. Out of print. 217. Annual Report of Commissioner of Education, 1892-93. Yol. 1. pp. ix-f 1224. Out of print. 218. Same. Yol. 2. pp. v-f- 1225-2153. Out of print. 219. Annual statement of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior, 1895. pp. 27. Out of print. 220. Education in Alaska, 1892-93. By Sheldon Jackson. (From An. Rep. 1892-93. pp. 1705-1795.) Out of print. 221. Annual Report of Commissioner of Education, 1893-94. Yol. 1. 222. Same. Yol. 2. 223. Education at the World’s Columbian Exposition (1893), including reports and comments by American and foreign educators and delegates. (Reprint from An. Rep. 1892-93. pp. 423- 690.) 1896. 224. Papers prepared for the World’s Library Congress held at the Columbian Exposition. Ed. by Melvil Dewey, pp. 691-1014. (Reprint from An. Rep. 1892-93. Chapter IX.) Out of print. 225. Hotes on education at the Columbian Exposition. By John Eaton. (Reprint from An. Rep. 1892-93. pp. 1015-1224.) Out of print. 226. Education and Patho-Social Studies. (Reprint from An. Rep. 1893-94, chapters xiv and xv; and from An. Rep. 1889-90, chapter xviii.) Out of print. 227. Annual Report of Commissioner of Education, 1894-95. Yol. 1. 228. Same. Yol. 2. 229. Education in Alaska, 1893-94. (Misc. pub. 1894.) 230. Annual statement of the Commissioner of Education to Secretary of the Interior for 1896. 231. Education in Alaska, 1894-95. (Reprint of chapter xxviii An. Rep. 1894-95.) 232. Public, society and school libraries in the U. S., with statistics and legislation. 233. Annual Report of Commissioner of Education, 1895-96. Yol. 1. 234. Same. Yol. 2. 300. Our schools and our forests. By Franklin H. Hough. Address before Dept, of Superintendence Hat. Ed. Assoc., 1881. pp. 18. (Reprint from Circ. inf. 3, 1881.) (Misc. pub. 1881). Out of print. 301. Manual training. By C. M. Woodward. (Circ. inf. 2, 1889.) Out of print. 302. Class intervals in city public schools. By James C. Boykin, pp. 3. (Misc. pub. 1893.) Out of print. 303. What is education ? Opinions of eminent men. pp. 16. (Misc. pub. 1870.) Out of print. “94. Proceedings of the Dept, of Superintendence of the Hational Educational Association respecting State and city school reports, pp. 26. (Misc. pub. 1874.) Out of print. LIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. 305. Industrial status and needs of the Rew South. By Robert Bingham, pp. 21. Delivered before the Dept, of Superintendence of the Rat. Ed. Assoc., February, 1884. (Misc. pub. 1884.) Out of print. 3C6. Reeds of education in the South. By Gustavus G. Orr. pp. 13. Delivered before the Dept, of Superintendence of the Rat. Ed. Assoc.. 1879. (Misc. pub. 1879.) Out of print. 307. Rational aid to education. By John Eaton. Delivered before the Department of Superintend¬ ence of the Rat. Ed. Assoc., 1877. pp. 37. (Misc. pub. 1879.) Out of print. 308. Reeds of the Bureau of Education. By John Eaton. Delivered before Dept, of Superintendence of Rat. Ed. Assoc., 1881. pp. 12. (Misc. pub. 1881.) Out of print. 309. Museums illustrative of education. By John Eaton. Delivered before Dept, of Superintendence of Rat. Ed. Assoc., 1881. pp. 12. (Misc. pub. 1881.) 310. The World’s Columbian Exposition, department of liberal arts. Circular Ro. 2. The educational exhibit at the World’s Columbian Exposition, pp. 10. (Misc. pub. - -.) 311. World's Columbian Exposition, department of liberal arts. Circ. Ro. 4. The educational exhibit Ro. 2. Statistics by graphic methods. Wing frames; State maps. Display of school statistics, pp. 17. (Misc. pub. — .) 312. Doited States Bureau of Education, an office in the Interior Department, 1867-1888. Commis. sioners: Henry Barnard, 1867-1870; John Eaton, 1870-18S6 ; Hathaniel H. R. Dawson, 1886-1889. (Misc. pub. — .) 313. Technical education and industrial drawing. By Prof. Walter Smith. Delivered before the Dept, of Superintendence of Rat. Ed. Assoc., 1879. pp. 24. (Misc. pub. 1879.) 314. Rational schools of science, report on, by D. C. Gilman, pp. 20. (Reprint from An. Rep. 1871. pp. 427-444.) (Misc. pub. 1872.) Out of print. 315. Colleges and collegiate institutions in the United States. Statistics, pp. 11. (1871.) Out of print. 316. International Exhibition, Philadelphia, 1879. Collections to illustrate the history of colleges, universities, professional schools, and schools of science. (1875.) Out of print. 317. Prospectus of report of the Commissioner of Education for 1875. p. 1. 1875. Out of print. 318. Chilean International Exposition of 1875, to be held at Santiago (educational programme.) pp. 9. 1875. Out of print. 319. Synopsis of proposed centennial; history of American education, 1776 to 1876. pp. 18. 1875. Out of print. 320. Study of Anglo-Saxon. By F. A. March, pp. 10. (From An. Rep. 1876.) 321. Latin pronunciation. By W. G. Richardson, pp. 484-497. (From An. Rep. 1876.) Out of print. 322. Pronunciation of Greek in this country. By James R. Boise, pp. 480*483. (From An. Rep. 1876.) Out of print. 223. Education at the Paris Exposition, 1879. pp. 9. (From Circ. inf. 2, 1879.) Out of print. 324. Sale of diplomas, pp. 4. 1880. Out of print. 325. Report on education in Alaska, with maps and illustrations. By Sheldon Jackson, pp. 89. 1S86. Out of print. 326. Bureau of Education. Ohio Yalley and Central States Centennial Exposition, July 4 to October 28, 1888. Exhibit of the Bureau. Compiled by John W. Holcombe. (Folding sheet.) pp. 8. 16°. Out of print. 327. Annual statement of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior; being introductory chapter of the Education Report 1888-89. By R.H. R. Dawson, pp. 28. Out of print. 329. Report of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior, 1SS7. pp. 26. 1887. Out of print. STATISTICS OF STATE COMMON-SCHOOL SYSTEMS. L.Y STATE COMMON-SCHOOL SYSTEMS, LYII Table 1. — The total population, the school population, and the adult male population. Estimated total pop¬ ulation in 1896. The school population. Estimated number of male per¬ sons 21 years and over in 1896. State or Territory. Estimated number of children 5 to 18 years of age in 1896. Percent- I age of I hoys. \ Boys. Girls. Total. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 United States . 70, 595, 321 10, 531, 815 10,333,562 20,865,377 50.48 19, 170, 010 North Atlantic Division . 19. 520, 400 2. 484, 345 1 2, 467, 252 4. 951. 597 50. 19 5, 666, 500 South Atlantic Division . 9, 667, 000 1, 657, 580 i 1, 630, 090 3, 287, 670 50. 42 2, 201, 890 South Central Division . 12, 747, 200 2, 241, 000 2, 182, 250 4, 423, 250 50. 66 2, 938, 4G0 North Central Division . 24, 827. 541 3, 677, 910 ; 3, 596, 430 7, 274, 340 50. 56 6, 893. 300 W estern Division . 3, 833, 380 470, 980 457, 540 928, 520 50. 72 1, 469, 860 North Atlantic Division : Maine . 655, 600 81,520 79, 780 161, 300 50: 53 199, 600 New Hampshire (1894) .... 389, 000 43, 400 43, 300 86,700 50. 06 122. 100 Vermont . 332. 500 42, 260 39, 710 81, 970 51.55 101, 700 Massachusetts . 2, 547 . 000 290, 200 292, 200 582, 400 49. 83 756, 300 Rhode Tsland . 393, 400 47, 730 48, 170 95, 900 49. 77 113, £00 Connecticut . 817, 900 96, 720 95, 780 192, 5G0 50. 24 245, 600 New York . . . 6, 722. 000 825. 120 826, 738 a 1, 651. 858 49. 95 1, 983, 000 New Jersev . 1, 716, 000 a 220, 995 a 217, 974 a 438, 969 50. 09 491, 300 Pennsylvania . 5, 947, 000 836, 400 823, 600 1, 660, 000 50. 38 1, 653, 000 South Atlantic Division: Delaware (1892) . . 173, 200 24. 750 24,080 48, 830 50. 69 48, 900 Marvland . . 1, 159, 000 170, 200 169,000 339, 200 50. 18 300. 900 District of Columbia . 273, 600 33, 720 ! 35.720 ! 69. 440 48. 55 76. 590 Virginia . . 1, 697, 000 292, 200 287, 500 i 579, 700 50. 41 388, 200 "West Virginia . . 849, 300 144, 400 141,200 285, 600 50. 56 202, 000 North Carolina . 1, 763, 000 315. 050 308,350 623, 400 50. 54 373. 500 South Carolina . 1,256, 000 235, 400 231. 000 466, 400 50. 4S 257. 100 Georgia . 2, 015, 000 361. 700 | 353, 600 715, 300 50. 57 436, 500 Florida . 480, 900 80, 160 79, 640 159, 800 50. 17 118, 200 South Central Division: Kentucky . 1,993, 000 329, 900 322, 900 652, 800 50. 53 483, 300 Tennessee (1895) . 1,857.000 323, 400 312, 000 635, 400 50.89 422. 800 Alabama . 1, 709, 000 309, 300 301,000 610, 300 50. 68 367, 000 Mississippi (1895) . 1, 431, 000 265, 300 257, 200 522. 500 50. 78 299, 300 Louisiana . 1, 234, 000 211, 000 209, 100 420, LOO 50. 22 276. 400 Texas . 2, 979, 000 529, 200 516, 800 1, 046, 000 50. 61 714, 300 Arkansas . 1, 270, 000 230, 100 223, 300 453, 400 50. 75 290, 400 Oklahoma . 274, 200 42, 800 39, 950 82, 750 51. 73 84, 960 North Central Division : Ohio . 3, 855, 000 553, 200 540, 800 1, 094. 000 50. 57 1, 067, 000 Indiana . 2, 289, 000 341. 100 335,000 676, 100 50.45 621, 300 Illinois . 4, 509, 000 641, 500 632, 500 1, 274, 000 50. 34 1, 264, 000 Michigan (1895) . a 2, 241,641 313, 850 308, 550 622, 400 50. 42 661,000 "Wisconsin . 2, 054, 000 309, 200 304, 600 613, 800 50. 37 562, 200 Minnesota . 1, 641, 000 239, 600 235, 100 474, 700 50. 48 473, 900 Iowa . 2, 088, 000 320, 000 309, 900 629, 900 50. 79 568. 200 Missouri . 3, 005. 000 471, 600 463, 200 934, 800 50. 45 791, 500 North Dakota . 303, 600 42, 830 40,060 ! 82, 890 51. 67 93, 000 South Dakota (1894) . 401, 300 60, 130 57, 370 117, 500 51.16 118, 100 Nebraska . 1, 111, 000 170, 900 163, 600 334, 500 51. 08 316, 300 Kansas . 1, 329, 000 214, 000 205, 750 419, 750 50. 98 356, 800 "Western Division: ! Montana . 209. 800 19, 140 18, 750 37, 890 50. 52 1 103, 800 Wyoming . 99, 700 11, 010 10, 260 21, 270 51.78 44, 420 Colorado . 544, 200 60. 550 59, 200 119, 750 50. 56 217. 700 51, 860 New Mexico . 177, 200 25, 400 24, 330 49. 730 51. 07 Arizona . 78, 380 10, 060 9, 860 19, 920 50.52 31, 150 Utah . 258, 500 42,430 41, 440 83. 870 50. 59 67*720 Nevada . 41, 500 4. 610 4, 470 9, 080 50. 73 19, 000 Idaho . 143, 400 19, 960 18, 850 38, 810 51.43 53, 510 Washington . 479, 700 55, 730 53, 070 108, 800 51.20 201, 700 Oregon . 378,800 51, 590 50, 510 102, 100 50. 52 134, 900 California . 1, 422, 000 170, 500 166, 800 337, 300 50. 54 544, 100 a By State census. LYIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table 2. — Data from United States Census Deports of 1870, 1880, and 1890: (a) Delation of the school population to the total population and to the adult male population; (6) proportion of white school population of foreign hirth or parentage ; (c) percentage of foreign horn in the total population State or Territory. 1 United States . Horth Atlantic Division. .. South Atlantic Division... South Central Division.... Horth Central Division. . . . W estern Division . . . Is or tli Atlantic Division: Maine . Mw Hampshire. . Vermont . _ . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . Hew York . Hew Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division : Delaware . Maryland . District of Columbia . . . Virginia . . . West Virginia . Horth Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . Florida . Sc uth Central Division : Kentucky . . Tennessee . Alabama . Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . Arkansas . Oklahoma . Horth Central Division: Ohio . Indiana . Illinois . Michigan . Wisconsin . . Minnesota . Iowa . Missouri . Horth Dakota . South Dakota . Hebraska . . . Kansas . . . TV estem Division : Montana . '. . Wyoming . Colorado . Hew Mexico . Arizona . . Utah . Hevada . Idaho . Washington . Oregon . California . Humber of children 5 to 18 years of age to every 100 persons of Humber Percent¬ age of white Percentage of foreign born of total popuia- the total population. of adult children males to 5 to 18 every 100 years of 1 children age that I 5 to 18 j were of ! 1870. 1880. 1890. years of * age in 1 foreign ! i birth or j 1870. | 1880. j 1890. 1890. parent- | age in I 1890. 1 2 3 4 i ri 6 * 8 9 i Per ct. 1 Per ct. Per ct. 1 Per ct. 31. 27 30. 04 29. 61 91.4 33.5 ; 14.44 13. 32 | 14. 77 28. 30 26. 87 | 25. 39 114.4 45.8 20. 49 19.40 22. 34 33.02 32. 24 I 34.04 66.8 6.6 2.85 2.29 : 2. 35 33. 92 33. 13 j 34.76 65. 9 8.6 ; 3. 62 3.08 . 2. 93 32.40 30. 63 29. 33 94.6 41.5 1 17. 97 16. 80 IS. 16 25. 57 25.13 24. 33 156. 7 44.7 31. 64 28.29 ' 25. 46 28.01 25.71 24. 60 123.7 25.0 7. 80 9.07 ! 11. 94 24. 75 22. 80 | 22. 29 140.8 38.4 j 9. 30 13.34 19. 21 27.18 25.96 24. 65 124.1 33.4 14.27 12.33 13. 26 25. 51 23. 98 22. 87 129.9 60.5 ; 24.24 24.87 29. 35 25. 66 24.64 24. 38 118.7 62.4 25. 49 ! 26.76 | 30. 77 25. 86 24. 97 23. 54 127.6 54.6 21. 14 ; 20.88 , 24. 60 28. 09 26. 32 24. 57 120.1 54.8 1 25. 97 1 23.83 26. 19 29.01 j 27. 98 26. 04 109.9 48.3 | 20.85 19. 60 22. 77 30. 55 | 29. 43 27. 92 99.6 32.3 1 15. 48 : 13.73 ; 16.08 31. 84 1 29. 11 28.19 100.1 17.3 7.31 6. 46 7.81 31. 30 j 29. 89 29. 28 88.7 24.4 ! 10. 68 8. 86 9. 05 27.01 26. 87 25. 38 110.3 26.3 12. 34 9.64 8. 15 32.39 1 32. 43 34. 16 67.0 2.8 ! 1.12 .97 j 1.11 34.13 | 33. 37 * 33.62 70.7 5.9 3.87 2. 95 2.48 33.60 1 32. 30 35. 35 59.9 .7 .28 97 : .23 33.15 | i 33. 21 37. 14 55. 1 2.3 1.14 . 77 i . 54 34.42 33. 17 35. 50 61.0 2.1 .94 ! 69 . 66 34.03 | 32.82 33. 23 74.0 11.5 2. 65 3 68 5 86 34. 41 33.14 32. 76 74.0 8.7 ! 4.80 3.61 3.19 34. 13 33.44 34. 22 66. 5 2. 9 1 1.53 1 08 ; 1.13 34.40 33. 37 35. 70 60.1 3.2 1. 00 . 77 ! .98 33. 70 34. 12 36. 69 57.3 3.1 1. 35 1 '.81 . 62 31.11 31. 93 | 34.04 65.8 17.8 8. 53 ! 5.76 4. 45 34. 80 32. 60 35. 10 68.3 16.9 ! 7.62 7. 20- 6. 84 34. 16 33.15 35. 68 64.0 3.5 1. 04 1.29 1.26 | 30. 18 102.7 9. 6 4. 43 31.74 29.75 28. 37 97.6 30.4 ! 13. 98 12.35 ! 12.51 33. 75 31.37 29. 54 91.9 17.8 8. 42 7.29 j 6. 67 32. 24 30.66 28. 26 99.2 47.0 20. 28 18.96 22.01 30.28 28.37 27. 77 106.2 56.1 22. 63 23.73 25. 97 33.57 30.85 29. 88 91.6 72.4 34. 56 30.82 ! 30. 78 32.45 30. 43 28. 93 99.8 76.4 36. 55 34.28 | 35. 90 33. 06 31.40 30. 17 90.2 42.6 17. 14 16.11 1 1 16. 95 33.57 32.35 31. 11 84.7 22.5 12. 91 9.76 8. 77 }23. 74 24. 34 / 27. 30 l 29. 29 112. 2 100.5 80.3 61.2 j-33. 95 38.32 / 44.58 \ 27.69 28. 07 29. 88 30.12 94.5 42.1 25. 00 21.53 I 19. 13 29.83 31. 73 31.59 85.0 26.4 13.28 11. 05 ■ 10. 36 10. 20 17. 10 18. 06 274.0 49.4 38.74 29.42 ' 32.61 9. 39 18. 06 21. 33 208.8 47.2 38. 53 28.14 I 24. 57 1 22. 47 18. 72 22 181.8 36.3 16. 55 20.48 | 20. 38 31.90 29. 85 28. 07 104.3 13.2 6. 12 6.73 1 7. 33 16. 78 19. 59 25.42 156. 4. 57.1 60. 15 39. 69 31.52 35. 05 33. 39 32.45 80.7 66.6 35. 38 30. 56 25. 52 12. 56 18. 22 21.87 209.3 60.8 44.25 41.20 32. 14 11. 30 22. 98 27. 07 137.9 41.1 52. 57 30. 59 20. 69 26. 96 27. 19 22. 69 185.3 39.3 20. 97 21. 04 25. 76 32. 34 28. 63 26. 96 132.1 27.9 12. 76 17. 45 18. 27 24. 48 i 25. 03 23. 72 161.3 51.8 37. 45 33. 87 30.32 STATE COMMON-SCHOOL SYSTEMS, LIX Table 3. — School ages of the several States — State school censuses. State or Territory. Age for free at¬ tendance at the public schools. Age for compul¬ sory attend¬ ance. Date of latest school census reported. 1 3 3 4 North Atlantic Division : Maine . 5-21 8-15 1896 New Hampshire . Over 5 6-16 (a) V ermont . 5-21 8-15 1896 Massachusetts . No limit. 8-14 or 15 1896 Illiode Island . . Over 5 7-15 1896 Connecticut . ch- 21 <28-14 or 15 1896 New York . 5-21 <28-14 1896 New Jersey . 5-20 7-12 1896 Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division : 6-21 8-13 1896 Delaware . 6-21 (/) 1893 Maryland . 5-20 (/) (9) District of Columbia . . . Over 6 h 6-15 1894 Virginia . 5-21 (/) 1895 West Virginia . 6-21 i 8-14 1896 North Carolina . 6-21 (/) 1896 South Carolina . Georgia . . . . . 6-21 (/) (/) (/) ( 9 ) 1893 Florida . 6-21 1896 South Central Division: Kentucky . 6-20 7-14 1896 Tennessee . 6-21 (/) 1895 Alabama . . 7-21 (/) 1895 Mississippi . 5-21 (/) 1894 Louisiana . 6-18 (/) 1895 Texas . 8-17 (/) 1895 Arkansas . 6-21 (/) 1896 Oklahoma . 6-21 (/) 1896 North Central Division : Ohio . 6-21 <28-14 1896 Indiana . . . 6-21 8-14 1896 Illinois. . 6-21 7-14 1896 Michigan . 5-20 it 8-14 1895 Wisconsin . 4-20 7-13 1896 Minnesota . 5-21 8-16 (9) Iowa . 5-21 (/) 1896 Missouri . 6-20 (/) 1896 North Dakota . 6-20 8-14 1895 South Dakota . 6-20 8-14 1896 Nebraska . . . 5-21 6 8-14 1896 Kansas . . 5-21 8-14 1896 Western Division: Montana . 6-21 8-14 1896 Wyoming . 6-21 6-21 (9) Colorado . 6-21 8-14 1896 New Mexico . 6-21 8-16 1896 Arizona . 6-18 If) 1896 Utah . 6-18 8-14 1896 Nevada . 6-18 8-14 1896 Idaho . 5-21 8-14 1896 Washington . 5-21 8-15 1896 Oregon . 4-20 8-14 1896 California . 6-21 8-14 1896 School census. Age of children enumer¬ ated. Number of children enumerated. Boys. Girls. Total. . 7 4-21 5-21 5-15 6 5-15 4- 16 5- 18 5- 18 8-13 6- 21 6-18 5- 21 6- 21 6-21 6-18 6-21 6-20 6-21 7- 21 5- 21 6- 18 8- 17 6-21 6-21 6-21 6-21 Under 21 5-20 4-20 5- 21 6- 20 6-20 6-20 5-21 5- 21 6- 21 6-21 5- 21 6- 18 6-18 6-18 5-21 5-21 4- 21 5- 17 209, 798 46, 195 ’ 37,' 209" 43, 900 "36*991. 220, 995 217, 974 15, 827 17, 758 90, 095 417, 335 74, 200 174, 529 1, 651, 858 438, 969 (e) 33, 5S5 339, 475 155, 105 323, 427 326, 058 141, 412 315, 973 55, 014 665, 533 296, 517 639, 400 306, 594 78,666 375, 259 370, 252 298, 377 73, 932 360, 846 350, 671 281, 555 259, 976 366, 320 234, 128 45, 596 606, 946 379, 406 352, 344 222, 608 42, 911 573, 036 354, 320 347, 013 336, 906 604, 971 152, 598 736, 105 720, 923 590, 757 541, 531 400, 502 718, 664 456, 736 88, 507 1, 179, 982 733, 726 2, 053, 152 699, 828 683, 919 367, 009 490, 284 34, 032 46, 093 177, 347 250, 385 21,492 353, 166 472, 911 31, 860 41, 990 171, 181 245, 386 20, 726 720, 175 963, 195 65, 892 88, 083 348, 528 495. 771 42, 218 63, 804 26, 354 61, 795 22, 960 40, 000 4, 625 22, 155 61, 267 65, 647 186, 890 39, 393 4,464 21, 590 59, 296 63, 973 163, 722 125. 599 49, 314 16, 936 79, 393 9, 089 43, 745 120, 563 129, 620 330, 612 a School census imperfect under the present system. b Inclusive. c Children under 5 may be excluded. d To 16 if unemployed to labor. e Census imperfect. /No compulsory-attendance law. g No school census. h Compulsory law not in force. % Compulsory-attendance law enacted in 1897. k In cities, 7 to 16. LX REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table 4.- Nuviber of pupils enrolled in the common schools at various periods, and the relation of the enrollment to the school population. R umber of different pupils enrolled dur- i Per cent of school population ing the school year, excluding duplicates. ! (5 to 18 years of age) enrolled. State or Territory. 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1895-96. 11870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1S95-96. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7, 561, 582 9, 867, 505 12, 722, 581 14,379,078 i 61.45 [ 65.50 ' 68. 61 68. 93 2, 743, 344 2, 930, 345 3, 112, 622 3, 463, 912 77. 95 75. 17 70. 45 69. 97 603. 619 1, 242, 811 1, 785, 486 2. 000, 214 ! 30. 51 50. 74 59. 22 60. 83 767, 839 1, 371, 975 2, 293, 579 2,689,538 34. 17 46. 43 60. 14 60. 81 3, 300. 660 4, 033, 828 5, 015. 217 5, 510, 463 76. 87 75. 84 76. 46 75. 75 146, 120 288, 546 515, 677 714,951 54. 77 64. 96 70. 01 77. 00 a 152, 600 149, 827 139, 676 134, 140 a 87. 35 89. 80 85.88 ! 84. 52 71. 957 64, 341 59, 813 6 62, 437 91.31 81.32 71.28 6 72. 03 65, 384 273, 661 75, 238 65, 608 371, 492 65,411 | 424. 353 87.21 79. 80 306, 777 72. 34 71.76 1 72. 56 72.88 a 34, 000 40, 604 52, 774 59,241 a 59. 24 59.59 62. 65 61.77 113, 588 119, 694 126, 505 141, 485 80. 83 76.97 72. 02 73. 50 1, 028, 110 1, 031, 593 1, 042. 160 1, 176, 074 82. 98 77. 10 1 70. 71 71.18 169, 430 204, 961 234, 072 280, 330 63. 20 64. 77 62. 21 63.87 834, 614 937. 310 ' 1, 020, 522 1, 120, 441 76. 35 74.37 69. 53 67. 50 20, 058 27, 823 31, 434 c 33, 174 50. 04 65.20 1 66. 19 c 67. 93 115, 683 162, 431 184, 251 219, 362 46. 70 58. 13 60.37 64. 66 15,157 ! 26,439 36, 906 42, 464 41. 60 55. 40 63.10 60. 29 131,088 j 220.736 342, 269 362, 133 32, 34 45. 00 60. 51 62. 47 76,999 ! 142,850 193, 064 215, 665 49.47 69. 21 75.27 ! 75. 53 a 115, 000 252,612 322, 533 370, 920 a 31. 23 55. 87 56. 39 59. 50 66,056 i 134, 072 201, 260 232, 337 27. 28 40.56 47 08 49. 81 49,578 ; 236, 533 381,297 423, 786 11. 89 46. 24 58. 45 59. 25 14,000 39, 315 92, 472 100, 373 21. 21 44. 16 71. 10 62. 81 d 178,457 a 140, 000 d 276, 000 300, 217 399, 660 447, 950 400, 126 65. 64 61.29 e 478. 125 ! a 32. 00 58. 21 74. 05 e 75. 23 141. 312 179, 4S0 301, 615 319, 526 i 40. 36 42.60 55 83 52. 36 117, 000 236. 654 334, 158 e 350, 615 1 40. 60 . 61. 29 70. 62 e 67. 10 57, 639 77, 642 120, 253 164. 317 j 24. 78 25.87 31. 58 39. 11 63, 504 a 220, 000 466, 872 616; 568 21. 00 a 42. 40 59. 50 58. 96 69, 927 81, 972 223, 071 296, 575 63, 686 820,562 I 40. 29 1 . 30. 81 I 55. 41 65. 42 76. 95 719, 372 729, 499 797, 439 1 84. 04 76. 69 . 76. 54 75. 00 450, 057 511, 283 512, 955 543, 665 78. 64 82. 39 I 79- 21 80. 40 672, 787 704, 041 778. 319 898, 619 81. 01 74. 61 1 71.97 70. 52 292, 466 362, 556 427, 032 «? 476, 684 79. 66 78. 08 73,45 e 76. 58 265, 285 299, 457 351, 723 412, 514 73. 92 73. 78 69. 77 67. 22 113, 983 180, 248 280, 960 354, 657 75. 92 75. 87 74. 59 74. 72 341, 938 426,057 493, 267 543, 052 84. 44 83. 52 ; 85.51 86. 20 330, 070 482 986 620, 314 664, 947 56. 03 68. 85 i 74.43 71. 13 |j a 1,660 13, 718 / 35, 543 \ 78, 043 57. 088 b 88, 026 }a39. 26 41.68 / 71.26 |\ 81. 04 68. 87 b 74. 88 23, 265 92, 549 240, 300 272, 310 58.79 i 68.48 75. 35 81. 42 89, 777 231, 434 399, 322 378, 339 74.22 | 73.23 ! 88. 56 90. 14 1, 657 4, 270 16, 980 28, 876 70.24 63.77 71. 14 76. 20 a 450 2, 907 7, 052 11, 582 a 45. 34 77.44 j 54. 46 54. 46 4, 357 22. 119 65, 490 94, 686 42. 28 60.82 72. 20 79. 07 a 1, 320 4, 755 18, 215 23, 359 a 4. 42 13.32 42. 25 46. 98 0 4, 212 7. 989 12, 889 66, 710 53.16 52. 72 64. 71 16, 992 24, 326 37, 279 53. 36 50. 61 55. 26 79. 54 3,106 9,045 7, 387 7, 267 53.97 79.73 1 73.80 80. 06 906 5, 834 14, 311 32, 560 46. 06 77.85 62. 66 83. 88 a 5, 000 14, 780 55, 964 90, 113 a 69. 00 72. 36 70 58 82. 78 21, 000 37, 533 63, 254 87, 212 67.73 75.02 74.78 85. 40 91, 332 158, 765 221, 756 259, 697 63. 63 73.37 77. 38 77. 00 South Atlantic Division. South Central Division.. North Central Division.. North Atlantic Division : New Hampshire . Vermont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . New Jersey . . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division : Delaware . Maryland . District of Columbia- Virgin ia . West Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . Florida . South Central Division : Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama . Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . Arkansas . Oklahoma . North Central Division: Ohio . Indiana . Illinois . Michigan . Wisconsin . . Minnesota . Iowa . Missouri . North Dakota . South Dakota . Nebraska . Kansas . Western Division: Montana . Wyoming . Colorado . New Mexico . Arizona . Utah . Nevada . - . Idaho . Washington . Oregon . California . a Approximately. b In 1893-94 . c In 1891-92 . d Highest number enrolled. In 1894-95. STATE COMMON-SCHOOL SYSTEMS, LXI Table 5. — The school enrollment of 1895-96 classified l)\j sex; per cent of the male and of the female school population enrolled, also of the total population. State or Territory. Whole number of different pupils enrolled. Per cent of school pop¬ ulation (5 to 18 years of age) enrolled. Per cent of the total popula¬ tion en¬ rolled. Male. Female. Total. Male. ! Female Male and female. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 United States . a 7, 307, 63S a 7, 071,439 14, 379, 078 69. 39 68. 43 68. 93 20. 37 North Atlantic Division . CL 1. 756. 480 a 1,707, 432 3, 463, 912 70. 68 69. 20 69. 97 17. 75 South Atlantic Division . a 1, 009, 840 a 990, 374 2, 000,214 60. 91 60. 76 60.83 20. 69 South Central Division . a 1,368, 194 al, 321,344 2, 689, 538 61. 07 60. 54 60. 81 21. 10 North Central Division . a 2. 809, 125 a 2, 701,338 5, 510 463 76. 38 75.12 75. 75 22. 19 Western Division . a 364, 000 a 350, 951 714, 951 77. 28 76. 75 77. 00 18.66 North Atlantic Division: 134, 140 84.52 20. 46 New Hampshire (1893-94) . . 32, 003 30, 434 62, 437 73. 72 70. 29 72. 03 16. 05 Vermont . 33, 491 31, 920 65,411 79.25 80. 38 79. 80 19. 67 424, 353 72. 88 16. 66 Rhode Island . 30, 148 29, 093 59, 241 63. 17 60. 41 61. 77 15. 06 141, 485 73. 50 17. 30 1. 176, 074 71.18 17. 50 New Jersey . 141, 373 138, 957 280, 330 63.96 63.74 63. 87 16. 33 1, 120, 441 67. 50 18. 84 South Atlantic Division : Delawai'6 (1891-92) . 33, 174 . 67. 93 19. 16 Maryland . 219, 362 64. 66 18.93 District of Columbia . 19, 882 22, 582 42, 464 58. 14 62.31 60. 29 15. 30 Virginia . 182, 944 179, 189 362, 133 62. 60 62. 33 62. 47 - 21. 34 West Virginia . 113, 554 102, 111 215, 665 78. 65 72. 32 75. 53 25. 40 North Carolina . 188, 178 182, 742 370, 920 59. 73 59. 25 59. 50 21. 04 South Carolina . 116, 091 116, 246 232, 337 49. 31 50. 33 49.81 18. 50 Georgia . 211, 040 212, 746 423, 786 58.34 60. 17 59.25 21. 04 Florida . 50, 660 49, 713 100, 373 63.20 62.43 62.81 20. 87 South Central Division : Kentucky . 204, 607 195, 519 400, 126 62. 03 60. 54 61.29 20. 08 Tennessee (1894-95) . 244, 192 233, 933 478, 125 75. 53 74. 97 75. 23 25. 75 Alabama . 319, 526 52. 36 18. 70 Mississippi (1894-95) . 175, 672 174, 943 350, 615 66. 20 68. 03 67. 10 24! 62 Louisiana . 82, 726 81, 591 164, 317 39.21 39. 03 39.11 13.32 Texas . 311, 895 304, 673 616, 568 58. 96 58. 95 58. 96 20. 70 Arkansas . 153, 946 142, 629 296, 575 66.91 63.87 65.42 23. 34 Oklahoma . 32, 615 31, 071 63, 686 76.18 77. 78 76. 95 23. 23 North Central Division: Ohio . 422, 635 397, 927 820, 562 76. 38 73. 58 75. 00 21.28 Indiana . . 543, 665 80. 40 23. 75 Illinois . 456,648 441, 971 898. 619 71. 18 69. 88 70. 52 19.93 Michigan (1894r-95) . 240, 420 236, 264 476, 684 76. 60 76. 56 76. 58 21.26 Wisconsin . 208, 787 203, 727 412, 514 67.53 66. 88 67. 22 20.09 Minnesota, _ 354, 657 74. 72 21. 62 Iowa . 543’ 052 86. 20 26! 01 Missouri . 336, 112 328, 835 664, 947 71. 25 70. 99 71.13 22. 13 North Dakota . 30, 102 26, 986 57. 088 70. 27 67. 37 68. 87 18.80 South Dakota (1893-94) _ 46, 549 41, 477 88, 026 77.42 72. 30 74. 88 21.93 Nebraska . 139, 633 132, 677 272, 310 81.72 81.10 81. 42 24. 52 Kansas . 193, 436 184, 903 378, 339 90.40 89. 84 90. 14 28. 48 Western Division : Montana . . 28, 876 76. 20 13. 77 Wyoming . . 5, 865 5, 717 11, 582 53. 25 55. 73 54. 46 11. 62 Colorado . 48, 593 46, 093 94, 686 80. 24 77. 86 79. 07 17.40 New Mexico . 13, 738 9, 621 23, 359 54. 09 I 39.55 46. 98 13. 18 Arizona . 6, 789 6, 100 12, 889 67.45 S 61. 86 64. 71 16. 45 Utah . . 33, 476 33, 234 66, 710 78. 88 80. 18 79. 54 25. 82 Nevada . 3, 724 3,543 7, 267 80. 88 79. 27 80. 06 17. 51 Idaho . 16, 439 16, 121 32, 560 82. 36 85. 52 83. 88 *22. 71 Washington . 45, 859 44, 254 90, 113 82. 28 | 83. 37 82. 78 18. 79 Oregon . . . . . 43, 848 43, 364 87, 212 85. 00 j 85. 84 85.40 23.03 California . 130. 914 128, 783 259, 697 76. 78 77. 20 77.00 18.27 a Approximately. LXII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table 6. — Per cent of the school population (i. e., children 5 to IS years of aye) enrolled in the public schools, for a period of years. Tear. United States. North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central |Division. • North i 1 Central ! Division. TVestern Division. 1870 71 . 61.45 77. 95 77. 33 30. 51 34. 17 | 76. 87 54. 77 1871 72 . 62. 20 32. 27 37. 94 j 77. 04 54. 43 1872-73 . 62. 36 76. 79 77.77 35. 86 38. 67 75. 97 57. 52 1873-74 . 64.40 42. 10 40. 82 76. 98 61. 04 1874-75 . 65. 54 78. 59 44. 61 42. 47 77.54 64. 39 1875—76 ....................... _ ........ 64.70 78. 55 46. 72 37. 36 77. 05 66. 37 1876 77 . 63. 92 76. 83 47. 02 38. 51 75. 60 66. 12 1877-78 . . . 65. 75 77.09 48. 85 43. 50 77.38 66. 26 1878-79 . 64. 64 76. 18 46.72 44.71 75. 28 65. 63 1879 80 . 65. 50 75. 17 50.74 46. 43 75.84 64. 96 1880 81 . 65. 03 74. 28 51.49 47. 03 74. 59 64. 82 1881 82 . 65. 03 74. 56 51.90 47.02 74. 15 65. 93 1882-83 . 66. 39 74. 15 54.30 50. 68 75. 13 67. 05 1883-84 . . 66. 96 72. 83 56. 25 53. 59 75. 06 68. 01 1884-85 . 67. 96 73.23 57.17 56. 57 75.46 68. 53 1885 86 . . 68. 14 72. 63 57. 68 56. 82 76. 08 68. 03 1886-87 . . . - . 67.98 72. 23 58. 98 56.21 75. 77 67. 97 1887-88 . - . 68. 33 71. 60 58. 68 58. 67 75.96 68. 53 1S88-89 . 68. 20 70. 60 58.40 58. 28 76.63 69. 39 1889 90 . 68. 61 70. 45 59. 22 60. 14 76.46 70. 01 1890-91 . 69.03 69. 85 59. 80 1 62. 51 76. 00 73. 28 1891-92 . 69. CO 69. 98 58.88 63. 14 75. 85 75. 32 1892 93 . . 68. 72 68. 64 60.93 62. 39 75. 52 73.51 1893 9A . 69. 39 69. 63 61. 74 63. 37 75. 73 73. 33 1894 95 a . 69. 85 71.07 61.73 63. 96 75. 58 74.80 1895-96 a . . . 68. 93 69. 97 60.83 60. 81 75.75 77.00 a Subject to correction. STATE COMMON-SCHOOL SYSTEMS, LXIII Table 7. — The average daily attendance at various periods , and its relation in 1S95-9G to the enrollment. State or Territory. Average number of pupils attending school each day. Number in daily attend¬ ance for each 100 enrolled in 1895-90. 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1895-96. i 1 2 3 4 5 1 6 4, 545, 817 6, 144, 143 8, 153, 635 9, 747, 015 67. 78 1, 627, 208 1, 824.487 2, 036, 459 1, 126, 683 2, 394. 190 1, 250, 885 69. 10 ' 368, 111 776. 798 62. 56 535, 632 902, 767 1, 467, 649 3,188. 732 334, 112 1, 794^ 984 66. 74 1, 911, 720 102, 646 2, 451,167 188, 924 3, 809. 542 69. 12 * 497, 414 69. 58 North Atlantic Division: 100, 392 103, 115 48, 966 48. 606 98,364 [ 94, 912 a 42, 030 46, 261 321, 685 70. 75 48. 150 41,526 a 67. 30 b 44, 100 201, 750 45, 887 273, 910 70. 72 233,127 27, 217 73. 546 75. 78 22, 485 33, 905 83, 656 41, 691 96, 925 70. 37 62, 683 493, 648 68. 50 573, 089 642, 984 133, 286 772, 054 65. 64 86, 812 567, 188 115, 194 601, 627 17, 439 175, 895 62. 74 682, 941 802, 737 6 c 22, 693 71 65 South Atlantic Division : Delaware ..... _ .............. _ _ b 12, 700 19, 649 j 6 c 63. 40 yT ary1 and _ _ _ _ _ ... _ 56, 435 10, 261 77, 402 51, 336 85. 778 102,351 28,184 198. 290 121, 700 123. 227 32, 153 56. 19 District of Columbia _ _ _ _ _ _ 20. 637 75. 72 Yincxinia. .. _ .... 128. 404 91,604 209, 528 141, 081 57. 85 65. 40 W est Yir^inia . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - TCrvvtli namliriifi _ _ b 73, COO 170, 100 6 90, 600 145,190 27, 046 203, 100 231, 725 170, 201 62. 47 South Carolina . . . . b 44, 700 147,799 73.27 59. 95 65. 89 fiprvr ori n. _ _ _ _ _ _ 31,377 240, 791 64, 819 225, 739 254. 142 66, 135 286, 861 d 338, 330 6204. 000 Florida . . . b 10, 900 South Central Division : T^entnelry _ _ 120, 866 b 89, 000 107, 666 178, OOC 71.70 d 70. 77 Tfirnipassfl _ _ _ 208,528 117. 978 323,548 Alabama _ ...... _ ... _ _ _ _ 182, 467 6 63. 84 Mississippi. . . ........... 90, 000 156. 761 207, 704 d 202, 683 115, 316 440, 249 171, 948 d 57.81 70.18 71.40 Louisiana ........... _ _ _ _ _ ... 640, 500 6 54, 800 6132, 000 87, 536 Texas . . . . 6 4L 000 646, 600 291.' 941 A T*kansast _ _ _ 6 54, 700 b 148, 714 57. 79 55.90 72. 87 ( )V1 a h nm a. _ _ _ _ _ _ 35, 597 597, 925 North Central Division : Ohio _ ......... _ .... _ ...... _ _ 432, 452 476, 279 549, 269 342,275 Indiana ...... _ ..................... 295, 071 341, 686 321, 659 401, 702 73. 90 * Illinois _ _ _ ........ _ _ _ ...... 431, 638 6 240, 000 6 156, 000 538, 310 b 282. 000 681. 525 75 84 Michigan. .... _ ... _ ........... _ 6 193, 000 6 d 324, 623 6 271, 000 6 | United States. North Atlantic Division. <1 K _ > Zfl j O "x i 1= ^ m North Central Division. ' ^ 71 00 <■ 1870-71 . $1. 75 $2. 38 $0. 63 $0. 73 $2. 14 $2.15 $15. 20 $18. 31 $10. 27 $9.06 $14. 87 \ $21.87 1871-72 . 3.83 2.40 .68 .81 2.31 | 2.27 | 15.93 j 18.86 10.46 9. 08 16. 36 23. 57 1872-73 . | 1.84 2.44 .68 i .74 ] 2.31 2. 42 I 16.08 19.89 9.25 8. 39 16. 53 25. 04 1873-74. . 1.88 2.51 .76 .68 | 2.38 2.40 15.85 19. 89 I 9.01 7. 55 16. 57 24. 36 1874-75 . i 1.91 2. 55 .80 .73 2.36 2. 76 15.91 20.17 j 8.98 7. 51 16. 69 26. 85 1875-76 . 1. 85 2.45 .79 i . 55 2.37 2.78 15.70 19. 14 1 8.65 6. 70 16. 91 26. 35 1876-77 . j 1.72 2.29 .72 .51 2.21 2. 61 I 14.64 17. 89 7.68 6. 25 15. 93 24.69 1877-78 . 1.67 2. 15 .70 .56 ! 2. 14 2.73 j 13.67 16. 55 7.21 5. 98 15. 08 25. 82 1878-79 . 1 1.56 2. 03 .63 . 55 2.00 2. 53 j 12.97 16. 05 6. 76 5. 65 14.22 23. 39 1879-80 . 1.56 1.97 .68 . 55 2,03 2. 41 I 12.71 15. 64 6. 60 5. 40 14. 39 22. 59 1880-81 . 1.63 2. 08 .72 . 58 2.09 2.54 13.61 17.14 7. 22 5. 72 15. 19 23.81 1881-82 . 1 70 2. 11 .78 . 64 1 2. 19 2. 59 14. 05 17. 35 7. 63 6. 25 15. 79 24. 32 1882-83 . 1. 80 2, 22 .82 .68 i 2.34 2.74 ! 14.55 18. 17 7.46 6.17 16. 69 25. 39 1883-81 . 1.8S 2.25 .84 .74 2, 48 2.83 i 14.63 18. 37 7. 44 6. 26 16. 90 24. 69 1884-85 . 1. 96 2.38 .88 .82 2.53 2. 90 ! 15.12 19. 19 7. 32 6. 74 17. 53 26. 31 1885-86 . 3.97 2.36 . 88 j I .87 2.54 2.88 1 15. 06 19. 11 7. 33 6. 93 17. 45 25. 52 1886-87 _ 1.97 2.35 .90 .87 j 2.55 2. 70 i 15. 07 19. 38 7. 33 6. 88 17. 45 24.85 1887-88- . 2.07 2. 48 .95 .87 2. 68 | 2.96 15.71 20. 60 7. 61 6. 60 18. 29 27. 38 18S8-S9 . 2.17 2.59 .98 .94 2.76 j 3.28 16. 55 21.64 7. 77 7.12 19. 30 29. 37 1889-90 . 2.24 2. 76 .99 .97 2.81 3.37 1 17.23 23.58 7.78 7. 28 19.70 30. 57 3890-91 . j 2.31 -2. 79 1.06 3.04 1 2.85 • 3.78 ' 17.54 23.66 8.52 7. 78 19. 42 33. 42 1891-92 . 2. 40 2. 94 1.07 , 1.06 i 2.94 4.03 ; 18.20 24.89 8.74 7.82 20. 13 33. 55 1892-93 . 2,48 3. 04 1.10 1.06 3.07 1 3.97 18.58 25.91 1 8. 65 7.72 20.62 33. 57 1893-94 . 2. 51 3. 17 1. 12 1.08 ! 3.10 1 3. 53 j 18. 55 26.44 j 8.60 7. 63 20. 91 29.09 1894-95 a . 2. 59 3. 33 1. 13 ! 1.09 ! 3.19 I 3.61 1 18.98 26. 84 ! 8.59 7. 69 21.60 28. 91 1895-96 a . 2. 63 i 3.53 1.15 1.04 3.18 i 3. 53 ( 18.92 28. 28 J 8.88 7. 41 20. 70 27. 17 a Subject to correction. PART I. Page. Chap. I. Laws relating to city school boards . . . . . 3 II. The English education bill of 1896 . . . 79 III. Education in Great Britain and Ireland . 123 IV. Education in central Europe . 137 V. Music in German schools . 187 VI. The American common school in New York, New Jersey, and Penn¬ sylvania during the first half century of the Eepublic . 219 VII. The American common school in the Southern States during the first half century of the Republic . . 267 VIII. Public, society, and school libraries in the United States . 339 IX. Library legislation in the United States . 523 X. Comparative study of popular education among civilized nations... 601 XI. Education in France. . . 611 XII. Education in Mexico and Central America . 641 XIII. The fifth international prison congress . 669 XIV. The letters of Rabbi Akibah . 701 XV. Commercial education in Europe . 721 XVI. Early educational life in middle Georgia . 839 XVII. Horace Mann . 887 XVIII. Correlation of studies . 929 XIX, Educational directory . 939 1 PART I CHAPTER I. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS.1 1. General Remarks . — The typical city system ; Selection of members of school boards; Some notable systems; Control of revenues; The superintendent; Selection of teachers. 2. Detailed descriptions of the school systems of Xeiv York City ; Chicago , III.; Philadel¬ phia, Pa.; Brooklyn, X. Y.; St. Louis, Mo.; Boston, Mass.; Baltimore, Md.; San Francisco, Cal.; Cincinnati, Ohio; Cleveland, Ohio; Buffalo, X. Y.; Xew Orleans, La.; Pittsburg, Pa.; Washington, D. C.; Detroit, Mich.; Milwaukee, Wis.; Minne¬ apolis, Minn.; St. Paul, Minn.; Denver, Colo.; Indianapolis, Ind.; Charleston, S. C.; Hartford, Conn.; Savannah, Ga. 3. Tabular summary of school laws relating to the foregoing cities. If it were required to describe the typical organization of an Ameri¬ can city school system, the following might be given: A board of edu¬ cation is created by law whose members are elected by the people, serve without pay, and have full legal power to establish, maintain, and con¬ trol free public schools for all children of school age in the limits of the city. Each year they make estimates in detail of the amounts of money required for the schools during the next coming year, which estimates are submitted to the city council. That body appropriates money for those purposes named in the estimates which they think neces¬ sary and proper in view of all other needs of the city’s government, and of the expected revenue from the taxes which they consider it expedient to levy. The money once appropriated is controlled by the board of education who buy sites, build and repair schoolhouses, pur¬ chase supplies, hire and pay the necessary officers and teachers. They make regulations for the management of the system and employ as their principal executive officers a secretary and a superintendent, the former to look after the details of their business affairs and the latter to have especial care of all matters relating to instruction. The superintendent is presumably an experienced educator, well versed in all that pertains to school management, and a thorough student of xBy James C. Boykin. 3 4 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. pedagogy on its philosophical side; he is selected, moreover, with reference to his administrative ability. The course of study is largely the handiwork of the superintendent and embodies his ideas. The teachers are appointed by a committee of the board, acting with the superintendent. New teachers must be graduates of the city nor¬ mal school or of an institution of equal or higher grade. If the latter, they must pass an examination before the committee. The schools themselves are, (1) elementary, with a course of study covering eight years; (2) high, with a four-year course, and (3) a nor¬ mal school with a year of professional study for intending teachers. A child is supposed to begin the course at six years of age and to com¬ plete it at eighteen, but in practice the average is about a year greater than this. Evening schools are maintained during the winter months, and there may be kindergartens and a separate manual-training high school, but these, though growing in popular favor, are not yet sufficiently numer¬ ous to have a place in the type system. It may be that the system described has not a single example in the United States which combines all the details mentioned exactly as they are set forth. The number of possible variations are as great as the combinations on the chess board, and in regard to every feature there are instances of radical divergence from the type described ; but in a general way it may be taken as representative of the systems of the majority of American cities. MEMBERS OF SCHOOL BOARDS. In regard to the number of members of the board there is not nor can there be any uniform rule. It is sometimes held that there should be some relation between the size of the city and size of the board, but whether this is necessary depends wholly on the extent to which execu¬ tive powers are confided to paid subordinates, who are supposed to be trained experts in their particular lines. The New York board con¬ trols the schools of over a million and a half of people, yet it numbers only 21 members, while Pittsburg, with a population of about a quarter of a million, has 37 members in a central board and 222 in local boards. There are 7 members of the Minneapolis board, while Hartford, with only a third as many inhabitants, has 39 school visitors and committee¬ men. Such contrasts are numerous. The methods of selecting the members of the governing boards are exceedingly varied. Ward politics is a matter constantly before the mind of school law¬ makers, and any amount of inventive genius has been exercised to devise a way of choosing school boards that would make it impossible for the ward boss to interfere. Incompetent principals and teachers chosen to u encourage political henchmen; contracts corruptly given to fatten the treasuries of partisan organizations; assessments of LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 5 teachers for campaign funds ; unseemly intrigues, strifes, and bicker¬ ing within the schools themselves by adherents of different parties ; the son of some local heeler allowed to be habitually unruly, to the detri¬ ment of general school discipline, because the teacher fears for his position if he attempts to assert his authority — all these evils and more are feared by those who have seen the results when local politics has had undue influence. Where there is a school board clothed with due authority, whose members are not influenced by political considerations, these things can not be. Hence the solicitation for a board l( above politics.” The first boards were chosen at popular elections and the members were ward representatives. This has not always worked well. The local feeling in members has sometimes prevented them from appreci¬ ating any interests other than those of their own districts ; local poli¬ ticians of small caliber have crept in from out-of-the-way wards, and have made things very unpleasant in various ways. To avoid these things, in many cities the board is elected from the city at large and not as representatives of any particular locality. In other places the mayor of the city appoints the board, often with the advice and con¬ sent of the council. But, alas for human devices, instances have often, occurred in which both these methods of election have proved to be as objectionable as ward elections, for there are big politicians as well as little politicians, and the big ones are no more disinterested than the little ones; the city machine may dictate the board members at large just as the ward machine may elect the board members from the wards. And mayors are not always above appointing their personal and political friends, even if they are not the most desirable men for the places; so these plans also have been discarded in some places, as in Philadelphia, where the board is appointed by the judges of the superior court, and in Hew Orleans, where they are in part appointed by the governor of the State and in part elected by the city council. All of these schemes come from efforts to take the schools u out of politics.” But after all there is but one way to do that, and that way is by the creation of a general sentiment demanding clean and honest administration of the schools, without regard for any consideration save their best good. With such a sentiment the worst law, apparently, may be satisfactory; without it the best law may fail. Examples to prove this are not hard to find. The law that relates to Savannah, Ga., would probably be the very last to be copied by a modern city school lawmaker. There we have a unique instance of a board that is a self-perpetuating close corporation, handling public funds, holding public property in their own corporate name, and managing public schools. This would be considered nowadays a very dangerous power to put in the hands of what is practically a private corporation; but the Savannah board was established in 1866, and during the entire thirty years that have passed no change has been made in the law 6 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. governing tliem save to extend the field of their operations. The mem¬ bers have usually been professional and business men, and have always been of high standing in the community. The list has embraced Jews, Protestants, Catholics, Democrats, Republicans, and Independents, but it appears that no action of the board has ever been tainted with a rea¬ sonable suspicion of improper motives. Washington, D. C., is often described as the best governed city in the United States, yet there is probably no place on the face of the earth where men are governed by written laws in which the laws themselves are in a more chaotic condition than in the District of Columbia. The laws that regulate the school trustees are past finding out, as the por¬ tion of this chapter which relates to the details of the Washington system shows. Nevertheless the schools are harmoniously and success¬ fully conducted, and deservedly stand high among the systems of the country. Incidentally I might mention that the force of an adverse public sentiment has been sufficient to utterly overthrow two entirely different systems of government in the District within the last thirty years. On the other hand, another city might be mentioned in which a half dozen reasonably good laws have been in force in the last thirty years and not one of them has succeeded in giving the city a system free from the evil eye of the politician. But until recently evidences of any general interest in the management of the schools were hard to find. A gentleman prominent during the last year or two in the agitation for school reform, according to his own account, had practiced law in the same city for twenty-six years before he had ever been conscious of see¬ ing a public school building. His explanation of the unsatisfactory condition of the schools was that the indifference which he himself had felt was general among a very large proportion of the best class of citi¬ zens. If good citizens turn the administration of the laws over to schemers and self-seekers, how can even the best of statutes accomplish good results? But while it is true that the public opinion behind a law is the prin¬ cipal factor in the success of its operation, the importance can not be overestimated of so constructing the statutes as to provide for those times which may come to any city when the public shall become less watchful through long security, or when the chosen officers shall be beguiled by influences not of the best. SOME NOTABLE SYSTEMS. In some cities that relic of rural school organization, the local trust'ee system, is still retained. In Hartford, Conn., the organization is noth¬ ing more nor less than that of every country township in the State, and a very complicated organization it is. The ward trustees are even more powerful in some respects in Pittsburg, Pa., than in Hartford, for there they may levy taxes for the purposes which they control, while LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 7 in Hartford the district taxes are laid in district meetings. The cen¬ tral board in Pittsburg have more complete control over the high school than do the school visitors of Hartford, but oil the other hand the super¬ intendent is appointed by the school visitors of the latter city, while all the trustees vote for the corresponding officer in the former. Phila¬ delphia also retains its va rd trustees, though their powers are some¬ what less extensive than in Pittsburg. In all three of these cities the central authorities examine and license teachers, while the local boards select and appoint them. It has been only within the last few months that the local trustees were overthrown in Hew York City, and this year is the first in their history in which all the common schools have been controlled by a single board. There are comparatively few plans of organization now in operation which are not the products of evolution, but in a few notable instances schemes have been brought into being and enacted into law which had little or no iocal precedent on which to build. The most conspicuous of these in late years has been the so-called u federal system77 of Cleveland, Ohio. The provision of a legislative body without executive functions, and of a single executive officer who is directly and solely responsible to the people for the administration of the schools, are novelties in Ameri¬ can city school organization, and up to this time the example of Cleve¬ land remains unique. The plan has met with considerable favor. It received the indorsement of the subcommittee of five of the Hational Educational Association’s famous committee of fifteen, and will undoubt¬ edly influence school legislation in the future. Unquestionably as long as the director is a paragon and his principal appointee, the super¬ intendent, is above criticism, such a system as this will be conspicu¬ ously successful. But time, and time alone, will show the results of one-man power in school management during revulsions of popular favor causing sudden radical changes, or relaxations of public watch¬ fulness resulting in the election of men of doubtful fitness. These things sometimes occur and such possibilities must always be taken into consideration. School district Ho. 1, Arapahoe County, Colo., which embraces the greater part of Denver, is another Minerva among school organiza¬ tions, and its system has been widely copied, especially in the W est, with modifications to suit local conditions. The school board is supreme in school matters and owns no allegiance to any other local authority. There are but six members, and two are elected each year for three years at a special election. In the twenty years that the system has been in operation it has been unusually successful. The policies of the board have been subjected to no sudden deleterious changes, and the progress of the schools have been uniform and consistent. But as Cleveland has had only one director under its present system, so this district of Denver has had but one superintendent, and that a strong man who 8 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. exercises great influence in shaping the course of the schools’ affairs. In neither case, therefore, can the excellence of the schools be neces¬ sarily ascribed to the system as such. To say that it was the system of organization that made it possible for these good men to retain their positions so long, and that therefore the system itself is responsible for the good schools, would be erroneous. Other superintendents now in office have held on for just as many years or more under systems that are conceded to be bad. The present laws that relate to the school committee of Boston con¬ tain nothing especially remarkable, but their history is full of things which it would be well to avoid. The primary schools were managed prior to 1855 by a committee which had grown from 36 to 190 members. They filled their own vacancies and were generally a law unto them¬ selves. At the same time there was a general school committee of 24 members, 2 elected by the people of each of the twelve wards, and when the primary school committee was abolished the general committee was increased to 72, or 6 members from each ward. With the annexation of more territory to the city the school committee grew to 116 members. It was so unwieldy as to interfere with the proper prosecution of busi¬ ness, and in 1875 the number was cut down to 24, elected from the city at large. They had formerly no authority to determine the location or character of the schoolhouses, that power being exercised by the city council until 1875. Then the school committee were given a voice in the matter, but the division of authority was equally unsatisfactory in practice, and in 1889 the entire control of the erection of buildings was turned over to the school committee, though the money must first be appropriated by the council. The mayor is ex officio a member of the board of education in some places, as in Atlanta, Ga., and in others he is ex officio its president. The latter was formerly the case in W ashington and in Boston. A rather unusual provision is made in a few cities, of which Bochester, Y. Y., and Detroit, Mich., are examples, by which the approval of the mayor is necessary to acts of the board of education. In cases of this kind the board may generally override the mayor’s veto by a two-thirds vote. In one city in the United States there is a school system in which there is no school board, namely, Buffalo, NT. Y All school legislation there is done in the city council, and the city superintendent, an officer elected by the people, is the head of the city department of education. Though there is no exact parallel to the Buffalo plan of organization, there are other cities in which the school board is the creature of the city council and is so subordinate as to have no authority whatever save that which the council choose to delegate. Precisely this is the case in Atlanta, Ga. The mayor and council have legal authority to maintain a system of public schools and to “ provid ^ for appropriate agencies to regulate, improvise, and carry on said system of schools and render the same efficient.” All the rest is in their discretion. To LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 9 their credit be it sgid, however, the mayor and council have provided a board of education with very full powers, practically the only power retained being the appropriation of money. It is a matter of pride to the city that the board of education has always been composed of men of high character, that they have the hearty support of the rest of the city government, and that they are permitted to perform their duties without vexatious interference. Substantially the same power over the schools is given to the coun¬ cil of Baltimore, Md., though the city school board is provided for by State law. The board of St. Paul, Minn., has been since 1891 consti¬ tuted somewhat similarly, though their functions are more minutely specified by law. The St. Paul board have full power to appoint teach¬ ers and to divide between them the money appropriated for salaries, but in Baltimore nearly every act of the board may apparently be reviewed, altered, or annulled by the council. The contrast between the Minneapolis and the St. Paul boards is striking. Though the two cities are practically one, on one side of the river that divides them the board has very large powers, even to the right to levy its own taxes, while on the other side the board is not even a corporation, and can not hold property. CONTROL OF REVENUES. The best criterion of the power of a school board is the degree of their independence in money matters. If they must prepare detailed estimates that may be refused as a whole or in any item by some other body, their functions are so restricted as to be almost entirely minis¬ terial. They can not introduce any novelty or provide for any extension without the concurrence of the authority which holds the purse strings. This is usually the state of affairs, and as tending to conservatism and economy it has its advantages when a board develops an inclination to foster expensive fads. But that can seldom be charged 3 it more often happens that the board is deprived of funds urgently required to pro¬ vide for the actual needs of the children in the way of buildings and teachers. The powers of the Western cities in this respect are usually much more extensive than those of the East. St. Louis, Denver, and Minne¬ apolis are types of cities whose school boards enjoy the right to levy whatever tax they require without submitting their estimates to any other body. The maximum that may be levied is, however, always limited by State law. In Milwaukee, Wis., a variation is introduced by which the school board determines the amount of the levy unless the city council decide otherwise by a two-thirds vote. In Detroit all money asked by the board for current expenses must be granted if it does not exceed a cer¬ tain fixed sum per pupil, but if that is not sufficient the council decides 10 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. whether the desired funds shall be appropriated. Estimates for build¬ ings and sites must run the gauntlet of both the council and the city board of estimates. THE SUPERINTENDENT. The selection of the city superintendent is another point upon which there are interesting differences of practice. He is usually elected by the school board, but in San Francisco, Buffalo, and some other cities he is a city officer and is elected at a popular election. A man must be a good politician as well as a good educator to succeed in obtaining office under these conditions, and the field of choice is necessarily nar¬ rowed to men well known and popular in the city. Such a thing as securing as superintendent a man who had made his reputation in another city would be out of the question. Philadelphia secured both Mac Alister and Brooks from other places; Cleveland, Ohio, brought Draper from New York and Jones from Indianapolis, and so many others of the most successful superintendents have found their widest fields in places far distant from the scene of the beginning of their careers; but this style of selection is not for San Francisco or Buffalo. Nevertheless the list of superintendents of those cities embraces several names prominent in educational circles. In some of the Hew Jersey cities the same plan of the popular elec¬ tion of superintendents prevails, and the result has been in many cases the choice of men without even the pretense of an expert knowledge of school matters. The law undoubtedly contemplated that the superin¬ tendent elected should perform the usual duties of the office, but this has not proved advisable in some instances. In one city the board of education has appointed a supervising principal, who is to all intents and purposes the superintendent in the ordinary sense of the term, while the superintendent, officially so called and elected as such by the people, is but little more than the treasurer and maker of reports. The most powerful city superintendent in the country, so far as the law can make him so, is Mr. L. H. Jones, of Cleveland, Ohio. With absolute control over all that relates to instruction, he has the full power of examination, appointment, and removal of teachers. He him¬ self is the appointee of one man, the school director, though he must be confirmed by the school council. It remains to be seen whether time will prove this plan to be wise. It may or may not lead to more fre¬ quent and sweeping, and therefore harmful, changes in policies and personnel than does the usual practice of making the superintendent amenable to the government of a continuous board. The same man has been director since the beginning of the present system four years ago, and both the superintendents whom he has appointed have been not only men of marked ability, faithfulness, and probity, but have been believers in the same general educational policies; so that “the Cleve¬ land plan ” has not yet been put to any real test. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 11 In Washington, D. C., the same authority which appoints the mem¬ bers of the school board also appoints the superintendent, and the latter does not depend for his official position upon the former. The relations between the board and the superintendent have been in the main cor¬ dial and harmonious, but at one time a bitter controversy arose between the first superintendent and the board, which was very demoralizing to the schools. The board earnestly sought to change the method of choosing the superintendent, urging that if he were their own appointee such disputes would be impossible. They failed in this, but secured the removal of their antagonist. SELECTION OF TEACHERS. Bext to the actual instruction of pupils, the selection of teachers is the most important duty connected with the schools. A certificate of fitness of some description is always required before appointment, and that certificate is, or should be, good evidence that the holder will perform reasonably satisfactory service. Selection from certificate holders would therefore seem to be attended with but little risk. But the examination for the certificate is at best only a partial test, and many pass it who could scarcely be rated as mediocre teachers, and occasionally some may fail who are capable of doing good work in the schoolroom. The examination is a help in the work of selection, but no more. It narrows the field, but does not designate the individual. Commonly the examination and choice of teachers are given to the school boards, and the details are matters of local regulation. NTo matter what the rules might be, the judgment of the superintendent is, under normal conditions, treated with a deference that practically amounts to putting the choice in his hands. It has been said of one superintendent that he has planned every schoolhouse built and has selected every teacher appointed in his city for the last twenty years. And nominally his duties include neither. This, if literally true, is exceptional, but it is natural and proper that the man who directs the work of the teachers and is to a great extent responsible for its char¬ acter should have a voice in their selection. In many cases the choice rests wholly with the superintendent. The absolute control exercised over examination and appointment by the superintendent at Cleveland has already been mentioned. The same power as to appointment rests with the superintendent at Buffalo, but there is an examining board appointed by the mayor, whose tests candidates must meet before they are eligible for appointment. In some places, as in Kew York and Cin¬ cinnati, the superintendents nominate the teachers and boards make the appointments. The superintendent is nearly always one of the examining board or committee. If the reports of the central boards of the cities concerned be true, and there is no reason to think they are not, the appointments made 12 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. by local trustees in cities in which there are such officers are not always of the best. District committees at Hartford have often employed persons as teachers and then sent them to the school visitors to be examined; and one case is mentioned in a recent report of a person who was found teaching in the schools without a license, and was directed by the visitors to present herself for examination. It was only after repeated attempts and by the exercise of great leniency because of a desire for harmony that she was able to pass at all. This merely illustrates the difficulties that are liable to arise when separate boards have concurrent jurisdiction over the same subject. CONCERNING- THE DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS. In the following pages I have presented the details of the systems of 23 cities so far as they are set forth in the school laws. I have shown the historical development of the systems of Hew York and Wash¬ ington, in the first case because of the interest which has been aroused by the recent reorganization of the schools, and in the second because that was the only way in which a just comprehension of the system could be obtained. The arrangement of the cities is in order of their size. All those having over 200,000 inhabitants are included, and some smaller cities are given because of especial features in each case that make them interesting specimens of school organization. The epitome in tabular form at the end of the chapter will be con¬ venient for comparison. Hew York City. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. The constant tendency of legislation relating to the control of the schools of Hew York City has been in the direction of centralization of authority. In the infancy of the system, fifty years or more ago, each ward or district was practically supreme in the administration of its own schools. The local trustees selected their own teachers, subject to the approval of the inspectors, who were also ward officers, chose their own course of study, and decided upon the methods of school organization.1 They purchased their own supplies and sent the bills to the board of education, who exercised no control over their expenditures, but simply divided the school moneys between the several wards in proportion to the number of children in school. At this period, that is, under the law of 1844, which was the first under which the system was effectively organized, each ward elected at a special election two commissioners, two inspectors, and five trus¬ tees. One commissioner and one inspector were elected each year to serve two years, and one trustee was elected each year to serve five 1 Public Education in New York City, Boese, page 70. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 13 years. Ail tlie commissioners in the city composed the board of educa¬ tion, but the inspectors and the trustees were purely local officers, the latter having practically all the power in relation to the management of the schools, and the former auditing the bills and performing certain visitorial functions.1 The commissioners were ex officio members of the boards of trustees of their respective wards, and largely controlled the expenditure of the money allotted by the board of education to the ward schools. In feeling and in practice they, too, were more local than general officers, so that there was nobody who made it his especial busi¬ ness to look after the school system of the city as a whole.2 There was a u county superintendent,” it is true, who was appointed by the county board of supervisors and who was amenable to the rules and regula¬ tions of the State superintendent. But his powers and duties were not such as to give him any authority over the schools,3 and his influence in unifying the schools was not appreciable, even if any attempt was made to accomplish such a result. The special election feature failed to be successful in practice. The interest of the people could not be sufficiently aroused to u bring out the vote,” and in 1851 special elections were discontinued, and since that time all popular voting for school officers has been done at general city elections. A city superintendent was provided for by the same law, to be appointed by the board of education, to whom the power was given to fix and pay his salary. Among his duties were the licensing of teach¬ ers in conjunction with the inspectors, and for cause he had the power to annul licenses. But this was of little account, for there was nothing to prevent the trustees from employing a teacher without a license, if they chose, until the board of education in 1854 passed a regulation preventing such employment. Serious defects in time became apparent in the system. The shifting of population produced great inequalities in the population of the sev¬ eral wards and gave the more southerly wards undue predominance in the board.4 Great differences became manifest in the efficiency of the schools of the various wards. Some trustees were negligent and others were even unduly ambitious in advancing the interests under their charge. Irregularities of various kinds were brought to the surface,2 and, since the laws did not clearly define the functions of the several classes of officers, conflicts of authority inevitably followed. The revision of 1864 . — There could be but one outcome to such an unsatisfactory state of affairs, and in 1864 a law was passed greatly strengthening the board of education and enlarging the powers of the inspectors. The division of the city into wards, then 22, was still recognized in 1 Act of May 1, 1844, in Mannal of the Board of Edncation of 1850. 2 Public Education in New York City, page 94. 3 Act of May 7, 1844. 4 Thirty-seventh Annual Report Board of Education, 1878, page 26. 14 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. the new law in tlie election of trustees, five of wliorn were to be elected for and by each ward, one each year, for a term of five years. But for commissioners and inspectors the city was divided into seven school districts, in each of which one commissioner was elected every year for a three-year term. The number of members of the board of education was, therefore, fixed at 21 instead of 44, as before. The elec¬ tion of inspectors by the people was discontinued, and they were to be appointed by the mayor with the confirmation of the board of educa¬ tion. There were three for each district, and their term of service was fixed at three years, one being appointed each year. The commis¬ sioners were no longer to be ex officio members of the board of trustees, the expectation being that if they were separated from the administra¬ tion of local affairs they would better realize their duties to the whole city. The appointment of principals and vice-principals was made subject to the confirmation of the board of education, but the appointment of other teachers and of janitors remained in the control of the trustees as fully as before. Power was given to the board of education to remove any school officer for immoral or disgraceful conduct in any manner connected with his official duties, and this power was utilized on several occasions. The source of support of the schools remained as before, namely, taxes laid by the county board of supervisors at the demand of the board, within specified limits. Nor was there any change in the method of the distribution of money between the wards on the basis of the number of pupils in school, though the limits of age were extended. Attacks on tlie board. — G-reat hopes were entertained of the effects of the new scheme of organization, but dissatisfaction soon appeared, and a vigorous attempt was made in 1867 to procure the passage of a law entirely changing the management of the schools. A bill was introduced in the legislature which contemplated the abolishment of the board of education, the inspectors, and the trustees in toto, and the substitution in their stead of a commission of seven persons to be appointed by the governor with the confirmation of the senate, to be called the metropolitan board of instruction. This board was to exer¬ cise the powers of all the school officers whom it was expected that it would supplant, and its members were to hold office for eight years and receive salaries of $5,000 each per annum. In support of this bill it was charged that the existing system had failed to accomplish the objects for which it was established; that the teachers appointed by the trustees were incompetent and inefficient; that the rules and regulations of the existing board had failed to secure proper discipline and an economical and judicious expenditure of the public money ; and that the entire administration of the systems impera¬ tively demanded a change in the officers and agents to whom it was confided. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 15 Tlie charges were denied, and were disproved to the satisfaction of the legislative committee in charge of the matter, and the bill failed.1 The taking away of all semblance to local control was the strongest objection to the proposed scheme and should of itself have been suffi¬ cient to defeat it. But charges against the board continued to be frequently reiterated. It was said tha t the board did not practice due economy $ that they neglected to provide means for primary education while spending large sums upon a course of instruction carried far beyond what was neces¬ sary or proper in a common school ; that they fostered a system of cramming, and that they neglected or excluded the floor; that they did not pay sufficient attention to the sanitary surroundings of the pupils. The board met all these charges with elaborate statistics and argu¬ ments, justifying their expenditures and explaining their official actions.2 District representation abolished. — The opponents of the existing sys¬ tem prevailed, however, and on April 30, I860, an act passed the legis¬ lature which effected a complete revolution in the constitution of the board. The principle of district representation was renounced, and the mayor was directed to appoint 12 commissioners of common schools to form a board of education with all the flowers and duties of the former board. The principle of minority representation was to be observed in making these appointments. These commissioners were to hold office until December 31, 1871, and after that time the 12 commissioners were to be elected by the people. Ao voter was to have the privilege of voting for more than 7 commissioners, and the 12 who received the highest number of votes were to be declared elected. The term of office specified was three years.3 A city department of education. — But before the time set for holding the election thus provided for, the law was repealed by the act of April 18, 1871, which established an additional department of the city, called the department of public instruction. To this department were trans¬ ferred all the powers and duties of the board of education, and at its head was a board of 12 commissioners appointed by the mayor, who was directed to recognize the principle of minority representation in his appointments. Their term of office was five years. All laws providing for the election of local trustees were repealed by the same act and they were to be appointed by the mayor. The pro¬ vision requiring confirmation of inspectors by the school commissioners was also repealed. An equally important change was in reference to finances, for the power of the board of education to fix the amount of 1 Twenty-sixth Annual Report Board of Education, New York City, 1867, page 26, and Report of the City Superintendent, 1867, page 11. 2 Twenty-seventh Annual Report Board of Education, New York City, 1868, page 27 et seq. 3 Acts of 1869, chapter 437. 16 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. school tax to be levied by the county board of supervisors was taken away and the newly created department was prohibited from incurring any expense unless an appropriation therefor had previously been made by the city council. The duty of making the estimates of sums neces¬ sary for conducting the several boards and departments of the city was given to the mayor, the comptroller, the commissioner of public works, and the president of the department of public parks. The aggregate amount fixed by these officers was required to be levied and collected as a tax by the county board of supervisors. As will be seen, the whole administration of the law was practically put in the hands of one man — the mayor of the city — for the appoint¬ ment of all school officers was put into his hands. The effect of this was to make the school system a part and parcel of local politics, and the schools were in danger of becoming u an instrument of partisan aggrandizement and power.” 1 The hoard of education revived . — This was plainly seen by the legis¬ lature, and the act of 1871 was repealed within two years of its passage. The department of public instruction was abolished by the act of March 30, 1873, and the board of education was again brought into being. The number of school commissioners was once more fixed at 21, but there was no requirement this time for district representation. They were to be appointed by the mayor for three-year terms, one-third of the number being appointed annually. The inspectors then in were all legislated out of office, and the mayor was required to appoint 3 for each school district, their terms of office to be so arranged by lot that one-third should expire each year. Appointments after the first year were to be made for three years. The appointment of the ward trustees was taken from the mayor and for the first time given to the board of education. Their power in rela¬ tion to teachers received an important restriction, for the appointment of principals and vice-principals was given practically without reserve to the board of education. The right to make a nomination, indeed, still rested with the trustees, but if the board did not appoint the per¬ son so nominated within twenty days, the sole power of appointment lay with the board. The board of estimate and apportionment was also created in 1873, and the present method of determining the amount of money to be allotted to the several city boards was then inaugurated. The duties and relations of the several classes of school officers as then constituted were thus summarized by the president of the board, Mr. William Wood, in the report of the board for 1878: The immediate supervision of the schools in the respective -wards is given to the trustees, who appoint teachers, nominate principals to the hoard of education for approval, and, subject to general rules prescribed by that board, provide books, fuel, and^all other supplies, select and recommend school sites, and, under the authority thirty-seventh Annual Report of the Board of Education, 1878, page 28. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 17 of the central board, secure proiDosals, award contracts, and audit and certify bills for the payment of the cost of repairs, etc., as provided by law. Their power of expenditure of money, although limited, gives them a fund for the incidental expenses of the wards, beyond which an appeal to the board almost invariably insures an appropriation for every reasonable demand. Cases of embarrassment have some¬ times arisen where trustees have exceeded their proper limits, but they have been infrequent. The inspectors have the general oversight of the schools in their districts. They must approve the removal of teachers before the same can take effect, and counter¬ sign all bills and. pay rolls. They serve as an advisory branch of the local boards. The board of education is the legislative body which regulates and supervises the whole. The u revolution 77 of 1896. — This remained the system of organization for twenty-three years, for after 1873 no important change was made until 1896, when another “ revolution” took place. For years there had been a growing conviction that the ward trustee system was not compatible with the best interests of the schools. The difficulty of securing for so many offices men with sufficient knowledge of the proper conditions of school work who would be uninfluenced by the clamors of local politics was held to be insurmountable under the conditions that prevailed in Ifew York City. In 1893 a commission was appointed by the mayor, with legislative sanction, to draft a scheme of reorganization. After an exhaustive investigation, the commission proposed a plan by which the inspectors were to be abolished, the trustees deprived of all but visitorial func¬ tions, and the board of education clothed with enlarged powers. The board was to be composed of 21 members appointed by the mayor as before, but their duties were to be performed very largely through a board of 20 division superintendents acting under a city superintendent who was to have full control of the educational administration of the schools. In the meantime the “reform movement7* directed against the entire municipal regime then in power arose, flourished, and succeeded in obtaining possession of the city government. Beforrn in the schools was one of the planks in its platform, and after consideration of the bill prepared by the commission it was adopted and introduced in the leg¬ islature by Mr. Pavey, whence it became known as the “Pavey bill.77 Its passage was never accomplished, the strenuous opposition of the teachers of Yew York City having much to do with its defeat, which occurred in the spring of 1895. The board of education then took their turn at bill making, and a measure bearing the prestige of their approval was introduced at the legislative session of 1896. It was known as the “ Straus bill,77 from the name of him whose ideas entered most largely into its composition. In it the local trustees still shone resplendently, and their numbers were even increased, though in some respects the bill was admitted by all to be an improvement over the old system. But against the trustees war to the knife had been declared in other ED 96 - lj 18 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. quarters, and in February, 1896, a u citizens’ committee of one hun¬ dred'’ was organized, with an imposing list of prominent names, to fight the Straus bill and to secure, if possible, the passage of one along the lines of the defeated Pavey bill. Senator Pavey about the same time introduced a new bill, which in brief terms abolished the local trustees and transferred their duties to the board of education, without changing the composition of the board in any way. The entire matter was finally referred to a small subcommittee of the senate, whose investigations and deliberations resulted in the bill which finally passed. Its provisions are sketched in the succeeding paragraphs. The old board of education remains unchanged and they have re¬ elected the superintendent, Mr. John Jasper, who has held the office for seventeen years. The district inspectors and the ward trustees as formerly constituted have been abolished entirely, and the administra¬ tion of the schools has been given wholly to the board of education and the superintendents appointed by them. The inspectors provided for are without real authority and possess functions that are visitorial and, to use the word in a new sense, reportorial only. The pendulum has swung from comiuete decentralization in 1840 to complete centralization in 1898. LAWS NOW IN FORCE.1 The board of education consists of 21 commissioners of common schools, appointed by the mayor of the city. Their term of office is three years, and one-third the number are appointed annually. Vacan¬ cies are filled by the mayor by appointment for the unexpired term. The commissioners may hold no office of emolument under the city, county, State, or National Government, except the offices of notary public, commissioner of deeds, or in the hTational Guard. Organization. — The board must organize annually by the election of one of its members as president, to hold the office for one year. They may appoint a city superintendent of schools and a superin¬ tendent of school buildings, each to hold office for six years; as many assistant superintendents of schools as they may deem necessary, for terms of six years each, one- sixth, as nearly as may be, to be elected each year; and a clerk of the board of education, a deputy clerk, a deputy superintendent of buildings, such supervisors of special branches and as many assistant clerks and other officers as may be necessary, all of whom serve during the pleasure of the board and perform such duties as the board might specify. The compensation of all these officers is determined by the board. The superintendent of schools and assistant superintendents may be removed for cause by a vote of two-thirds of all the members of the board. 1 Act of 1896. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 19 Revenues. — The amount of tax levied and the sum appropriated to the use of the schools, as veil as to the other departments of the city government, are determined by the city board of estimate and appor¬ tionment, consisting of the mayor, comptroller, president of the board of aldermen, and the president of the department of taxes. Each of the several city boards, including the board of education, send annually to the board of estimate and apportionment a detailed estimate in writing of the amount of expenditure required in their respective departments. Duplicates of these departmental estimates are also sub¬ mitted to the board of aldermen. The board of estimate and appor¬ tionment prepare in detail such a provisional estimate as they deem advisable as to the aggregate amount to be allowed to each department, and this provisional estimate is submitted to the board of aldermen, who make such objections or rectifications as they see fit. The board of estimate and apportionment then consider the suggestions of the board of aldermen and after such consideration prepare the final esti¬ mates. Time is given to allow the taxpayers of the city to be heard, and then the final estimate is duly signed and the amounts therein are thereby appropriated to the several purposes named therein.1 Property. — Title to school property vests in the mayor, aldermen, and commonalty of the city of Yew York, but suits are brought in the name of the board of education. In case of the discontinuance of the use of any school site or build¬ ing, the property is sold by the proper municipal authorities and the proceeds are at once appropriated to the board of education for the purpose of purchasing other property or erecting other buildings. The board of education may dispose of such personal property as the superintendent shall certify to be no longer required. The proceeds must be paid into the city treasury and at once appropriated to the board of education. Powers and duties. — The board of education have full control of the public schools and of the public-school system of the city, subject only to the statutes of the State. They have power to establish new schools ; to discontinue any school; to consolidate schools; to lease, purchase, or acquire, by condemnation proceedings, sites and buildings for school purposes; to erect school buildings; to make additions, alterations, and repairs to the same; to provide all necessary furniture, heating and ventilating apparatus, and fixtures, and to make proper regulations, contracts, or agreements in relation to any such matters ; to provide and maintain one or more high schools, and they may appoint principals and teachers and make all needful rules and regulations for the same; to adopt and enforce by-laws, rules, and regulations for the government of the board, its committees or officers, or of the schools; to appoint principals and other teachers on the written nomination of a majority of the board of school superintendents, and they may, upon the recom¬ mendation of the city superintendent, transfer principals from a school Consolidation act of 1882. 20 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. that has been discontinued to any other in which a vacancy exists, and to prescribe the manner of advertising for and making contracts to be entered into by the board of education. They have control over the hall of the board of education, and may make all necessary altera¬ tions and repairs. The board of education may remove from office any school officer proved to have been pecuniarily interested in any contract with the board, or guilty of immoral or disgraceful conduct. Any commissioner or inspector may be removed by the mayor, after due hearing, for offi¬ cial misconduct or neglect, inability to perform the duties of the office, or any conduct which tends to discredit the office or the school system. Inspectors. — The city must be divided by the board of education every five years into not less than 15 school inspection districts as nearly equal as possible in population.1 For each of these districts there is a board of school inspectors of five members, who are appointed by the mayor, and whose term of office is five years, one inspector being appointed each year. Any vacancy is filled by the mayor for the unexpired term. The inspectors must be residents of the districts for which they are appointed. The several boards of inspectors of common schools organize each year by the election of a chairman and a secretary, and they must meet as often as may be necessary. It is their duty to examine at least once a quarter all the schools of the respective districts in regard to attend¬ ance of pupils and of teachers, studies, progress, and discipline of pupils, the cleanliness, safety, warming, ventilation, and comfort of the school premises, and violations of the sectarian-teaching law, and to call attention of the board of education without delay to every matter requiring official action. They must make quarterly written reports to the board of education. The city superintendent has the general direction of all classes, pupils, principals, and other teachers, and is directly responsible to the board of education. It is the duty of the city superintendent and the assistant superintendents to visit every school and inquire into all mat¬ ters relating to the conduct of the schools, to advise and counsel with the inspectors, and to report monthly to the board of education. They must report all violations of the law in relation to sectarian teaching. Except in special cases all reports in behalf of the board of superintend¬ ents must be in the name of the city superintendent. Board of superintendents. — The city superintendent of schools and the assistant superintendents of schools together constitute the board of school superintendents. This board must meet at least twice a month, and it is their duty to recommend to the board of education, from time to time, modifications of the course of study, the length of sessions, to nominate principals and other teachers, to report upon such other matters 1 The number of districts which the hoard has formed in pursuance of this require¬ ment is 35. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 21 as appertain to the conduct of instruction throughout the schools of the city, to keep a record of the service, efficiency, and faithfulness of teachers, to examine applicants for teacherships, and to issue licenses to those qualified, to examine candidates for the position of principal who are proposed for such examination by a member of the board of education or who may be entitled to such examination under rules pre¬ scribed by the board of education as to previous experience or other qualifications. Teachers and principals must be selected from those who have passed the proper examination. Promotion and removal of teachers. — The board of superintendents may advance teachers as regards pay or grade of instruction according to rules prescribed by the board of education, the said rules to be based on merit and length of service. The board of superintendents may remove any teacher with the written approval of the majority of the inspectors of the district, but the teacher so removed may appeal for reinstatement to the board of education. Any principal may be removed by vote of three-fourths of the board of education, upon the recom¬ mendation of the board of superintendents. Janitors are appointed by the board of education on the nomination and with a certificate of qualification of the superintendent of school buildings; they may be removed by the board of education on the recommendation of the same officer. The city colleges. — The College of the City of Few York and the Formal College of the City of Few York are not controlled by the board of education as such, but the members of the board with the president of each institution compose the board of trustees for that institution. Chicago, III.1 The board of education is composed of 21 members, appointed by the mayor with the advice and consent of the common council, for a term of three years, 7 being appointed each year. Vacancies are filled for the unexpired term by the mayor with the advice and consent of the council. Any person who has resided in the city for more than five years next preceding his appointment is eligible to membership. Organization. — The board must organize each year by the election of a president and a secretary, the former being one of their own number, and must appoint such other officers and employees as they may deem necessary, and must prescribe their duties, compensation, and terms of office. The board of education must keep a faithful record of their proceed¬ ings, and the yeas and nays must be recorded on all questions involv¬ ing the expenditure of money. Finances. — All moneys raised by local taxation for school purposes, 1 Compiled from Illinois School Law, 1895-96, page 52 et seq. 22 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. or received from the State common school fund or from any other source for school imrposes must be held by the city treasurer as a special fund for school purposes subject to the order of the board of education, upon warrants to be countersigned by the mayor and the city clerk. The board of education may not expend more than the amount received from the State school fund, the rental of school property, and the amount appropriated by the city council for school purposes. The board have no authority to levy or demand the levy of any tax. All real estate is held by the city in trust for the use of the schools, and no sale of real estate or interest therein may be made except by the city council upon the written request of the board of education. Powers and duties . — The general laws make all boards of education bodies corporate and politic, with right to sue and be sued. The board of education have charge and control of the public schools of the city, and have the power, with the concurrence of the city council, to erect or purchase schooihouses and keep them in repair ; to buy or lease sites and grounds ; to issue bonds for purchasing school sites, erecting or repairing schooihouses; to borrow money on the credit of the city. The board of education have sole power to furnish schools with the necessary fixtures, furniture, and apparatus; to establish and maintain schools; to rent buildings or rooms for their own use or for the use of the schools; to employ teachers and fix their compensation; to pre¬ scribe the books to be used and the studies to be pursued; to divide the city into school districts as circumstances may require, and generally to possess all rights, powers, and authority required for the proper man¬ agement of the schools; to expel any pupil guilty of gross disobedience or misconduct; to dismiss any teacher when in their opinion the inter¬ ests of the schools require such dismissal; to apportion pupils to the several schools; to lease school property, and to loan moneys belonging to the school fund. It is the duty of the board of education to take entire superintendence and control of the schools of the city; to examine all persons offering themselves as candidates for teachers, and when found well qualified to give them certificates gratuitously; to visit all schools as often as once a month; to establish and uniformly enforce proper rules and regu¬ lations; to take charge of schooihouses, furniture, and grounds and keep them in good condition; to provide fuel and other supplies; to inquire into the progress of scholars and the government of the schools; to prescribe and enforce the methods and course of instruction; to make to the city council from time to time suggestions relating to the schools and the school fund ; to recommend the establishment of new schools and districts, and to report such other facts as maybe required; to prepare and publish an annual report. None of the powers conferred upon the board of education may be exercised except at a regular meeting of the board. LAWS RELATING TO CIT? SCHOOL BOARDS. 23 The First School District of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia).1 THE BOARD OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. The board consists of 37 members, one chosen from each ward of the city by the judges of the court of common pleas for the city and county of Philadelphia. Their term of office is three years, the terms of one- third the members expiring each year. Yacancies in the board are filled by the same judges for the unexpired term. No person is eligible to member ship who is related to either of the appointing judges by consanguinity or marriage, who does not possess the qualifications to serve as a member of the State senate, or who is a member of the city councils. The board must meet for organization the first Monday in January of each year, and elect a president and such other officers as they deem necessary, to hold office for one year. They must meet thereafter at least quarterly, all meetings being open to the public. They must keep regular minutes of their meetings, and must publish a statement annually of the amount of expenditures and of the number of children educated in the public schools. The board is a body corporate and politic. Finances. — The title to all school property , real and personal, is vested in the city of Philadelphia. All moneys due to the board of education must be paid into the city treasury, and all sums expended by the board of education are paid by the city treasurer upon orders drawn under appropriations regularly made by the city councils. The city councils fix the rate and levy all city taxes, and direct the amount to be applied to school purposes. But after the appropriation has been made the councils have no further control of the money. Con¬ tracts, details of construction, and money expenditures are for the determination of the board. Contracts for the erection of a new build¬ ing may be made only after due advertising for proposals and public opening of bids. A copy of the specifications for general repairs to schoolhouses and contracts made for the same must be furnished to the board of direct¬ ors of the section in which the work is to be done, and before the bill for the repairs may be paid the president of the proper board of direct¬ ors must certify that the work has been done in accordance with the specifications and contract. No member or officer of the councils or of any of the city boards may be interested in any contract with any branch of the city government. No contract may be made without previous appropriation by the city councils, and no expenditure may be made in excess of the proper appropriation. All work, labor, materials, supplies, stationery, printing, Compiled from Digest of tlie Laws and Ordinances Relating to tlie Public School System of the City of Philadelphia, 1888. 24 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. fuel, etc., required must be advertised for and contracts let to the lowest responsible bidder in the presence of the president of the board of education and the committee of councils on education; and the city comptroller may not countersign any warrant unless he has been fur¬ nished with a copy of the advertisement, of the schedule of bids, and of the contract under which the warrant was drawn. Powers and duties. — The board of education have power to determine the number of schoolhouses to be erected in each ward, to establish a model school for the training of teachers, and to provide books for pupils. They have the general superintendence over all schools and make necessary rules and regulations. It is their duty to examine all accounts of money disbursed in erecting and maintaining the schools of the city. They have power to distribute the duties of the directors of the schools for all the wards of the city. The board of education are authorized to establish schools for chil¬ dren under 5 years of age, but the directors of the several school sec¬ tions are not required to admit children into the public schools who are under 6 years old. The board of education may establish, main¬ tain, and control a central high school, and they have the same power to confer academical degrees, honorary and otherwise, as that held by the University of Pennsylvania. The board of education must conduct night schools for male adults during January, February, March, October, November, and December of each year. They may also establish night schools for females, fix the time for opening and closing all night schools, determine the age at which pupils may attend, and make the regulations under which tbe school directors of the school sections or wards may appoint visitors of the said night schools. The board of education may organize and maintain a school for deaf- mutes, said school to be a part of the public-school system ; but the total expense incurred therefor may not exceed $150 for each child for any one year. The board of education may not change any text-book used in the schools often er than once in three years. Neither tbe superintendent nor any of his assistants may be pecuniarily interested in any text¬ book used in the schools during his or her employment. It is the duty of the board of education to provide suitable fire escapes for all school buildings of over two stories. Physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effects of stim¬ ulants and narcotics, are among the studies required to be taught in the schools, and no teacher may be employed who is not competent to teach these subjects. The board of education may resort to condemnation proceedings when necessary to secure property required for school purposes. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 25 SECTIONAL BOARDS OF DIRECTORS. Iii addition to the board of education for the whole city, there is in each ward or school section a board of school directors of 13 members, 32 of whom are elected by the people for a term of three years, one- third being elected each year. The thirteenth member is the member of the board of education representing that ward, who is ex officio a member of the sectional board and is entitled to all the privileges of such membership. School directors must reside in the ward for which they are elected, and removal therefrom vacates the office. Vacancies are filled by the remaining members till the next municipal election. Any board may declare vacant the seat of any of its members who neglects or refuses to perform the duties of membership. The sectional boards have the power to erect and establish as many schools in their respective sections as may be determined upon by the board of education $ must appoint principals and teachers, provide all things necessary for conducting the schools, and superintend and direct the said schools. The several boards must meet at least once a month, must keep minutes of their proceedings, and must divide themselves into as many committees as there are schools in the ward, so that each committee shall have the management of one school only. The com¬ mittees also keep minutes, and report to the directors whenever required by the directors. The directors must report to the board of education every six months. The sectional boards elect their own presidents and secretaries, the latter being paid $100 each per year. The board of education may assign to the several sectional boards such proportion of the whole appropriation as is represented by the amounts asked for as “general items” to be expended by them, sub¬ ject to the approval of the bills by the board of education. Ho section may contract any bill exceeding $ 100. The sectional directors serve without compensation, but are exempt from militia, jury, and similar duties. Service on these boards does not prevent one from holding any other office at the same time. The board of education must establish a system of examination of all persons desiring to become teachers, and no person may be ap¬ pointed as teacher who does not hold a certificate of qualification issued by the board of education. The exclusive right to appoint teachers in the ward schools belongs to the sectional boards. The normal, high, and manual training schools are wholly within the control of the board of education. The sectional boards must certify to the board of education from time to time the i ames and grades of all qualified persons employed as teachers, and the list must be certified by the board of education to the city controller. 26 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Brooklyn, N. Y.1 The board of education consists of 45 members, who serve without compensation and whose term of office is three years, 15 being appointed by the mayor of the city each year. Vacancies caused by death, res¬ ignation, or otherwise are also filled by the mayor. The board elect a secretary, a superintendent of public instruction, and one or two assistant superintendents for a term of three years each. The treasurer of the city is ex officio treasurer of the board, and receives to the credit of the board all school moneys received from the State appropriation, the county board of supervisors, and from the city tax collector. The money so received and credited is disbursed only upon the order of the board of education. The board have entire charge of all the public schools of the city and of the school moneys raised for the support of the same. They deter¬ mine the number and location of the schools, but no expenditures for the purchase of ground or the erection of schooihouses may be made without the approval of the city council. The title of all property acquired for school purposes is vested in the board of education. The board, with the mayor of the city, may sell any real property which may be declared by resolution to be not needed for school purposes. The board of education have power to acquire by condemnation land needed for school purposes when the owners of such land do not consent to sell the same or when the price can not be agreed upon. The funds for building purposes and for the support of the schools are kept separate, and transfers of moneys from one fund to the other are not lawful. The board of education must make returns annually to the common council of its receipts and expenditures, specifying those on account of the general and special funds, respectively, with such other details as the common council may require. The amount to be raised by taxation is determined by the common council and is levied and collected in the same manner and at the same time as the taxes for other city purposes. The collector pays the determined amount to the city treasurer, to the credit of the board of education, out of the first moneys collected. The whole city is a school district for all purposes of taxation, for the purchase of school sites, the building and repair of schooihouses, and for the support of schools, but may be divided by the board of education into as many districts as there are schools, for the purpose of determining the limits within which children may attend such schools. The board have power to establish and maintain schools for colored children, evening schools, normal schools, kindergartens, and manual 1 Compiled from the special and general school laws relating to the city of Brooklyn, in the Report of the City Superintendent of Public Instruction for 1895, pages 205 et seq. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 27 training schools or shops, and to employ a physician to vaccinate school children 5 they have full control of the public school teachers’ retirement fund 5 they must provide free instruction in industrial or free-hand drawing in at least one department of the schools 5 they pre¬ scribe what text-books shall be used in all schools, but a text-book once adopted may not be superseded within five years; they must pro¬ vide United States flags for every school building and must cause them to be displayed during school hours. The control of the Truant Home of the city is vested in the board of education, and they are also charged with the enforcement of the compulsory-attendance law. The orphan asylum societies of the city participate in the distribu¬ tion of school moneys, and the board of education exercises a general supervision over the schools of said societies. St. Lotus, Mo.1 All free white persons residing in the limits of the city of St. Louis are constituted a body politic and corporate, under the name of u The Board of President and Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools,” and by that name may sue and be sued; purchase, receive, and hold prop- erty, real and personal; may sell or lease the same, and may have a common seal. The powers of the corporation are vested in a president and direc¬ tors, who must be free white males, at least 21 years of age, and resi¬ dents and taxpayers in the city for the two years preceding their election. Ho person holding any other position under the city of St. Louis, elective or appointive, and no person interested in any lease from the board, may be a member of the board of school directors. The number of members of the board of directors is 21, 7 of whom are elected on general ticket at large by the qualified voters of the city, and 11 are elected by districts by the qualified voters of those districts, and must be residents of the districts which they severally represent. The 11 districts are defined by the city circuit court, and must be composed of contiguous wards and of as nearly equal population as practicable. The term of office is four years, and the election biennial. Four of the members at large are elected at one election and three at the next, and seven of the district representatives on the board are elected at each biennial election. If a vacancy occurs among the district representatives by reason of death, resignation, expulsion, or removal from the city, the vacancy is filled for the unexpired term by an election by the voters of that dis¬ trict, to be held in such manner as may be provided by the board ; but 1 Compiled from city charter of 1876, Revised Statutes of Missouri, 1859, pages 2170 et seq., the acts of May 13, 1887, and of March 20, 1893. 28 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. if tlie vacancy is among the members at large, it is filled by an election held by the school board itself till the next general school election, when the remainder of the unexpired term, if there be any, is filled by election in the city at large. Whenever any election for school directors has failed to be held by reason of the neglect of the board of directors, the circuit court must, upon petition of five citizens, order the said election, appoint judges of election, and issue certificates of election to the persons elected. The board of directors must elect one of their number to be presi¬ dent, and must appoint a secretary, a treasurer, and such other officers as they deem necessary, ahd prescribe their duties and compensation. No director may receive any compensation for his services. There must be four stated meetings of the board every year, the times and places to be prescribed by the board, and the president or any three members may call special meetings. A majority of all the members elected constitute a quorum. Members of the board, the secretary, and the treasurer must, before entering upon the discharge of their duties, take an oath to well and faithfully perform the same. There must be levied and collected annually on all taxable real and personal property of the city a tax of not more than one half of 1 per cent, which tax must be paid to the corporation and used and applied by the corporation to the purposes of its creation. The officers of the city of St. Louis charged with duties in connection with the assessment and collection of taxes perform the same duties in regard to taxes levied by the board of president and directors of St. Louis public schools. The collector of the city must collect all taxes levied by the board, must give bond to them for the faithful perform¬ ance of said duty, and must account for and pay over to the board all school taxes collected by him. His compensation for his duties in this connection is at the same rate as for similar service in behalf of the general city taxes. If he fail to make the bond required the board must proceed to elect his successor in the same manner as if he had resigned. The board determines the rate of taxation for each year by resolution, a copy of which, duly certified, is delivered to the collector and to the register of the city on or before August 1 each year. The title to all school lands and public school property in the city is vested in the board of president and directors. It is their duty to con¬ trol and manage all lands granted by the Congress of the United States to the inhabitants of St. Louis for school purposes, or the funds arising from the same. They may lend money arising from the sale or lease of such lands upon good security, either real or personal, until it becomes proper, in their opinion, to invest such money otherwise for the purpose of education. No director may borrow money or purchase or lease land from the board. The board of president and directors have power to judge of the qualifications and elections of members; to prescribe the time, place, LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 29 and manner of conducting sucli elections ; to compel the attendance of absent members; to punish disorderly conduct at the board; to expel a member by a two-thirds vote ; to make rules for their own government ; to have charge and control of the public schools and all property appro¬ priated to the public schools of the city; to make rules, ordinances, and statutes for the management of such schools and property, and to do all lawful acts which may be proper and convenient to carry into effect the objects of the corporation. They must cause a record to be kept of thei - proceedings, and must lay the same before the general assembly of the State whenever re¬ quired, and before a general meeting of the inhabitants of the city whenever 100 qualified electors make written application for the same. At least once a year they must cause to be published a detailed report of the operations and condition of the schools. The board of president and directors must make suitable provision for the education of colored children, and may maintain a high school and a normal department for them. 2Io director may be interested in any contract with the board, under penalty of dismissal. Boston, Mass.1 The school committee is composed of 24 members, 8 of whom are elected each year by the qualified voters of the city to serve three years. It is the duty of the clerks of the several wards to make returns to the city clerk of the votes cast for members of the school committee, and after the entry by the city clerk of said returns in an official book kept for the purpose it is the duty of the board of aldermen to examine and compare them and to cause certificates of election to be issued to such members of the school committee as appear to have been chosen; but the school committee is the final judge of the qualifications and elections of its own members. The school committee must meet and organize on the second Monday in January in each year. A majority of all the members chosen consti¬ tute a quorum. They must choose a secretary, not of their number, an auditing clerk, and such other subordinate officers as may be expedient, define their duties, fix their compensation, and may remove them at pleasure. Vacancies in the school committee caused by refusal of a member elect to accept, by resignation, change of residence, or other¬ wise, are filled by the board of aldermen and the remaining members of the school committee in convention assembled. A majority of the ballots of persons entitled to vote are necessary to election. The term of office of a member so elected is only for the remainder of the munici¬ pal year, and the remainder of the unexpired term, if such there be, is then filled by election of the people. 1 Compiled from the special acts relating to the Boston school committee, in Boston School Document No. 1, 1895, from The Public Statutes of Massachusetts relating to Public Instruction, 1892, and from Massachusetts School Legislation, 1893, 1894, 1895. 30 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The school committee is a legal corporation for the purpose of hold¬ ing and administering certain trust funds, but not for other purposes. The duty is imposed by law upon the city to raise such sums of money as may be necessary for the support of the schools, which sums are assessed and collected in the same manner as other taxes. The school committee present annually to the city council, through the mayor, an estimate in detail of the amount of money needed by the schools for the ensuing year, and the council make such appropriations as they see fit. The title to school property is vested in the city, and lawsuits con¬ cerning the same are brought in its name. The school committee have the supervision and direction of the public schools. They may elect or discharge teachers and janitors, fix their compensation and define their duties, but the salaries established at the commencement of the year may not be increased during the year. The school committee have full power to repair school buildings, to provide temporary accommodations for schools, to select, bond, and jmrchase school sites, and to determine the plans for new buildings, but they may not expend or contract to expend any more money for these purposes than the city council has appropriated therefor. The school committee must elect a superintendent of schools and a board of supervisors, consisting of not more than 6 members, define their duties, and fix their compensation. The superintendent and supervisors hold office for two years, but may be removed for cause by the school committee at any time. The superintendent is a member of the board of supervisors and, when present, presides at their meetings. NTo member of either branch of the city council may hold the office of superintendent or of supervisor or be a member of the school committee. The votes of the majority of the whole number of members of the school committee are necessary to elect the superintendent, the super¬ visors, the head masters of the Latin, normal, and high schools, mas¬ ters of the grammar schools, or directors of special studies. The school committee direct what books shall be used in the pul lie schools and prescribe the course of studies and exercises to be pursued. It is their duty to purchase at the expense of the city the text-books and other supplies used in the schools ; to cause a school census to be taken annually; to cause school registers to be kept; to make annual reports to the secretary of the State board of education, and to enforce the compulsory attendance laws. Baltimore, Md.1 Statutory provisions. — The statutes of the State give full power to establish, conduct, and regulate a system of free public schools to the 1 Compiled from extracts from the Baltimore City Code in the Report of the Board of School Commissioners, Baltimore, Md., 1894, page 170 et seq. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 31 mayor and city council, wlio may delegate supervisory powers and con¬ trol to a hoard of public school commissioners. To the board of commissioners power is given by law to examine, appoint, and remove teachers, prescribe tlieir qualifications, fix their salaries, subject to the approval of the mayor and council, and to select text-books. They must report annually to the State board of education. The mayor and council are authorized to levy and collect taxes to defray all the expenses incurred for educational purposes by them. The State treasurer pays to the city council that proportion of the free school fund to which the city is entitled ; funds from intestates7 estates which remain undistributed for want of legal representatives are paid to the board of commissioners. Ho teacher may admit a pupil who has not been vaccinated, under penalty of fine. Physiology and hygiene, with special reference to stimulants and narcotics, must be taught to all pupils of sufficient capacity. This is the extent to which the State has prescribed the school system for Baltimore. All the rest has been done by the city government. City ordinances — The mayor and council have provided by ordinance that the board of commissioners shall consist of 22 persons, one selected from each ward for a term of four years, one-fourth the whole number being elected every year. They are elected by the first and second branches of the city council in convention assembled. Eemoval from the ward from which he was elected vacates the office of any commis¬ sioner. The mayor is ex officio a member of the board of commissioners. The city council may expel a member for neglect of duty or for conduct unbecoming a school commissioner. Vacancies in the board are filled by the city council,* but if a vacancy occur during the recess of the council it is the duty of the board to fill the same as soon as convenient, the person elected serving until the next meeting of the council. The school commissioners must organize annually and elect a presi¬ dent and a secretary. The secretary serves for one year, performs the duties fixed by the board, and receives $2,000 a year, payable monthly. In all cases a majority of the commissioners constitute a quorum. The board must appoint a suitable person, who must be a resident of Balti¬ more, as superintendent of public instruction. His term of office is four years, unless sooner removed by the board, and his compensation is fixed by the board subject to the approval of the city council. The s up erinten dent, in conjunction with a committee of three mem¬ bers of the school board, must examine applicants for teacherships and if necessary reexamine teachers already employed. The board must also appoint an assistant superintendent of public schools, at a salary of $2,000, whose term of office is concurrent with that of the superintendent, and whose duty it must be to aid the super¬ intendent in the supervision of the schools, paying especial attention 32 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. to the primary schools. The board must appoint also a suitable person, a citizen of Baltimore, as superintendent of supplies. It is his duty, under instructions of the board of school commissioners, to have con¬ trol of all repairs, furniture, heating apparatus, fuel, and incidental supplies of the schools, and to perform such other duties as the board may require. His salary is $1,800 per annum. The city register is custodian of the funds of the school board and disburses the same on the order of the president, countersigned by the secretary. The board of commissioners of public schools have charge of all public schools in operation in the city, and it is their duty to employ teachers and fix their salaries, subject to the approval of the mayor or council, to prescribe the course of study and text-books, make by-laws for their own government, and rules and regulations for the schools, and to report regularly to the mayor and council. The board are given charge of school buildings and may make necessary repairs not to exceed $300 in cost. No member of the board may be employed by the board or be inter¬ ested in any contract for the schools. Important contracts for supplies must be let after proper advertisement for bids, and are awarded by a board consisting of the city comptroller, the city register, and a com¬ mittee of the school board, the committee of the school board having but one vote and the two city officers one vote each. The school board may not exceed in their expenditures the amounts appropriated therefor by the city council. Lawsuits on behalf of the schools are instituted in the name of the city and only by direction of the mayor. The city council has given authority to the school commissioners to grant certificates of graduation from the Baltimore City College and from the high schools. The school commissioners must organize and maintain separate schools for colored pupils, the teachers to be of the colored race if they be shown by examination to posses the necessary moral and intellectual qualifications. But in no case may white teachers be employed in the same school with colored teachers. Libraries for the free use of pupils must be maintained at the Balti¬ more City College and at each of the female high schools. The school commissioners must maintain a manual training school for white pupils and one for colored pupils. Parents of any child suffering from a contagious disease must notify the principal of the school which said child has attended, and the prin¬ cipal must exclude that child from school until the attending physician certifies that all danger of contagion has passed. The board must purchase American flags for all buildings and cause the same to be displayed during all sessions of the schools except on inclement days. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 33 The board must introduce physical training as a regular course of study in the schools, and must employ a suitable male teacher for the same at a salary to be fixed by the board, subject to the approval of the City council. Ten minutes each day must be given to calisthenics. The board must issue the necessary directions to the teachers of the grammar schools to read to their pupils on the Friday preceding all public holidays the Declaration of Independence of the United States. City and County of San Francisco, Cal.1 The city and the county of San Francisco are coterminous and are under the same government. The board of education consists of 12 members, called school direct¬ ors, elected by the people from the city at large. Their term is two years, but they organize annually by the election of a president from their own number. The superintendent, who is elected by the people, is ex officio a mem¬ ber of the board, but may not vote. Yacancies in the board of education are filled by the superintendent, with the consent of the majority of the directors then in office. Such appointees hold office till the next following municipal elections. Yacancies in the office of superintendent are filled by the board of education till the next regular election. The board of education annually reports to the city and county board of supervisors an estimate of the amount of money required for all pur¬ poses in the conduct of the schools during the coming year; but the aggregate amount must not exceed $35 per pupil in average daily attendance. The board of supervisors are authorized and empowered to levy and collect the amount of the tax determined by the board of education. But the whole amount of tax that may be levied for all municipal purposes is limited to $2.35 on each $100 of assessed valua¬ tion, and the estimate of the board of education therefore appears to be subject to reduction by the supervisors. If the money received and collected in any year be insufficient for the necessary current expenditures of the schools, the board of education must certify the fact of such deficiency to the board of supervisors of the city and county, and the latter must supply the necessary funds, being authorized to raise the money by loan or otherwise in anticipa¬ tion of the annual tax. Money for building or repairing schoolhouses may not be so raised except in case of fire or other unforeseen calamity. All moneys received or collected on account of public education in the city and county of San Francisco are deposited in the city treasury, and payments are made upon drafts signed by the president of the board of education and the superintendent, and countersigned by the auditor of the city and county. Compiled from ‘Acts relating to the government of the city and county of San Francisco, 1887,” and later acts specified. ED 96 - 2 34 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The. board of education may sue or be sued, may receive, purchase, and hold in fee, in trust for the city and county of San Francisco, any property, real or personal, that may be acquired for the use of the schools. They may sell such personal property as may not be required, but can not sell real estate. If they decide to abandon for any reason a school site or building, they withdraw entirely from control of the property, which is then treated as a part of the general property of the city, and sold as such, the proceeds, however, going to the school fund. School bonds, when required for school purposes, and not to exceed $100,000, may be issued by and over the signatures of the mayor, audi¬ tor, and treasurer of the city and county. The board of education are empowered to maintain public schools; to employ and dismiss teachers, janitors, and census marshals, and to fix their salaries ; to regulate the grade of schools, determine the course of study, and make necessary rules and regulations; to require the attendance of witnesses in case of investigation of charges against any employee of the board; to provide fuel, light, water, and all necessary supplies; to provide .and furnish school buildings and control the use of the same; to establish a special school for depraved children. They must purchase supplies by contract made after due advertisement and bid; make reports to the State superintendent of public instruction, and to the board of supervisors of the city and county; provide even¬ ing and normal schools; require records and reports by principals of schools ; pro vide for uniform classification of studies, pupils, and salaries. In all schools having more than two teachers beginners must be taught by teachers who have had at least two years’ experience or by normal- school graduates. Such teachers must rank in point of salary with those of the assistant teachers in the highest grade in the gram¬ mar schools.1 There is a city board of examiners, consisting of the city superin¬ tendent and four other members, residents of the city, who must be experienced teachers, and who are elected by the city board of educa¬ tion and hold office for two years. The board of examiners must meet and hold examinations for the granting of teachers’ certificates semiannually, and may hold monthly and special meetings if they so determine. All meetings must be pub¬ lic, and a record of their proceedings must be kept in the office of the superintenden t. For cause the board of examiners may recommend to the board of education the revocation of any certificate previously granted.1 The superintendent, the county treasurer, and the chairman of the board of supervisors constitute the board of trustees of the teachers’ annuity and retirement fund, and provide for the disbursement of the same and designate the beneficiaries thereof.2 1 Act of March 23; 1893. 2 Act of March 26, 1895. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 35 Cincinnati, Ohio.1 The board of education consists of 30 members, one from each ward. Each member must be an elector of the ward for which he is elected, and removal from the ward forfeits the membership of the member so removing. The term of service is three years. Vacancies in the board are Riled by the board until the next annual election. The board of education annually determine by estimate, as nearly as practicable, the entire amount of money required for the schools, and certify the same to the county auditor. The auditor must levy the entire tax called for, and the county treasurer collects it in the same way and at the same time with the State and county taxes. The levy, however, must not exceed 5 mills on the dollar of assessed valuation, including 1 mill that may be levied for kindergartens. The city treas¬ urer is ex officio treasurer of the board of education. The board is a body politic and corporate, with the power to sue and be sued, hold or sell property, etc. Contracts relating to schoolhouses and involving $1,500 or more may be made only after advertisement and competitive bids. Resort may be had to condemnation proceedings in case of disagreement as to price of property necessary to the use of the schools. Property no longer required for school purposes maybe sold by the board of education, and, if exceeding $300 in value, must be advertised and sold at public auction. The board have full control of the public schools of the district, with power to appoint a superintendent, assistant superintendent, superin¬ tendent of buildings, janitors, and other employees, and fix their sala¬ ries, which may be increased but may not be diminished during the term for which the appointment is made,* but no appointment may be made for a longer time than three years, that being the term of mem¬ bers of the board. The members of the board may not, as individuals or as local com¬ mittees, exercise supervisory authority over the schools of the several wards or have the selectiou or nomination of teachers. The city super¬ intendent of public schools appoints all teachers, with the consent of the board, and either he or the board of education may remove for cause; but any teacher removed by the superintendent may appeal to the board for reinstatement. The board of education must appoint a board of examiners, consist¬ ing of 3 or fi persons [it consists of 6] for a term of three years, one- third being appointed each year. Two of the members must be expe¬ rienced teachers. 3sTo teacher may be appointed without a certificate of fitness from this board or from the State board of examiners. 1 Compiled from laws relating to the schools of Cincinnati, published in Report of the City Public Schools, 1893-91, pages 218 et seq., and the act of April 11, 1896. 36 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Appointments as teachers are first for tlie period of one year ; when made the second time they are for two years; and when made the third time, they are for four years. After teachers have served seven successive years in the city their nest appointment holds good during good behavior. The board of education must establish a sufficient number of schools to provide for the free education of the youth of school age in the city, and must provide evening schools when requested to do so by 25 or more persons of school age who can not attend the day schools. They must provide for the physical training of all pupils, and must cause the German language to be taught in any school when requested by 75 free¬ holders representing 40 pupils who desire to study the English and German languages together. The board may loan text-books free to pupils, and levy therefor such additional taxes as may be necessary; may provide for holding teachers7 institutes yearly; may establish and main¬ tain public kindergartens for children between 4 and 6 years of age, and may levy a tax of 1 mill therefor; may appropriate not exceeding $1,200 a year for school libraries and philosophical and other apparatus. The board must require teachers and superintendent to keep such records and make such reports as may be necessary, and must prepare and publish annually a report of the condition of the schools. They must also report annually to the county auditor, who in turn reports to the State commissioner of common schools. An enumeration must be taken annually, under the direction of the clerk of the board, of all children between 6 and 21 years of age, and a report of the enumeration must be made to the county auditor. The board of education and the truant officers and superintendent appointed by them are charged with the enforcement of the compul¬ sory education law. The teachers’ pension fund is under the management and control of a board of trustees composed of seven members, two of whom are elected by the board of education, one by the union board of high schools, three by the teachers of the city schools, and the superinten¬ dent, who is ex officio a member. The high schools of the city are controlled by a separate board, called the union board of high schools. Teachers in these schools are appointed by the superintendent, with the advice and consent of the union board. High-school teachers are appointed for one year, but after five years’ service they hold their positions during good behavior. They may be removed by the superintendent for cause, with the approval of the majority of the union board of high schools. If so requested by the trustees of any orphan asylum, infirmary, or children’s home established by law in the city, the board of education must establish a school especially for the inmates of said institution, and have control of same, but may incur no expense therefor except in the payment of teachers. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 37 Cleveland, Ohio.1 Tlie board of education consists of a school council and a director. Legislative power is vested in the school council, which consists of seven members elected by the qualified electors of the city. Their term of service is two years, four members being elected one year and three the next. The council elect their own president and clerk, the former being a member of the council and the latter not a member. Legislation is by resolution, each resolution being submitted to the school director. His signature to the resolution, or his failure to return it to the council with his objections at their next meeting, makes it operative. But if he return it to the council at their next meeting with objections, the resolution fails, unless it is approved by two-thirds of all the members of the council, in which case it takes effect without the signature of the director. The approval of the director may be with¬ held from any part of a resolution appropriating money without affect¬ ing the remainder of the resolution. The council have the power of providing for the appointment of all teachers and employees, of prescribing their duties, and of fixing their compensation. The school director is elected by the electors of the city at large for a term of two years. He devotes all his time to the duties of the office and receives $5,000 a year, giving a bond of $25,000. The director is the executive officer of the schools and performs all the duties usually assigned to boards of education in the cities of the State except as otherwise indicated herein. With the approval of the council he appoints a superintendent of public instruction, who serves during good behavior and may be removed for cause by the director. The superintendent has sole power to appoint and discharge all assist¬ ants and teachers authorized by the council. All other employees of the board of education are appointed by the director. The director must attend all meetings of the council and may take part in the deliberations, but may not vote. The superintendent reports annually or oftener to the director, and the director reports to the council. The city auditor and city treasurer act respectively as auditor and treasurer of the board of education, and receive no additional com¬ pensation for doing so, though the clerical assistance necessary is fur¬ nished by the board. The board of education have sole control of all moneys raised for school purposes and the title to all school property vests in them. They make an estimate each year of the amount of money required for the conduct of the schools and certify the same to the proper county officers, who must levy and collect the full amount required, provided it does not exceed 7 mills on the dollar of assessed valuation. The director may Compiled from Handbook of tlie Board of Education, 1893-94, page 96, and State lawp 38 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. make contracts and purchases not involving over $250 without adver¬ tisement or written contract, but beyond that sum contracts are made after due advertisement and are signed by the school director and approved by the council. Vacancies in the directorship or in the school council are filled by the council till the next municipal election, when the vacancy is filled by election for the unexpired term. The director or any member of the council may be impeached for malfeasance in office by proceedings in the county probate court. Buffalo, H. V.1 There is no board of education in Buffalo, but the department of public instruction is one of the ten city departments, and the city super¬ intendent is its head. The city has legal power to establish, maintain, and regulate public schools. The city is from time to time divided by ordinance into school dis¬ tricts, in each of which there must be maintained one or more primary or grammar schools. Such schools are open and free to all persons between 5 and 20 years of age residing in their respective districts. The city may also maintain and regulate one or more high schools and schools for manual and technical training. The schools share in the apportionment of the school moneys of the State, and the amounts which fail to the share of Buffalo are paid to the proper city officers. All expenses of the school department are included in and paid out of the general fund. The city comptroller is authorized to embrace in his estimates a sum not exceeding $150,000 annually to be used solely for the purchase of school lots and the erection, enlargement, repair, and furnishing of school buildings. An additional amount not exceeding $300,000 may be raised for the erection and furnishing of school buildings by the sale of bonds by a two-thirds vote of the common council. The board of public works have charge of the construction, altera¬ tion, and repair of school buildings. The superintendent of education, an officer elected by the people on the general ticket for a term of four years, is the head of the depart¬ ment of public instruction. He must give bond conditioned on the proper performance of his duties. If a vacancy occur in the office it is filled by the common council at a joint session, called by the mayor, of the two boards composing the same. The superintendent must from time to time recommend to the com¬ mon council the course of study to be pursued in the different public schools, and such measures as will, in his judgment, increase the use¬ fulness and efficiency of the schools. He selects all new teachers to be 1 Compiled fromtlio revised charter of Buffalo, 1891, and amendments of April 12, 1893, and May 27, 1895. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 39 employed from the lists certified to him by the board of examiners. He must hire all teachers for the period of time and at the compensation and upon the conditions provided by ordinance. He must see that the courses of study and systems of education established by ordinance are observed. If none be so established he must direct the courses of study and systems of education to be pursued. The teachers are subject to his orders and direction. He may suspend, and for cause and after a hearing, with the concurrence of the mayor, dismiss any teacher. He must annually make a comprehensive report to the common council of the condition of the schools. He must appoint a, citizen well versed in the German as well as the English language to superintend the teaching of the German language in the schools, and who must also act, when not otherwise employed, as secretary to the superintendent. The board of examiners consists of five citizens of Buffalo appointed by the mayor for five years each, their terms of office being so arranged that one is appointed each year. The mayor may at any time suspend any member, and for cause and after a hearing may remove him. Y acan- cies are filled for the unexpired term by the mayor. The examiners must meet monthly, and their officers are a chairman and a secretary. It is their duty to visit and inspect all the schools at least once in each term. The teachers are divided into three grades, namely, high-school, grammar-school, and prim ary- school grades. The superintendent must designate the subjects and the scope of the examination for teachers in each grade, and the examinations are conducted by the board of exam¬ iners. Those applicants who pass the examination are certified to the superintendent as eligible for appointment, and from that list the super¬ intendent selects new teachers. The board of examiners must make annual report to the common council in regard to the condition of the schools as ascertained by their inspection, the operation of the system of examinations, and any suggestions they deem proper for the more efficient accomplishment of the purposes of their appointment. All expenses of the board of examiners are paid by the city and included in the expenses of the school department. The Parish of Orleans (New Orleans), La.1 The board of directors consists of 20 members, of whom 8 are ap¬ pointed by the governor of the State, with the approval of the State board of education, and 12 are elected by the city council of Hew Orleans. The term of office is four years, one-fourth the number being selected each year. Yacancies among the appointees of the governor are filled by the governor, and vacancies among those elected by the city council are filled by that body. The mayor, the treasurer, the comptroller of the city, and the superintendent of city schools are ’-Compiled from act No. 81, 1888, in relation to free public schools, and to regulate public education in the State of Louisiana, and from acts No. 136, and No. 158, 1894. 40 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. ex officio members of the board, and are entitled to participate in its deliberations, but may not vote. Eb school director may receive com¬ pensation for his services as director. The board must organize within ten days after its appointment, with the election of a president and a vice-president, chosen from its mem¬ bers, and a secretary, who may not be a member. The treasurer of the city is ex officio treasurer of the board, and the city attorney acts as its attorney. The board of directors is a body corporate, with power to sue and be sued. Eleven members constitute a quorum. The secretary may receive a salary to be fixed by the board. In addi¬ tion io the duties of his office which the board may prescribe, he must make quarterly reports to the State superintendent, keep the accounts of the board, and report to the board at each monthly meeting the cur¬ rent expenses for that month. The treasurer of the board holds office for four years, or during his term as city treasurer. He may be removed after due trial before the board for neglect of duty or malfeasance in office, and in case of removal by the board they must elect a treasurer, who may not be a member of the board. All public schools of the city, and the property and appurtenances thereof, are under the direction and control of the board of directors. They fix the salaries of the teachers, porters, and porteresses, of the secretary and employees, and of such assistant superintendents as they may deem necessary. They must limit their annual expenses to their annual revenue. They must prescribe rules for the examination of candidates for teacherships, and no teacher maybe employed who has not a certificate of qualification ; must elect teachers in order of their merit as shown by examination; hold regular monthly meetings ; declare vacant the seat of any member guilty of neglect or of conduct unbecoming a member, and must report each vacancy to the authority by which the expelled member was appointed. They may establish normal and evening schools. They may appoint a competent and experienced educator as superintendent, at a salary of $2,500 a year, and for a term of four years, unless removed for cause after an impartial hearing. It is the duty of the superintendent to aid the directors in organiz¬ ing the schools and improving the methods of instruction therein, in examining candidates for teacherships, in conducting periodical exami¬ nations of pupils for promotion, and in maintaining general uniformity and discipline in the management of all the schools. He must make reports to the board of directors and to the State board of education, and whenever notified to be present he must attend the meetings of the State board of education. The board of directors must present to the common council of the city each year a full report of the condition and operations of the schools LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 41 and a detailed exhibit of their receipts and expenditures, and their report must be accompanied by a certified statement of the average daily attendance of pupils during the year, and of the average expense per capita of their instruction. It is the duty of the common council in making up the budget of their annual expenses to include therein the amount necessary to meet the expenses of the schools, as shown by the statement of the board of actual attendance and cost of instruction, with such additional allowance for probable increased attendance and contingent expenses as may seem just and reasonable to the city coun¬ cil, and a sum sufficient to keep in repair all schoolhouses and school grounds belonging to the city. But the aggregate amount appropriated must not exceed the estimate of the board of directors, nor may the amount appropriated by the city be less than $250,000 per annum. A tax of 1 per cent has been imposed by State authority on all tax¬ able property in the city for the purpose of liquidating the debt of the city. By an act passed in 1891 the board of liquidation, in charge of this matter, were directed to pay to the board of school directors from this tax each year such a sum as will, with the amounts appropriated by the city council, reach a total of $337,500. Pittsburg, Pa.1 2 CENTRAL BOARD OF EDUCATION. The city of Pittsburg constitutes an independent school district. Whenever it becomes necessary under the law, each of the school boards of the respective subdistricts 3 of the city elect one person to servo as a member of the central board of education of the city, which person so elected must be at the time of his election a citizen of the subdistrict for which he is chosen, but he is not disqualified by reason of membership in the local board. Annually, within twenty days of February 1, the members of the cen¬ tral board meet and organize by choosing a president, a secretary, and a treasurer. The first named must be of their own number, but the other two officers may or may not be, at the discretion of the members thereof. Members of the central board hold their offices for the term of three years, and the terms are so arranged that one-third expire annually. Vacancies caused by death, resignation, removal from the subdistrict, or otherwise are filled for the unexpired term by election by the proper local board of directors. Seats of members who neglect or refuse to perform their duties may be declared vacant by the board. The president presides at the meetings of the board, authorizes the secretary to call special meetings whenever he deems them necessary, 1 Compiled from Digest of the Acts of the Assembly relating to Pittsburg, 1804- 1886, page 198 et seq., and from subsequent acts specified. 2 There are 37 subdistricts and consequently 37 members of the central board of education. ED 9G - 2* 42 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. issues tlie duplicates and warrants for tlie collection of school taxes, takes the bond of the treasurer, signs all warrants on the treasurer, as well as the reports of the State superintendent, and does all other acts lawfully pertaining to his office. The secretary keeps minutes of the meetings of the board, prepares duplicates of school taxes, keeps account of all abatements and exon¬ erations, prepares reports, prepares and attests all warrants on the treasurer, and performs all other duties pertaining to the office. He receives a salary fixed by the board. The treasurer gives bond for the faithful performance of his duties, receives all State appropriations, district taxes, and other school funds of the district, and pays therefrom all warrants drawn on him by the board, signed by the president and attested by the secretary. He is allowed to retain for his services a sum not over 1 per cent on the money received and paid out by him. In the absence or refusal to serve of the president or secretary, the board may appoint a president or secretary pro tempore. The board must hold at least one stated meeting per month, and a majority of the members elected constitute a quorum. The central board of education must ascertain the amount necessary for conducting the schools and certify the same to the councils on or before the second Monday in January in each year, and the councils must add the amount so certified to the aggregate of taxes required for the eity, and they must appropriate the same for the schools. All warrants drawn upon the city treasurer upon such appropriation must be signed by the president and the secretary of the central board of education, and must be submitted to the city comptroller, whose only duty in connection therewith is to countersign the warrant and to enter it in the proper account. The central board are entitled to reserve that part of the State com¬ mon-school fund which is annually apportioned to the city of Pittsburg. They may borrow money, not to exceed 850,000, to erect schoolhouses or purchase sites, and may borrow an additional $50,000 and issue bonds for the same. If the central board neglect or refuse to levy the proper taxes or fail to perform their legal duties, the court of quarter sessions of the county, upon complaint of six taxable citizens and upon due proof, may declare vacant the seats of the delinquent members or member, and may appoint others in their stead to serve till the next annual election of the cen¬ tral board of education. The board as a body corporate have power to sue and be sued; to pur¬ chase and hold such real and personal property as may be necessary for the establishment and support of the mechanical art schools, high school, and schools for colored pupils, and may sell and dispose of the same when no longer necessary; to have a common seal; to make by¬ laws, rules, and regulations. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 43 The central board have power to purchase ground, erect or repair buildings, to purchase furniture, apparatus, books, and other personal property for the high school and schools for colored pupils ; to deter¬ mine the number of teachers in all schools, and to fix and pay their salaries; to determine the books used, and the course of study pursued in all schools. Text-books may not be changed oftener than once in six years. Physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effects of stimulants and narcotics, must be taught. The central board must purchase text-books and loan the same free to all pupils. They must continue and maintain one high school for pupils of both sexes, and one or more separate schools for colored pu¬ pils; no distinction maybe made on account of the race or color of any pupil. They may maintain a normal department in connection with the high school, and may establish and maintain one or more schools for instruction in mechanic arts and kindred subjects, and instruction may be given in the evening as well as in the day. The central board must exercise a general supervision over the high school, the mechanical art schools, and the schools for colored pupils, and must, by one or more of the members, visit said schools at least once a week. They may at any time examine, or cause to be examined, any or all of the teachers in the high school and the schools for colored pupils, and may issue certificates setting forth the branches which said teachers are qualified to teach. They have the appointment of all teachers in the high school and schools for colored pupils and of teach¬ ers of all sx>eeial branches in the ward schools, and may dismiss them for cause at any time. The central board must make an annual report through the city superintendent to the State superintendent. BOARDS OR DIRECTORS OF SUBDLSTRICTS. Each of the wards of the city constitutes a subschool district, but a subdistrict may be subdivided, or two of them may be consolidated by the central board of education, upon the petition of the proper boards of directors, provided the city councils by an ordinance declare the subdistrict so made to be a separate election district. In each subdistrict there is a board of directors of six members, elected by the people of the several subdistricts. The term of office is three years, and two directors are elected each year. The several subdistrict boards have power to fill any vacancy caused in their number by removal, death, resignation, or otherwise until the next organization of the board. They may declare vacant the seat of any member who neglects or refuses to attend to his duties as member. If all or a majority of the members of any board of directors refuse or neglect to perform their lawful duties, the county court of quarter sessions, upon complaint of six taxpayers, and upon due proof, may declare their seats vacant and appoint others in their stead, to serve until the next annual organization of the board. 44 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Each, board of directors roust organize annually by the election of a president and a secretary, who must be members of the board, and a treasurer, who may or may not be a member. The duties of these offi¬ cers are those usually performed by such officers. The treasurer must give sufficient bond, and is allowed to retain for his services a sum not over 2 per cent of all money received and paid out by him. Each board of subdistrict directors must hold at least one stated meeting a month; a majority of the members constitute a quorum. The several boards of the subdistricts may levy annually a special tax upon the assessed property of their respective wards not exceeding the amount of the regular annual school tax for the year, to be applied to the purchase of ground, the erection or repair of buildings, furniture, apparatus, books, stationery, fuel, and janitors. The central board of education must be notified of the amount of tax so levied, and the said amount is levied and collected in the same manner as the regular school tax. Any one of the subdistrict boards may borrow money to the amount of $50,000. The several boards of directors of subdistricts have the power to purchase ground, to erect, enlarge, and repair school buildings, to pur¬ chase furniture, apparatus, books, stationery, and fuel, to pay janitors in their respective districts, to borrow money and to provide for the payment thereof with its interest, and to levy taxes for such purposes. The title of all real and personal property of the subdistrict schools is vested in the several boards of directors, and they may sell or dis¬ pose of the same whenever they deem advisable. The boards of directors may obtain by condemnation land required for school purposes when the same can not be secured by agreement with the owners. They appoint the teachers and exercise a general supervision over the schools of their respective subdistricts, and must by one or more of their members visit each of said schools at least once a month. In order to enable the central board of education to make the required reports to the State superintendent, the subdistrict boards of directors must make annual reports to the central board. Eree evening schools must be maintained by the subdistrict boards for not less than four months a year when requested to do so by 20 or more pupils. No member of any school board may hold any office of emolument under said board.1 The city superintendent is elected for a term of three years by a con¬ vention of all the school directors in the city, called for the purpose by the president of the board of education. The president and the secretary certify to the State superintendent the name and address of the person elected city superintendent, 1 Act of May 10, 1893. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 45 together with the amount of compensation fixed upon. If no valid objection is received by the State superintendent within thirty days, he commissions the superintendent for the term for which he was elected. The salary of the superintendent is paid by the central board of education in the same manner as the salaries of teachers are paid. The superintendent must either by himself or by such person or per¬ sons as he may appoint examine all persons who may apply for appoint¬ ment as teachers, and must give to each one found qualified a proper certificate. Xo teacher may be employed without such certificate. District or Columbia. (Washington City.) The organization of the District of Columbia is unique, and the school system presents so many peculiarities that its features can not be satisfactorily shown without a brief statement of the circumstances that led up to the present conditions. Prior to 1871 the District was composed of three distinct corporations, independent of each other but all amenable to the control of the Con¬ gress of the United States. These corporations were the city of Wash¬ ington, the city of Georgetown, and the levy court, which governed the county, or that part of the District which lay outside the limits of the two cities. The city of Washington was the most populous and most important of the three corporations. SCHOOLS IN THE CITY OF WASHINGTON. The first act of the city of Washington relative to schools was passed in 1804 by the city council, and established “ a permanent institution for the education of the youth of the city of Washington.” Superin¬ tendence of the schools was placed under the direction of 13 trustees, 7 of whom were elected annually by the councils and G were chosen by those who contributed $10 for the promotion of schools, each contrib¬ utor having as many votes as he had contributed sums of $10. In 181G the city was divided into two districts with separate boards of trustees, who were elected in part by the city councils and in part by contributors as before. The first real attempt to inaugurate a public-school system in the modern sense was that of 1844, the schools having been previously in the nature of charity schools. The schools were then put in charge of a board of trustees of 12 members elected by the city councils, 3 from each of the 4 school districts, the members from each district consti¬ tuting a subboard for that district. The method of appointing the trustees was changed in 1858, the mayor receiving authority to appoint with the advice and consent of the board of aldermen. By the same act of the city council the mayor was made ex officio president of the board of trustees, and the appointment of the secretary and the treasurer of the board was also given to him. In all this time the real control of the schools was in the hands of the 46 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. city government, to whom Congress liad given power ato provide for the superintendence of the public schools and to endow and collect taxes for the same.” The trustees of the schools received limited powers from the city councils, but the latter reserved the right to suspend or revoke any of those powers and to exercise supervision over all the acts of the board, even to the minuthe of school discipline. The power of making all appropriations, of electing the officers of the board and of altering its organization, of determining the grade and number of schools, and of fixing the salaries of the teachers was retained by the city councils.1 The superintendent . — Provision for a superintendent of public schools was made in 1809, and his salary was fixed at $2,500 a year. He was appointed by the mayor, with the advice and consent of the board of aldermen, was directed to preside at the meetings of the board in the absence of the mayor, and was entitled to vote on all questions before the board. Later in the same year the power and importance of the office were curtailed, and the superintendent was made practi¬ cally the executive officer of the board. It was then made his duty to carry into execution the rules and regulations of the board of trus¬ tees; to visit the schools, that he might obtain, as far as practicable, a personal knowledge of the condition of all the schools and be able to suggest improvements and remedy defects; to pay particular atten¬ tion to the classification of pupils, and assist the board of trustees in establishing a uniform system of instruction; to advise teachers as to the best method of instruction and discipline, and to carefully observe the manner in which they conducted their schools. Whenever he found any teacher incompetent, he was required to report the same to the subboard of that district. To him was given, under rules established by the trustees, the general superintendence of all the schools of the corporation. He was required to devote his whole time to the duties of his office and keep himself acquainted with the progress of the public-school system in other places, that he might be able to suggest appropriate means for the advancement of the public schools of the city. He might attend any of the meetings of the board and speak on all questions. No enumeration of the duties of the superintendent has since been made, and presumably these requirements are still in force. The relations between the first superintendent appointed and the board were neither amicable nor harmonious, and the board in 1S70 requested the council to change the method of appointing the super¬ intendent by giving that duty to the board. The request was not granted in the terms in which it was preferred, but a change was soon afterwards made in the office of superintendent. The new appointee was acceptable to the board and the question of a change in the man¬ ner of appointment was not agitated further. 1 Report of tlie Board of Trustees, 1866-1870, page 10. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 47 Colored schools. — In 1862 the colored schools of Washington and Georgetown were organized by act of Congress under a separate board of trustees of three members, one appointed each year for three years by the Secretary of the Interior. These trustees were to receive a share of all moneys appropriated for schools in proportion to the num¬ ber of colored children to the whole number of children. The number of trustees was increased from three to nine in 1873 and their appointment was given to the governor of the District. The superintendency of colored schools was established in 1867. TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT. The three distinct corporations, namely, the city of Washington, the city of Georgetown, and the levy court for the county of Washington, were abolished in 1871, and in their stead was substituted a single Ter¬ ritorial government, having a governor and a legislative assembly. Congress made it the duty of that assembly to maintain a system of free schools in the District, but provided that all the acts of the old corporations should remain in force till repealed. In August, 1871, the legislative assembly enacted that there' should be three boards of school trustees in the District, one for Washington, one for Georgetown, and one for the county. The board of trustees for the city of Washington was to be conpposed of 20 members, 5 from each of the 4 school districts of the city. That of Georgetown was to have u2 members from each of the council districts of the city7’ [it had 5 members in 1873], and the board of the county was to have 7 members. These were all to be appointed by the governor for a term of two years each. This act, with another act passed two days later, provided for a s uper intendent of schools, a secretary and treasurer for each of the three school organizations, who were also to be appointed by the governor. All these trustees and officers were directed to perform the duties of their respective offices, and all laws and ordinances of the three old corporations were declared to be in force in the respective localities except so far as they might have been affected by the acts of the legis¬ lative assembly. The act of Congress of 1862 establishing a board of trustees for col¬ ored schools of course remained in force, so that there were still four school boards in existence, each independent of the others. The Territorial government was fruitful in schemes for the physical improvement of the city. The board of public works dominated all the other branches of the government, and their vigorous measures and unusual expenditures necessitated heavy taxation and produced wide-spread dissatisfaction. Congress was forced to apply a heroic remedy, and once more made a radical change in the form of govern¬ ment.1 JThe City of Washington : Its Origin and Administration, Porter, page 30 et seq. 48 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. SCHOOLS UNDER THE COMMISSIONERS. The Territorial government was abolished in 1874 and in its stead there was inaugurated a government by a commission of three persons, appointed by the President, in whom all the powers and duties of the former governor were vested. Since that time all legislation for the District of Columbia has been done in the Congress of the United States, the executive power being given to the three Commissioners of the District. This arrangement was only provisional at first, but in 1878 a permanent government was established along the main lines of the act of 1874. In the original act of 1874 establishing the commission they were authorized to abolish any office, to consolidate two or more offices, reduce the number of employees, remove from office, and make appoint¬ ments to any office authorized by law. Under the authority thus given the Commissioners abolished the offices of secretary and treasurer of all the four school boards in the District, transferring all their duties, so far as they related to the dis¬ bursement of money to the comptroller of the District. They also ordered that the purchase of supplies be made by the comptroller and auditor of the District, subject to the approval of tbe Commissioners. On August 8, 1874, the same authority consolidated the four school boards into one board of 15 members, 9 of whom were to be residents of Washington, 3 of Georgetown, and 3 of the county. A month later tbe number was increased to 19, 2 additional members being appointed from Washington and 2 more from the county. The laws defining the powers and duties of the four former boards continued to apply to the new board in the performance of their func¬ tions for the four classes of schools. More specific reference to the dif¬ ferences in these will be mentioned in subsequent paragraphs. The new board made no radical changes in the school affairs. The same person had already been made superintendent of the white schools of Washington, of Georgetown, and of the county ; there was another superintendent for the colored schools of Washington and Georgetown, and these men continued their former duties. The colored schools of the two cities were continued as a practically separate organization. In the act of Congress of 1878 providing a permanent government for the District the board of school trustees was abolished and all powers and duties formerly exercised by the old board of trustees were transferred to the Commissioners of the District of Columbia, to whom were given authority to employ such officers and agents and to adopt; such provisions as might be necessary to carry into execution the powers and duties imposed. The Commissioners were directed to appoint from time to time 19 persons, actual residents of the District of Columbia, to constitute the trustees of the public schools of the District and to serve without LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 49 compensation for such terms as the Commissioners might fix. These trustees were to have the powers and perform the duties in relation to the care and management of the public schools which were then author¬ ized by law.1 In 1882 the number of trustees was reduced to 9, and in 1895 it was increased to 11, its present number, that the Commissioners might appoint women on the board, as they were given authority to do. The trustees are now appointed for varying terms, fixed by the Com¬ missioners at the time of appointment. Their terms have ordinarily been fixed at three years, but of late the Commissioners have been mak¬ ing appointments for one year only. They may be removed at any time by the appointing power. The superintendents are appointees of the Commissioners, and may be removed at any time, that power having been given by law to the mayor and having descended through the governor to the present Board of Commissioners. The arrangement made by the board of trustees in respect to colored schools in 1874 continues to the present day, and there are two separate and distinct school systems in the same territory, having the same board of trustees, but with different officers and separate organization in every respect that relates to instruction. The powers and duties of the present board of trustees are not clearly defined. The law of 1878 was peculiarly constructed. It gave to the District Commissioners all the powers of the old board of trus¬ tees, and in the very next paragraph gave to the new board of trustees the powers and duties relating to the care and management of the schools then authorized by law. This apparent contradiction has at different times given rise to diffi¬ culty and misunderstanding. In 1885-86 the then Commissioners advanced the theory that the trustees were merely their agents, and as such were responsible to them. They claimed and exercised the right to control even such minutiae as the assignment of teachers and their transfer from school to school. In this they were sujiported by an opinion by the attorney for the District, who held that “ whatever is necessary in the way of classification of pupils, grading schools, num¬ bers to each teacher, hours of assembling and length of session, the whole matter of discipline of schools, examination, promotion, criticism of teachers and methods of teaching, the courses of study, the books to be used, and perhaps other matters pertaining to the welfare of the schools are among the powers and duties of the trustees.” But, he said, their duties pertain u exclusively to the working power of the edu¬ cational machinery, whieffi thpy neither supply, maintain, nor repair. Upon these important matters, supply and repair, their action is advi¬ sory only.” The Commissioners proposed to issue regulations of their 1 Act of J une 11, 1878, in Supplement to Revised Statutes* of the United States, 1874-1891, pages 178, 179. 50 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. own in regard to the schools, which would definitely fix the status of the trustees, but never proceeded further than to make a few “sugges¬ tions.” Both the Commissioners and the trustees desired nothing more than the good of the schools, and their correspondence on the subject was without acrimony. A conference brought about an understanding, and no definite or final conclusion was reached as to the respective powers of the two bodies. But it is very certain that “the powers and duties relating to the care and management of the schools” possessed by the former boards were continued in the new one by the law of 1878, and it remains to discover the laws that defined those powers and duties. But even when they are discovered it would require a judicial decision to deter¬ mine which of them belong to the trustees under the “care and manage¬ ment” clause. The consolidated board of trustees of 1874 were governed by the laws covering the several boards which they succeeded. There is no doubt about that. But the search for the laws of the ancient boards is by no means easy in the present condition of affairs. It appears from a careful search, however, that the board of 1874 were governed in their relations to the white schools of Washington by the laws of the corporation of Washington passed in 1858, reenacted with two additions in 1869 j in their relations with the white schools of Georgetown by an ordinance of the corporation of Georgetown passed in 1842; in their relations with the white and colored schools of the county by an act of Congress passed in 1864, and in their relations with the colored schools of Washington and Georgetown by an act of Congress passed in 1862. The Georgetown ordinances of 1842 gave to the then “board of guardians” full power “to provide for the keeping of schools and to manage the same for the public interest, to make such by-laws and regulations as they may deem best for the government of the schools, to elect and appoint the respective and necessary teachers from time to time, and fix their compensation.” 1 Teachers were required to report quarterly to the board of guardians and annually to the corporation through the board of guardians. It was made the duty of teachers to receive all children that might be sent to them by any member of the board of guardians, or by the trus¬ tees of the poor, any of whom were authorized to grant certificates of admission.2 The Washington board of 1858 received power to appoint all teachers authorized bylaw, and to change them at pleasure; to prescribe the course of studies and the books to be used, no book to be changed except by a vote of two-thirds of the whole- board, and the books in all schools to be uniform ; to make and execute by-laws, rules, and regula¬ tions for the management of the schools as they may deem necessary 1 AtLee’s History of the Public Schools of the City of Georgetown, page 7. 2 Idem, page 8. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 51 and proper, a copy of which must occupy a conspicuous place in each schoolroom, and to alter, amend, and abrogate them at pleasure ; to transact all business relating to the schools, subject to the laws of the corporation. They were required to cause an annual examination of all public schools to be made each July; to make an annual report to the common council; to divide themselves into as many subboards as there were school districts, for the exercise of a practical supervision over the schools, subject to the control of the board of trustees. The subboards were required to meet regularly once a month at least and to cause records to be kept by the principal teachers. All white children between G and 17 years old were to be admitted into the schools, pro¬ vided their parents or guardians were bona fide residents of the city. The male and female pupils were required to be kept separate, as far as practicable, during school hours and to have different places assigned to them for recreation.1 The act of the city councils of September 7, 1869, made it the duty of the board of trustees to fix upon the time and manner of school exam¬ inations and promotions, to select annually one of their number from each school district to be a committee for the examination of teachers, assisted by the superintendent, and to hold semiannually, in conjunc¬ tion with the superintendent, a teachers’ institute.2 The duties of the school board of the county were written at a much later date than were those of the city boards, and have a more modern flavor. They were: to regulate the number of children to be taught in each school; to select, upon a thorough examination, such teachers as are competent, giving to each a certificate of qualification, without which no teacher is entitled to receive pay; to fix their salaries and terms of service; to suspend or expel incorrigible pupils; to prescribe the course of study and the text-books to be used * * * and gen¬ erally to prescribe rules and regulations for the management, good government, and well-ordering of the schools, and to make an annual report. Any white resident was privileged to place his child or ward in any of the schools, with the consent of the board; and any colored resident had the same privilege with respect to colored schools.3 The trustees of the colored schools of the cities were directed to exercise the same functions and have the same supervision over the schools under their charge as were exercised over the public schools of the two cities by the trustees thereof by virtue of the laws and ordi¬ nances in force in the two cities, respectively.4 These, then, are presumably the laws which still govern the board of trustees. If there are any of later date I have not succeeded in finding them. It is very probable that even some of the present 1 Fifteenth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of Public Schools of the City of Washington, 1858-59. 2T\venty-third Annual Report of the Board of Trustees, 1866-1870, page 138. 3 Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, 1873, page 32. 4 Idem, page 34. 52 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. trustees themselves are not aware of the differences in their powers in relation to the schools of the several localities, for time has so welded together the various elements of the system that it is now one homo¬ geneous whole. Expediency first and custom afterwards prescribed that all schools should be treated alike, and the restrictions that relate to one section were and still are voluntarily applied by the board to all sections by means of regulations; for example, all teachers in the elementary schools not graduates of the city normal schools must have passed an examination and have received a certificate of fitness, though this is not required by law except for the teachers of the county; the legal provision requiring a two-thirds vote of the board to change a text-book applies only to Washington, but it is applied by regulation to the whole District, and text-books are uniform in all schools of like grade; the division of the board into subboards, too, is required for Washington only, but it is applied in practice to the entire District. But there are now ten u divisions n and only eleven trustees, so that but one division has more than one trustee, and the legal requirement for monthly meetings of the subboards has neces¬ sarily become a dead letter. Neither law nor custom requires that a trustee shall be a resident of the division for which he acts, but in a general way it is recognized as desirable that it should be so, and assignments are usually made with that in view. The peculiar relations of the District of Columbia to Congress has brought about the custom of legislation by appropriations. Congress has exclusive control of the District and is its only legislative body. When any extension of the school system is desired, therefore, the request for it is ordinarily in the form of an application for an appro¬ priation, which, if granted, carries with it the authority for the exten¬ sion. It was thus that the free text-book system was inaugurated, that the fourth year was added to the high-school course, and, in fact, that all important extensions have been secured. The board of trustees annually submit estimates covering all their needs to the District Commissioners, who are in turn required by law to submit to the Secretary of the Treasury annually an itemized state¬ ment and estimate of the amount necessary to defray the expenses of the government of the District of Columbia for the next fiscal year. The Secretary of the Treasury must carefully consider all the estimates and must approve or disapprove, or suggest such changes as he may think the public interest demands. He must cause a statement to be made of the amount approved by him and the fund to which each item belongs, which statement must be certified by him and delivered, together with the original estimates, to the Commissioners of the Dis¬ trict of Columbia, who must transmit the same to Congress. To the extent to which Congress approves such estimates Congress appropri¬ ates the amount of 50 per cent thereof, and the remaining 50 per cent LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 53 of sucli approved estimates are levied and assessed upon tlie taxable property and privileges of the District other than the property of the United States and of the District of Columbia. The rate of taxation for all purposes for any one year may not exceed $1.50 on every $100. All taxes collected are paid into the Treasury of the United States, and the same, as well as the appropriations made by Congress as aforesaid, are disbursed for the expenses of the District on itemized vouchers, which must have been audited and approved by the auditor of the District of Columbia and certified by the Commis¬ sioners, or a majority of them.1 MISCELLANEOUS LAWS RECENTLY PASSED. The District Commissioners must report to Congress at each regular session in the Book of Estimates an estimate of the number of teachers required in each of the grades and classes of schools in the District, the amount of salary, the employment, place, and title of employment oi each of the teachers in each and all the grades and classes of the schools in the District.2 In assigning salaries to teachers no discrimination may be made between male and female teachers employed in the same grade of school and performing a like class of duties.3 No school official, teacher, or trustee may receive any pecuniary bene¬ fit on account of school supplies or text-books purchased for the use of the schools.4 The study of the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics must be taught in all public schools of the District of Columbia.5 The Commissioners, in making purchases of sites for schools must do so without the employment of agents, and in no case may commis¬ sion be paid to more than one person or firm greater than the usual commission.3 Before the purchase by the board of trustees of any lands and prem¬ ises for school purposes the title must be certified as good by the attor¬ ney for the District. The purchase must be made in the name of and the title vested in the District of Columbia.6 The Commissioners of the District of Columbia have power to con¬ demn land for school sites. Application for such proceedings must be filed in the supreme court of the District of Columbia.7 The plans and specifications for buildings are prepared by the in¬ spector of buildings of the District of Columbia, and must be approved 1 Act of June 11, 1878, in Supplement to the Revised Statutes, 1874-1891, page 173 et seq. 2 Act of March 3, 1891. 3 Act of March 2, 1889. * 4 Act of August 7, 1894. 6 Act of May 2, 1886. 6 Order of Commissioners, September 24, 1874. 7 Act of August 6, 1890. 54 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. by the Architect of the Capitol and the Commissioners of the District of Columbia 5 the buildings are constructed by the Commissioners of the District in conformity therewith.1 The inspector of buildings of the District of Columbia has authority and control over and supervision of the construction and repairs of all school buildings.2 The public school buildings may not be used for any purpose not directly connected with the public school system of the District.3 Detroit, Mich.4 The city of Detroit is one schpol district, and the schools therein under the direction of the board of education are free to all children residing in the city between the ages of 5 and 20 years, inclusive. The board of education consists of 16 school inspectors, to be elected one from each ward in the city at the spring election held every alter¬ nate year. The term of each inspector is four years, and one-half the whole number are elected at each biennial election. The votes cast for school inspectors are deposited in ballot boxes separate from those used for other than city officers, and the elections are held and the votes can¬ vassed in the same manner as in other city elections. Women are qualified to vote for school inspectors and are eligible to hold that office. In case of any vacancy by death, resignation, or otherwise, the mayor may nominate and the common council may confirm the nomination of a suitable person to fill such vacancy until the next regular election for members of the board, when his successor must be elected. Removal of an inspector from the ward for which he is elected does not vacate his office if he still reside in the city. The mayor and the recorder of the city are ex officio members of the board, and have the right to seats at meetings for the purpose of deliberation, but have no vote. The board of education may, by a two- thirds vote, and after due hear¬ ing, expel any member for malfeasance or willful neglect of the duties of the office. jSTo inspector may receive any compensation during his term of office either as inspector or for services rendered the board in any capacity, and no inspector may be interested directly or indirectly in any contract made with the board. Any person elected to the office of school inspector who neglects or refuses to serve without sufficient cause is liable to a fine of $10, to be used for the public library $ but no one may be compelled to serve two ^ct of August 6, 1890. 2 Act of March 3, 1879. 3Act of March 3, 1893. 4 Compiled from acts relative to free schools in the city of Detroit, in Rules of the Board of Education, 1895, page 37 et seq. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 55 terms in succession. The board may make all necessary rules of pro¬ ceeding and may punish unexcused absence from meetings by a line of not over $5 for each offense. The board may meet from time to time and a majority of the members form a quorum. They may elect one of their own number president and in the absence of the president may choose a president pro tempore. The board of education is a body corporate and may sue and be sued, and may hold, sell, and convey real and personal property as the inter¬ ests of the schools may require. The recorders court has jurisdiction of all suits wherein the board may be a party and of all prosecutions for violations of its by-laws and ordinances. The board must elect a superintendent of public schools to hold office for three years, ad a salary to be fixed by the board, but not to exceed 84,000 a year. They may appoint a secretary to hold office during the pleasure of the board, and may x>reseribe his duties and compensation. The superintendent may be directed by the board to fill the office of secretary, but he is not entitled to extra compensation for so doing. The board must also appoint a treasurer, to have the keeping of all moneys belonging to the schools. He must give such bond as the board may require, and may not pay out the school moneys except by the authority of the board. Every resolution or proceeding of the board of education whereby any liability or debt may be created or involving the expenditure of money or disposal of property must be presented to the mayor. If the mayor approve the proceeding he must sign it, and it thereupon goes into effect. If he does not approve, he must return it to the board in five days with his objections. The board must thereupon reconsider the proceeding, and if two-thirds of all the members agree to adopt the same it goes into effect. If the mayor neither signs the proceeding nor returns it to the board with his objections in five days, it goes into effect without his signature. It is the duty of the board of education to apply for and receive from the county treasurer all moneys appro¬ priated by the State for primary schools and district library of the city, and. to designate a place where the library may be kept. The board have authority to make by-laws and ordinances relative to taking the census of all children in the city between the ages of 5 and 20 years. They may appoint one or more persons to take such census, and may prescribe their duties and compensation. The result of the census must be reported annually to the common council, and such report is conclusive as to the number of children for purposes of taxa¬ tion. It is the duty of the board of education to annually prepare and submit to the common council an estimate of the amount of taxes deemed necessary for all school expenditures during the ensuing year. The estimates must specify as nearly as possible the amounts required for teachers’ salaries, purchase of lots for buildings, erection of build¬ ings, repairs, fuel, and general current expenses. 56 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. These estimates are treated as of two classes. The full amount required for the first class, including the estimates for all purposes except the purchase of lots and the erection of buildings, with the necessary outbuildings, fixtures, and furniture, must be placed upon the general city tax roils, and levied and collected the same as other city taxes, the proceeds to be disbursed by the board of education for the maintenance of schools and for no other purpose; provided that the amount of such estimate and tax must not be less than $4 for every child in the city between 5 and 20 years of age, nor more than $5 unless the common council approve of such excess. The estimates of the second class, that is, for the purchase of lots, the erection of buildings, and purchase of fixtures and furniture there¬ for, must be submitted to the board of estimates of the city as well as to the common council. A tax may be levied to raise only such part of these estimates as the board of estimates and the common council may approve. The proceeds must be paid to the treasurer of the board of education, to be used only for the purposes for which the tax was levied. The common council may issue the bonds of the city in lieu of levying a tax to raise the whole or any part of the amount required by the estimates of the board of education. All taxes levied for schools must be set forth in the assessment rolls apart from all other city taxes. The board of education may from time to time borrow money for temporary purposes not exceeding in all $15,000. The board of education have authority to make by-laws and ordinances relative to the making of all reports to State and other officers required by law; relative to the visitation of schools; relative to the length of time school shall be kept, which must not be less than three months in a year; relative to the employment and examination of teachers, their powers and duties; relative to regulation of schools, and the books to be used therein; relative to the apx>ointment of necessary officers and prescribing their powers and duties; relative to anything whatever that may advance the interests of education, the good government and prosperity of the free schools of the city, and the welfare of the public concerning the same. The board must publish annually a detailed report of the schools. Any nonresident paying school taxes on real estate in the city may send any scholars who are members of his own family to the schools of the city, and the amount he has paid for school taxes may be deducted from the tuition fees chargeable to his children as nonresidents. The common council have power to pass ordinances for the mainte¬ nance of order in and about the public schools and to prohibit and pre. vent injury to school property. The board of education may submit to the voters of the city any measure for adoption which does not come under the general power or authority of the board if they deem such measure just and proper toward LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 57 the prosperity and advancement of education in the free schools of the city. If the majority of the voters of the city either adopt or reject the proposed measure the board of education must abide by the result.1 It is the duty of the board of education to enforce the compulsory attendance laws 5 to provide flags for all schoolhouses and cause them to be displayed during school hours. The board of education must establish a public school-teachers’ retirement fund, to be administered by a board of trustees consisting of the board of education, the superintendent of schools, and two repre¬ sentatives selected by the teachers. This fund consists of all money deducted from the salary of any teacher on account of absence, or any other reason ; donations, bequests, etc., on account of the fund; money obtained from miscellaneous sources, or appropriated or raised with the approval of the common council and the board of estimates ; percent¬ ages not to exceed 1 per cent deducted from the salaries of teachers; interest derived from said moneys. The board of education must establish and maintain a district library, but they may elect a board of commissioners to whom the care of the funds and property of the library may be transferred. A special library tax of one-fifth of 1 mill on the dollar must be levied each year with other city taxes and paid over to the commission. Milwaukee, Wis.2 The public schools are under the general management, control, and supervision of a school board, consisting of two persons from each ward,3 appointed by the aldermen of such ward4 subject to confirma¬ tion by the common council. The members of the board hold their offices three years unless sooner removed. A president is elected by the board, and must be a member thereof. A majority of the members constitute a quorum. The board appoints biennially a secretary, who gives bond, performs the duties usual to the office, and takes a school census yearly. The members of the board must take the official oath and be subject to the same restrictions and liabilities as aldermen, and are exempt from jury duty. The seat of a member absent without satisfactory excuse from four successive meetings must be declared vacant and the common council proceed to elect his successor. The council may remove any member for cause. The school board must report to the common council each year the amount of money required for the support of all the public schools 1 This provision was passed with special reference to the question of free text- hooks. 2 Compiled from act of April 27, 1891, in Wisconsin City Charters and Amend¬ ments, 1891, page 1248, and from other acts specified. 3 There are 18 wards, and consequently 36 members of the school board. 4 There are 3 aldermen from each ward. 58 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. daring tlie next fiscal year, and the council must levy and collect a tax in addition to tire general tax at the same time and in the same manner as other city taxes, which, with other funds provided for the same purpose, shall be equal to the sum required by the school board ; but the council may, by a two -thirds vote, levy a tax for a greater or less amount. The school tax and the school fund of the city may not be used for any other purpose than the payment of the salaries of the superin¬ tendent of schools, of the secretary of the board, of the teachers and other employees, and the current expenses of the schools, including the purchase of supplies, apparatus, and fuel, and the ordinary repairs of school furniture. All school moneys of the city are paid to the city treasurer and disbursed by him on the order of the president and sec¬ retary of the board countersigned by the city comptroller. The school board may not in any one year incur any expense or contract any debt greater than the amount subject to their order without an ordinance of the council. All school property is the property of the city, and no lot may be purchased and no building may be erected without an ordinance or resolution by the common council. All deeds of conveyance and leases are made to the city. The board of public works have special charge and superintendence of schoolhouses, and make all repairs, alterations, and improvements upon them and upon the premises thereof. Whenever such repairs or alterations or improvements are deemed necessary by the school board, it is their duty to report the same to the common council for their action.1 The board of public works also advertise for bids, let contracts, and supervise the work of building new houses. The common council are authorized to levy and collect taxes for the purchase of sites and the erection of school buildings.2 The school board are authorized and required, subject to the approval of the council, to establish as many new schools as may be necessary for the accommodation of the children of the city, and the council must erect, purchase, or hire buildings and furniture and lots for such schools. The school board have the power to employ the janitors necessary for schoolhouses, and to fix their compensation; to define the boundaries of school districts in the city; to prescribe the text-books to be used, but may not change them oftener than once in five years. The text¬ books and the system of instruction must be as nearly as possible uni¬ form for the whole city. They may adopt and enforce by-laws, rules, and regulations for their own government and for the organization, discipline, and management of the schools. The school board must elect by ballot biennially a learned and 1 Acts of 1882, chapter 324. 2 Act of March 11, 1881. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 59 experienced person as superintendent of schools for a term of two years unless sooner removed. His salary is fixed by the board, but may not exceed $4,000 per annum. He must appoint, subject to the approval of the board, an assistant superintendent, to hold office during the term of the superintendent unless sooner removed, and whose salary may not exceed $2,000. In connection with a committee of the board and subject to confirma¬ tion by the board, the superintendent examines, certificates, classifies and employs teachers, and may dismiss them for cause. The secretary of the board must file annually with the city comptroller a certified list of all teachers employed, with their salaries. Any officer of the board may be dismissed by the board by a two- thirds vote for cause after due hearing. The school board must report annually to the common council. Minneapolis, Minn.1 The board of education of the city of Minneapolis consists of seven school directors. They are elected by the people at the biennial State election and as a part of the general election, but a separate ballot box is provided. The term of office of each director is six years, two being elected at each biennial election, except that every sixth year three are elected. Every school director before entering upon his duties must take an oath to support the constitution and laws of the State and to perform the duties of his office to the best of his ability. In case of the death, resignation, or removal from the district of any school director the vacancy may be filled for the unexpired term by election at the next annual election. The time and place of the meetings of the board are appointed by the board. The officers consist of a president and a secretary, who must be school directors. The city treasurer and the city comptroller are treasurer and comptroller, respectively, of the board. The secre¬ tary and the treasurer are bonded officers. Election of officers is held annually. The board of education is a legal corporation, has a common seal, is capable of suing and being sued, of buying, receiving, selling, and conveying real or personal property, and of making and enforcing con¬ tracts. The title to all real and personal public school property in the city is vested in the board of education. The board of education is authorized and empowered to levy such taxes as will raise sufficient sums of money for ail school proposes ; but the aggregate levy of such taxes must not exceed 4 mills on the dollar of assessed valuation. The board must make return of its annual levy of taxes to the countv auditor, and the taxes are collected by county officers at the same time and in the same manner as State and 1 Compiled from the charter of the hoard of education, published in the Report of the Board of Education for 1894-95, pages 163 et seq. 60 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. county taxes, and the full amount of money collected must be paid to the city treasurer, to the credit of the board of education. The board may purchase real estate for school purposes whenever six directors vote to make such a purchase, and may sell and convey the same whenever five directors vote to do so. They may not issue any bond, promissory note, or other obligation to pay money unless the same shall become due and be paid not later than the July 1 next fol¬ lowing, and then for no greater sum than can be paid out of the regular revenues of the board. The board of education may acquire real estate by condemnation proceedings whenever they deem it expedient, and the title acquired by such proceedings is an absolute estate in fee simple. The board of education have entire control and management of all com¬ mon schools in the city. They are entitled to demand and receive all moneys that accrue to the district for school purposes under any law of the State or otherwise, and may appropriate and use such moneys for the support and maintenance of the schools as they may deem best. They may hire or erect and maintain sehoolhouses, but no building may be erected on land not held in fee simple. They may employ superintend¬ ents and teachers, and make rules and regulations for the government of the schools and for the employment and examination of teachers and prescribing their powers and duties ; and prescribing the grading, and classification of pupils and their management, and the course of instruc¬ tion and the books to be used, and other matters pertaining to the gov¬ ernment and welfare of the schools. They may also make by-laws for their own government. St. Paul, Minn.1 The board of school inspectors consists of seven persons, appointed by the mayor. Their term is three years, and two are appointed every year, except every third year, when three are appointed. Vacan¬ cies are filled by the mayor for the unexpired term. The president, vice-president, and secretary are elected by the board to serve for one year, and the superintendent of public schools to serve two years. The board is not a corporation, and can not sue or be sued or hold property, all contracts being made in the name of the city of St. Paul, and the title to all property being vested in the city. The expense of the public schools is limited to the amount appropri¬ ated by the common council, and the amount of school tax laid by the council may not be greater than 2J mills nor less than 2 mills on the dollar of all property on the assessment roll. All school moneys appropriated to the city of St. Paul from State or county funds are paid to the city treasurer. The treasurer and comptroller of the city of St. Paul report to the board of inspectors through their secretary every month the amount of funds in the city treasury set apart by the coun¬ cil for educational purposes. 1 Compiled from act of March 20, 1891, in Report of 1894.-95, page 114 et seq. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 61 The board of inspectors are required to make a detailed report of the progress and operations of the schools to the mayor every month, which report is transmitted to the council. They must also make a report each year to the mayor, specifying in detail the salaries desired to be paid to the teachers during the coming year. The mayor trans¬ mits the same to the council, who may reduce the total amount to be paid, but may not raise it, nor may they fix the salary of any teacher. The board of inspectors report annually upon the need of new buildings, specifying as nearly as possible the cost of the sites required as well as the probable cost of suitable buildings to be erected. If the condition of the school fund justifies it, the council, by a three-fourths vote, may order the mayor and the president of the board of school inspectors to proceed to obtain such site and erect a suitable building thereon, in accordance with plans and estimates to be provided by the board of inspectors. In erecting buildings the mayor and the president of the board of inspectors must advertise for proposals for furnishing material and labor, and contracts are let to the lowest bidder, said contracts being between the contractor and the city of St. Paul; all payments are made from the city treasury. ‘Whenever any school building is ordered to be erected by the common council a building inspector is appointed by the mayor and confirmed by the council, whose duty it is to inspect the work upon the building, and who must report that the work has been done according to the plans and specifications before any requisition may be drawn for payment. When the building is completed he must make a final report to the council, specifying fully the kind and amount of material that has been used and the manner in which the building has been erected. The board of school inspectors do not purchase their own supplies, but each year they make a statement of what is desired for the ensuing year, and a committee, consisting of the mayor of the city, the president of the common council, and the city treasurer, advertise for and pur¬ chase them. The board of inspectors may make no debts except for the monthly salaries of teachers and for current expenses in the case of school buildings, and then only to the extent and in the manner herein speci¬ fied. They have the care, custody, and control of schoolhouses, and appoint janitors and watchmen for the same. The police department of the city is especially charged with the protection of school property in every respect. The title to all property pertaining to the public schools of the city is vested in the city of St. Paul in trust for the uses and purposes of education solely. The board of inspectors have full power to employ and dismiss teachers, and the city council have no control over them in that respect. Teachers serve during the pleasure of the board of inspectors, and after one year of successful service are not subject to annual elections. 62 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. No member, officer, or employee of tlie board may be a party to or interested directly or indirectly in any contract witb tbe board of inspectors or the city of St. Paul. The board of inspectors may make rules to enforce the attendance of children between 8 and 1G years old who may be enrolled in the schools as pupils. District No. 1, Arapahoe County (Denver), Colo.1 There are three separate school organizations in the limits of the city of Denver, known, respectively, as Districts No. 1, No. 2, and No. 17, Arapahoe County. These districts are not only distinct from each other, having different boards and officers, but all are entirely inde¬ pendent of the city government. The following refers to District No. 1, which comprises a population of about 75,000, or over half the inhabitants of the city. The board of education consists of sis directors, elected by the quali¬ fied voters of the district, to serve three years, two being elected each year. Vacancies are filled by the board till the next ensuing election. The directors must organize within ten days after their election by choos¬ ing a president, who must be one of their number, a secretary who may be one of their number, and a treasurer, who may not be of their number. All of these serve for a term of one year. The board is a body politic and corporate, and may contract or be contracted with, sue or be sued, and may receive any gift, grant, or devise made for the use of the schools of the district. Tbe president presides over all meetings of the board when present, signs all orders on the treasurer, and appoints such committees as he may deem expedient. The secretary must keep a record of the proceedings of the board, make all the reports required by law of secretaries of district boards, make all necessary reports to the board, and perform such other duties as may be required by the board. His compensation is fixed by the board. The treasurer takes charge of ail moneys belonging to the district and disburses the same on the order of the president of the board, countersigned by the secretary. He must keep account of all receipts and expenditures, render such statements as the board may require, and give bond for the faithful discharge of his duties. The board of education must hold regular meetings monthly, and may hold Sfiecial meetings when necessary, but no business may be transacted at such sfiecial meetings except that for which the meeting was called. The board of education have the x^ower to levy a sx>ecial tax of not over 3 mills on the dollar on the taxable xiroperty of the district for 1 Compiled from tbe school charter in the report of the Board of Education, 1893-84, page 87 et seep LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 63 the purpose of building sclioolliouses in the district. Such tax must be made by a two-thirds vote of the members of the board, and must be collected by the county collector at the same time and in the same manner as county taxes, and, when collected, it must be paid to the treasurer of the board. The board of education must also annually determine what sums of money will bo required in addition to their quota of the State school fund for the current expenses of the schools for the ensuing year, and they report the sum so required to the board of county commissioners, who must levy and collect the same as a tax upon all taxable property of the district. But such tax must not exceed 3 mills on the dollar of assessed valuation. The money, when collected, is paid to the treasurer of the board of education. The title to all lands, houses, and other property used for school pur¬ poses in the district is vested in the board of education, and they have full power to sell, lease, and convey any such lands and tenements if they deem it expedient. The board of education have entire control and management of all public schools and school property of the district; they have the power to make and enforce necessary rules and regulations; to purchase books and apparatus; to select and purchase sites; to hire or erect buildings and keep them in repair ; to employ teachers ; to fix the salaries of superintendent, secretary, and teachers ; to determine what branches of instruction shall be taught; and to determine on what terms pupils living outside the district shall be admitted to the schools. The board of education must annually elect a superintendent of schools to serve one year from the time of his appointment. It is his duty to have oversight of all public schools in the district; to examine applicants for teacherships, and grant certificates to those found quali¬ fied; to visit the schools, observe the discipline, mode of teaching, progress of pupils, and such other matters as he may deem of interest, and to report thereon to the board of education, and to perform such other duties as the board may prescribe. Indianapolis, Ind.1 The city is divided into eleven school districts by the board of school commissioners, and the qualified electors of each district elect one school commissioner to serve for three years, the terms being so arranged that one- third of the whole number of commissioners are elected each year. The number and boundaries of the districts may be changed by the board of school commissioners at any time, and if the number is increased 1 Compiled from act of March 3, 1871, relating to all cities of 30,000 or more inhab¬ itants, in Statutes of Indiana, Revision of 1876, page 817 et seq., and from subsequent acts specified. At the time of tho passage of this law Indianapolis was the only city in the State having the population named. 64 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. eacli additional district is entitled to elect one school commissioner. Vacancies occurring at any time prior to the annual election are filled by the board till the next annual election. The election takes place annually on the second Saturday in June, and on the first Monday in July following the school commissioners assemble and organize by the election of a president, a treasurer, and a secretary, all of whom must be of their own number. Meetings are held at such times as the board may determine, and a record must be kept of all their proceedings. The members serve without compensa¬ tion. The board of school commissioners are authorized — (1) To district the city for the purpose of electing school commis¬ sioners and for general school purposes. (2) To levy all taxes for the support of the schools in the city, in addition to the State taxes; but no such tax may exceed 25 cents on each $100 of taxable property for purchasing grounds, building school- houses, and furnishing supplies therefor, or 25 cents on each $100 for the payment of teachers. (3) To levy a tax of not over 2 cents on $100 for the support of free libraries ; to disburse all revenue so raised in the purchase of books, fitting up suitable rooms, and for the salaries of librarians; to make and enforce the proper regulations relating to said libraries. (4) Ta cause to be examined all teachers applying for positions in the schools of the city and to license those found qualified. (5) To purchase grounds, construct school buildings, employ and pay teachers and superintendents, and to disburse through their treasurer all school and library moneys. (6) To require of their treasurer a sufficient bond for the proper per¬ formance of his duties. (7) To determine the course of instruction and regulate the govern¬ ment and discipline of the schools. (8) To issue bonds not to exceed in the aggregate $100,000. All levies of taxes made by the board of school commissioners are certi¬ fied to the proper city officers and collected at the same time and in the same way as other city taxes, the proceeds being delivered to the treas¬ urer of the school board, which officer also receives all school moneys to which the city is entitled from county and State taxes and appor¬ tionments. The board of school commissioners may establish as a part of the sys¬ tem of common schools of the city a system of industrial and manua- training, wherein shall be taught the practical use of tools and mechanl ical implements, the elementary principles of mechanical construction, and mechanical drawing. They may levy a tax of not over 5 cents on each $100 of taxable property for the purpose.1 1 Act' of Marcli 7, 1891. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 65 Charleston, S. C.1 The city is divided into six scliool districts, each embracing two wards7 and at every municipal election (i. e., every four years) there is elected by the legal voters of each district one school commissioner. The six school commissioners so elected, with two appointed by the governor2 for the same term upon the recommendation of the board of trustees of the High School of Charleston and two others similarly appointed upon the recommendation of the board of trustees of the College of Charleston,3 constitute the school board of the city of Charleston. The commissioners so elected and appointed may assemble at any time and elect a chairman, a clerk, and a superintendent of city schools, whose terms of office, duties, and compensation are prescribed by the board; but their terms of office may not exceed that of the board elect¬ ing them. Vacancies in the board caused by death, resignation, departure from the State, or refusal to qualify are filled by the board from the same wards in which they occur. The city treasurer must annually levy and collect, at the same time as the city taxes, a tax of 1 mill on the dollar on all taxable property in the city;4 and the county treasurer must pay over to the city treasurer the portion of the State school taxes to which the Charleston school district is entitled, and all of said taxes are deposited in the treasury as public money, to be paid out on the warrant of the city board of school commissioners. The said moneys are to be applied to the support of the city schools and to the repairs of the city school buildings.5 6 The city treasurer is entitled to receive out of the school moneys $500 a year for receiving and disbursing the school fund. The school board are empowered, and it is their duty, to determine the studies and books to be used in the city schools; to cause examina¬ tions to be made of teachers; to elect and dismiss teachers, prescribe their duties and terms of office, and to make rules for the government of the schools; to fill vacancies among their own number; to grant diplomas in the normal school department, which entitle holders to become teachers; to make an annual report to the State superintend¬ ent; to take charge of all school property belonging to or used by the city and to keep the same in order; to select by competitive examina- 1 Compiled from the Revised Statutes of South Carolina, 1893, sections 1091-189L 2The governor has the right to refuse to appoint commissioners nominated as above should he see fit to do so, hut no governor has as yet exercised the right. -These institutions are in part supported by the city, and the city council name some of the trustees. 4The tax of 1 mill on the dollar specified by law can not be increased or reduced either by the city council or the school commissioners. It can be changed only by the legislature. 6New school buildings are erected by the commissioners with funds raised by spe¬ cial tax, which must be authorized by the legislature in each case. ED 96 - 3 66 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. tion sticli meritorious boys as desire a more liberal education and are unable to pay for tlie same, to recommend them to be received into the High School of Charleston, and to pay their tuition fees if admitted. Such pupils are entitled upon graduation to free honorary scholarships in the College of Charleston. Hartford, Conn.1 The schools of Hartford are still conducted under general laws de¬ signed primarily for rural communities. They have no connection with the city of Hartford . as such, but are affairs of the town (or township) of Hartford and of the districts into which the town is divided. There are 10 of these school districts, varying greatly in size, population, and wealth, and consequently in the efficiency and relative cost of their schools. The town has the power to form, unite, alter, and dissolve school districts within its limits, and may abolish all school districts and itself assume control of all the schools, constituting one school district ; but this consolidation may be accomplished only by the majority of the votes cast at an election duly held to decide the question. Consolidation has several times been submitted to a vote of the people and has each time been voted down by large majorities. At the last election, held in 1874, out of about 7,000 votes cast the majority against consolidation was over 2,500. The stronger districts are opposed to giving their money to aid in the support of schools in the weaker districts, and the weaker districts seem to desire to retain the direct management of their own affairs, for in only 1 out of the 10 districts did consolidation receive a majority of the votes. The direction of the affairs of the schools is divided between (1) the legal voters of the town in town meeting assembled, (2) the selectmen of the town, who are officers with general duties, (3) the town board of school visitors, (4) the joint board of selectmen and school visitors, (5) the high-school committee, (6) the legal voters of the respective districts in district meeting, and (7) the district committees. The powers and duties of theseiseveral bodies are not defined with suffi- cieut precision to prev'ent misunderstandings and conflict of authority, as an examination of the school reports shows; but such difficulties do not appear to have been serious enough to interfere with the harmonious j conduct of the schools, and have not been greater than in some other places having less complicated arrangements. They have certainty not been sufficient to cause a popular demand for a change strong enough to alter the system. Public schools must be maintained for thirty-six weeks in each year in every school district in which the number of persons between 4 and - . 1 Authorities : Larrs of Connecticut relating to schools, 1894; public acts relating to education, 1895; the several reports of the board of school visitors. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 67 1G years of age is 50 or more, and at least thirty weeks in other dis¬ tricts. In said schools there shall be taught, by teachers found duly qualified by the school visitors, reading, spelling, writing, English grammar, geography, physiology, and hygiene with special reference to stimulants and narcotics, and such other studies, including training in manual arts, as may be prescribed by the board of visitors. The schools must be open to all children over 4 years old in the respective districts without discrimination on account of race or color; but children under 5 may be excluded whenever the board of school visitors so determine. In practice, children residing in one district and attending school in another pay tuition. THE TOWN. Sigh schools. — The town may [and does] maintain schools of high grade, and for such purpose may purchase, hold, and convey property, build schoolhouses, lay taxes, and adopt regulations for the manage¬ ment of such schools. The town may choose by ballot a committee of five residents of the town who have all the powers and duties in rela¬ tion to such schools that district committees have in relation to district schools. ]STo voter may vote for more than three members of the high- school committee, and the five persons receiving the highest number of votes are elected. If the town fail to elect a high-school committee, the school visitors must appoint such committee. The board of school visitors must prescribe rules for admission of pupils to the high school, for their studies, books, and classification; examine and certificate teachers for the same; revoke certificates of incompetent teachers, and visit the school at least twice each term. Evening schools. — The town must establish and maintain public even¬ ing schools; the board of school visitors have supervision over them. The board of visitors must annually certify to the comptroller of the State the average number of pupils attending evening schools within the current school year and the comptroller thereupon draws his order on the State treasurer in favor of the board of visitors, for the use of schools, in the sum of $2.25 for each pupil so certified, and the State treasurer must pay the same on presentation. Evening schools to be entitled to this distribution must have been open for at least seventy- five evenings during the school year. The school visitors must report annually to the State board of education concerning evening schools. Kindergartens. — The town or any district may maintain kindergarten schools for pupils over 3 and under 7 years of age. In Hartford the kindergartens are supported by the respective districts. Miscellaneous provisions. — The town at its annual meeting may direct the board of school visitors to employ special teachers of music for all districts, their salaries to be paid by the town, and it may direct the school visitors to provide at the expense of the town the text-books and supplies for the use of pupils. 68 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. Women are entitled to vote at school elections and are not debarred by their sex from membership in the board of school visitors or the dis¬ trict committees. Separate ballot boxes must be provided for women’s ballots at all elections in which they may vote. Other business transacted by the town at town meeting is mentioned in different connections in succeeding paragraphs, especially in relation to finances. THE SELECTMEN. The selectmen have the management of any property pertaining to the schools and belonging to the town, and must lodge with the treas¬ urer all bonds and securities not intrusted to others by the grantor, and all moneys which they may receive for the use of the- schools. It is the duty of the selectmen to cause the boundary lines of school districts to be entered on the records of the town ; to designate the time, place, and object of holding the first meeting in any new dis¬ trict; to provide each schoolhouse in the town with a United States flag, to be displayed every school day when the weather will permit. The name, number, and limits of every school district must be entered on its records and on the records of the town. The selectmen of the town define boundaries of districts when not clearly settled and define boundaries of new districts. When the selectmen can not agree, the town may appoint three indifferent per¬ sons for that purpose. At least fifteen days’ notice must be given when it is proposed to alter the boundary of any district. Appeal may be had to the superior court by any district aggrieved by any action of the town in this con¬ nection. JOINT BOARD OF SELECTMEN AND SCHOOL VISITORS— FINANCES. The selectmen and the school visitors must meet annually as a joint board and prepare estimates of the cost of each and all the schools for the next school year, and they must at once notify the several district committees of the amounts so fixed. These estimates must be pre¬ sented to the town at the next annual town meeting, together with a report of the expenses of the last year. The rate of taxation and the sum of money to be appropriated for schools are determined by the town in town meeting. The joint board of selectmen and school visitors must divide between the several dis¬ tricts each year the moneys appropriated by the town for wages of teachers, fuel, and incidental expenses, and must notify each district committee of the amounts apportioned to them. If the amount spent in any district exceed the amount fixed upon for that district by the joint board, the said board must meet to decide whether the expense was necessary. If they decide that it was neces¬ sary, the selectmen must draw an order on the town treasurer to pay the LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 69 same ; if not, the amount must be paid by the district unless the town order otherwise. The town is not required to expend more for school purposes than is produced by a tax of 1 mill on the dollar. But the full sum must be paid to the several school districts in proportion to the number of school children in the several districts. When the cost of the schools in any district is greater than the sum received from the town, the excess must be met by a tax laid by the district. The joint board of selectmen and school visitors have power to appro¬ priate money for the purchase of books and apparatus for the public school of the town. The money is expended by a committee of the school visitors; the State contributes annually $5 for each 100 pupils in the schools, to be used for the same purpose. The moneys apportioned to Connecticut in the distribution by the United States of the surplus in 1837 was divided between the towns of the State, and forms what is known as the “town deposit fund.” The principal of this fund must be kept intact and the income used solely for the support of schools. Each district committee, or their clerk, must annually make an enu¬ meration of all children belonging to the district, and must make return of the same to the school visitors. If the district committee fail to do this, one of the school visitors must make the enumeration. The school visitors must examine and correct the returns and for¬ ward them to the State comptroller. The State school moneys are divided between the districts on the basis of the enumeration, but no district may receive State money unless the school visitors certify that schools have been kept therein in accordance with law. Ho district may receive money from the State or town unless it has a schoolhouse satisfactory to the school visitors. Ho schoolhouse may be built except according to a plan approved by the school visitors and by the building committee of the district, nor at an expense greater than the sum appropriated therefor By the district. School districts have the right of condemning land required for school purposes. THE BOARD OF SCHOOL VISITORS. There is for the town a board of school visitors of nine members, three of whom are elected each year in town meeting by the legal voters of the town for a term of three years. The election is by ballot, each voter being allowed to vote for two members only, the three per¬ sons receiving the highest number of votes being declared elected. In case of a tie, that person whose name is first on the greatest number of ballots is elected. Should any vacancy occur, the remaining members of the board may fill it till the next annual election, when the ballots mu&t distinctly specify the vacancy to be filled. 70 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The board of school visitors must annually choose from themselves a chairman and a secretary. The chairman of the board of school visit¬ ors, or, in case of his absence or inability to act, the secretary, must call a meeting of the board at least once in six months, and whenever the chairman deems necessary, or is requested in writing to do so by three members. If no meeting is called within fourteen days after such request, one may be called by three members, by giving written notice to the others. The secretary must keep a record of the proceedings of the board and make to the town and to the State board of education annual written reports. The board of school visitors must prescribe rules for the manage¬ ment, studies, classification, and discipline of the public schools, and, subject to the control of the State board of education, the text-books to be used. The board of school visitors may not change any text¬ book used in the schools except by a two-thirds vote and after one week’s notice. They must, as a board, or by a committee appointed by them, examine all persons desiring to teach in the public schools and give to each person found qualified a certificate, authorizing the holder to teach in any of the schools of the town, or only in the district speci¬ fied, for such time as may be stated in the certificate. They must revoke the certificate of any teacher found incompetent to teach or to manage a school. No teacher may be employed who has not received a certificate of approbation of the school visitors, and no teacher is entitled to receive pay who does not properly keep a school register. If the town so direct, the board of visitors must employ the teachers for all its public schools, after consulting the several district commit¬ tees; but the town has not so directed, and the employment of teaehers is still in the hands of the district committees. The board have authority to require that every child shall be vac¬ cinated before entering school, and if the parents of any child are not able to pay for the same the town must bear the expense, on the recom¬ mendation of the board. It is the duty of the board of school visitors to make rules for the school libraries provided in part by the State and to approve the books selected therefor; to fill vacancies in district offices, fix sites, and approve plans for schoolhouses, and. superintend the high school; to enforce the laws relating to the employment of children and to com¬ pulsory education; to receive reports from, school district officers; to inspect school buildings and to approve sites and plans for new build¬ ings; to examine the returns of enumeration of persons 4 to 16 years of age made by district committees and forward the same to the State comptroller, certifying at the same time what schools have been kept according to law; to meet with the selectmen of the town each year as a joint board to prepare estimates to be submitted to the town meeting, to fix the amount of the town appropriations to be apportioned to the LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 71 school district, to report the cost of the schools to the town meeting, and to pass upon expense of districts in excess of amount appropriated by the town; to give certificates to the selectmen as to whether the dis¬ trict schools have been kept according to law; to regulate, in connection with district committees, the admission of nonresident pupils; to pass upon the union of small schools; to investigate the sanitary condition of schoolhouses. The board of school visitors must make returns annually to the State comptroller of the number of persons 4 to 16 years of age in the town, and the president and secretary must draw on the comptroller for the amount of State school money due the town. 'At the close of each term the school visitors must certify to the town selectmen whether each school has been kept according to law. The board annually assign the duty of visiting the schools of the town to one of their number, who is called superintendent of public schools. He must visit the schools, examine the schoolhouses and outbuildings, school register, and library, and investigate the studies, discipline, mode of teaching, and general condition of the schools. He must sub¬ mit annually to the board a written report of the several schools, with plans and suggestions for their improvement. The compensation of the superintendent is fixed by the town. The board of school visitors have authority to appoint a person not of their own number to be superintendent of schools, his salary to be fixed by the town ; but up to this time the superintendent has been a mem¬ ber of the board of visitors. SCHOOL DISTRICTS. Each school district is a body corporate and has the power to sue and be sued, to purchase, hold, and convey real and personal property for school purposes; to build, hire, and repair schoolhouses, and supply them with fuel, furniture, etc.; to establish schools; to purchase appa¬ ratus; to maintain a school library; to employ teachers, except when the town may direct the school visitors to employ the teachers, and must pay the wages of teachers employed by the district committee; to lay taxes and borrow money for all the foregoing purposes; to make regulations for establishing and conducting schools not inconsistent with the regulations of the town. Each school district must hold an annual meeting each June for the choice of officers and for the transaction of any other business relating to schools. Special meetings may be held whenever duly called. District meetings must be held in the district, preferably in the dis¬ trict schoolhouse, and due notice must be given of each meeting. Every meeting may choose its own moderator. In districts in which there are four hundred or more children enu¬ merated, when one-third of the voters present at any district meeting so request, any question pending before the meeting must be submitted to a ballot of the voters of the district. In such case due notice must 72 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. be given, and the balloting must occur within one week, the ballot boxes being open from 9 a. m. to 5 p. m. The result must be ascertained and declared by the chairman of the meeting. Upon the request of 20 voters all elections for district officers must be by ballot, as described. If a district fail to elect any of its officers at its annual meeting, or if a vacancy occur, the school visitors of the town fill the vacancy till the next district meeting. In case of the refusal or neglect of a district to employ a teacher or keep open a school, the school visitors of the town may open a school in that district at the expense of the town. DISTRICT COMMITTEES. Each school district must choose, by ballot, at the annnal meeting a committee of three persons, a clerk, a treasurer, and a collector. Dis¬ tricts having not less than 200 enumerated children may elect the mem¬ bers of their committees for three years, choosing one each year. In such case, vacancies in the district committee are filled by the remain¬ ing members till the next annual district meeting. The committee of every district must give due notice of all meetings of the district. They may call a special meeting at any time, and must call one at the request of ten voters of the district. It is their duty to appoint teachers unless the town otherwise directs; to provide suitable schoolrooms and furnish fuel; to visit the schools; furnish books for pupils unable to buy them; to suspend or expel pupils guilty of incor¬ rigibly bad conduct; to give such information and assistance to the school visitors as they may require; to report annually to the school visitors; to cause an enumeration to be made annually of all the chil¬ dren in the district between 4 and 16 years of age. The City oe Savannah and the County oe Chatham, Ga.1 The board of education is a self-perpetuating close corporation. In the acts establishing the publiC’Scliool system, nine persons were des¬ ignated by name who, with the u commissioners of the Massie school” appointed under the ordinances of the city, constituted the board of public education of the city of Savannah and the county of Chatham, and under that name they were created a body politic and corporate with perpetual succession of members. They received full power to establish and modify from time to time a plan and system of education for all children in the city and county between the ages of 6 and 18 years, and to superintend the same; to appoint, suspend, and remove teachers, and provide schoolhouses; to make by-laws, rules, and regu¬ lations for their own government and for the government of the teachers and schools; to designate and elect officers of the board, and to fill vacancies (except among the commissioners of the Massie school) in any 1 Compiled from acts of 1866 and of 1878 and city ordinances of 1866 and 1895, in Bchool reports of 1866 and 1895. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 73 maimer whatever caused, either among officers or members of the board; to acquire, hold, or sell real or personal property, and to have the usual powers and privileges of corporations necessary for carrying out the purposes of their creation. They receive all money allotted to the county of Chatham from the State school fund, all the county educa¬ tional funds, and such sums as may be appropriated by the city council of Savannah for schools, and expend the same at their discretion; but the money appropriated by the city council may not be used for the county schools. The Massie school referred to in the acts mentioned was established in 1855, as the result of a legacy of $5,000 to the city council in trust for the maintenance of common schools of the city. The city ordinances provide that there shall be three commissioners of the Massie school, to be appointed annually by the mayor, subject to the confirmation of the council. The mayor himself must be one of the three unless he is already a member of the board of education. The other two may be selected either from the board of aldermen or from the citizens at large, or from both. They unite with and form a part of the board of education, and are subject to its by-laws, rules, and regulations. ed 96 - 3* Summary of laws relating to the school hoards of certain cities. — Part I. 74 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS, II fi II J§ <8 _ © 1 S||8 >i'~ O >i £ b i-j =1 o ® eg I1 a ^ o ® § 3 l! "i • <- fi a c o.2 i'll § S © 1§ 3 ^ 3 3 s£ o sll 111 IS %1 II - 3 § .s 1- II 11 .i? Hi! :*i |ii Hi »g* |g £ a © ® © ^ 65 e.|-i§«S3igf a, sg* :i=3 : I! llJ|£i?!l! 1 • » 1 • ^ » • ■ : ° : : : If : ®" i : : 3 3 - 0 ! o ! ! ! i§ f -+=> • ^ « • j I If i 1 i • -i > if ^ -+j C i -2-3 2 SIS Sis <1 <3 &Q j <1 ^ <1 R ^‘oio ^-•3 -*© t> o Kp,, S3s g|^gs 2 . JfcGSE oSoft 5£p £>© rfi i'=: II d-= o ©*— +? fl © 3 8 " fi 3 £ * JaJL SS Sfe?| soft ^3®^ Sill ^“£iS 1 © v >5 > 'fi ® © ,~ rfSswi1.8S| •2 „oob| 3 H <3 fi¬ ll H {V T3 © © s?f5 i Is5» 1 Ugi! !:#ljj 3 a <1 §• H Sid 1*1 5 o 8 S g i 1 1 O i i i g 1 1 1 I a f i § g s 3 tH s g e § Summary of laws relating to tlxe school hoards of certain cities. — Part I — Continued. 76 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. O © ©•^ a 3g§ flSs ®s © ©ft b ©^ ’a g £ * g ** fl 5 0 o ft . © ® W 3 g S3 rt • D © . rt © ©0 ® . ft ® ■§ o§a©| .-s -J | ® % JS o O ® © >J2 © +=. ©ft M'S -H .o © © 'o-S-B rtft 'g 0 .2 ft o M A A ft © w a ..a ci © ©ft k~.ft c a O 0 -- 0 §ft* "grt Sort pa "S S 6 CO a O ^ © s bjjft bfc,® ©Sft © ft u O^o '© >a OQ ft © ?3 o © g* cscq.rt © _ o -a fcjo Sh © of a o, - -tJ r- i -rl © ft © ™ & ftrSH, © © '« So © ■ ■ •-* ® a © © ft fcX) A <1 a||s|| © >$ a g ® 2 ®£ a © f-i C3 ©g S-isI*. © © o ° raew © a O as © p. ft o © fcJD P< . rt o fcc-i-i rrt m © a so | fee© A’ -2 ft bli ft-^ rt rt®.S©li 5 a a +3 ^ O ^ 's >,2 >,ft g ©rt3 flft £ ft ML- ® ~ “''S JSi s- 3 ©. a ' a ! o © .a © .9 a ~ ~ ^ , - b-ft ®- SJ o • weo p->>p_£ © .. ©ft 5° e? e? — ' © S3 ft a - op BOB- a a s © ga o . ft ® © b oft ft S Pi ft § a M ft © o ft Isf w S 0 °ft a .sia« ■§5*2 'sSgs- _ o a a 5i|§ © ©CZ2 © of laws relating to the school hoards of certain cities. — Part IT. LAWS RELATING TO CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 77 Summary of laws relating to the school hoards of certain cities. — Part II — Continued, 78 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 3-a . ©a ® III © a fl G ,3 g Pi ©J 3 g 32 a G „ • 3 ~® © '2 o o 2 fl o o 2 0,3 r3 o o f-i ® . fl r, rfl3 i ©rt tf 03 o o 5®"-1 1 III I I sS°ft © © a — 3 U-, "S © 2 .g 3 0 •pOO^hH S •@1|S rn fl fl 03 © a 3 bag o Ills 0 0 0 gtfl-a b^O-H O ^■g g "sC -a © .2 9'S 0 33 ^3 - 0 ©s 3 © g.fl'O S 3 3§ '£ o ^ DQ o 0 0 0 If . ill Q.O o tf flr© Xfl o 3 ■ tt>.p a 3 a o u 33 © © ft © ■g*s .2t> -P 0 .Jj [S-p k § §'3 ©J2 © >-.©33 32 ® — 3-tf 3 .g fl2 ©^ g © O o H fl g ko ^.2 2 S s a "o 9 ft o ftO Kg pa .2 ©rt rtf fl © 2 -4-3 3 ©43 33 43S 2 0 ©ft> H O _3 3 r— ( fl O fl O 5 -g Kg “ ^ O 3 g 3 += 4s 3 -is © © 3 © ft © © © ® H fl ■3 I 3 © S | ta-S rtf fl-tf .2 © 2 © 2 o -ga-g.23 © ©© 2 a a 3 © 4? a ?H "S o o a £•2 a ^ ^r3 ' I g£ £ 1-s® •p.SfS ® ©S W . Cl©4 ® K tf © 33i m o 1 o 32 Kg r©.2 3 © o w r° fl 3 h rt ® ® © o © © o {* Szi t* N & O 3 I? / «.a 1 3 >>a ®irrt -ft H g ft ©'3 2 ©s ofl go7® Oflfe’ 33 © ^ © © '.So 32 rs ® S4J'" d f-p© S32 g o © 3 •M-s^gjg^.a H fl 3 3 © ew O rtf 3 s-s o +s fl 2 3 fl O g e2 © © o ® 2=©, a 33 3 w O 3 © O 0 CO *»H 0 © .« .2° 2 g^a 22 a a -3 ^ 2 2 a -2 « o o — —ftao+joo fl O fl fl 9 j 3k b fl .9 © o a a ,9?JS | O a ® © ^ © © I ©©-go CO C3 ** .rH _ . . . -4-^ *7j fli ^ c* ■SisS^SsI ^ a 0 3 o +s S,rt^fl ^ >5 232 §3 o © . • Ss£ “a-3 S§ S§ ©; © 33 © fl © S g 3 a o © ^-3 a ls| 1^1 © a 2 w 3 o S a r© b« 32 ® r— 1 3 © K fl += ft 2 <11 ° 1 ! n .2 22 cs a ii 2 2—0. © ° a .11 5 aO ^'S ■a — © fl fl © © o ^3 g ® © u ft' 3 2 a

• K 3 2-0 3 © ®r° o © 332rtf^ O+rt 'aoo-3©2oa •r-1 O © O •|-1 - . ® b tfl©32 r° ©^ a 2 L, 3 3 .2 cS 2 © .© ©fl O ^ 0^ ■^0 0 .92 9 03 0^ rtf.© © 'flfl*^ — ® 3J4 W- ■ WJ-J3 > fl ft© ft©. ©.©Oofl ID ® >lB O'-1 3 ^1 rj w Kfl 2 ^ y, 3 ft o cjflSOP+s^Cft© H fl -<1 H ^3 -•I .9 >2 ®*3 2 ® a^ I ® fe a ©5 wa M o M I ^ d'3 ci © fl © tjrr O Hh fl fl fl fl o 3 a 3 ft o ft © <1 0 j 3 3 fl 0 0 "So .9 O a 03“ m © © ,3 3 a w 2 ft A a 3 a a r, Colo., . No.l. apolis, In d CQ fl" O ©rt M fl 3 0 O 3" © fl 0 'fl 2 ® *c Ph fl £ © 3 a a >.2§ © 0 ©rt § a 05 0 fl 1 3 a a afl fl 8 cj ,3 O fl w m CHAPTER II.1 THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. Topical outline. — Purpose of the bill; Its fate in the House; Historical importance; The educational system , progress from 1833-1897 , and its bearings upon the bill; Development of local government since 1832 and bearings upon the bill; The bill a departure from the law of 1870 ; Summary of its provisions; Speeches of Sir John Gorst in support of the measure; Mr. Asquith in opposition; Mr. Chamberlain’s opinion ; The boroughs x. the bill; Sir W. Vernon Harcourt on the causes of its defeat; Peview of the measure by Sir E. Lyulph Stanley. The most important event of the year as regards education in Eng¬ land is the endeavor to secure the passage of a new education bill which was introduced into the House of Commons early in April by its author, Sir John Gorst, vice-president of the education department. The bill was the immediate outcome of promises of further aid to parochial (voluntary) schools made during the campaign of 1895 by the leaders of the Conservative party. It had, however, other and deeper purposes, as avowed by its author and supporters. It was an ambitious endeavor to reorganize the local administration of educa¬ tion on the lines of recent reforms in local government in general, and with a view to the more efficient control and coordination of elementary, secondary, and technical instruction. However desirable these ends may be in themselves, the measures proposed for their accomplishment were apparently not drawn with due regard to existing conditions, and they were the more obnoxious because weighted with proposals favor¬ ing sectarian ascendancy in the schools. Although supported at the outset by an immense majority, the bill met with united and uncompro¬ mising opposition from the Liberals and Xonconformists, who regarded it as a covert attack upon borough rights and religious freedom. At the same time the amount and the character of the relief provided for parochial schools failed to satisfy the demands of the Conservatives. In spite, however, of conflicting councils and vehement opposition, the bill was carried to its second reading, May 5, by the very large majority of 267, hence its sudden collapse in the second week of the committee debate was an event entirely unexpected. In withdrawing the bill Mr. Balfour 2 intimated that its consideration would be resumed in January (1897), but it is generally understood that Prepared “by Miss Anna Tolman Smith. 2 Leader of the House of Commons. 79 80 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. the bill is dead and that the Government has lost the opportunity or expanding its educational policy as required by present exigencies. Although it failed as a legislative measure, the bill has a lasting his¬ toric importance. In the light of its provisions and of the discussions that it provoked, the actual state of popular education in England and the changes that have taken place in public sentiment and in the con¬ stitution of local authorities since the system of elementary education was established are distinctly shown. The main purposes of the bill, namely, the reform of educational administration and the further relief of voluntary schools, were not suddenly conceived. They were the slowly developing and natural outcome of causes that had long been gathering force. To understand the historical bearings of the defeated measure we must look for a moment, first, to tli& educational system as constituted in 1870, and second, to the progress of local government during the past fifty years. Since it became a matter of Government concern, the development of popular education has been closely related to political reforms. The passage of the reform bill of 1832 was followed the next year by the first grant ($100,000) from the public treasury in aid of elementary instruction, the second reform bill, that of 1867, which greatly extended the franchise among the working classes, was a direct cause of the education law of 1870, while, as we shall presently see, the more recent laws affecting local government are intimately related to the educa¬ tion bill under consideration. The existing system of elementary education dates from the law of 1870, but prior to the passage of that law the Government had devel¬ oped a very definite policy in respect to this great interest. It began with the money grant of 1833. The organized efforts for public education at the time were in charge of two societies, the “British and Foreign School Society” and the “National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Church of England.” These two societies had succeeded in arousing deep and widespread conviction of the necessity of public education; they had established many schools and received annually large sums in volun¬ tary subscriptions for their support. Through these two societies the annual Government appropriations for education were at first distrib¬ uted. In 1839 a committee of the Privy Council was established to administer the grants, which were raised at the time to $150,000 per annum. Aid from the grants was confined to schools in relation with one or the other of the societies named until 1847. In that year the Roman Catholics and Wesleyan Methodists were admitted to share in the appropriation upon specified conditions. The committee made the daily reading of Scripture obligatory in assisted schools and required further that they should be open to the inspection of Government officers. The growing interest of the Government was manifested, not by THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 81 increased grants alone, but equally by the increased scope of its action. In 1843 Parliamentary aid to education was extended by grants for teachers’ residences, the erection of training colleges which the societies and denominations were ready to maintain, and at the same time by special grants to aid poor and populous districts in their efforts to maintain schools. In 1846 the policy of Governm ent aid in respect to the training of teachers was developed on the lines maintained to the present time, additional grants were offered to teachers who passed examina¬ tion before Government inspectors, grants were allowed for pupil teachers, and “ Queen’s scholarships” were founded for those who entered training colleges. As the work extended, the need of more formal organization became urgent, and in 1860 the central committee began a movement in this direction by collecting and systematizing the minutes that had been issued from time to time for the guidance of those who sought to share in the Parliamentary grant. This body of regulations was called the “ code.” The following year these regulations were extensively altered and developed into what is known as the “ revised code,” associated with the name of the Eight Hon. Bobert Lowe, who introduced the famous policy of “ payment upon results.” By this provision the greater part of the grant to any school was made upon the average attendance and the results of the examination of individual pupils in the three elementary branches. The effect that this policy would have in reduc¬ ing instruction to a narrrow mechanical grind was certainly not foreseen by its author. His purpose was undoubtedly to allay denom¬ inational jealousies by provisions that would limit the Government aid to purely secular branches and further to insure a positive appre¬ ciable result from the outlay of public money. Codes are still issued annually by the education department, and as they must be sanctioned by Parliament they have the binding force of law. Prom this brief survey it appears that the Government began its active work in behalf of popular education by fostering denominational schools, although its efforts were wholly directed to securing the essen¬ tial conditions of effective secular instruction. The system had free course for nearly forty years, but failed to meet the ever-growing demands for universal education. Illiteracy increased, while the extension of popular suffrage and the conditions of modern industry increased its evil effects. The Christian conscience of England and the civic apprehension were aroused ; the opportune moment was seized by Mr. Forster and his colleagues for establishing a national system of education. In the debate on the first reading of the education bill of 1870 Mr. Forster stated that about 1,500,000 children were educated more or less imperfectly by the existing agencies ; that is, they were “on the registers.” His estimates showed particularly that “only two-fifths of the children of the working classes between the ages of 82 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 6 and 10 years were on the registers of the Government schools, and only one-tliird of those between the ages of 10 and 12. Consequently, of those between 6 and 10 about 700,000, more or less, were helped, and 1,000,000 were left without help, while of those between 10 and 12 250,000 were helped and at least 500,000 were left unhelped ” — that is, about 1,500,000 of the children of the working classes were neglected. Not only. had private initiative failed to secure the instruction of all children, but it appeared further “that where State help had been most wanted State help had been least given, and that where it was desirable that State power should be most felt it was not felt at all.” Even in view of these conditions it was not proposed to antagonize the work in progress. “Our object,” said Mr. Forster, “is to complete the present voluntary system, to fill up gaps.” The main principles insisted upon in the new measure were “ legal enactment that there shall be efficient schools everywhere throughout the Kingdom” and “compulsory provision of such schools if, and where, needed, but not unless proved to be needed.” Following long-established precedents in England, it was proposed that the Government should accomplish this purpose through local agencies, and following the tendency of the time, it was determined that the new agencies should be elected by the legal voters $ hence the new machinery which the law of 1870 called into being consisted of school boards elected in their respective districts. The school boards, once constituted, became the media for the distri¬ bution of the public grant to board schools on the same terms as the managers of voluntary schools. The boards had, however, one privi¬ lege in which their rivals did not share — they were empowered to claim or to levy rates (local property taxes) for the maintenance of elementary schools ) in other words, a system of what are called in America public schools was set up side by side with the voluntary or parochial system. The board schools were also subject to one restriction that did not apply to “voluntary” schools. In addition to the restraining influence of a “ conscience clause,” which was applicable to all schools, they were for¬ bidden to teach any “religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of any particular denomination.” Furthermore, the school boards were empowered to borrow money on the security of the school fund for the purpose of building, enlarging, or furnishing schoolhonses. In each case the consent of the education department was necessary. Payment might be spread over a period of fifty years, and the public works loan commission was authorized, on recommendation of the education department, to loan the money required. Beyond these three provisions, the two classes of schools were on the same footing and were classed together as State-aided elementary schools. The development of this dual system has been in some respects phe¬ nomenal. In 1870, when the board schools had just begun operations, THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 83 tlie Government inspection showed that provision had been made in State-aided schools for 1,878,584 pupils, or S.75 per cent of the popula¬ tion. In 1S94 there was accommodation for 5,832,944 pupils, or 19.44 per cent of the population. Of the additional accommodation provided since 1S70, voluntary schools furnished 1,755,249 places, an increase of 93 per cent, and board schools 2,199,111 places. The enrollment in the schools the same year (1894) was 5,198,741 pupils and the average attendance 4,225,834, a gain in the latter item of 268 per cent since 1870. The increase in the number of teachers is still greater, reaching 276 per cent. The increase in these particulars has been accompanied by an expansion of the ideal of popular education. Progress in this respect has been forced by the ever-increasing demand for skilled labor, and has naturally been most marked in the great manufacturing centers. Mr. Mundella, for many years the active head of the education department, well understood the intimate rela¬ tion between education and industrial advance, and succeeded in making a break through the narrow lines of the u revised code.” The merit grant determined by the general conditions of the schools was introduced by him in 1882, and at the same time more liberal grants were allowed for the higher subjects. The result was a rapid exten sion of the curricula of board schools (especially on the science side) in all the chief cities, and a corresponding improvement in the teach¬ ing force and in teachiug appliances. The pride and self-interest of citizens were stimulated, and the boards were supported in the large expenditures, whose burden fell necessarily upon the local taxes. The voluntary schools found themselves distanced in the race, cries of u Extravagance ! ” were raised against the boards by their rivals, and demands made for additional aid to parochial schools. The final abandonment in 1890 of the principle of u payment upon results,” and the law of 1891 providing a grant in lieu of fees for all -schools remitting the same, increased the tension. The former policy gave distinct advantages to schools having the largest resources, and the latter stimulated efforts in behalf of a universal system of board schools. The law of 1870, as it finally passed, bore every mark of compromise, but it was this in no mean sense ; extreme views had simply given way to considerations of the public welfare. It was foreseen that the two classes of school managers and of schools recognized under the law, i. e., the voluntary and the public, were likely to clash at some future time, but the outcome was wisely left to circumstances ; no endeavor was made to hamper the development of either class. As we have already noted, the friction between the two classes of schools and the inequality of their resources were principal causes of the late futile effort to recast the system. Another not less important and vastly more intricate cause of the endeavor is found in the constitution of school districts. 84 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The disturbances that were likely to arise from this source were also foreseen by the advocates of the original law (1870). That law made every borough subject to the municipal corporations act of 1835, a school district, and in the country every civil parish.1 (i. e., district for which, a separate poor rate is or may be levied), but its author was careful to state both the reasons for and the objections to this choice.2 The adjustment of school districts is part of the great problem of local administration whose solution has been one of the chief ends of legis¬ lative action for more than half a century. To understand the principal ^he 40 English and 12 Welsh counties are divided into 14,946 poor-law or civil parishes, i. e., districts in each of which a separate poor rate may he levied; hut the same ground is covered hy about 13,000 ecclesiastical parishes, and again hy 14,777 highway parishes; nor is this enumeration exhaustive. These divisions have heen made at different times and for various purposes, without any regard to previous boundaries. Moreover, the units of a division may he combined; thus, for purposes of poor-law administration the civil parishes are formed into 649 unions, 25 of which are single parish unions. It is desirable to have this fact in mind on account of the relation of parishes and unions to school boards. 2 With respect to the area Mr. Forster said: “For this we take present known divisions and declare them to be school districts, so that upon the passing of this bill there will be no portion of England or Wales not included in one school district or another. * * * We have taken the boundaries of boroughs as regards towns and parishes as regards the country, and when I say parish I mean the civil parish, and not the ecclesiastical district. * * * As regards towns, I think there can be but little doubt. Almost every one will jump to the conclusion that in boroughs we should take the municipal boundaries, but there may be a difference of opinion as to the rural districts. The education bills hitherto brought forward have taken the union ; we take the parish, with the power, of course, to unite parishes together. There are several reasons why we prefer the parish to the union, though it is a very difficult matter to decide upon, and there is much to be said on both sides. In the first place, there is a vast difference between the condition of town and country with respect to education. Any bill to be successful must be elastic to meet that differ¬ ence. Take the parish in the country, and we at once admit the possibility of that difference and make the bill elastic, being in this way able to treat town and coun¬ try in a different manner. Again, in a country district, the principle of our bill is better fitted to a small unit of area, because we do not intend to meddle with a dis¬ trict that can safely be left to itself. Another reason is that many unions through¬ out the Kingdom are composed of a town surrounded by outlying country parishes. Well, if we had to take the town out of the union it would be like taking the kernel out of the nut, and making our organization almost impossible. It would be neces¬ sary either to have a school board to meet these conflicting or at least entirely differ¬ ent conditions, or you would be obliged to contend with the disadvantage of taking out the central and more populous district and of trying to join together by them¬ selves the outlying parishes. * * * I can not leave this point without just alluding to the reason why wo have this difficulty at all, which is almost a disgrace to this country. We are behind almost every other civilized country, whether in America or on the continent of Europe, in respect to rural municipal organization, and this drawback meets us not only in connection with education, but when many other social questions affecting the people come before us. The same difficulty applies to London. With respect to London, as I have already said, we have taken the best divisions we could find — the school districts as already established, which, I believe, are working well, and cover nearly the whole metropolis. Where these districts do not exist we take the boundaries of the vestries.” THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 85 proposition of tlie defeated school law it is necessary to refer to a series of acts dealing with this problem. The reform law of 1832, as summed up by Green, “took away the right of representation from 50 decayed or rotten boroughs, gave the 143 members they returned to counties or large towns which as yet sent no members to Parliament, established a £10 householder qualifi¬ cation for voters in boroughs, and extended the county franchise to leaseholders and copyholders.’5 The new privileges accelerated the growth of the civic spirit in large towns and led directly to the munici¬ pal corporations act of 1835, which, to quote again from Mr. Green, “ restored to the inhabitants of towns those rights of self-government of which they had been deprived since the fourteenth century.” The towns, or, as they are technically termed, municipal boroughs,1 became, as we have seen, school districts under the law of 1870. Subsequent laws, especially that of 1882, have amended and extended the powers conferred upon the boroughs by the act of 1835. These laws, however, only reached a single factor of the problem of local government. There remained to be dealt with a bewildering maze of areas, authorities, privileges, and responsibilities. The situation is indicated — to describe it would be impossible — by the following passages in an article by Mr. Thring: “Local government,” he says, “is perhaps the most difficult problem which presents itself for solution to the English statesman. Take one county alone for an example. The county of Somerset con¬ tains 497 parishes, 11 boroughs, 22 unions, 10 local government districts, 17 rural sanitary districts, G6 school-board districts, besides numerous highway districts. Each of these divisions is governed by a separate body with distinct powers, and elected, with but few exceptions, by separate constituencies, separate modes of voting, and at different times of year. Multiply these authorities by 52, the number of counties in England — and bear in mind that a scheme of local government involves a knowledge of the particulars of each of the above-mentioned authorities, and in many cases an alteration in their status — and some idea may be formed of the difficulties to be overcome.” After enumerating in a summary form 18 local authorities, the same article continues: “Such is a bird’s-eye view of the whole field of local government. If depicted in a map, the areas form an entangled mass of interlacing boundaries, and when it is remembered that each area is a separate little kingdom with its governing body, its adminis¬ trative officers, its taxation, overlapping and conflicting with each other, requiring separate elections with different franchises and expen¬ sive registration, the reform of such a system would seem to require from its complexity the genius of a local government Moltke.”2 boroughs are of two kinds : (1) A corporate town possessing a regularly organized municipal government and special privileges conferred by royal charter, usually called a municipal borough. A town having the right to send one or more rep¬ resentatives to Parliament, usually called a parliamentary borough. (Century Dictionary.) Nineteenth Century, March, 1888. 86 EDUCATION REPORT; 1895-96. In 1888 a local- government act was passed dealing with the whole subject. It has been reenforced by subsequent laws, especially that of 1894, but it concerns us here to note only that it made the county the unit of local administration, and included in that term a certain num¬ ber of boroughs, denominated county boroughs. Altogether 126 admin¬ istrative areas (65 counties, 61 county boroughs) were constituted. The boroughs included, practically, all the cities of England with popu¬ lations of 100,000 and upward, and a few whose populations were less than 100,000, the limit being 50,000. London was treated separately as a county. Intense opposition to the law of 1888 was manifested at the time by boroughs whose population fell below 50,000, and it was the renewal of opposition from this quarter that wrecked the late education bill. Following the precedent established in municipal boroughs, the gov¬ erning authority in the counties and county boroughs was made an elected council. These councils were brought into the category of educational authori¬ ties by legislation of 1889, authorizing them to levy a tax, not exceed¬ ing a penny in the iiound, for the support of technical schools, and that of 1890, placing at the disposal of the councils the surplus from the duties on liquors, with the privilege of applying the same to technical education. This interest lies outside the province of elementary edu¬ cation, but it brought the councils into direct contact with the boards that had developed higher grade or secondary departments, and increased the complications between educational affairs and local administration. Since 1870 several laws have been passed dealing with elementary education, but none of these have departed from the principles of action established by the Forster law. Their purpose has been to extend and strengthen the operations of that law; thus the law of 1876 provided a machinery, viz, “school- attendance committees,” to enforce school attendance where there were no school boards.1 The law of 1891, pro¬ viding for the remission of fees, was intended to increase school attend¬ ance and to prolong the average period, and such in fact has been its effect. The characteristic principles of the policy established in 1870, namely, the free expansion of local effort, the uniform and impartial exercise of central supervision, the prohibition of sectarian instruction in board or public schools, were attacked for the first time by the recent bill. Its proposals, tendencies, and fate will be best understood from speeches and articles which it evoked. These also afford an intimate view of the present status of popular education in England and of those complicated relations to local administration which have been indicated in this introductory survey. 1 At tlie present time school hoards have jurisdiction over nearly 20,000,000 of the population of England and Wales, leaving 10,000,000 to the oversight of school- attendance committees. THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 87 The provisions of the hill as summarized below will suffice for an understanding of the references in the speeches and articles cited. With respect to the provision as to religious instruction (clause 27 of the bill proper), it may be premised that the impossibility of carrying it in the original form was made evident from the first. The following is a summary of the proposed bill : (1) The setting up in eacli county and county borough of “a paramount educa¬ tional authority,, ” to be drawn mainly from the town and county councils. (2) The devolving upon this authority of the general control, right of inspection, and grant-dispensing powers, already possessed by the educational department. (3) The creation of a new “ special aid grant ” of 4 shillings per child in attend¬ ance at all voluntary schools and in attendance at school-board schools now receiving the special assistance provided under section 97 of the act of 1870 (number of such board schools about 125). (4) The abolition of the seventeen-and-six penny limit. (See p. 104.) (5) The exemption of elementary schools from rating (property tax). (6) The provision of a public audit of accounts in all schools receiving the “ spe¬ cial-aid grant.” (7) The granting of powers to the educational authorities to lend money to volun¬ tary schools upon the security of the school buildings. (8) The absolute application of the surplus from the duties on spirits to educa¬ tional purposes. (9) The power of veto upon any additional school-board expenditure caused by increases in the cost of “ maintenance ” to rest with town, county, or district coun¬ cils, as the case may be, and the fixing of a limit to the amount per capita which schools should be allowed to spend. (10) The removal of the work of carrying out the compulsory clauses of the act of 1870 in nonschool board districts from the hands of the present school-attendance committees into the hands of the new education authorities. (See footnote p. 86.) (11) The guardianship of industrial-school and poor-law-school children to be in the hands of the new education authorities. (12) Opportunity for the federation of schools by districts or denominations for the conduct of the schools and the administration of the grant. (13) Permissive powers to school boards to transfer their organized science or higher grade schools to the care of the new educational authority. (14) The age for juvenile labor to be raised to 12 (present age 11 years) ; and (15) The extension of the Cowper-Temple clause of the act of 1870, so as to give the parent not only the right to withdraw his child from religious instruction, but to have facilities offered him for the teaching of his child during the hour of reli¬ gious instruction in the specific denominational tenets of his own faith. [Cited from Schoolmaster, April 4, 1896.] The speech of Sir John Gorsfc in presenting the bill is reproduced here in full as being the strongest statement on the part of the Gov¬ ernment. The text used is from the report in the Schoolmaster1 of April 4, and the head lines introduced by the paper are preserved as affording a ready index to the context. SPEECH OF SIR JOHN GORST- ON PRESENTING THE BILL. Before, sir, I describe the bill which the Government are asking the House to be allowed to introduce, perhaps the House will allow me to mention some of the diffi¬ culties in education which the wisdom of Parliament will have to meet. ]The Schoolmaster is the organ of the National Union of Elementary Teachers, edited by a prominent leader of the progressive school party, Mr. Macnamara. 2 Vice-president of the education department. 88 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. THE DISABILITY UNDER WHICH THE VOLUNTARY SCHOOLS WORK. There is first the difficulty of voluntary schools. Last year the voluntary schools educated 2,445,812 children, as against 1,879,218 educated in the hoard schools; or, to put the matter in a more popular form, of every seven children educated by the State, three were educated in board schools and four in the voluntary schools. Whether or not the existence of the voluntary schools is an advantage to the State is a matter of controversy. I am one of those who believe that it is of advantage, because they tend to infuse independence, originality, and variety into our national education, and, to some extent, counteract that tendency to uniformity and rigid¬ ness which is the usual characteristic of a State system of education. But whatever view may be taken, it is not of great importance for practical statesmen, because the voluntary schools are there, and there seems very little prospect of their disappearing within any definite time. The Roman Catholics boast — and with truth — that they have never surrendered a single one of their schools to aboard, and that those schools which have been discontinued since 1870 have been discontinued in consequence of the fluctuations of population. In 1870 the Church of England had 844,334 children in its schools; in 1895 it had 1,850,545. The subscriptions, which were in 1870 £329,846, were in 1895 £640,406. The little comfort which some people derive from the reflection that, though these subscriptions have enormously increased, they have not increased proportionately to the number of children educated has been dispelled by the results of the last year, for, whereas in 1894 the subscriptions to Church of England schools amounted to 6s. 8£d. per child, in 1895 they amounted to 6s. 10£d. Besides this, the Church of England boast of having spent in buildings between 1870 and 1895 a sum of £7,375,402. The Roman Catholics and a very large part of the members of the Church of England make it a point of conscience that their children should be educated by teachers of their own denomination; and it would be impos¬ sible to force those children out of their own schools into the board schools without being guilty of a piece of religious intolerance which the people of England in these enlightened days would never consent to. THE COST OF REPLACING THEM. But there is another lower, but very solid, obstacle to the disappearance of the voluntary schools, and that is the cost of replacing them. I have asked our profes- siohal advisers to make some estimate of what this cost would be. I am advised that there are 3,620,805 places in voluntary schools which would have to be reprovided. As far as the best experience goes, the cost to the country for every place provided in board schools is £13 8s. 8d. That includes London, where the cost is very high. In London the cost is £20 9s. 4d. per child; and, if you exclude London, the cost in the provinces of England and Wales is £11 5s. lOd. per child. My advisers say that it would be much cheaper to provide for those 3,000,000 children than it has been for those who have been provided for already. There would be, presumably, a number of voluntary schools which could be had extremely cheap, and I am advised that the sum of £7 per head would be a fair and not excessive estimate of the cost. At that rate it would cost the people of this country £25,345,635 to provide schools for the children now being educated in the voluntary schools. Row, how much does it cost to maintain these schools? In the first place the subscriptions would have to be replaced by the rates, and that would cost £836,000. It is notorious that the expenditure in the voluntary schools is very much below that in the board schools, and that difference would have to be made up out of the rates. That would amount to £1,373,351. Further, you would have to provide for the correspondence of the different schools, which is now done gratis by the managers; and it is not excessive to say that this administration would cost £5 a school all round, which would add another £72,420 to the cost. That makes altogether for the annual maintenance of these children a sum of £2,282,199, and that allows nothing for repairs and THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 89 improvements. It seems to me that this capital expenditure of £25,000,000 and this annual expenditure of £2,225,000 is a very solid obstacle to the abolition of the volun¬ tary schools. I think, therefore, as far as practical statesmanship is concerned, that the question which this House has to consider is not whether it will abolish the volun¬ tary schools, hut whether they are efficient for the education of the people ; and, if not efficient, how they can he best made so. There is no doubt that some of the volun¬ tary schools are as good as any schools in the country. I have made inquiries from the inspectors, and the advice which they give mo is this — that most of the voluntary schools in the poorest part of the great cities labor under financial dfficulties, and especially is that so with respect to the Eoman Catholic schools. Those schools are supported some by religious orders, frequently by begging appeals, by sales of work, by concerts, and by subscriptions of the very poorest people. And the provision per head of the scholars in these schools which the managers are able to make is far below that which is provided in the board schools in the same great cities. They are further oppressed by the great rise of salaries which has taken place of recent years. I have before me the case of a large school at Westminster, with the same average attendance, where the cost of salaries has risen in six years from £605 to £974. I have the case of another school at Salford in which, in the same six years and with the same average attendance, the salaries have risen from £981 to £1,282. THE <( INTOLERABLE STRAIN” AND WHO BEARS IT. If you take a survey of the whole country you will find that the sum devoted to the maintenance of children in voluntary schools amounts to £1 18s. lbfd. per child, as against £2 10s. lfd. per child in the board schools. That makes a difference of 11s. 2^d. per child. And this difference is almost entirely represented by a lower payment to the teaching staff, for the difference in the cost of the teaching staff in the voluntary schools and the board schools is 9s. 4f d. per child. This difference, which is so great over the whole extent of the Kingdom, is greater still in the great cities. In London the difference is no less than 19s. 9fd., in Liverpool 13s. 7d., in Manchester 11s. 7d., and in Leeds 12s. lfd. The result of this difference in the teach¬ ing staff in the schools is this : In the first place all teachers in voluntary schools are lower paid than the corresponding teachers in the board schools. Take them man for man and with the same number of children, and you will find all round that the head teachers in the voluntary schools are far lower paid than the head teachers in the board schools. Then for assistant teachers they have cheaper and less-qualified teachers. As everyone knows, a concession was made several years ago which allowed schools to have a young woman of upward of 18, and approved by the inspector, without any specific qualification at all, as an assistant in schools, and that kind of assistant has increased with most marvelous and extraordinary rapidity. There is also this very year a concession made*in the Code allowing the headteacher in small country schools to be a person possessed of less qualifications. It is a very bad arrangement, in my opinion. My poverty, and not my will, consented to it. And then the voluntary schools have to use to a very great extent that most extravagant form of economy, child labor. Besides having less-qualified teachers, voluntary schools are, as compared with board schools, understaffed, that is to say, they have fewer teachers to the same number of children. They only just comply with the minimum recommendations of the committee of council. I have said enough to show the House that the question really is, How is the teaching staff in voluntary schools to be improved, and what are the means which we should resort to for that purpose? BUT BOARD SCHOOLS BEAR A STRAIN ALSO. But it is not the voluntary schools only that are oppressed by the great weight of their duties. There are necessitous board schools as well. This was foreseen at the time when the act of 1870 was passed. There is a section of that act — section 97 — 90 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. which provides tliat if a scliool “board can not, by levying a 3-penny rate, provide a snm of 7s. 6d. per child for the children that it has to educate, then the State will make a contribution from the exchequer to make up the difference. It was supposed at that time that that was a sufficient and adequate provision. Experience has proved that it is wholly inadequate. There is near London the school district of Walthamstow, where the school board has been established for the last fifteen years, and where the rates during that period have risen from 4d. to Is. Gd. in the pound. It has a population of tradesmen and artisans which has doubled in ten years and which is now 61,000. There are 31 schools, and £20,000 a year is being spent on their maintenance. There are new schools now being built, and further schools are urgently required. There are no factories or valuable rating property on which the school board can operate, and a 1-penny rate only raises £800. Under section 97 the grant which this district obtains is only £956. That is not a solitary instance. There is West Ham, where in 1895-96 the school rate is 2s. 4d. in the pound. There is the case of Ormesby, near Middlesbrough, where for the last three years the rate has averaged Is. 54d. ; and there is the case of the Forest of Dean, where the rate is 2s. 5d. in the pound. In rural districts also there are many school boards established in small parishes where the rate which has to be levied for the purpose of maintain¬ ing the school is of enormous amount. THE WHOLE PROBLEM OE RURAL EDUCATION. That brings me to say a few words to the House on the whole subject of rural edu¬ cation. On education in the rural districts there are two diametrically opposite opinions. There are some people who say — though they say it more in private than in public — that education is thrown away on boys who are destined to spend their youth in scaring crows, their manhood in field labor, and their old age in the work- house. There are other people who say that knowledge and intelligence are among the commodities most needed in the country districts, and that if all classes engaged in the cultivating of the soil, from the top to the bottom, were better informed we should grow more of the food of the people at home and import less. But, which¬ ever opinion may be correct, there is nothing to be said in favor of halting between them as we do. We spend subscriptions, rates, and time in the education of the rural population, but we do not carry the operation far enough to raise up an instructed peasantry like that which in Hormandy or in Demark is capable of receiving tech¬ nical education and able to undersell us with its produce. There is no official infor¬ mation as to the results, but such glimpses of rural education as we get are extremely discouraging. An honorable member a week or two ago called my attention to the amount of illiteracy in the voting for Parliament, and he seemed to be surprised that there were large numbers of the rural voters who could not read or write. There is in Ipswich a labor bureau, which has been carried on for some years under the management of Mr. Wyckham Tozer. Some years ago, finding that a large num¬ ber of applications came from youths in the country districts around Ipswich, Mr. Tozer formed the idea of making a little educational investigation. Ho had a form which he required appiicants to fill up in their own handwriting, giving their age, place of birth, school attended, and standard reached. On the back was set a little arithmetical examination — an addition of simple money, a multiplication of a sum of money by 8, and a problem such as, “If 10 pounds of flour cost so much, what would be the cost of 2 hundredweight.” The result of this investigation was that, of the boys between 16 and 18 years of age who applied for employment, one-fourth could write fairly, one-quarter could write moderately, and quite one-half could only write in the most disgraceful manner, both as to penmanship and spelling. As to the arith¬ metic, 10 per cent answered the questions, 15 per cent were able to do one of the sums set, and 75 per cent could not answer a single one of the questions. And yet many of these boys had a few years before been in village schools, and some of them had attained as high as the sixth standard. THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 91 THE PETTIFOGGING RURAL SCHOOL BOARD. As tilings are, tlie only salvation of rural education, such as it is, is the parson’s village school. He has many advantages as the manager of a school. He is an edu¬ cated man, and knows something of the necessities of education. I do not say that all school hoards in the country are ill-managed. There are some which are not generally, because the clergyman of the parish, or the minister of some other denomi¬ nation, or some gentleman interested in education, takes up the school board and manages it. But, as a general rule, while the board schools in the great cities have proved themselves extremely efficient in education, the board schools in the country have proved themselves totally inefficient. If you were to replace the voluntary schools in the country by board schools you would degrade national education. I think this is proved very often by the efforts which the people themselves make in the country districts to avert what they regard as the calamity of school boards. There are numberless places, both country parishes and small tovrns, in which for years past a voluntary rate has been levied and a committee of the inhabitants have been appointed who have applied this voluntary rate to subsidize the church and dis¬ senting schools, and have in this way kept off wdiat they considered to be the calamity of a school board. The records of the education office are full of examples of the absurdities and incapacities of country school boards. The House will remem¬ ber that not many w^eeks ago I was questioned by the honorable member for Cock- ermouth, who called attention to the fact that a school board wTas educating its infants in a room in the “New Buck Inn.” In the educational report for 1891-95 there is a quotation from Mr. Wilson, an inspector in the eastern division of England, who says that the school attendance is far from satisfactory, and that some of the smaller boards do not even pretend to enforce the law. Indeed, they can not, as it is part of their election pledges not to prosecute for irregular attendance. The fol¬ lowing passage, however, in the general report for 1894, drawn up by Mr. Brodie, till recently Her Majesty’s chief inspector for the southwestern division of England, and published in the report of the education department for 1895, contains the most outspoken criticism of the proceedings of some small country boards: “The climax is reached in the country board school. True, indeed, it is that a few of these are well managed, but in by far the most there is no management at all worthy of the name ; there is no pride in progress — nay, the very reverse. Additional subjects mean additional staff, additional apparatus; the rates must be kept down, the school starved, the teacher underpaid, and sometimes, if the inspector does not sternly forbid it, some young, raw, untrained, and oven stupid relative of one of the members of the school board is to be foisted onto the teaching staff, to produce such rotten fruit as may be expected when a sickly graft is added to an already unhealthy tree. I subjoin two facts which have come to my knowledge. In one country board school, which, by the great vigor and ability of the master, aided by a clever wife, had obtained great success, the master was rewarded by having his salary cut down by £20. Why? I answer (not without indignation), because he had earned that amount by his able conduct of the night school. In another country board school an active and zealous young mistress was dismissed because she wished to teach geography and was otherwise ardent for progress. She was replaced by a middle- aged and worn-out woman, who at no time could have had much capacity for teach¬ ing, and who could neither keep order nor get the children on. Thus do the 'rude forefathers of the hamlet’ nip the budding intellect of ingenuous youth. What a penny wise, pound foolish system ! ” THE CONDITION OF THE RURAL TEACHER. Then I should like the House to note the condition of the rural teachers. What arrangement have we in country places for the supply of rural teachers ? Our pupil eachers are a sort of child drudge. He or she walks to school, often at some distance; 92 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. lessons are taken either before school, in the dinner hour when the children are playing, or after school when the others have gone home; they are teaching all day long in the school, and they have to walk home when the work is over. This is not the way to bring up teachers. If any one would contrast the treatment of our coun¬ try teachers with the treatment of teachers in France or Germany, I think they will not be surprised that the general level of country education in France and Germany is greatly superior to our own. There are no centers for teaching pupil teachers as in great towns, and the consequence is that when the Queen’s scholarship examina¬ tion comes on the places are filled by town-bred pupil teachers, and only one or two country-bred teachers are squeezed in at the bottom of the list. Heads of training colleges will tell you that such country teachers as do squeeze in steadily rise in their ability and training, showing that their deficiencies are not in natural capacity, but only in the way in which they have been trained. I hope that I have said enough to convince the House that there is some valuable work before them in reference to elementary education. The Problem of Secondary Education. THE VARIETY OF CENTRAL AUTHORITIES. Now I will say a few words upon secondary education. It is not a question whether we should now proceed to interfere with secondary education. We are interfering with secondary education — have been interfering with it for years; but the question is whether we interfere in a foolish or in a wise manner. At the present time secondary education is being supervised by ten separate authorities, four central and six local. The central authorities are, first, the charity commis¬ sioners, who frame schemes for the use of educational endowments, and who generally supervise the administration of those educational endowments in par¬ ticular places, not doing this entirely by themselves, but consulting, to some extent, the education department; secondly, there is a science and art depart¬ ment, which makes grants of public money to schools and classes, thereby exercis¬ ing a most powerful influence on the secondary education of the country. They lay down the conditions on which they give their grants: First, schools must be either under the local authority or school board, under the governing body of endowed schools, or a local committee which is appointed, and under whose approval encouragement is given to make organized science schools, that is to say, to have a curriculum which is to be pursued for three years in accordance with plans pre¬ scribed by the science and art department. They pay grants according to results, and in that way they have exercised a notable influence on secondary education. Among other things, they have greatly depressed the literary side of education, and, though that is now modified, the payment is half by results and half by attendance. The result indicated, however, has been produced, and it will take many years to undo it. Then there is the education department, which influences the secondary education, first of all, through its higher grade schools, which supply many great cities with excellent secondary education, and often the only secondary education attainable. Then there are evening schools, which, again, supply secondary edu¬ cation; and, finally, there are the training colleges, which, though confined to a particular class, namely, those who are country teachers, arc secondary schools in every sense of the word; and the last central authority is the board of agriculture. The board of agriculture may inspect and report on any school in which technical instruction on any subject connected with agriculture is given. The subjects include chemistry, physics, biology, geology, mensuration, surveying, leveling, and book¬ keeping, and schools may be aided out of a parliamentary grant. THE GREATER VARIETY OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES. Now I come to the local authorities. The first and most important local authority is the county council. The county council, under the technical instruction acts of THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 93 1889-1891, may impose a penny rate for the purpose of giving aid to technical instruc¬ tion, and they have also the power to apply to technical instruction the residue of the local taxation money under the act of 1890, after reserves have been made for police and valuation. I have been inquiring how many counties in England and Wales apply this local taxation grant money of 1890 to the purpose of education. I find that in Wales the whole of the Welsh counties, including Monmouth and the three county boroughs in Wales, all apply the whole of their money to education. In England, out of 49 counties, 41 apply the whole of their money to education and 8 apply a portion of it. Out of 61 county boroughs in England 55 devote the whole and 5 a part, and 1 only applies the whole of the money in relief of these rates. Besides that, there are 11 county boroughs, 51 other boroughs, and 86 urban districts which impose rates under the powers of the technical-instruction act for the purposes of education; and one county (Wilts) has made a rate on a small area round Caine for the erection of an institute in the town. For the building purposes of education the counties have spent £339,135, and the county boroughs have sunk £662,836. Altogether, of all the moneys which were received under the local-taxation (1890) act, the whole of it is applied to education with the exception of £151,643, of which £115,758 is in London, so that only £35,885 is reserved in the towns and counties of England and Wales for that purpose. Then come the local governing bodies, . such as the governing bodies of endowed schools, the managing committees of pro¬ prietary schools and institutes, the local committees of the science and art depart¬ ment, school boards giving secondary education, and managers of voluntary schools, who also in many places give secondary education. In the appendix to the report of the Secondary Education Commission the House will find a very interesting table which shows what each county authority and county borough receives in the shape of endowment for science and art grants, local taxation grants, and rates applied for the purpose of education. It appears from it that there was actually spent in 1894 in England and Wales for secondary education by these various authorities £1,424,404, and if those authorities were to exercise all the powers which they pos¬ sess under the various acts then there would be at the disposal of secondary educa¬ tion £2,381,184. Many public secondary schools draw their income from a number of different sources. It is drawn from their fees, endowments, science and art grants, county council grants, the education department, the board of agriculture, and the school board. They are inspected and examined by a variety of those dif¬ ferent authorities. There is a piece of evidence from one of the witnesses before the Eoyal Commission on Secondary Education which I should like to read. It is from Mr. Easterbrook, headmaster of Owen’s school, Islington, a member of the Head¬ masters’ Association. He says : “The multiplicity of examinations is such a pressing evil that we really feel that there should be some relief offered us. I will give you a list of the examinations which one particular school has to keep its eye on during the year — the drawing examination of the science and art department in April, the science examination in May, the matriculation of the London University in January and June, the Lon¬ don county council intermediate scholarships in June. That is the case of London. Then there is the intermediate science and art examination in July, the Lon¬ don Chamber of Commerce examination in July. Then comes the annual examina¬ tion required by the charity commissioners’ scheme, the Cambridge local examination in December, and during the year, at different times, civil service examinations, professional examinations, and open scholarships at the universities. I am not overstating it in any case. I am giving the case of a particular school.” It is not surprising after what I have said that the secondary education commis¬ sioners report upon this subject in the following terms. This is the justification of the Government for bringing in the measure which they are going to ask the House to adopt. The commissioners, speaking of the want of coherence and correlation of secondary education, viz : u Of the loss now iiicurred through the want of such coherence and correlation it 94 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. is impossible to speak too strongly. * * * Unfortunately, so far from tending to cure itself, it is an evil 'which, every day strikes its roots deeper. The existing authorities and agencies, whose want of cooperation we lament, are each of them getting more accustomed to the exercise of their present powers and less disposed to surrender them. Vested interests are being created which will stand in the way of the needed reforms. Thus, the difficulty of introducing the needful coherence and correlation becomes constantly greater, and will be more serious a year or two hence than it is at the present moment. We feel bound, therefore, to state the opinion, which has grown stronger in us since we entered upon this inquiry, that the matter is one of urgency and ought to engage the very early attention of Your Majesty’s advisers and of Parliament.” THE WORK OF THE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. I have now come to my last point, and that is the education department itself. As long ago as 1859 the present Bishop of London and Lord Lingen, before the Duke of Newcastle’s commission, declared that the complication in the education office was enormous, owing to the central system. In 1883, Mr. Patrick Cumming, so long the secretary of the education department, said that the tremendous detail . of looking into every school of the country was too cumbrous. It was all very well when education was a small affair, but now that it has become national, it seemed to him that the system was too detailed. Last year the education department inspected 19,789 day schools and 3,421 evening schools. From each of these schools they received two direct communications, one from the managers and one from the inspector. As each pair of these documents contains 1,659 blank spaces which have to be filled up, it follows that the department had last year to deal with 32,829,951 blank spaces. Of course, as the claim of the schools depends upon the accurate scrutiny of these blank spaces, it follows that they have to be carefully looked at, and each document has to go through fifty-four different stages. Besides this, there are 32,476 pupil-teachers under the immediate supervision of the department, and each of them has a separate report upon him or her examined in the office. I do not think that the House has any idea where the education department is. They fancy that it is in Whitehall, but in Whitehall there are only the secretarial staff and cer¬ tain heads of departments whose presence is indispensable. A great part of the department is in Cannon buildings, King street; another part is in the old Census Office; another is in Northumberland avenue, while the whole staff of the education library and of the new directors of special inquiries is now wandering about looking for some home. The Proposals of the Government. THE NEW COUNTY AND BOROUGH AUTHORITY. Having tried to give the House some idea of the existing state of things, I now come to the bill itself. The principle of the measure is the establishment in every county and county borough of a paramount education authority. It is to be one channel through which public money is to reach the schools ; it is to supplement and not to supersede existing educational effort, and it is to be a sort of separate educa¬ tional department for each county and for each county borough. The proposal is not novel. It was recommended by the Duke of Newcastle’s committee in 1861, as regards elementary education ; by the school-inquiry commission of 1868, as regards secondary education; by the technical-instruction commission of 1884, as regards technical and secondary education ; in a memorandum issued by Lord Cross’s com¬ mission in 1888; and finally by the secondary-edn cation commission which has just reported. It is proposed in the bill that the education authority shall be the county council acting through a statutory educational committee, and it is proposed to leave the number and composition of this committee entirely in the discretion of the county council. There are some admirable suggestions in the report of the secondary- THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 95 education commission as to the constitution of these bodies. These suggestions relate to the question of the presence of women on these committees, to the question of the election of experts and of teachers’ representatives, etc. The only restric¬ tion that will be placed on the composition of a committee is that a majority of its members must be members of the cou’nty council. Power is given to counties to combine for thepurposes of the bill. In counties where the circumstances are special, as in the county of London, the county council may itself propose a scheme for the special constitution of a committee which, when approved by the education depart¬ ment, will become the committee for the county ; and in the case of Wales the govern¬ ing bodies under the Welsh intermediate-education act will become the committees. It is proposed to decentralize entirely the administration of school grants by the education department and to throw upon these bodies the duties of administering the parliamentary grant. The general inspection of schools will, of course, be under¬ taken also by the county authority, and the committee of council, the central gov¬ ernment, will only have inspectors who will visit the schools from time to time to see that the county education authority is properly fulfilling its duties and that the education is up to the proper standard. It is hoped that this arrangement will lead to a decentralization of the Code, and that instead of our attempting to impose one rigid system of education from the Land’s End to Berwick-upon-Tweed, each county and county borough shall be able to make such modifications in the Code as may be suitable to its particular local circumstances. Then it is proposed to hand over to this committee the powers of the county council under the technical-instruction act, 1889. The money received under the local-taxation act, 1890, will be specially appli¬ cable to secondary education and will be administered by the education authority and may be accumulated. This authority will also be the school-attendance committee in all places which have not a school board. Lastly, this authority will constitute a body to which may be intrusted hereafter those unhappy children of the State who are to be found in industrial and poor-law schools, and this body may deliver them from the prison taint on the one hand and the workhouse taint on the other. This authority will exercise all the powers given to the county council with regard to industrial and reformatory schools, and may make contracts with boards of guardians to take charge of poor-law children, so that they may be brought up in a humane fashion and may have a chance of becoming honest, self-supporting men. THE NEW “SPECIAL- AID GRANT,” “TO BE APPROPRIATED, IN THE FIRST PLACE, TO THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE TEACHING STAFF.” Then this authority is to distribute a special-aid grant to necessitous schools. The committee will receive from the exchequer a sum of 4s. for every child in voluntary schools or in the schools of those school boards which come under section 97 of the act of 1870. This special-aid grant will be divided among the voluntary schools, with a deduction for any endowments which they may possess, and, as regards the board schools, it will, in the first place, be used for making good any grants which they are entitled to, and the residue will be used for the general assistance of board schools which stand in need of further help from public sources. But in both cases the amounts received are appropriated, in the first place, to the improvement of the teaching staff, and it is only in cases where the teaching staff does not require improving that the sums may be applied to other definite purposes which are specified in the bill. There is a power given to schools to federate them¬ selves either by districts or denominations, and in case a federation of schools is formed the education authority of the county may pay over the whole grant to which the group of schools is entitled in a lump sum, leaving it to be distributed according to a scheme to be approved by the education department. Any surjdus left in their hands will be applied to local purposes of elementary education as the education department may sanction. 96 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. PUBLIC AUDIT OF ACCOUNTS. There are also provisions for examination and inspection, and for the auditing of accounts by district auditors in order to insure that the money is applied to the pur¬ poses for which it is given. In case the voluntary schools in any district which has not at present a school board break down and other provision for education becomes necessary, in a county borough the education authority becomes the school board. In any other district, parish, urban district, or noncounty borough the district is to have the option of having a school board as at present. There is no compulsion, with the exception that if it is a borough the school board is not to be an elected school board; but there is to be a committee of the municipal council formed on the analogy of the education department. If the district does not choose to have a school board, then the educational authority of the county becomes the school board for the parish, district, or borough, and after an opportunity has been given for establish¬ ing a school board they may take over the elementary schools of any district and become in that way virtually the school board for the district. Then in the case of a defaulting school board, if a school board becomes a defaulter, the education authority becomes the school board for the district; but in performing their duties as a school board in reference to the control and management of schools they must delegate their authority to manage to local managers. They are not directly to man¬ age schools themselves. In the case of county boroughs the local managers are to be appointed by the education authority themselves, and in the case of other boroughs by the municipal council; and in the case of parishes, half by the parish and half by the education authority. Then these schools are to be paid for either by a rate upon the district or by a county rate charged on all those districts for which the education authority acts as a school board. This will tend to — and I hope it will grow into— a system under which all those parts of the county in which there are public schools will all be connected with and under the authority of the county education authority, and will be maintained out of the general county rate. As regards secondary education, the new authority will be able to aid schools out of the money at their disposal, to aid schools for secondary education, and to estab¬ lish them; and with the consent of the education department they may take a trans¬ fer from the school boards of their higher grade schools and so become managers of higher grade schools. Then they may apply their money to scholarships and the supply of teachers. They may inquire into the sanitary condition of all schools, and they may also inquire into the education given in all schools except those which are decided to be nonlocal. In the case of local schools they may publish any information they may think proper as to the efficiency of those schools. The “ Seventeen and Sixpenny Limit.” EXEMPTION FROM RATING — TWELVE YEARS OF AGE FOR JUVENILE LABOR — VETOING SCHOOL BOARD EXPENDITURES. Besides all this, the bill contains also a number of miscellaneous amendments of the education acts, which I will very shortly enumerate. There is the abolition of the 17s. 6d. limit. There is a clause exempting elementary schools from all rates. Then I am happy to say that the age of school attendance is raised to 12 years. There is no attempt to deal with the question of half time, and the clause is one similar to that passed by the right honorable gentleman, the late vice-president of the coun¬ cil, two years ago, except that the age of 11 is turned into 12. Then powers are given to the county authorities to lend money to the managers of voluntary schools on the security of the school buildings ; and there are limits put to the school-board rate, requiring any increase in the rate in consequence of the maintenance of children to be sanctioned by the public authority before it is levied. Mr. Acland. What is the authority ? THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 97 Sir J. Gorst. If tlie district is a Borough, it must he the council of the Borough; if it is an urban district, it must Be the district council, and in any other case the county council of the county in which the district is situated. Finally, the Govern¬ ment have put a clause in the Bill in the hope of laying the very last objection which could Be made to elementary education on religious grounds. THE EXTENSION OF THE COWPER-TEMPLE CLAUSE. I did not enumerate the religious difficulty as one of the difficulties which had to Be surmounted By Parliament, Because the religious difficulty is no difficulty at all in the schools. It is never heard of there. It is a difficulty which flourishes in Par¬ liament and on the platform. Since I have held the office I now have the honor to hold I have ashed in many schools whether there was any religious difficulty, and I have never yet found that there was any. I hare never found a school-teacher to tell me at first hand that they have ever had any difficulty with the parents, children, or anyone else on the teaching of religion to the children. This clause is a kind of supplement to the conscience clause. It not only enables a parent to withdraw his child from religious instruction of which he does not approve, But it also helps him to secure that religious instruction which ho requires. The provision is that in every elementary school one of the conditions of receiving a Government grant is that if a reasonable number of parents of children require to have separate religious instruc¬ tion given to them, then it is the duty of the managers of the school to permit of reasonable arrangements Being made for allowing that religious instruction to Be given. It is hoped that in that way if there are any parents who conscientiously desire that their children should Be instructed separately from the other children in the schools it is the duty of the managers of the schools to give every possible facility for the teaching of that form of religion which they require. I do hope that this may Be accepted By the' House of Commons as a sincere attempt on the part of the Government to introduce a system of perfect religious toleration. I am very much obliged to the House for allowing me to make this very long statement, and I hop© the Bill will Be approached By the House of Commons in a really Businesslike spirit. I can not, of course, expect that every clause will Be generally accepted on Both sides of the House, But I hope that the principle of the Bill will Be, and that we shall all cooperate together to make this a real step in advance in the education of th© country. (Schoolmaster, April 4, 1896, pages 617-619.) The keenest analysis of the bill made in the House on the side of the opposition was by Mr. Asquith1 in his speech on the resolution for the second reading. At the outset he noted the provisions which, even from his standpoint, were recognized as valuable and beneficent- These were, first, the proposition to raise the age for compulsory at¬ tendance from 11 to 12, and, second, the proposals as to secondary education. He then proceeded with the objectionable features, con¬ sidering chiefly the question of local authority. Under this head Mr- Asquith said: * * * Now, I will ask the House to come to close quarters with the actual pro¬ visions of the measure. As the right honorable gentleman has told us, the pivot upon, which the whole of this scheme hinges and turns is the creation in every county and in every county Borough in England and Wales of a new education authority which is at once to discharge some, and which in the course of time is intended to perform all, the functions as to inspection, as to examination, as to control, and as to pay¬ ment which are at present vested in the education department. The decentralization of the control of education was represented By the right honorable gentleman, and 1 Secretary of state home department in Mr. Gladstone’s fourth ministry. ED 96 - 1 98 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. I think properly represented, as being the very foundation and the mainspring of the scheme. When the bill comes into full operation — although I understand from the speech •which we have just heard in its initial stages its provisions are to be tem¬ pered by a very invidious process of selection — you will have in England and Wales no less than 126 education departments. This is the number of the counties and of the county boroughs. In the county of Lancaster alone you will have no less than 15 education departments. I am quite aware that there are provisions in the bill which enable these authori¬ ties by agreement to combine with one another. But I do not think that anyone who is acquainted with the facts of our local life and adequately appreciates the tenacity ' and exclusiveness of what I may call our municipal patriotism, its rivalries and jeal¬ ousies, which are often founded, I agree, upon real diversities of local sentiment and of local interest — I do not believe that anybody who is acquainted with the facts will believe that that power is likely to be very frequently resorted to. Many of these new departments — I will not say all of them — will have or may have educational codes of their own. The right honorable gentleman has told us that the education department will scrutinize with jealousy any proposals of the kind that may be made, but, as I shall point out presently, the education department, when you have regard to the terms and spirit of the bill, will do so with maimed powers and with fettered hands. It is true that the education department in name and in theory remains, but it remains in the background, a spectral and disembodied authority — an authority of which you might say with truth that it reigns, but it can not govern ; for the very essence of your scheme is, in the future, as regards the discharge of these very func¬ tions which now for more than a generation have been exercised by the education department upon uniform principles over the country as a whole, to make local opin¬ ion and local feeling predominant and supreme. This ingenious plan for the production of what I can not help thinking will be an educational patchwork and an administrative chaos is presented to us under the specious name of decentralization. Those of us, of whom I certainly am one, who are strongly in favor of the principle of devolution, who wish to see transferred to local bodies a very large number of the powers and prerogatives which are at present exercised both at Westminster and at Whitehall, are challenged to reconcile our faith in that principle with our opposition to this measure. I never had a chal¬ lenge which I could contemplate with more equanimity or take up with greater confidence. What is the essence of devolution in any intelligible and rational sense of the term ? Devolution means the taking away from the central authority of powers which experience has shown that that authority exercises ignorantly or inefficiently, and it means the granting to local authorities, competent by their com¬ position to discharge the task, and with time and energy to spare for it, of powers which can be more fitly and more properly exercised by them. I do not stand here this evening in any sense as an uncompromising or uncritical advocate of the educa¬ tion department. I have no doubt, as the right honorable gentleman told us when he introduced this bill, there is, under the existing system, an excess of routine, and even of red tape, a multiplication of gratuitous forms, an accumulation of unneces¬ sary details. I will go further, and I agree that in our large urban communities — in places like London itself; like Birmingham, like Leeds, and like many other towns — there is in existence what I may call an indigenous enthusiasm for education so keen and so well organized that it stands in very little need of extraneous super¬ vision and control, and that it might very well be trusted with a wider latitude of action and a larger freedom of making experiments. But the House can not fall into a greater or more fatal delusion than to measure the educational climate of the country as a whole by the temperature of these great towns. I certainly am not exaggerating — and I should have thought I was here upon what the right honorable gentleman calls common ground — when I say that over large parts of England at any rate there is not — we may regret it, we may acquiesce in it, but we are bound to admit it — there is not that local interest in T THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OP 1896. 99 A . y 1 educational progress which, if matters of tliis kind are to be left entirely to local initiative, is the only security for the maintenance of a high standard of education. I do not think the right honorable gentleman himself, with his knowledge of the work of his department, will question the truth of that statement. I do not hesi¬ tate to say that if throughout the length and breadth of England and Wales during the last thirty years we have succeeded in constantly raising what I may call the minimum standard of educational efficiency, the main credit for the accomplishment of that most beneficent work is to be put down to the impartial, unsleeping, and the ubiquitous activity of the education department. You are proposing by this bill to transfer the work of examination and of ins|3ec- tionfrom. that department, in the first instance, at any rate, to the local authorities. Now, may I give the House an illustration drawn from another branch of admin¬ istration with which I happened myself to be personally familiar — I mean the fac¬ tory department of the home office? That is a highly centralized system of admin¬ istration, and there are many people who think — I confess I myself used to think — that it might very well, in some of its parts, at any rate, be delegated to local authorities. In the year 1891 Parliament did transfer the inspection of workshops, so far as their sanitation was concerned, from the home office to the local authorities. When I went to the home office and during the time I was there, I found that that part of their duties — though of course there were exceptions again in the case of large towns — was being systematically neglected over all parts of the country. I do not hesitate to say — and I speak from a certain amount of practical acquaintance with the matter — that if you were to do with reference to factory inspection that which it is proposed by this bill to do in reference to school inspection, there are many parts of England in which, after the expiration of five years, these laws which were passed for the protection of the lives and limbs of our working population would be a dead letter. If that is the case in relation to such a matter as factories* it is still more likely to be the case in relation to schools ; for remember that, as regards schools, the work of inspection does not merely mean that you are to see that the law is being complied with, but upon that work depends the grant and the receipt of large sums of public money which are not locally raised but voted by Parliament. I am satisfied — and I speak in no partisan spirit, but merely in the interests of good administration, so far as this subject is concerned — that it is the presence, or at any rate the liability of the presence, of an inspector who is totally detached from local prepossessions and local influences, who speaks with the authority of a great department and even of Parliament itself, who is not subject to appoint¬ ment or dismissal, to raise of salary or promotion in rank according as he makes himself agreeable or disagreeable to the locality concerned — it is the presence of a body of impartial, detached, dispassionate officials of that kind which, both as regards the inspection of schools and of factories, is the most effective security for the uni¬ form observance of the law. I say I speak in this matter as a strong disciple and advocate of the princii>le of devolution. Localize management as much as you like. I will go with the right honorable gentleman any length in that direction. If he were doing what from his speech we should have inferred he was going to do — to give the management of schools, the appointment and dismissal of the teachers, the everyday control of the education of the place to a representative popular authority — we should be with him to a man. But that is just what he is not going to do. As regards these all- important questions, the great bulk of tli6 schools, nearly 15,000 out of the 20,000, are to remain as they are at present, in irresponsible hands. The thing which you are going to devolve upon the local authority is the very thing which local authorities, so far as our administrative experience in the past goes, are least fitted to perform. Who are these local authorities? They are committees nominated by the county councils and by the town councils of the county boroughs. Do these authorities wish for the task which you are going to intrust to tliemP Have any of them asked for it? I know some that have not, and not only not asked for it, but have already 100 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. evidenced the greatest disinclination to undertake these alien and incongruous duties. Have they time for it? So far as I know, the great hulk of the work of theso bodies is done, not at the meetings of the council, but in numerous committees constantly sitting, and whoso time and energy are at present amply occupied by the discharge of the onerous and delicate duties cast upon them. Further, are the rate¬ payers of the counties — the very persons who are in such distress, according to the Government, that large subventions are at this moment being made to them out of the imperial exchequer — prepared to undertake the additional pecuniary burdens which this scheme casts upon them? Quite independently of the agreement which may ultimately be come to between the education department and the local authorities for the purposes of the distribu¬ tion of the special aid grant, which is a function they can not cast off, they will be obliged to equip themselves with offices, a staff of inspectors and examiners capable of seeing that the schools between which this grant is to be allocated are in a fit condition to receive it, and to determine the exact degree of efficiency they possess. That means an enormous addition to the permanent administrative cost of every county and county borough in England and Wales. If you are going to get any adequate result from it, if you can show that it is likely in any proportionate degree to raise the standard of education, I would not oppose it; but you are going to duplicate inspection. You are going to keep inspectors at Whitehall, while in every county there has to be provided at the expense of the local ratepayers a second set of inspectors, who are to perform the same functions which are performed by the others. Let the House consider how this scheme will work out in one large county, where the population is scattered; where the means of communication are imper¬ fect; where, even for the ordinary purposes of the county council, the work of administration at present is burdensome to the last degree. You will need in a county like Devonshire, Dorset, or Wiltshire, in permanent session, at some place or other — or, I suppose, constantly perambulating about it — this county committee; and if, as will bo the case, as experience shows — no body of men, however zealous, and however public-spirited, can keep abreast of tlie routine work which is to be taken away from the education department — you will throw more and more in all those counties the actual daily control of the work of inspec¬ tion and examination, not on the committee, but on the permanent staff of officials supported in equipment and character by those engaged at present in performing the work. But the right honorable gentleman tells us that the education depart¬ ment will still remain ; the work is to be done locally, but the education department will set things right. I can hardly imagine a system more calculated to engender unnecessary friction than this proposal of the bill. Suppose that the inspectors of the department differ from the local inspectors as to the efficiency of a particular set of schools, a school, or the whole of the schools of a county. Who is to decide? The right honorable gentleman says the education department; but the local author¬ ity will have a tremendous weapon in its hands when it is able to point out that Par¬ liament, after fifty years’ experience, has come to the conclusion that, prima facie, local opinion ought in these matters to prevail; and the education department in this House, or elsewhere, will find that it is a very different position — a position of impaired and discredited authority, for the purpose of making its voice heard and decision predominant — as compared with what it is to-day. * * * What is going to be the effect of the bill on the school boards? The right honor¬ able gentleman in his speech said, in language which seemed to be very carefully chosen, that no attack was made “ directly.” I must ask the House to examine this matter a little in detail. We ought, perhaps, I admit, to have been better prepared than wo were for the animosity — I can use no other word — displayed in this bill to the school-board system. Lord Salisbury’s hostility to that system has been long known, and to do him justice, has never been concealed, and has frequently been expressed. In this view, apparently, the school-board system does at once too much and too little. On the one hand it wastes the ratepayers’ money in cramming THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 101 children’s minds 'with unnecessary and indigestible knowledge; and, on the other hand, it starves their characters by withholding from them instruction in the dog¬ mas of a particular sect. It is just a year ago since Lord Salisbury, at the meeting of the National Society, told his clerical supporters that it was their business to capture the board schools — to capture them, in the first instance, under the existing law, and then to capture them under a better law. They have tried to capture them under the existing law, and up to the present moment the attempt has resulted in a disastrous failure. I believe I am accurate in saying that, since that challenge was thrown down, in if not all, at any rate in a vast majority, of the school-board elections that have taken place the ratepayers, on behalf of whose consciences and pockets this campaign was to be initiated, have declared in the most unequiv¬ ocal manner their attachment to the existing system and their indisposition to change it. * * * The vice-president of the council, both on the first reading and again to-day, has dwelt exclusively upon the imperfections of the small rural schools. He has not said one word — nay, he disclaimed the intention — he has not said one word reflect¬ ing upon the majority of the great mass of the school boards of the country. But, because there happen to be in some scattered rural districts school boards which inadequately perform the duties cast upon them, they are to be made the founda¬ tion of an attack upon the mass of the school boards in the country. But the right honorable gentleman does not, even by his bill, take steps to remedy the evils of which he complains. It surely would not pass the wit of man to devise a scheme by which, under a system of grouping and enlargement of the area as regards ratabil¬ ity, there might be substituted for these small inadequate school boards an efficient educational authority. Under this bill the efficient school boards are to be sacri¬ ficed; they are to be hampered and mutilated, and the inefficient school boards are not going to be improved. I have here figures showing how great has been the growing appreciation of the school-board system during the last ten years. In 1886 there were in the Anglican schools connected with the National Society and the Church of England 1,640,000 children, and in the school-board schools 1,296,000 children, showing a majority in favor of the Anglican schools. But in 1895 there were in the Anglican schools 1,880,000 children, and in the board schools 1,975,000 children, so that not only has the relative position of the two classes of schools as regards children in attendance been reversed, but the rate of growth, which in the Anglican schools has been less than a quarter, has been more than half in the board schools. You may say in answer that this gives some claim to denominational schools for additional assistance ; but the question I am dealing with is this, Does it constitute any ground for trying to depress the school-board system? I am all for leveling up, but the provisions of this bill in relation to school boards are, in my opinion, provisions for leveling down. As the right honorable gentle¬ man has acknowledged in his speech to-day, it is the competition with the school boards which has forced up the standard of teaching in voluntary schools, and which has created that strain of which the supporters of the voluntary schools complain. I ask those who are interested in education, and not merely in the rival claims of this or that sect, in the interests of education I ask the House to pause before it takes any step which would impair the efficiency of the board schools. I will say this of our school boards, they have attracted to their service in our municipal centers a large number of men who would have stood aloof altogether if they had not existed. If ever an experiment has been justified by its results it was the experi¬ ment of intrusting the management of primary education, not to town councils or county councils — bodies having a number of other duties to perform — but to a special body. In that way you secured in the service of education a set of men who, by their training and special qualifications, are peculiarly fitted to discharge the duties of their position. It is quite true, as the secretary for the colonies has pointed out, that twenty-five years ago, when Mr. Forster's act was brought in, the first proposal was to intrust the 102 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. work of education in onr towns to town councils or committees appointed by them. Whatever might havebeen said for that proposal, prima facie it appears to me that the experience we have had ought to convince us that we have adopted a more excellent plan. The proposal made twenty-five years ago, however, is not the proposal of this bill, and I believe that it would be far better to abolish the school boards altogether than to continue them in existence, as this bill proposes to do, with impaired powers, with fettered hands, and with discredited authority. Mr. Asquith then passed to the consideration of the financial bear- ings of the bill : Let me point out [he said] what those proposals are. As regards the special-aid grant, every board school which is entitled to it comes at once under the control of the education department, the committee of the privy council. If and when the proc¬ ess of devolution from the education department to the local authorities proceeds, these school boards will become subject to those authorities. The local authorities will become their paymasters ; they will be charged with the duties of inspection and examination, and they will have the power of giving or withholding the parlia¬ mentary grant. As regards expenditure by other school boards, it is limited for all time either to its present standard or to a maximum of 20s. per child. But at pres¬ ent the average expenditure per child, which is raised by rates, is 18s. 5d., aud in many of our large towns it is vastly above 20s. The effect of the proposal in the bill will be that those large towns will be subject for all time to another authority inde¬ pendent of themselves. Look at the effect of the bill in the noncounty boroughs, of which there are 220. In the schools of these boroughs there are in attendance 440,000 children, and in every one of these boroughs that has a school board the state of things will be this — the school board elected by the ratepayers will be sub¬ ject, as regards inspection and control, to a committee of the county council. For example, the school board of Dewsbury, or Scarborough, will for some purposes be subject to a committee of the county council sitting at Northallerton, while as regards the rating for its expenditure it will be subject to its own town council. Thus the authority elected for education purposes will be hampered by two other authorities, neither of whom is specially qualified to deal with educational matters. I say deliberately that I believe it would have been impossible for statesmanship to devise a scheme more calculated to engender friction and misunderstanding, and yet we are told that this bill contains no direct attack upon the school boards. * * * As regards existing expenditure, the object of the bill is to stereotype for all time the scale at present prevailing. You pro’pose to prescribe three distinct limits to educational expenditure in this country. By the third clause the rate to be paid per scholar, including the fee grant to the education authority, is never to exceed the existing rate, or 29s. per head, whichever may be the highest. I believe I am right in saying that the rate at the present moment involuntary schools averages 28s. 3d., and in board schools 29s. 4d. Thus, the voluntary schools have a small margin and the board schools have no margin at all ; and let the House remember this provision is apx>lied not only to present existing schools but to all new schools. However much the educational conditions of the country may change, and however great may be the rise in the stress of foreign competition, for all time to come, so long as this act of Parliament remains unrepealed, both school boards and voluntary schools are to be limited to the existing scale. Then, under the nineteenth clause, the ordinary grant, exclusive of the fee grant, is not to exceed the grant for this year, which is, as far as I can make out, to average 19s. a head. In the case of voluntary schools the average is 18s. 2d., and in the case of board schools, 19s. 2d. ; so that there again tho voluntary schools have a margin of lOd. and the board schools no margin at all. See how it will work out. In Birmingham and in London at the present moment the ordinary grant is 19s. 5d. and 19s. 8d. In Bolton it is 21s. 2d. ; so that Birmingham and London are never to be able, however much they may improve their educational advantages, to rise to tho standard of Bolton. THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 103 Then, lastly, on this point, the school hoards themselves are not to raise a higher rate than 20s. per child without the consent of the local authority. Now, I ask, with reference to all these provisions, what is their purpose and object f Why are you going to limit, of all forms of expenditure, the expenditure on education, and at a moment when you are spending upon naval defenso out of the accumulated funds of last year and out of the mortgage of the funds of future years vast sums of money ; at a moment when you are dipping into the surplus of this year and next year to provide special relief for the owners and occupiers of agricultural land? That is the moment selected for placing a limit for all time to come on that which should he the most elastic, the most fruitful, and the most beneficent of all forms of expenditure. I say that this proposal is equally objectionable from a consti¬ tutional and from an educational point of view. You are taking advantage of a transient parliamentary situation to bind the hands of future Houses of Commons in a matter which, under our constitution, falls peculiarly under the prerogative of this House, namely, the fixing of the amount and distribution of our national expenditure. Majorities in this House come and go, but there is a place where there is a majority irrevocably devoted to your own party, and once this act of Parlia¬ ment is put on the statute book it will deprive the House of Commons of that which I conceive to be the most fundamental and invaluable of all its constitutional func¬ tions, namely, its absolute freedom to decide how the money raised by taxation shall be spent. And the matter is equally serious from the point of view of educa¬ tion. Hitherto the great leverage toward a high standard in education has been the competition between the different classes of schools. By this bill you are put¬ ting them, as it were, in water-tight compartments. You are preventing that possi¬ bility of rivalry between them which has been the most potent factor in educational progression in the past. Well, sir, I come next to the provisions with reference to the special-aid grant which the right honorable gentleman has exhorted us to approach in a calm and philosophic spirit. I shall endeavor to do so. The question has been asked more than once if we are prepared to abolish voluntary schools and to substitute a uni¬ versal system of school boards and board schools. That question has not been raised by us. We have been quite content to acquiesce, and we have acquiesced, in the compromise arrived at in 1870, which, bo it remembered, was resented — and I think legitimately resented — not only by the Nonconformists, but by education reformers at the time, like my right honorable friend the secretary for the colonies, as giving a very undue amount of favor to voluntary schools as compared with board schools. I will not suppose that my right honorable friend has changed his opinions. No; I do not see why he should do so. We have been referred to the example of Scot¬ land, and I think the first lord of the treasury taunted my right honorable friend the member for Montrose and myself with ignorance of the educational system of the country we have the honor to represent. It is perfectly true in one sense that the schools of Scotland are denominational schools — that is to say, in the ordinary schools of Scotland the elements of the Presbyterian doctrine are taught, Presby¬ terianism being the religion of the vast majority of the population of the country, and special provision being made for giving facilities for separate schools for the minorities. But there is another element in the Scottish system to which the right honorable gentleman has not paid equal attention, and that is that in Scotland there is a school board in every parish. You might search Scotland from one end to the other without finding a single parish in which the parish school is supported by public funds and to which the children of the ratepayers are compelled by law to resort, where the appointment and dismissal of teachers are in the hands of the parish minister or elders. If you will give us the Scottish system the denomina¬ tional question will rapidly solve itself. What is the position of voluntary schools? As I say, so far as I am aware no one proposes to abolish them or to incur the enormous expenditure, estimated at £25,000,000 by the right honorable gentlemen, or even half that sum, that would be 104 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. involved in taking over tlie voluntary schools. I am perfectly ready to reckon the voluntary schools as an integral part of onr educational system; hut when these special claims are put forward by the supporters of voluntary schools to exceptional treatment it is necessary to closely scrutinize the facts. We are told hy the right honorable gentleman opposite, and the phrase has become classical, that the volun¬ tary schools and their supporters are “subjected to an intolerable strain.” But what are the facts? Since 1839, when the system of national education was ini¬ tiated, no less than £58,000,000 sterling of public money has been granted to the voluntary schools. At the present moment, including the fee grant, very nearly, if not quite, three-fourths of the maintenance is borne hy the State. At the outside one-sixth of the cost of maintenance is found hy voluntary subscription. It is quite true that although subscriptions have not increased per head they have increased in the aggregate since 1870; hut that increase, if you have regard to the contempora¬ neous growth of the wealth and population of the country and in the zeal of men of all parties and faiths in the cause of education, is not very remarkable. Nor is it easy to estimate how much of these so-called voluntary subscriptions is really what is known as a voluntary rate, which persons impose upon themselves in the hope that they will thereby avoid the increased expenditure which would result from the establishment of a school hoard and more efficient teaching. I do not care to dwell on the precise number of parish schools to which there is no subscription ; hut it is a remarkable fact that the places where this so-called strain is most felt are some of the large towns in the north of England, where the fees used to he high and the subscriptions have always been low, and where a deficiency has been produced by the abolition of fees and the substitution of a fee grant of 10s. per head. I find, for instance, in Manchester the average subscription per child is 3s. 6d., and in Liv¬ erpool it is as low as 3s. These facts, when dispassionately considered, go far to show that there is no very excessive strain. But I am perfectly prepared to agree — and I believe that everybody on this side of the House will agree — that if you can show us that, either in the voluntary or in the board schools, there are cases W'here, from lack of resources, education is being starved or inefficiently provided— if you can show that the only means of making up the deficiency and of raising the level of the education given to the proper standard is by further grants from the public funds, then, subject to two or three very simple con¬ ditions, there will be no opposition on our part. What are those conditions? They are very intelligible and very rational ; and they are certainly supported by the most weighty authorities. The first is that whatever money is given should be impar¬ tially distributed — impartially not only as between voluntary schools themselves, but as between voluntary and board schools. On that point I found myself on the authority of the lord president of the council, who, as late as November last, when we supposed that this bill was in the initial stage of preparation, said: “ I do not conceive that it is proposed by any legislation to depart from the principle of statu¬ tory equality as regards state aid to voluntary and board schools.” In the second place, whatever is given ought to be given under conditions which will secure that it shall be spent on the improvement of education and not in the relief of subscribers and ratepayers. It is for that reason that we say that a local contribution in one form or another shall be an essential condition of every grant. Unless you have that you have no guarantee, except such as the central authority’s inspection affords against waste and extravagant expenditures. The act of 1870 required that the voluntary contri¬ bution or the contribution from local sources should be equivalent to the Parlia¬ mentary grant. That was modified in 1876 by the fixing of the 17s. 6d. limit. But on this point I am content to rely on authority. I will take two authorities, the weight and value of which can not be disputed by honorable gentlemen opposite. The first is the Bishop of London. In 1888, when he was a member of the commis¬ sion on education then sitting, the Bishop of London moved an amendment to the majority report which was thus expressed: “We can not recommend that in any case THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 105 the grant from the department shall exceed the amount provided on the spot; nor is it, in our judgment, a sufficient plea for overriding this principle that the people on the spot are unwilling to contribute enough.” There is another authority, even higher in rank, the Archbishop of Canterbury himself, who, on November 21 last, at a deputation to Lord Salisbury, said : 11 We are willing to have a certain proportion of subscriptions insisted on as a condition of the grant.” Thirdly, it ought to be made essential, as a condition of these schools receiving further money from the State, that you should introduce into their management some public representative element. There are in this country at the present moment 8,000 parishes in which the only school is a Church of England school. In those parishes the Nonconformists are compelled by law to send their children to school, and there is no other place to send them than the -church school. And yet the abso¬ lute control, subject to the conscience clause, of the teaching and management of those schools, and of the all-important question, the appointment of the teachers, the determination of what duties those teachers are to perform and subject to what tenure they shall hold their offices — the absolute control is in the hands of irrespon¬ sible managers. I do not propose that we should destroy the denominational schools, and, if we are not to destroy them, I agree that they must continue to be denomina¬ tional in character. But I am perfectly satisfied that if you can introduce into the management of these schools an element — and I use the word advisedly — of repre¬ sentative management; if, for instance, the provision of this bill which allows a reasonable number of parents to demand separate religious instruction could be applied to this case, so that a reasonable number of parents might demand repre¬ sentation on the board of managers, then a vast number of the abuses which at present prevail and the grievances under which the rural ratepayers suffer would, from the mere fact of the infusion of this popular element, almost immediately dis¬ appear. As regards tlie religious instruction clause Mr. Asquith said : The principle which has governed us hitherto in this matter has been this. We have two sets of schools. First, the board schools, entirely supported out of public resources, imperial and local. In those schools the teaching of any religious for¬ mulary or catechism is absolutely prohibited. We have another class of schools — denomination schools — which are largely supported out of the public funds. Yet, as in the view of the framers of the act of 1870, they were to continue to make sub¬ stantial contributions of their own, they have given to them the power, while sub¬ ject to a conscience clause, to teach any religious formulary they please. That is the compromise which has worked for twenty-five years. What occasion is there to disturb it? This new clause, which professes to be framed in the interests of Non¬ conformist parents in our villages, will, so far as those villages are concerned, be an absolute dead letter. I have never heard any demand put forward on the part of those who are entitled to speak for those bodies for any such privilege as the bill proposes to give them. And when we know that in a large number of these villages the conscience clause itself is a dead letter, for reasons very intelligible, but on which I need not dwell, will it be supposed that the parents of those children, who do not now claim for their children even the exemption allowed by the conscience clause, are going to incur — and there is no disguising the fact that they would incur — a considerable amount of odium and disfavor from those who control to a large extent the fortunes of their daily lives, by claiming for their children their distinc¬ tive religious teaching in church schools ? If this clause is to be taken advantage of at all it will be taken advantage of to get rid of the Cowper- Temple clause in towns. As to that I will only say one word. The religious teaching which is being given in our board schools is teaching which to a large extent has been molded and approved by churchmen. The highest pos¬ sible testimony has been borne to its value by not a few bishops of the church. ED 90 - 4* 106 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. I read a remarkable passage in tbe speech of one of the most respected bishops, the bishop of Durham, at Darlington, a day or two ago. He said he did not believe that the power which was given by this clause would be largely exercised. If the reli¬ gious instruction given in the board schools was not all that was required, what was wanting, he said, would be supplied elsewhere. He believed that the greater completeness would be dearly purchased by the interference with the regular course of the school instruction. What evidence is there, I ask, that the parents of the children for whom this religious instruction is provided are dissatisfied? This agitation is a clerical agita¬ tion. It is carried on for the most part by the most extreme members of the clergy and by a body of laymen who are more clerically minded than the clergy themselves. I do not believe myself that the parents will be found to avail themselves of this clause but I can conceive that, under the stimulus of a more or less fanatical propa¬ ganda, it may be possible to get together in some of our towns a sufficient number of parents to make the demand. I ask the House to consider, if the demand were granted, what its effect would be ? What would be its effect upon our local elections ? It will introduce into them, with a vastly increased amount of bitterness than we have before experienced, the element of sectarian strife. What will be its effect upon religious life itself? It will destroy, or at any rate impair, its charities and amenities. What will be its effect upon the children themselves? At present in these board schools they are taught a form of religious teaching which has this peculiarity, no doubt, that it consists mainly, if not entirely, of those facts and principles upon which all the churches agree. If this clause were carried into effect and worked upon a large scale, you would have those children herded — if I may use the word — into separate theological pens, branded and labeled with the names of their particular sects, and taught under conditions which must compel them, if they have fairly receptive minds, to attach more importance, not to those truths which unite, but to those things that divide. This is, I suppose, the legislative embodi¬ ment of the inalienable right of the parent to have his child taught in any religion at the public expense. But where does this right come from? What is its origin? Where are its sanctions? In what line of any act of Parliament is any trace of it to be found? It is a metaphysical figment of the newest and crudest character. I am convinced that, as regards this clause, the good sense of the country and the parents of the children will repudiate it. But, if it is adopted, it will be found to have a most deleterious and damaging effect upon the whole of our educational work and of our civic life. I have endeavored to demonstrate step by step every branch of the general condemnatory proposition with which I started, and of which the amendment I am about to move is the only adequate parliamentary expression. We are well aware of the fate which awaits that amendment in the division lobby. It will be rejected, I have no doubt, by an overwhelming majority. But this is only the preliminary stage in what is destined to be a stubborn and protracted campaign. You can succeed, if you are ill advised enough to try the experiment, by the use of your overbearing parliamentary majority, in placing this measure, with its absurdi¬ ties and injustices, upon the statute book. But be assured that if you do so you are not settling, but you are opening, the controversy. Holding as we do, with as great a strength of conviction as it is possible for men to possess, that this bill if carried into law would create invidious inequalities ; would embitter sectarian strife; would introduce friction and confusion over the whole area of our local government; and would permanently degrade the level of our system of national education, we are bound to give to it every opposition in our power, and, as the first step in the performance of that duty, I now beg to move that this bill be read a second time this day six months. (Schoolmaster, April 9, 1896, pp. 873-875.) In reply to a letter from Mr. W. Ansell, member of the Birmingham school board? who wrote to Mr. Chamberlain pointing out what he 107 THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. regarded as blemishes in tlie Government education bill, Mr. Cham¬ berlain replied as follows : 40 Princes Gardens, S. TV., April 19, 1896. Dear Sir : I am extremely obliged to you for your letter of tlie 16th instant, with the information as to your views on the education hill of the Government. I am desirous of learning what were the special objections which your experience of edu¬ cational matters led you to entertain to the Government proposals, and I now pro¬ ceed to offer some explanations which I hope may serve to, at all events, reduce the number of points at issue. In the first place I must frankly express my entire and absolute disagreement with your general accusation that the whole tendency of the bill is to remove the direct control of education from the people and place it in the hands of irresponsible bodies. On the contrary, I believe that the main result of this measure will be to give much greater control to the people and to their direct representatives over primary educa¬ tion, and especially to extend the local influence and interest in the subject. This result will be secured by the decentralization, of which I am glad to see you approve as a principle, and I anticipate that when the bill becomes law there will be much greater freedom than at present, and the tendency to stereotype all education accord¬ ing to an official standard will be checked in favor of local initiative and local experience. Coming now to the special objections taken by you, I find myself unable to agree with your first point in regard to the constitution of the new educational authority. This authority will be a statutory committee elected by the town or county councils, which are at present the most representative and popular local bodies in the bor¬ oughs and counties. A majority of the new committee will be members of the coun¬ cil directly elected by the people; the minority will be selected, as in the case of the free libraries committee, for special reasons, and because they are exceptionally qual¬ ified to deal with educational matters. They will be subject to the general instruc¬ tions of the council, and will, no doubt, report to it like other committees, so that their proceedings will be public and subject to popular criticism and control. This provision of the bill is in accordance with the principles advocated by the Birming¬ ham league in 1870. We then contended strenuously that the town councils should be the controlling authority in regard to primary education, and we protested against the creation of a new local authority, elected under the exceptional provision of the cumulative vote, and therefore not likely to be in any true sense of the word repre¬ sentative of the ratepayers. I think our predictions have been amply verified, and that the school boards have, as a rule, under this exceptional arrangement, been com¬ posed of members who have represented sectarian differences and special views on many subjects, but who have not in the true sense of the word been representative of the general opinion of the constituency. Besides this, the interest taken in the election has always been less than that shown in parliamentary or municipal con¬ tests, and the board has generally been elected by the votes of a small proportion of the electors. As a Liberal, therefore, I hold now, as I did in 1870, that the town councils and county councils in agricultural districts are much better qualified to represent public opinion than the present school board authorities. As regards your second and third objections, namely, the differentiation between board and voluntary schools in the special aid grant and absence of any proviso that voluntary subscriptions shall at least retain their present level, I feel that there is prima facie much to be said, and I have no doubt that these questions will receive the fullest consideration in the committee on the bill. Your fourth objection, namely, the subordination of existing school boards to county councils, must stand or fall with your criticism as to the constitution of the new education authority. If, as I hold, the new education authority is much more representative than the existing school board, there can be no possible objection to , giving it the slight control which is provided for in the bill. I do not hesitate to 108 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. say for myself tliat I should he glad to extend the principle further — even to the extent of the full adoption of the policy of the old Birmingham league. In regard to your last three objections, which concern the appointment of teach¬ ers, the requirement of extraneous duties as a condition of engagement in denom¬ inational schools, and the absence of a conscience clause in denominational training colleges, I feel that they are subjects for discussion in committee. At the same time I ought to point out to you that the raison d’etre of a denominational school is that the religious teaching given should be, as far as permitted by the educational act, under the control of the managers and subscribers of the school, and it would be evidently inconsistent with the continued existence of denominational schools at all that their rights in this respect should be materially diminished. For reasons which I publicly stated to my constituents five years ago in distributing prizes at the Brookfields board school, I have been forced to the conclusion that it is neither practicable nor desirable to throw upon the ratepayers the whole expense of educa¬ tion now given in the voluntary schools of the country, and if this be granted it would be improper to attempt to secure by a side wind what can not and ought not to be attempted by direct action. (Schoolmaster, April 25, 1896.) The bill as already stated passed the second reading four weeks from the date of its presentation and entered upon committee stage. It soon became apparent that the chief point of attack was not to be either the limit of expenditure or the religious instruction clause, but the new local authority. In fact, the hostile forces with whom no compromise was possible were the 220 noncounty boroughs of the country. In the second week of the committee stage the debate was still waging over the first clause. At that time an amendment was moved by Sir A. K. Rollit (Conservative) providing that u municipal boroughs as well as county boroughs should be local educational authorities.” Though Sir John Gorst rejected the amendment it was accepted by Mr. Balfour as regards boroughs having a population of over 20,000. This added at least 45 educational centers to the 126 proposed in the bill as originally drawn. Mr. Balfour was immediately confronted with the case of urban dis¬ tricts of over 20,000 inhabitants, but the amendment in their interest was defeated. It developed at once that the Government majority had dwindled from 267 to 74, and in the midst of inextricable confusion Mr. Balfour announced first a limit of time for the further debate of the bill and subsequently its postponement to January next. This action, as already stated, was tantamount to abandoning the measure. The bearing of Mr. Bollitfs amendment was clearly exposed by Sir W. Vernon- Harcourt 1 in a speech on the withdrawal of the bill. After reviewing its proposals and the course of the debate Mr. Harcourt continued : At the commencement of this measure, was it the opposition alone who were opposed to this bill ? County council after county council throughout the country had condemned the bill, and had declared that they would take no part in carrying it out. Devonshire, the West Riding, and many other counties condemned the bill; but when that amendment was introduced, at the instance or by the consent of the right honorable gentleman, there was a meeting held upon Friday last by the execu¬ tive of the united county councils of the whole of England. There were present there, representing the county councils association, the Duke of Bedford, the Earl 1 Chancellor of the exchequer in Mr. Gladstone’s third and fourth ministries. THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 109 of Morley, Lord Herries, Sir Jolin Dorrington, Sir Richard Paget, Mr. Bill, Mr. Hob- house, Colonel Williams, and many others distinguished in the Tory party, and added to these were the clerks of the East Riding of Yorkshire, Leicestershire, Monmouth¬ shire, Lancashire, Bedfordshire, East and West Sussex, Middlesex, and Shropshire. They met together, and, with one exception, unanimously condemned this bill. The vice-president of the council the other day prided himself upon the support which he had received from Lancashire and from Sir John Hihhert. Sir John Hibbert, who ought to have taken the chair at that meeting, was judiciously absent, and the clerk to the Lancashire county council said : “The result of Mr. Balfour’s concession would be that in Lancashire alone there would be as many as 46 educational authorities. Only yesterday the technical instruction committee resolved that the change would strike a serious blow at the administration of the technical instruction acts, and that under those circumstances they considered that the county council could not with advantage undertake the additional duties proposed to be conferred upon them in regard to public elementary education.” That was the repentance of the Lanca¬ shire county council, and that was their withdrawal of the support which they had previously given to the bill. And then the right honorable gentleman says it is we who, by our factious opposition, have defeated this bill. What are the real facts of the origin and disappearance of this bill I do not know whether we shall ever really learn. But things will leak out on these occasions, and I observe that at this meet¬ ing of the executive of the county councils of England a gentleman who seems to have known something about it — the honorable member for Somerset (Mr. Hob- house) — is reported to have said : “ The parliamentary committee of the association of county councils drew up a list of reasons why noncounty boroughs should not be constituted separate educational authorities. These reasons were duly handed to Sir John Gorst, and apparently met with his approval, for his speech on Thursday last ran exactly on the lines of those reasons. It was therefore greatly to his sur¬ prise that within half an hour of Sir John Gorst having made his speech, and without any opportunity having been given to any representative of the county councils in the House of Commons to speak against the amendment, the first lord of the treasury got up and made the concession which was so much deplored. There was no doubt that the amendment was moved on other than purely educational grounds. Sir Albert Rollit had stated publicly that the boroughs would never rest content until they had broken down the line which was fixed at a population of 50,000 by the act of 1888, not only for educational but for all administrative purposes.1 That was what made the concession of such vital importance to nearly all county councils.” * * * xThe following analysis and classification of English boroughs, with a pointed statement as to the effect of Mr. Rollit’s amendment, is taken from the Schoolmaster of June 20, 1896 : “ Under the bill there are 126 counties and county boroughs which would be com¬ pelled to form education authorities. In our issue of 16th of May we gave a list of the 64 county boroughs so affected. These we now reproduce : “ Barrow-in-Furness, Bath, Birkenhead, Birmingham, Blackburn, Bolton, Bootle, Bradford, Brighton, Bristol, Burnley, Bury, Canterbury, Cardiff, Chester, Coventry, Croydon, Derby, Devonport, Dudley, Exeter, Gateshead, Great Grimsby, Great Yar¬ mouth, Gloucester, Halifax, Hanley, Hastings, Huddersfield, Ipswich, Kingston-on- Hull, Leeds, Leicester, Lincoln, Liverpool, Manchester, Middlesbrough, Newcastle- on- Tyne, Newport, Northampton, Norwich, Nottingham, Oldham, Oxford, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Preston, Reading, Rochdale, St. Helens, Salford, Sheffield, Southampton, South Shields, Stockport, Sunderland, Swansea, Walsall, West Bromwich, West Ham, Wigan, Wolverhampton, Worcester, York. “We have compiled, from the Government return of school boards and school attendance committees, lists showing the municipal boroughs which will be affected by the acceptance of Sir A. K. Rollit’s amendment. We find that on the basis of the 1891 census there will be 43 such boroughs which will have to provide their own 110 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. We were determined to oppose wliat you called the vital principles of your bill, because we saw in it, as explained by members of your own cabinet, a deliberate intention to wreck the school boards of England; because we have been told in violent terms by the prime minister and his bishops, and in violent terms by the right honorable gentleman, that they hoped and expected that the result of the bill would be that school boards would disappear. * * * ' You thought that the school boards were unpopular with the nation and that you could trample upon them. That was the spirit of the conferences at the foreign office. That was the language which was held throughout the winter, and it was upon that miscalculation that the bill was founded. You have discovered your mis¬ take. You have discovered that not alone on this side of the House but upon your own side of the House your attempts on the life of the school boards of the country have met with repugnance and with opposition. Now, those, in my opinion, are the main grounds which have destroyed this bill. We have nothing to regret in the part we have taken in making clear to the country and the House what has been the true object and what has been the true character of this bill. This bill has education authority. Of course, if 1896 census returns should be used (as we pre¬ sume will be the case, seeing that the bill is now apparently to be hung up till next year), the list will have to be considerably augmented. We have, in a few cases only, included school districts, and these only because in some cases some of the constituent boroughs probably contain over 20,000 inhabitants. “Municipal boroughs of over 20,000 which possess school boards. “Asliton-under-Lyne, Bacup, Barnsley, Batley, Brighouse, Burslem, Burton-on- Trent, Carlisle, Chesterfield, Colchester, Darlington, Darwen, Dewsbury, Folkestone, Gravesend, Hartlepool, Jarrow, Keighley, Kidderminster, Lancaster, Longton, Lowes- toft, Luton, Macclesfield, Maidstone, Morley (Staffs), Nelson, Rawtenstall, Rochester, Rotherham, Royal Leamington Spa, Scarborough, Shrewsbury, Stafford, Stalybridge, Stockton-on-Tees, Stoke-on-Trent, Tynemouth, Wakefield, Wednesbury, West Hartle¬ pool, Widnes (Lancs), Workington. “But besides the above 43 municipal boroughs there are 7 whose population in 1891 was very nearly 20,000, and which by this time will be able to claim to come under this clause of the bill and form their own education authorities : and no doubt this number will have to be considerably augmented when the 1896 census is con¬ sidered as the basis of calculation. Sir J. Gorst, on Thursday week, in reply to Mr. J. Samuel, said that between the present time and the report stage ho would consider the question whether boroughs under 20,000 on subsequently reaching that figure would automatically become independent educational authorities. “Municipal boroughs of nearly 20,000 which possess school boards. “Barnstaple, Ilkeston, Loughborough, Margate, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Pem¬ broke, Salisbury. “We have in the next place compiled a list which shows that there are 32 munici¬ pal boroughs of over 20,000 inhabitants which, though not possessing school boards, have attendance committees. These boroughs would under the amendment which we are considering have to form education authorities under the act. “ Municipal boroughs of over 20,000 with no school boards, but ivith attendance committees. “Accrington, Bedford, Blackpool, Bournemouth, Bury, Cambridge, Chatham, Chel¬ tenham, Chester, Chorley, Crewe, Doncaster, Dover, Eastbourne, Eccles, Glossop, Hereford, Heywood, Hyde, Kingston-on-Thames, Middleton, Peterborough, Preston, Ramsgate, Reigate, Richmond, St. Helens, Southport, Stockport, Torquay, Tun¬ bridge Wells, Warmington. “In addition to the above, there are 14 boroughs without school boards, but with attendance committees, in which the population according to the 1891 census was THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. Ill failed because it was introduced without due consideration of the operation of the change which you proposed to effect. It has failed because even your own party was not united upon it. It has failed because it has been conducted under a mandate from the House of Lords. It has been conducted under the instructions of those who knew nothing of the real feeling of the nation and who knew nothing of the real sentiments of its representatives. That is one of the main causes of the failure of this bill. It has failed because it was conceived in the interests of a party and for the promotion of the objects of a sect. If you will abandon these sources of weak¬ ness in the coming year ; if you will come forward with a measure for the education of the people which is framed not in the interests of a party, not to fulfill the objects of a sect, then you will find from us no obstructive opposition. Wo have declared, and we are willing to show, that in any fair bill, not conceived in the spirit I have described, elementary education may be made a nonparty measure. If it is brought forward not with the object of destroying the school boards of Eng¬ land, but of assisting upon fair terms those schools which might be assisted — if it is a fair bill for the promotion of the education of the people — then it will be a bill less than 20,000. Some of them must by this time- far exceed 20,000 in population, as the 1896 census will doubtless show. “ Municipal boroughs of nearly 20,000 with no school boards, but with attendance committees. u Banbury, Berwick- on-Tweed, Bury St. Edmunds, Grantham, Haslingden (Lancs.), Kings Lynn, Mansfield, Mossley (Lancs.), Poole, Taunton, Weymouth, Winchester, Worthing, Whitehaven. “ With regard to urban districts, Mr. Balfour last Thursday week, in reply to some remarks by Mr. Asquith, said that with regard to the question as to whether urban districts of over 20,000 inhabitants should have the power of forming their own edu¬ cation authorities, he would like to consider the question and give his decision at a later stage of the bill. This question was, however, reached on Monday night on an amendment by Mr. S. Evans fco the effect that ‘ the education authority which under clause 1 was to be given to boroughs of 20,000 inhabitants should be extended to urban districts.’ This was defeated by 265 to 113. “The result, then, of the acceptance of Sir A. K. Eollit's amendment will be that to the 126 counties and county boroughs which have under the bill to form educa¬ tion authorities must be added 43 municipal boroughs with school boards and 32 municipal boroughs with attendance committees. To these will most likely have to be put 7 and 15 other municipal boroughs as soon as they reach 20,000 (and many of them have probably done that by this time) ; so that the number goes up almost at once from 126 to 222. “ This means an enormous increase in costly and duplicated machinery, possibly in new inspectors, in new codes of instruction, and certainly in elaborate official staffing and establishment charges/’ The growth of urban populations in England must be taken into account in any con¬ sideration of the political infl uence of towns. The total urban population in 1891 was 20,802,770, or 71.7 per cent of the entire population. The ratio of increase in urban population in the decade 1881-1891 was 15.3 per cent, as against an increase of 3.4 per cent for the rural population. From an analysis of the detailed statistics it appears that 22 per cent of the population of England and Wales live in 6 towns of upward of 250,000 inhabitants ,* 31.6 per cent (in 1881 29.6 per cent) in 24 (in 1881, 20) towns of over 100,000 inhabitants ; 40.6 per cent in 62 towns of over 50,000 inhabitants, 53.2 per cent in 182 towns of over 20,000 inhabitants, and 17,826,347, or 61.5 per cent, in 358 towns of over 10,000 inhabitants. In 1881 14,626,131, or 56.3 per cent, of the whole popula¬ tion, lived in 303 towns of over 10,000 inhabitants. (Statesmen’s Yearbook, 1896.) It should be added that the word “town ” is here used in rather a loose sense, com¬ prising districts of concentrated population rather than having regard to a particular form of local government . 112 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. ■vriiich will not disappear as this hill has disappeared under the force of public dis¬ cussion, hut will he a hill which may make a permanent settlement of the greatest aim to which the House of Commons can direct its attention— namely, the education of the people. [Schoolmaster, June 27, 1896, pages 1163-1165.] Outside of Parliament the discussion of the measure was vigorously maintained. Among many articles in the leading English periodicals none carried greater weight than that from the pen of Sir Lyulph Stan¬ ley, one of the notable leaders of the public -school movement, and long identified with the progressive party of the London school board. His review of the bill is here reproduced, with slight omissions : The proposals now before the country in the education hill of the Government do not err in the direction of moderation. Not content with propounding a scheme for the organization on a public basis of secondary education, the Government invites us to revolutionize our elementary system and to reverse the whole policy of the act of 1870. Hitherto we have been accustomed to suppose that when important institutions had been established, and had built up round them an elaborate and working system, changes proposed would only affect details, and that conservatism in this country would respect past legislation and not assume the reactionary aspect of the continental counter revolution. It is unfortunate that the present Govern¬ ment, although it is supposed to represent the alliance of moderate Liberalism with Conservative defense of the constitution, has utterly disregarded more prudent coun¬ sels, and has propounded a scheme which may be satisfactory to those clerical forces which can not bear to see popular education slipping out of their grasp, and which will also please those who resent the expansion of popular instruction, and who would far rather see public money spent on military preparations and relief to land- owners than in the improved education of the people. It may be difficult to explain how the present bill will work if it should become law. But there can be no doubt that it will severely hamper the growth of public education and place its development under the control of the absolutely noneduca- tional forces of local self-government. It establishes differential taxation in favor of private sectarian management, and discourages local effort by withholding public aid where local contribution is largest. It subsidizes voluntary schools out of the rates without giving the ratepayers a voice in their management, and, under the pre¬ tense of doing away with a too minute system of public aid, it does much to super¬ sede all central direction and organization, which for years to come must be one of the guaranties of progress. So far as it introduces a local controlling financial power, that power is to be used not for the purpose of compelling remote and ignorant local bodies to improve their teaching, but for the purpose of hampering progressive local bodies. It exposes the body which is to direct secondary education to all the drawbacks that must result from associating it with the controversies and feuds which charac¬ terize the politics pertaining to elementary schools, and it fails to evolve any order from the present chaos by omitting to organize throughout the country local authori¬ ties of suitable area which shall at once be invested with the necessary power to do in all cases what can now be done by school boards where they exist. While recognizing the unsatisfactory character of the parochial school board area, it does not in reality supersede it, but, so far as it provides a new area, rushes into the opposite extreme and gives us an authority which while suitable as to area for secondary education, is far too largo for the purposes of elementary education. In short, it is a bill so bad in its principles and essential details that no recognition of it should be admitted, and its faults do not admit of being corrected in committee after conceding a second reading. THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 113 Let ns first examine the hill as it hears upon elementary education. It creates a new authority, the county council. This county council becomes, out¬ side of municipal boroughs, through its education committee, the school hoard of the future, wherever school hoards do not now exist. In municipal boroughs, other than county boroughs, the town council will in future become the school board. But existing school boards will lead a precarious life. They will apparently pass rapidly through a transition such as Madagascar has experienced, passing through depend¬ ence under a protectorate to extinction and absorption in the direct domain of the new authority. The county council is to act through a committee. But apparently, except in the case of Wales and London, the county council has a free hand; it may or may not appoint outsiders, but probably the education committee must be a portion and not the whole of the county council. Thus we pass at once from a body elected for educational purposes to a body elected for noneducational purposes. Everyone knows that municipal contests, and still more elections to rural county councils, do not turn at all on educational questions, and it is very unlikely that the addition of educational functions to the existing duties of a county council will materially modify the considerations which will lead candidates to present themselves as electors to vote. If the election of school boards required modification by the abolition of the cumulative vote, the periodic replacement of the members and the enlargement of the area, these changes could have been brought about without the abolition of school boards in principle, which is really the purpose and effect of this bill. Again, the area for elementary school government should certainly not be so large as the county. The parish is undoubtedly too small, though the commune is the usual unit on the Continent, where public education has been organized long before England. Still it must be admitted that the parochial area, both for administration and for the incidence of taxation, is on many grounds insufficient for producing the best educational results. The area, however, of the district council would have been sufficient, and would have enabled us to secure (1) a sufficient number of competent representatives ; (2) an area not too large for the members of the board to have some personal knowledge of the whole of their district; (3) a sufficient number of schools to educate the board by a comparison of their respective efficiency — and this is a most important consideration; (4) an area of taxation which would correct the undue pressure in any particular part, and would enable the board to deal fairly with the needs of the whole of the district. The present bill, however, proposes an organization which can only be described as ludicrous. The county council, say of Devonshire or Norfolk, becomes, through its education committee, the potential school board for Devonshire or Norfolk. If hereafter any new parochial school board is needed, the county council committee will almost inevitably become the school board; it may also, and probably will, take over the functions of many existing school boards, and becomes the school attendance committee for all parts of the county not included in municipal boroughs or school board areas. Nevertheless, the charge of enforcing school attendance is not to be defrayed by a general charge over the portions of the bounty under the administration of the county committee, but is apparently to be met by special rates levied in the respective poor-law unions or portions of poor-law unions. So, too, the school board rate levied by the new county authority will be separate for each parochial school board area, and separate accounts will have to be kept, and the county authority will have to sit for a quarter of an hour as the school board for Black Acre, then as the school board for White Acre, for Bishop’s Stoke, for King’s Stoke, and Earl’s Stoke, and all the successive parishes it will have to administer. There is apparently power for the county authority, if it pleases, to convert these special rates into one general rate leviable in the parishes for which it acts as a school board (section 11), but prima facie the rates are to be separate. 114 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1895-96. The importance of this question of the rate is apparent when we remember another important new provision of the bill, that the county council is to restrain the spend¬ ing power of the school boards. If the maintenance rate in a district exceeds £1 a head, where it has not already done so, the school board must get the leave of the county council to spend more. Let it be noted that, so anxious is the bill to cripple education, this supervising power is not given to the new county education authority, which will be, in time, more or less familiar with the needs of education; it is given to the county council itself, in which all the members, who care nothing for education, and who have not wished to join the education committee, will vote. Nay, more. So anxious are the authors of the bill to keep down education that it is actually provided in the case of an urban sanitary district, not a borough, and conterminous with a parish, that whereas the education committee of the county council will be the school board for the district, the authority whose leave must be obtained before the cost of maintenance from the rates exceeds £1 a head will be the local board and not the county council. Anyone who knows the type of specula¬ tive builder and others who frequently form a local board will know what readiness they will show to consent to taxation for education. Moreover, their instincts of local patriotism will be enlisted against their new school board. Fancy a populous urban parish in Lancashire of some 20,000 inhabitants whose schools are adminis¬ tered by the county education committee of Lancashire. That county education committee will plan the schools, determine their site, fix the number and scale of salaries of teachers, and generally make all the rules for the administration of the schools. On that education board probably not one resident from the town in ques¬ tion will have a seat, and yet, subject to the £1 limit for expenditure from the rates in maintenance, this external body will have the whole government of the schools. Is this local government? Is it not rather a caricature of local government? Where is to be found the natural correlation of taxation and representation? Another hardship is that the governing body will be largely, even preponderatingly, elected by those who contribute nothing to this or any school board. In many counties of England the bulk of the rural population who elect the county council are not in school board areas. Let the area of existing school boards bo extended by all means, but let the new area which furnishes the new governing body be an area sharing the burdens, and therefore equally responsible in feeling with the old restricted area. No doubt some element of local management is preserved by clause 10, which enacts that in a rural parish half the managers shall be nominated by the parish council and half by the county education authority. But this clause itself is full of absurd¬ ities. It says that the county council shall delegate their powers of control and management; but who shall say how much this means? Does it mean the appoint¬ ment and dismissal of teachers? This seems hardly consistent with the act of 1873. Moreover, section 15 of the act of 1870 is incorporated, which gives the school board power to dismiss the managers. Is one body to appoint and another to dismiss? At any rate, management can not include settling the salaries and numbers of the staff or any general rules as to qualifications which the county school board may draw up. The clause would open the door to endless opportunities of friction and conflict. Again, in a county borough the education committee is to nominate the managers; but in any other borough, while an education committee must be appointed to act for the borough council, yet the borough council and not the education committee is to nominate the managers, and in an urban district which is also a school district the local board will nominate the managers. Can anyone fancy the confusion and conflicts that would arise from such a state of things? The fact is that the moment you give local administration to a body not chosen by those whose money they are to spend you introduce a principle absolutely opposed to the history and principles of our local self-government ; and all this is done to propitiate clerical opposition and to call into existence a new body which will super¬ sede the hated school board. THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 115 Let us pass for a moment from the county council education committee as an admin¬ istrative body charged with the local supply of elementary education to its functions as a superintending body over local elementary education, intrusted by the Govern¬ ment with the administration of the parliamentary grant and the inspection of schools. Here everything is vague, but in this vagueness all kinds of serious possi¬ bilities are latent. Surely in the first place it is unsatisfactory that the spending and the supervising authorities should be the same. In the North Hiding of York¬ shire the educational committee of the county council may be inspecting the school boards of Scarborough, Whitby, Thomabv, and other popular centers, and at the same time they may themselves be the school board for little towns like Thirsk, Malton, Northallerton, Pickering. Is it desirable that a body which is itself admin¬ istering, and probably on a smaller scale and with less experience, should superintend and ultimately control the education of substantial towns? Again, take the county boroughs. Is there any reason to suppose that the town council of Middlesbrough or of York is more fit to make rules under which the science and art and other grants of those towns shall be administered than the school boards of the same towns? Take Hull, a town where the school board has worked at the lowest cost possible, and yet has done much in its higher grade schools for improving popular education. What has the town council of Hull done that it should bo thought more fit to represent the interests of the ratepayers and the interests of education than the school board of Hull, equally elected by the people? Those concerned in education locally will be glad to see more intellectual light introduced in high places at Whitehall and South Kensington, but they may be excused if they doubt whether the twilight of the education department is not better than the outer darkness of such county boroughs as Wigan, or Stockport, or Birken¬ head, or Canterbury. The zeal of a convert is proverbial; but the vice-president had better pause before he adores that which he used to burn and burns that which he used to worship. Sir John Gorst, in his panic at the overminute supervision of the education department, makes a calculation that there are 32,000,000 blank spaces which have to be looked into by his officials. In their enumeration they have omitted one blank space so vast that it figures as a Sahara in the map of their intelligence — the blank failure to understand that it has for years been in the power of the department to simplify without abdicating; to rely more, as they are beginning now to do, on inspection rather than detailed examination in determining the goodness of a school; to develop real local responsible educational authorities instead of relying on irre¬ sponsible volunteers, whose object, avowed by themselves, is not educational but denominational, whose first wish is not to create capable citizens, but devout and submissive Anglicans and Eomanists; not to secure a schoolmaster who shall per¬ form an honorable, though humble, function for the whole community, but to obtain the unpaid services of an organist, Sunday-school teacher, and general ecclesiastical and parochial factotum. It is the pampering and preserving of a State-aided system under private, irresponsible management which has naturally led to the mechanical methods of the education department. It may be necessary to point to one or two provisions of the bill in order to justify the statement that it not only aims at the subordination, but at the extinction, of school boards. (1) Henceforward there can hardly be any rural school boards. Section 6 makes it almost certain that in future the county council will become the school board in rural areas. But section 6 seemingly makes it more difficult at once to call a school board into existence. Hitherto, where the school of a village was closed, the educa¬ tion department could, without notice, at once order the formation of a board. Section 6 seems in all cases to require the long routine of preliminary notices. The object of this, of course, is to do all that can be done to perpetuate clerical manage¬ ment and to prevent the people from managing their own schools. Section 7 makes it impossible hereafter in any borough to have an independent school board. 116 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Section 8 is to facilitate the extinction of school hoards by the transfer of their schools to the new authority. But that there may be no mistake as to the real object of the bill, which is to prevent the extension of public management and to maintain and extend if possible private clerical management, these new county authorities are not made at once school boards for the purpose of taking over exist¬ ing schools. Under subsection 2 of section 8 it is only after the necessary steps have been taken for the formation of a school board in any district that the new county authority can take over a public elementary school under section 23 of the education act of 1870. If there had been a real wish to simplify and to secure what the framers of the bill must be supposed to wish — the establishment everywhere of a proper local educational authority — the new county authority would have been declared to be the school board for all those portions of the county not already under school boards. Subsection 3 of section 8 does not make the county education authority the school board for its district — that is, for the county as a whole — but only for the district; that is, the district in which the school proposed to be trans¬ ferred is situated. Again, section 9 provides that where the education department declares a school board in default, or declares that any school board has not properly performed any of its duties under the education acts, the education department may constitute the county education authority the school board. Was ever such arbitrary power bestowed on a department of state; practically on a vice-president of the council? If the school board for London is at variance with the department ; if, to take an extreme instance, the school board for London in any one of its 400 schools, in any one of its 1,200 departments, has not, in the opinion of the department, properly per¬ formed its duties, which include minute observance of any one article of the code, the education department may, by mere administrative edict, put an end to the school board. If this were law, the school boards of the country would live with the sword of Damocles suspended over their heads. Since James II arbitrarily used corrupt and subservient judges to crush municipal liberty there has never been so sweeping a proposal. And even James’s subservient judges were obliged to use the forms of law; but Sir John Gorst, armed with a little brief authority, proposes to hold the school boards of the country in the hollow of his hand. Such a regime is fitter for the meridian of Moscow than that of London; and can it be believed that Parliament will so treat recognized legal representative bodies, the chief complaint against whom is that they have done their work so well that denominational zeal can not compete with them? Again, as evidence of the hostile attitude toward school boards, consider sub¬ section 3 of section 12 : “The education department, on the application of the education authority, or of a school board, may, if they think fit, make an order transferring to the education authority for any county any school or department of a school within the county, maintained by a school board, and providing education which, in the opinion of the education department, is other than elementary.” Here, too, schools the property of a school board may be taken away from the existing owners against their will. The words are not “on the application of the education authority and of the school board,” but either body may apply. There does not appear to be in the bill any clause compelling the new authority to continue to maintain such a school after it has been transferred. Not only may the education department rob the school board of a school, it may even rob it of a department of a school. There is no legal protection of a school board in any definition of what is elementary. The existing education acts define an elementary school as one in which the main part of the instruction is elementary, thus recognizing that a part of the instruction may be more than elementary. If all the work in the standards be considered ele¬ mentary, yet the code provides that scholars up to 14 years of age who have passed THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 117 the standards are still recognized, and the school receives the Parliamentary grant for them. The free education act extended the age up to which the Parliamentary fee grant was to he paid to 15. This limit was granted at the instance, among others, of Mr. Chamberlain, who pleaded for the encouragement of the advanced instruction given in some schools. No doubt a technicality of the act, resulting from an amendment put in in the House of Lords, has prevented the full benefit being reaped from this enactment, but the hindrance was not intended or seen by the Government when they accepted the amendment, and £hey are honorably bound, and certainly Mr. Chamberlain is honorably bound, not to permit new legislation to recede from the principles recognized in the 1891. It can not be too much insisted on that classes beyond the standards which enable parents who are willing to keep their children at school up to 14 or 15 are not in any proper sense a part of secondary education, but merely a continuation and completion of primary education. The Burger Schulen of Germany, which are elementary schools, give in their upper classes an education fully equal to what would be given in the best English elementary schools to the ex-YII scholars. In France, besides the Ecoles primaries sup^rieures there are the “ classes supplementaires” in many ordinary primary schools. In England the growth of higher grade or upper standard schools has been recognized as sup¬ plying a want. These schools were approved by the majority of Lord Cross’s com¬ mission. Sir W. Hart Dyke spoke warmly in their favor before the commission on secondary education, and warned Sir John Gorst against withdrawing them from the school boards in the debate on the first reading ,of the bill under consideration. These schools are year by year furnishing a better preparation for our pupil teachers, whom Sir John Gorst professes his wish to improve, and whose apprenticeship the new code proposes to shorten. If an attempt were made to dissociate these classes from the elementary schools, out of which they have sprung, the result would be that the great mass of the scholars who now prolong their schooling would cut short their education. They would not go to secondary schools, where they would encounter higher fees, in some cases social inconveniences, and in all cases the incon¬ venience of a break in the course of their studies. Leaving, as most of them do, at 14 or 14£, they would be presented with a truncated fragment of a new course of studies. Their ignorance of foreign languages would lead to their being placed in a class lower than they might be fit for on other accounts, and we should see a seri¬ ous injury done to our elementary schools by their decapitation. Some of the teachers of the less good secondary schools are especially jealous of these upper standard board schools, and are anxious to keep down the elementary school lest its superior teaching efficiency should outweigh the social prestige on which these sec¬ ondary teachers now rely for recruiting their scholars. But the figures of the education department show that there has been no material increase in the age of scholars in the elementary schools ; the proportion between 13 and 14 and over 14 to the whole of the population is almost constant. The improve¬ ment has come in the numbers between 11 and 12. These formerly were slipping away from school, owing to lax by-laws and low standards of exemption; but now the schools are stronger, not in the scholars who^ have passed all the standards and who are over 13, but in the scholars in the Y, YI, and YII standards and those between 11 and 13. * * * Where such an animus against school boards and in favor of private management and of denominational schools is manifest throughout the bill, it is natural that we should view with great suspicion the extreme vagueness with which the bill is drawn. Section 2 is absolutely unmeaning as a definite operative enactment, but it suggests a bias to those who are to administer the act if it becomes law. “It shall be the duty of the education authority to supplement and not to supplant such existing organizations for edncational purposes as for the time being supply efficient instruc¬ tion.” We are all familiar with this passage, quoted from the debates of 1870. We 118 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. know that the great powers conferred upon school hoards were thought by Mr. Forster consistent with that statement. We know that he looked forward to the peaceful extension of school boards and the ultimate substitution of public for private management throughout the country. We know, too, how, though voluntary schools have doubled their accommodation and attendance since 1870, though they have been relieved of one obligation after another, though their contributions represent an insignificant part of the cost and in many cases have entirely disappeared, yet they go on repeating this phrase as if the practical working of the act of 1870 had been a violation of this pledge ; and now, witlfc every private interest fortified by this platitude, encouraged to go to the education department to oppose all progres¬ sive education, we can but consider the insertion of these words thoroughly mis¬ chievous. * * * It is a singular mark of the spirit in which this bill has been drawn that none of the securities of the education act or of the technical education act are introduced into these proposals for the organization and public pecuniary support of secondary schools. And the absence of these securities makes the enactment of section 13 (1) the more dangerous, for by that section a local education authority may be forced to aid any school, however extreme in character, however unsuited to the locality; and under section 2 that school so aided may claim to keep out a more suitable school, even though the community desires it. It should be remembered that in this bill for the first time there is a discrimina¬ tion in public grants avowedly hostile to school boards. All voluntary schools are to receive an additional 4 shillings a head ; a very small number of board schools are to receive a similar aid, and from that is to be deducted the aid they now received About 125 school boards would be eligible to receive the special grant, and it is evi-' dent that the total grant intended to be given to school boards is trifling, since the voluntary schools would receive about £470,000, and the total new grant is calcu¬ lated at £500,000. A few considerations will show how unjust and wasteful this new grant is. .j First of all, it is supposed to relieve local necessity. The words of the bill are, : “for schools requiring special aid.” Yet all voluntary schools are to receive it, no matter what their circumstances. There are more than a thousand voluntary schools with no voluntary subscriptions, and yet no obligation of any local effort is imposed before making this new contribution. In school-board districts there is a distinct security. There the new grant can only be paid in one of two cases : (1) Where a rate of 3 pence in the pound yields less than 7 shillings and 6 pence a head on the average attendance; (2) in small parishes, where a rate of 3 pence yields less than £20. If it is desirable to help poor districts still further, let the same rule be applied to voluntary schools — let them be required to show that they have raised 7 shillings and 6 pence a head by voluntary subscriptions, or that they have raised such a sum by voluntary subscription as a 3-penny rate would yield. If this were done it would at any rate be shown that the intention of the bill is to aid local effort. Again, this grant is to be paid to schools levying fees on the scholars. It is clear that the managers are not entitled to get further public aid where they con¬ tribute little or nothing, and continue to exact fees from the parents. The way in which difficulties are thrown in the way of parents desiring free education, both by the department and by local managers, shows that the free education act has by no means been made as effective as it should be. The department reckons accommodation as available in Eoman Catholic schools and in schools where buildings, equipment, and teaching are most unsuitable, and unless parents are willing to have their children forced into these schools, and pos¬ sibly send them some distance from home, it is said that they must continue to pay fees, for they have no right to demand free schooling in the school most convenient to them. * * # The bill does not enable the new county authority to call on rural boards to do more where their efforts and expenditure are insufficient. Its power is one only for restraint on expenditure, not for compelling further efficiency. THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF* 1896. 119 Why should the school hoard for London or Leeds or Liverpool he called on to satisfy the town council or county council that the requirements of education require increased expenditure ? The school hoard is elected hy the same persons ; hut at the election of the school hoard the electors had definitely before them the fact that they vere choosing those who should manage their schools. It is extremely prohahle that in the extreme desire to profess economy which char¬ acterizes most municipal bodies, and having regard to the prominent place that the rate of expenditure occupies in the discussions at municipal elections, a town council will always seek to get forgiveness and oblivion for any sins it may have committed hy parading the fact that it has refused permission to the school hoard to spend beyond its limit. Suppose it were the other way, and any special expenditure on parks, recreation grounds, public baths, electric lighting, or any of the various forms of expenditure which arise in municipal life were submitted to the school hoard for approval! The proposal would he ridiculous, hut not more ridiculous than to let these local authorities, engrossed in sewage and paving, judge of the propriety of an expenditure which sets pupil teachers free from teaching during half their time in order that they may have more time for study. If reason and precedent were to determine political questions, this enslavement of mind to matter would not move our apprehension,- hut the danger is serious, in the face of the large majority which the country, to save its political unity, gave to Lord Salisbury, and which he and the Duke of Devonshire seem about to use as fraudulent trustees for an alien purpose ; in face also of the certain action of the mass of the Irish members, who have already destroyed the Liberal party, who have gone near to destroying the Parliamentary constitution of our country, and who now, in alliance with clerical Anglicans and all who hate the growth of education, bid fair to destroy the system of public school management which was slowly making its way in the country and was fatal to their exclusive claims. So dangerous a conspiracy against freedom and light may win, but not, it is hoped, till every true Liberal has fought his utmost in opposition, and not without leaving an earnest and intense determina¬ tion to keep on rousing the nation till they shall realize what it means to leave to private and irresponsible hands the education of their children, which should be their first duty and under their direct control. There are some other points that need noticing in the bill, equally bad in principle, equally impractical in application. As to the rating of schools. Henceforward the rates on all schools are to be paid by the overseers in rural nonschool-board districts out of the union rate; in school- board districts from the school-board area. Thus, the inhabitants of a school-board parish will pay the rates for the benefit of the whole union. The nonschool-board parishes will have their school directly subsidized from the rates of the union, to which parishes having a board school will pay in addition to the rate on their own schools. At present voluntary schools are generally rated at nominal sums, but they will now get substantial aid from the ratepayers. This will certainly be an addi¬ tional reason why the ratepayers should be represented on the management. In London rates will continue to be paid on board schools and levied over the whole area of London; and similarly the whole area of London will pay the local rates on the church schools. No precaution is even taken that the schools whose rates are paid are held in trust for public education, or that rent is not received for them. * * * There is another equally wild and wasteful proposal in section 26 — that guardians may contribute to the expense of providing, enlarging, or maintaining a school if the expense has been incurred wholly or partly on account of children sent from a workhouse or boarded out. If there is need of further school accommodation in a district where the workhouse is situate, whether from the closing of a workhouse school or from any other cause, a school board can be, and bylaw should be, formed, and the workhouse will be rated and the property in the parish will be rated. No doubt it might be well to make the poor-law union the area for school-board purposes, in which case the whole area benefiting would contribute. 120 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. But this cause would enable guardians in a large town to pay for enlarging or building a school in some parish where they board out children. But a year after¬ wards the local committee may break up, the boarded-out children may be trans¬ ferred elsewhere, and yet the guardians may have permanently contributed to the enlargement of this school which they will no longer use. Or Dr. Barnado may swoop down and outbid the guardians and capture all the houses which they used to use; and so, too, they may lose the benefit of the school to which they will have contributed. The further power for guardians to subscribe to the maintenance of such a school is also most objectionable, and raises at once the question of rate aid for the maintenance of privately managed schools. This clause, like nearly every clause in the bill, is full of reckless legislation, drawn apparently by those who had one aim, and one only, in view — how to subsidize and prop up private schools, how to stop any further school boards, and suppress those that exist. In reference to the audit of voluntary school accounts clause 5 provides at last for what has been long required. Security should also be taken, in accordance with the act of 1870, for full publicity of all school reports and accounts. The recent restric¬ tion on publicity introduced by the new code shows that the education department is ready to take away the right of access to these reports which now exists. More¬ over, in dealing with voluntary schools greater care will have to be taken to put down the various forms of fraud now practiced, and which, when the education department detects, it does not take any adequate steps to punish. Thus, receipts are sometimes given for more salary than has been received ; to balance this a ficti¬ tious subscription is entered, and so the school gets credit for a larger subscription and so has defeated the restrictions of the 17s. 6d. limit. * * * The new county authority is to have the power to aid training colleges. Nothing is more deplorable than the way in which the education department ever since 1870 has shirked the important duty of seeing that there was provided an adequate sup¬ ply of properly trained teachers to meet the enormous growth of our elementary schools. But the jealousy of denominational training colleges still stopped the way, and it is only quite recently that some slight addition has been made by means of day colleges associated with local university colleges. We want at least twice as much training college provision as we have now to get back even to the proportion of trained teachers that existed before 1870. But, in addition to certificated teach¬ ers, our schools are flooded with ex-pupil teachers and women over 18, of whom a very experienced inspector said that the only educational qualification which they certainly possessed was that of being over 18. What is needed is that the new authorities for higher education should be enabled not only to aid but to establish training colleges. Probably two or three county authorities should combine for this purpose, as a good college requires a sufficient number of students. It is to be hoped that, when there are more opportunities of training, the course may be lengthened to three years. Section 19 fixes the maximum national contribution in each school to elementary education in future. It may be noticed that this is slightly below what a good school should receive now, apart from any grant for specific subjects or for pupil teachers. Thus, no school started hereafter can get more than 20 shillings for senior scholars and 17 shillings for infant scholars. At present a good senior department easily gets from 21 to 22 or 23 shillings in the case of a department limited to upper standards, and many girls’ schools earn an additional shilling for needlework. No doubt it has been a bad thing to stimulate the teaching of a large number of subjects for the sake of special grants. Yet it is to be feared that this new limitation of the grant, espe¬ cially coupled with the new limit in school maintenance, will induce many school boards to set before them a lower type of teacher and of teaching as all that they can afford to secure. Anyone who has followed the policy of several even among the larger boards (it were invidious to name them in this article) could point to school boards where this regulation will distinctly lower the teaching. It will — to THE ENGLISH EDUCATION BILL OF 1896. 121 uso the exulting phrase of a leading Roman Catholic — clip the wings and claws of the school hoards ; and the hill is meant to do so. * * * It is obvious that the working of section 3 along with section 19 must tend to put all schools, good or had alike, on a dead level as far as regards Government grant, with this important reservation, that whereas the hoard schools from their superior efficiency have hitherto received more than the voluntary schools, henceforward the voluntary schools are to receive 4 shillings a head more than the hoard schools. The effect of the two clauses together will he that in a town like Birmingham the superior efficiency of the hoard schools hitherto will have obtained a credit for the town with the education department, whereby, while the grants to the hoard schools will he cut down, the grants to the voluntary schools will he largely augmented. As to the repeal of the 17 shillings and 6 pence limit, it need only he repeated that if no new obligation to find some definite proportion of the cost from bona fide vol¬ untary contributions he introduced, we shall rapidly pass to a state of things where, in many parishes the community will find all the money, parents of all opinion will he forced to send their children, and the clergy of one denomination will have the whole management. Section 27 : This section introduces a serious innovation. School hoards must make reasonable arrangements for any kind of dogmatic teaching in their schools and so must other managers. The education department is sole judge of whafc is reason¬ able. May that department rule that the appointment of teachers of the religious opinion to he taught and the requiring them to give the instruction is reasonable, or must the teaching necessarily he given by outsiders ? If the latter, there might not he much objection to the arrangement if it were part of a scheme that provided universally for schools under public local management, hut what is wanted is not to break up the school into a group of conventicles, hut to secure that the local majority of parents shall obtain teachers and management which have their confi¬ dence. There are many rural parishes where the majority of the children attending the church school are Dissenters, and yet in such a school the clergyman may adver¬ tise for and require a strong churchman, a fasting communicant, one who will attend the daily service. The advertisements that appear in the Church scholastic newspaper are most exact¬ ing in their requirements, and often the reticence of the advertisement is supple¬ mented by searching private inquiries. The Roman Catholic says that in his school he requires the whole atmosphere throughout the school time to he penetrated with Catholicism. Schools for minorities such as the Roman Catholics are nearly always in populous centers and supplement the general schools of the nation. But what should he demanded is that the nation should come first and the sects should take the second place. Let us enfranchise the schoolmaster and the school by making them the public servants of a wide local community, not the dependents of the clergy of any one denomination, with ecclesiastical duties first in the estimation of their clerical employer, while their public and lay usefulness takes the second place. * * * The writer is well assured that never have proposals been made more thoroughly reactionary, more hostile to education and to public self-government, more favorable to private, autocratic, and. clerical domination than those which pervade this hill. The trifling proposal to raise the age of half-time exemption from 11 to 12 was one which all parties were agreed to last year, and which can not he taken as a conces¬ sion to bribe us to agree to the body of the bill. As to what concerns secondary education, the proposals are obscure, indefinite and imperfect. The great question of secondary education should bo treated in a separate act, and not mixed up with the intensely polemical matters which form the bulk of the bill now under consideration. If the English working people allow themselves to be robbed of the national system which was slowly establishing itself among them, and was doing so much for their children, they will put back for years the date of their full intellectual and social enfranchisement. ; ' CHAPTER III. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.1 Great Britain and Ireland, constitutional monarchy ; area, England and Wales, 58,186 square miles; population (estimated, 1894), 30,060,763; Scotland, 29,820 square miles; population, 4,123,038; Ireland, 32,583 square miles; population (census, 1891), 4,704,750. For previous articles on education in Great Britain, see the following : Detailed view of the educational system of England. (Report for 1888-89, Yol. I, pp. 78-111.) Religious and moral training in public elementary schools, England and Wales. (Ibid., pp. 438-457.) Brief view of the educational system, with current statistics. (Report for 1889-90, Yol. I, pp. 237-248.) Educational system of Scotland. (Ibid., pp. 187-236.) Elementary education in London and Paris. (Ibid., pp. 263-280.) Brief view of systems of England and Scotland, with current statistics and compari¬ son with 1876 (England), 1880 (Scotland). (Report for 1890-91, Yol. I, pp. 125- 134.) Provision for secondary and for technical instruction in Great Britain. (Ibid., pp. 135-150.) Educational system of Ireland. (Ibid., pp. 151-164.) Elementary education in Great Britain and Ireland, 1892. (Report for 1891-92, Yol. I, pp. 97-104.) Technical instruction in Great Britain. (Ibid., pp. 105-137.) Elementary education in Great Britain. (Report for 1892-93, Yol. I, pp. 203-208.) Religious instruction under the London school board. (Report for 1892-93, Yol. I, pp. 208-218.) Great Britain and Ireland, educational statistics and movements, 1893. (Report for 1893-94, Part I, pp. 165-185.) Educational systems of England and Scotland, with statistics and movements, 1893- 94. (Report for 1894-95, Yol. I, pp. 257-273.) The official reports of elementary education in Great Britain and Ire¬ land for 1895-96 have been already submitted to Parliament, but haYe not yet reached this office. The principal statistics, here tabulated have been obtained from various official statements. A very graphic survey of the English field was presented by the vice-president of the education department, Sir John Gorst, in submitting to the House his estimates for 1896-97. His speech is reproduced in this chapter, sup¬ plemented by that of Mr. Yoxall, who has long been identified with 1 Prepared by Miss Anna Tolman Smith. 123 124 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. educational work, and who was elected as a member from Nottingham to represent the interests of elementary education in the House. The matter is introduced by a concise view of the system from an Eng¬ lish source, 1 with detailed tables reproduced from the Schoolmaster. Table 1. — Summary of educational statistics — Great Britain and Ireland. Sources of information. Institution. Date of report. Registered students or pupils. Professors or teachers. Expendi¬ ture. Great Britain , England and Wales. Statesman’s Year- Book, 1896. Official report Universities : Oxford (23 colleges) . Cambridge (19 colleges) . . Durham (1 college) . Detached colleges (15) . . University colleges for -wo¬ men (4). 1895 1895 3895 1895 1895 Bedford college for women . . . 1895 Elementary day schools . 1895 Night schools . Trainingcolleges for elementary . teachers. a 3, 256 2, 839 171 b 11, 778 379 190 5, 325, 858 270, 285 4, 296 93 107 13 757 121, 244 $945, 650 Scotland. Statesman’s Year- Book, 1896. Official report Universities : Aberdeen (1 college) . Edinburgh (1 college) . Glasgow (1 college) . St. Andrews (2 colleges) . Dundee University college Elementary day schools . Night schools . Training colleges for elementary teachers. 1895 c691 1895 d 2, 836 1895 e 1, 842 1895 / 204 1895 107 1895 692, 202 1895 45, 487 49 99 28 19 15, 023 87 7, 098, 350 Ireland. Statesman's Year- Book, 1896. Official report Official report, 1895-96. Universities : Dublin University (1 college) . Belfast Queen’s College . Cork Queen’s College . Galway Queen’s College . Elementary day schools". . Training colleges for elementary teachers. Department of science and art : Science schools and classes. . . Art schools and classes . 1895 1895 1895 1895 1895 1894 1, 123 353 224 108 g 826, 046 688 1895 7i 188, 380 1895 h 136, 768 64 20 26 23 11, 793 i 3, 727, 350 a Undergraduates. b Includes 902 women. c Includes 35 women. d Includes 162 women. e Includes 245 women. /Includes 32 women. g Average enrolment. h In addition to pupils in elementary schools receiving grants from the department. i Total expenditure by department of science and art. The entire province of secondary instruction is omitted from the above table, as no summaries for this department are attainable. Kecent esti¬ mates place the number of pupils pursuing secondary studies in Eng¬ land and Wales at 890,000, including the 90,000 pupils in higher board schools. In Scotland 73 secondary schools (i. e., 30 public high schools, 24 endowed schools, and 19 private schools) have submitted to the scheme of Government inspection. The number presenting candidates for the Government u leaving certificate” in 1894 was 270, and the 1 A digest of the new education hill with historical introduction, etc. Knight & Co., London. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 125 number of candidates 13,173. The intermediate education board of Ire¬ land, a public examining body, reports 7,682 students (5,816 boys and 1,866 girls) as coming up for examination in 1894. THE ENGLISH SYSTEM. At the present time the educational system of England may be thus briefly outlined : (1) School boards have jurisdiction over nearly 20,000,000 of the population of England and Wales, and school attendance committees over 10,000,000. The former bodies have power to provide school accommodation where there is a deficiency of seats in their district, while the powers of the latter are limited entirely to the administration of the law as to children’s labor and school attendance. (2) The voluntary managers have provided and maintained three-fifths of the elementary school accommodation of the country. (3) While tho school boards have power to build and maintain their schools on the security of their local rates, the voluntary schools rely on their endowments and subscriptions for such building and maintenance. (4) While in the voluntary schools religious teaching in accordance with the dis¬ tinctive doctrines of the denominations which established them may be given, at regulated times and subject to the right of withdrawal of all children whose parents do not desire it for them, in a school board school no religious teaching or religious formulary which is distinctive of a particular denomination may be given. (5) The grants last year amounted in day schools to £4,137,713 ($20,688,565). The average expenditure per scholar is slightly over £2 ($10); in board schools it is £2 10s. ($12.50), and the average rate of grant per head toward this expenditure is 18s. 6d. ($4.62£). Tlie following detailed tables, relating to England and Wales, are reproduced, with explanatorj^ comments, from the Schoolmaster of April 25, 1896 : Table 2. — Classified view of schools and scholars. Denominations. her of schools, ., institutions, ler separate nagement. Humber of departments in which separate head teachers are employed. borof scholars whom accom- lation is pro- ed. berof scholars m tho roll. U-i • © 1-9 a.® © 3 a C« O TS a ® 3 % Boys. Girls. Mixed. In¬ fants. Total. q u o’V 3 <3 a'? £ a° 3 'A ® o © > KJ+J <1 Schools connected with Rational Society or Church of England .. Wesleyan schools . 11, 834 1, 866 1, 701 9, 419 3,531 16, 517 2, 707, 780 2, 278, 729 1, 854, 619 480 34 28 445 246 753 189, 955 162, 057 130, 203 Homan Catholic schools . British, undenomina¬ 994 241 227 744 481 1, 693 367, 344 285, 232 230, 893 tional, and other schools . 1, 176 181 142 930 409 1, 662 355, 726 289, 587 235, 768 School hoard schools . . . 5,316 1,809 1,747 3, 372 2, 824 9, 752 2, 345, 467 2, 310, 253 1, 894, 943 Total, 1895 . 19, 800 4,131 4, 218 3,845 14,910 7,491 30, 377 5,966,272 ! 5, 325, 858 4, 346, 426 Total, 1890 . 19, 498 3, 829 1 14,560 6, 861 29, 468 5, 566, 507 4, 825, 560 3, 732, 327 126 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Table 3. — Subjects of instruction other than the three elementary branches. Denominations. Number of departments in ■which singing is taught. Number of schools in which instruction i s given to deaf or blind scholars. Number of schools to scholars in which in- J struction has been given in — 3 © >5 a o 23 o - e3 Tonic sol-fa. On both or any other system. Drawing (older scholars). Manual instruc¬ tion. Science. Physical exer¬ cises. Church schools . . . ! 5, 447 1 824 9, 087 108 ! 10,824 220 138 1, 570 "Wesleyan schools . . . 88 i li 650 1 474 27 24 68 Homan Catholic schools . 460 217 1, 004 4 j 925 21 7 139 British schools . . . ! 371 63 j 1, 214 5 | 1, 068 51 33 162 Board schools . | 1,526 1 233 | 7,799 79 28 j 4, 854 630 430 1, 246 Total, 1895 . ! 7,892 2, 351 i 19, 754 197 28 18,145 j 949 632 3,185 Total. 1890 . 13,054 2. 244 j 13,893 90 | 1 1 I . 1 I i N I umber of schools in ’which girls have been taught — Number of schools, in -which have been estab¬ lished — Denominations. © CS >a co ; ® g p -32 r os O'SyJ o cj a & I H Laundry work. Dairy work. & <3 £ © CO 3 © Savings banks. School libraries. Church schools . 573 808 27 1 2 , 5, 200 3,927 "Wesleyan schools __ _ 38 1 81 160 127 "Roman Ua.tbolic schools _ _ 80 1 105 6 249 325 British schools _ 96 ' 152 8 396 315 Board schools . . . . - . . ...... 785 1, 629 37C 2 2,405 1, 687 Total, 1S95 . 1,572 2,775 411 1 1 4 j 8, 410 6, 381 Total. 1890 . 1,414 1,554 2, 498 4,401 CLASS AND SPECIFIC SUBJECTS.1 In connection with. class subjects, it will be seen from tbe next table that while English is gradually being discarded, elementary science and history are increasing in favor. Geography, too, shows slight signs of a growing popularity. Needle¬ work as a class subject does not vary much. Probably in a few years’ time, when object lessons have been universally adopted, this table will undergo considerable changes. _ _ Subject. Number of depart¬ ments taking up as a class subject. 1890. 1895. English . 20, 304 12, 367 32 414 7, 758 16, 280 15, 702 1,712 3, 597 7, 396 Geographv . . . . . Elementary science . History . . . Needlework . Coming to specifics, we note first of all the leaps and bounds which “ shorthand” has made in popularity as a specific subject. Amongst the other subjects, algebra, mechanics, and physiology, and domestic economy apparently are making the great¬ est headway. Latin, for the first time for several years, shows a slight increase. Under these heads provision is made for subjects above the elements, EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 127 Specific subjects. Pupils examined in — 1890. 1895. Algebra . i 30, 035 If 38,237 Euclid . - . } 977 \ 1,468 5, 614 Mensuration . Mechanics . 11, 662 23, 806 Latin . 360 250 Erenck or German . 7, 232 12, 859 Physiology . ! 15, 842 17, 003 Botany . 1, 830 2, 483 Agriculture . 1, 228 1, 196 Chemistry . . 2, 007 3,850 Sound, light, and heat . I 1,183 914 Magnetism and electricity . 2,293 3, 198 Domestic economy . Shorthand . Other subjects 1 . ' 23, 094 | 611 36. 239 / 10, 332 l 4:, 654 | 1 Bookkeeping, geology, elementary science, kistory, hygiene, fruit culture, natural philosophy, navigation, practical mechanics, social economy, and "Welsh. Table 4. — Comparative view of free vs. paying pupils. The figures for this year show that although the rate of increase is not so rapid as in the years immediately following the passage of the law for the remission of fees (1891), still the time is not distant when few children in primary schools will pay fees, and where fees are paid it is noticeable that the majority pay a penny per week or less. Not one child in one hundred and fifty pays more than 1 penny per week. But this growth of free education can easily be seen from the table. Tear. Tumber of schools. Free. Paying fees. Paying not more than 1 penny per week. Paying more than 1 penny per week. 1895 . . . 4, 519, 159 4, 377, 741 4, 236, 867 3, 880, 622 780, 310 821, 000 889, 506 1, 124, 732 459, 567 485, 312 523, 686 519, 191 320, 743 335, 688 365, 826 605, 641 1894 . 1893 . 1892 . Table 5. — Effects of the law for the remission of fees. In looking at the increaso in our school population, it is well to examine how far the almost entire abolition of fees has affected the attendance. We notice, as the next table will indicate, that there has been an increaso in the percentage of attend¬ ance, and also in number of children who attend school after reaching the age of 10. This year, however, does not show any very great strides in either direction. It must not bo overlooked, though, that an increase in percentage of attendance of one-tenth means an additional 5,000 children. During year previ¬ ous to pass¬ ing of free- education act. First year of working of free-edu- cation act. Second year of working of free-educa- tion act. Third year of working of free-edu- cation act. Fourth year of working of free-educa- tion act (1895). Increase in numbers on the rolls, per cent . .160 4. 22 2.3 1.5 1.7 Increase in average attendance, per cent . . 593 , 3. 68 5. 66 3.2 2.1 Actual number of attendances made per ; hundred of possible attendances, per " cent . 77.679 77*. 281 79. 555 81.3 81.6 Actual number Gf children attending 1 school over 10 years of age . 1,622,056 ; 1, 682, 600 1, 758, 597 1, S07, 926 1, 877, 276 Children attending over 10 _ per cent. . 33.4 1 1 33.5 34.1 34.5 35.2 128 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Table 6. — Adult teachers, number , grade, and training. Denominations . Church, schools . "Wesleyan schools . . . . Jtoman Catholic schools . British schools . Board schools . Total, 1895 . Total, 1890. Certified teachers (teachers having Government diplomas). Non collegiate (not trained in normal colleges). Provisionally certificated," in charge of schools. Certificated. 30 2, 923 136 78 455 2, 601 141 6,193 206 I 5,904 6, 857 335 994 872 6, 903 College (nor¬ mal school) trained. 5, 764 448 292 740 7, 779 Total. Assistant teachers. 5, 376 194 998 412 8, 636 8, 691 584 370 1, 197 10, 381 12, 329 531 1, 997 1,296 15, 565 15,961 15,023 115, 616 21,223 31,718 | 52, 941 14,756 12,770 12,873 ,18, 704 |27, 835 I 46, 539 2, 123 152 105 315 2, 352 9,645 749 1,440 1, 301 9, 779 5,047 22,914 27, 961 5,254 |16.530 21, 784 7,416 290 1, 122 659 2, 191 11,678 5, 210 To the totals above given, 92,580 in 1895 (73,533 in 1890), should be added the number of pupil teachers, 28,664 in 1895 (29,610 in 1890), giving as grand totals 121,244 in 1895 (103,143 in 1890). Table 7. — Average salaries of certificated teachers. 1 Denominations. Masters. Mistresses. Head. Class, average salaries (including all pro¬ fessional sources of income). Total average salaries. Head. Class, average salaries (including all pro¬ fessional sources of income). Total average salaries. Average salaries (including all profess ional sources of in¬ come). Number provided ■with house or rent free. Average salaries (including all professional sources of in¬ come) . Number provided with house or rent free. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Church schools . 121 4 3 4,256 74 19 6 114 0 10 75 10 5 3, 616 52 6 3 69 19 10 Wesleyan schools . . . 170 13 6 63 84 12 2 150 3 6 86 13 0 2 54 1 9 73 3 9 Roman Catholic I ! schools . 117 3 3 28 79 1 7 105 3 3 66 14 4 315 1 52 12 5 62 17 2 British schools . 143 16 1 252 t 92 12 3 130 6 0 81 5 9 152 I 57 1 3 72 0 3 Board schools . 1 162 11 0 1,423 j 103 6 4 I 127 2 11 114 4 3 478 | 81 14 6 93 4 5 Total, 1895.... ' 137 16 10 6, 022 97 13 0 1 122 G 7 87 11 9 4, 563 73 7 0 81 3 3 Total, 1890.... I 134 2 G 5, 332 89 17 2 119 18 5 82 17 5 4, 501 66 1 9 76 0 5 Table 8. — Annual expenditure and Parliamentary grant in board and voluntary schools at specified dates. Tear. Average cost per child in average attend¬ ance. Average annual grant paid per child in average attendance. V oluntary schools. Board schools. Voluntary schools." Board schools. 1869 . £ s. d. 15 5 15 5 1 14 7| 1 16 llj 1 17 8 1 17 9* 1 17 GJ 1 18 If 1 £ s. d. s. d. 9 7 9 91 15 5 17 6i 18 0i 18 0| 18 H 18 2i s. d. 1870 . 1880 . 2 1 Hi 2 5 1H 2 7 l| 2 8 4| 2 8 li 2 8 9| 15 7| 18 5| 18 9i 18 11 18 111 19 1| 1890 . 1891 . 1892 . 1893 . 189-i . EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 129 Prior to 1876 the amount of the Government graut to a school could not exceed the amount raised locally. The law passed that year provided that the grant might exceed the local income hut should not he more than 17s. 6d. per capita without correspond¬ ing increase in the local funds. In view of the proposal to abolish this limit it has been declared that voluntary subscriptions declined as a consequence of the liberal Government provisions of 1876. The following table shows in fact that a reduction in the per capita of voluntary subscriptions did follow that change: Table 9. — Sources of income of denominational schools, with the cost and amount from each source per capita of attendance. DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS. Tear. Cost. Graut. School fees. [ Sub scrip - 1 tions. 1869 . & s. d. 15 5 s. d. | 9 7 s. d. 8 4 s. d. 7 34 1870 . 15 5 9 9! I 8 44 6 114 1871 . 1 5 6J 10 i| 8 44 6 94 1872 . 17 5 11 10 1 8 94 7 3 1873 . 1 9 Ilf 12 3i j 9 54 7 74 1 10 10* 12 5 10 54 7 9 1875 . 1 H 101 12 9! 10 14 8 14 1876 . . . 1 13 5i 13 3| 10 64 8 84 1877 . 1 13 9 14 4 | 10 84 8 84 1878 . 1 14 0 15 2 10 84 8 14 1879 . 1 14 6 15 3J 10 10 7 84 1880 . 1 14 7f 15 5 10 94 7 3 1881 . 1 14 m 15 7f 1 11 04 7 1 1S82 . 1 14 6| 15 9 11 0 6 104 1883 . 1 14 10| 15 11 11 1 6 84 I 1881 . 1 15 2 16 4| 11 2 6 8| 1885 . 1 15 9! 16 84 11 24 6 7| i 1886 . . 1 16 4! 16 104 11 24 6 9 ! 1887 . 1 16 4| 17 04 11 14 6 74 ! 1888 . 1 16 4 17 1| 11 o| 6 74 j 1889 . 1 16 4! 17 44 H 14 6 74 i 1890 . 1 16 lli 17 64 11 24 6 74 1891 . 1 17 8 18 04 11 34 6 104 ! 1892 . 1 17 9i 18 0| 7 34 6 104 j 1893 . 1 17 6! 18 li 2 4* 6 84 i 1894 . 1 18 If 18 24 2 04 6 64 1 Fee grants. s. d. 2 94 8 6“ 10 1 On the vote for £4,162,232 ($20,811,160) to complete the sum of £7,122,213 ($35,611,065) necessary for public elementary education in England and Wales, including the expenses of the education office in London, Sir J. Oorst (Cambridge University) said: THE INCREASED ESTIMATE AND THE REASONS FOR IT. The expenditure during the past year exceeded the expenditure of the year before by £275,000. It was greater than had been expected, and a supplementary estimate had to be taken to meet the excess. The increased expenditure was well spread over all the principal items. I do not know that there is anything in the increased expenditure to call for special mention, except that it indicates the continued progress of education in the country. There is an increase in the numbers on the books, an increase in the average attendance of those on the books, and an increase in the grants that the children earn. In the coming year we have only estimated for an increase of £186,000. That is partly due to the fact that the stimulus given to education by the act of 1891 is gradually becoming exhausted, and the progress in all parts of education, which still goes on, is the normal increase due to the increase in the population and the wealth of the country. This increase of £186,000 is again spread over every item of expenditure. The cost of inspection has increased chiefly because the evening schools are just now making great progress, and because the new system of making two surprise visits a year, instead of the regular inspection ED 96 - 5 130 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. formerly made once a year, lias increased tlio inspectors’ traveling expenses. The decrease of £3,645 in the charges for pensions which appears on the estimates is apparent and not real. In previous years £6,710 had to he provided in order to defray the temporary cost of the exchange from half-yearly to quarterly payments, and, so far from there being a diminution in the charge for pensions, there is really an increase of £3,065, and an increase in the number of pensions given of 129. Another cause of the increase in the expenditure is the increased payments which will have to be made to school boards under the ninety-seventh section of the act of 1870, 1 a section which was very much discussed in our education debates. The effect of that discussion was to reveal to some school boards rights to grants out of the consolidated fund, which they had previously overlooked. The consequence will be that every school board which is entitled to such a grant will make a demand for it, which we calculate will take £8,850, and even that may prove too small a sum. INCREASE IN SCHOOL ATTENDANCE IN DAY AND NIGHT SCHOOLS. But the great increase in expenditure this year, as in other years, is duo to the increase in the grants made to day scholars. The increase we anticipate this year is 70,000 in average attendance, a penny increase in the rate of the grant earned, and an increase in the amount which has been charged on the consolidated fund for that purpose of £86,000. Since 1891, when the last education act was passed, the increase in average attendance is as follows: In 1891 the increase was only 0.86 .per cent, the normal increase; in 1892 it sprang up to 3.22; in 1893, to 5.92; in 1894 it sank to 3.47; in 1895, to 2.3; and this year, we anticipate, to 2.2; so that, although the increase has become less rapid, it has not yet gone down to the normal rate of 1890. Then there is an increase in the fee grant of £48,500. There is also a satisfactory in¬ crease in the charges for evening schools. In 1893, when the evening school code was first introduced, there were 1,977 evening schools and 115,000 scholars. Now there are 3,421 evening schools and 270,000 scholars; so that, while the evening schools have doubled, the scholars have more than doubled. SCHOOLS FOR THE BLIND AND DEAF. The schools for the blind and deaf also show an increase. In 1895 there were 79 schools certified with accommodations for 4,130 children, and there was an actual grant made that year out of the consolidated fund in respect of 3,148 children. This grant is 3 guineas a year for every deaf and dumb child receiving an elementary education, and an additional 2 guineas for every child who receives manual instruc¬ tion or industrial training. The whole of the 3,148 children in 1895 received the grant for elementary instruction, but only 1,934 obtained the grant for industrial training, so that the average grant per child that year was £3 8s. For the current year we estimate that the grant will be for 3,148 children, being an average of £3 10s. 9d. per child. CONCERNING COOKERY AND LAUNDRY WORK. Cooking and laundry instruction in the elementary schools is, on the whole, mak¬ ing satisfactory progress. The number of girls taught cookery in the past year was 135,000, an increase of nearly 13,000 during the year. Looking to the fact that there are more than half a million of girls attending elementary schools in England and Wales who are qualified to be taught cookery, it is evident that there is considerable room for expansion in the teaching of that subject, and it is to bo hoped that the progress will go on with accelerated rapidity in the years to come. The teaching of laundry work in the elementary schools has only gone on for four or five years. In the last year the advance in the number of girls to whom grants were made was very extraordinary. It was 62 per cent over the number in the year before. In 1891, Providing for special aid in exceptional cases. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 131 when tlio grant for laundry work was first made, the number of girls was 632; in 1892 it was 2,766; in 1893 it was 5,640; in 1894 it was 7,338, and in 1895 it was 11,720; so that the teaching of laundry work is only beginning. It bas already made such progress that wo may anticipate a great increase in the number of girls taught in tho course of the next few years. THE SUPPLY AND TRAINING OF TEACHERS. I do not think that, in regard to the supply of teachers, we are making that prog¬ ress wo all desire. There will be in the present year an increase of £36,000 for training colleges. But this increase is really only an apparent increase. There is a temporary reduction in the estimate for 1895-96 owing to the change in the academical year from December 31 to June 30, and therefore the increase in the grant to training colleges is apparent only, and not real. I wish we could see our way to a very great increase in tho expenditure upon the training of teachers. At present there are 43 residential colleges, and these are attended by 1,384 men and 2,100 women. Besides these, tliero are 14 day training colleges, attended by 385 men and 426 women. Tak¬ ing these colleges together, the whole number of teachers they had in training was 4,296, and they turned out annually teachers who are qualified to take charge of schools to the number of about 2,100. This number is quite insufficient to meet the requirements of the existing schools, and if the wishes of the Government were car¬ ried out, and the education in all the voluntary schools of tho country and the poor board schools made more efficient, the number of teachers turned out would be lamentably deficient. THE INTRODUCTION OF THE UNQUALIFIED PRACTITIONER. 1 have no doubt that in the course of the discussion upon this vote I shall be taken to task by honorable members, perhaps on both sides of the House, for the failure of tho provisions of tho code to secure that every teacher is a properly qualified teacher. I will not anticipate my answer to those objections further than to say that we could not get properly certificated and qualified teachers, and that we had to take those wo could get. It is most desirable that some provision should be made early to secure a very much greater increase in the number of efficient teachers for our schools, especially if we are to make some progress in the efficiency of our ele¬ mentary education. I may be told that the account I have given to the committee is a very sanguine one, but the committee must recollect that I have been talking only of the averages, of the result of the summing up of the educational proceedings of all the schools in England anti Wales. And when you look at it in the aggregate it is a very satisfactory progress, and one for which we have reason to be thankful. But this does not in the least contradict what I stated to the House in the early days of the session, and it would bo a very great mistake if the committee were to run away with the idea that because things in the gross are very satisfactory there is therefore no room for any reform in large classes of schools in this country. INEFFICIENT BOARDS OF MANAGEMENT. Notwithstanding this excellent total, there are many schools in the country, both board and voluntary schools, in which it is impossible to say that the education is efficient or satisfactory. There are voluntary school managers who have not got the means to provide that standard of teaching which it is desirable should be secured for the children of the people; there aro managers of voluntary schools in many of our great cities who are quite unable, from lack of means, to bring up the standard of teaching in their schools to the same level which is attained in the board schools in their immediate neighborhood, and which have the advantage of support out of the rates. And there are many school boards, some in country districts, where they care very lit- tlo for education, and whero tho conduct of their small village schools is exceedingly unsatisfactory and leaves very much to be desired. There are also many school boards 132 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. in large and populous centers who liave efficient schools and who do their utmost to teep their schools efficient, hut who, owing to the small ratable value of their areas as compared with the enormous number of children they have to educate, have a strain put upon them which is almost intolerable, and under which there is every proba¬ bility that, unless Parliament does something to relieve it, they will be entirely broken down. TIMELY WARNING - “OUR RIVALS IN FRANCE AND GERMANY AND THE STATES.” Therefore I hope the committee will not go away with any idea that in what I have now said I intend to unsay what I said in the earlier part of the session as to the urgent necessity which we are under if we intend our education to advance and if wo wish to give to the children an education anything like that which is being given by our rivals in France and Germany and the States. If we mean to keep to the general level and not to fall behind the general level of education which is now given in the civilized world, I solemnly warn the committee that there is a great deal to be done, and a great deal that administration alone can not do. The wis¬ dom of Parliament must be applied to this problem, and I wish I could think it could be applied not in a party spirit, but with a sincere desire, in all quarters of the House, to promote education. THE STATE AND RURAL EDUCATION. Mr. Yoxall congratulated the vice-president upon the tone of his remarks, and echoed his aspiration that this question of education would be treated in future not as a party, but as a national, question. He quite agreed that there were many schools in the country, both voluntary and board schools, which sadly required the provision of further funds. But he wanted to say a few words more, especially up on the position of rural schools. He did not care very much whether they were rural board or rural voluntary schools — they were much in the same class — and he would point out that the rural schools of England and Wales were, taken as a whole, the worst supported, the worst staffed, and the worst managed of the public elementary schools in Europe. They lacked means, they lacked teachers, and they lacked proper government and proper supervision. It was quite a common thing — and this was probably true of 6,000 or 7,000 schools in the villages of this country — to find in a school one adult; teacher only with the charge of six and sometimes seven different classes, and teaching in something like sixteen or seventeen different subjects. That was a system which was bad educationally, bad nationally, and bad econom¬ ically. The great need of the country schools was more staff; but he warned the committee, and he would warn the vice-president if he thought he needed the warn¬ ing, that they could not expect these schools to have more staff and better support upon a maximum income in the case of voluntary schools of 33 shillings per scholar per year and in the case of board schools of 49 shillings. If the education depart¬ ment were to realize the wishes of the vice-president, if the committee were to assent to continued, to real progress in their educational affairs, the committee would have to vote a very much larger outlay upon education than had been the case hitherto. EXPENDITURES ON EDUCATION. The demand for further expenditure upon education was not a popular idea to put forward, but he would point out that this year they were spending upon the army and navy at the rate of 30 shillings per head of the population, while upon educa¬ tion they were only spending at the rate of 7 shillings per head. Thirty shil¬ lings on ships and sailors ; 7 shillings on schools and scholars ! He submitted that 7 shillings per head of the population upon public education was not an extravagant outlay. In other countries they did not consider that outlay at all sufficient. The average expenditure upon maintenance of board schools in England and Wales last year was 48s. 9d. per child. In the case of voluntary schools it was 36s. Id. per child, EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 133 In Scotland they spent more than that, while in Germany, France, Belgium, and Switzerland their rates of expenditure were also higher. In the United States, too, they found that after allowing for all differences between the cost of maintenance in the two countries, the sums expended on education were far in excess of what they spent here. Whereas the expenditure in London per child for public educa¬ tion might go up as far as 50 shillings, in New York it went up as high as £5 per child, and in Boston it went up even higher. He did not suggest that they should at one leap go so far as that; hut he did suggest it was the duty of the House and of the education department not to stint the expenditure year by year. The expen¬ diture of money on public elementary and secondary education, hut especially ele¬ mentary education, was a good national investment. The effect of the working of the education acts in the last twenty-five years had been to decrease pauperism, and to deplete the gaols, and to raze prisons to the ground, and to reduce the amount of drunkenness. A board school scholar cost the country 48 shillings a year, a pauper cost £15 a year, an ordinary prisoner cost £25 a year, and a convict cost £40 a year. So the money spent on education was well spent. THE FOOTNOTE TO ARTICLE 73. He wished to thank the vice-president of the council for giving effect to several promises made last year. He referred especially to the questions of teachers not trained in the colleges and the system of teaching and inspecting drawing. But he was sorry that the department had acceded to the suggestion to suspend article 73 of the code until March 31 next. That article provided that after August 31 in the present year the size of the classes in the elementary schools should be reduced in number. Even in the largest and best board schools it was no uncommon thing to find classes of 80, 90, and 100 children, and no teacher could efficiently teach so large a class. It was possible to have larger classes than the code permitted, because the classes were not examined in detail, but the number of children in the school was divided by the number of teachers. The right honorable member for Rotherham had given two years’ notice of the requirement in respect of smaller classes, and it was greatly to be regretted that the operation of the requirement had been postponed. When the class was too large the scholars lacked individual attention, and consequently their school life was wasted. In the grammar schools the average number in the class was from 15 to 20, and in a girls’ high school the average was from 15 to 30. There was, besides, no need for the suspension of the requirement. The Bishop of London had declared that 90 out of 100 voluntary schools in the country could meet the increased requirements without difficulty. THE UNQUALIFIED PRACTITIONER. As to the failure of the supply of fully qualified teachers, every year there were four times as many applications for admission to the training colleges as there were vacancies. The fault was that there were not enough properly established training colleges. The supply of teachers depended on local enterprise and denominational initiative. If there was a failure in the supply of pupil teachers, it was because the education department did not make the career sufficiently attractive. Something could be done under article 68 of the code which enabled a young woman without qualification, but with the inspector’s approval, to teach in the school. These girls belong to two categories — those who had failed to pass the pupil teachers’ examina¬ tion and those who had not even had that training. At first their employment was narrowly restricted, but now they were to be allowed to teach even in boys’ schools. Out of 92,570 adult teachers in schools, 66,310 were women, and out of 34,000 pupil teachers 26,000 were girls. It looked as though the men were to be thrust out of the profession altogether, and no doubt in many circumstances petticoat govern¬ ment was not a bad thing for children. But there came a time in a boy’s school life when he wanted something more, and therefore he hoped that the department would 134 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. not assist further the tendency to replace men teachers by ^omen. The department was so anxious to get graduates of Oxford and Cambridge into the elementary schools that now they were permitted to accept head masterships without any previous train¬ ing. Against this policy of introducing untrained and unqualified men into the most responsible positions he must protest. However high a man’s academic attain¬ ments, he might be a complete failure when put in charge of large classes and when required to teach them. THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE STATE AND THE TEACHER. Ho wished to say a few words as to the whole attitude of the department toward its teachers. The treatment of the teachers by the department, not in detail but in principle, was wholly wrong; it was shortsighted, out of harmony with the usual practice of Government departments, and rather cruel. Down to 1862 the depart¬ ment took direct responsibility with regard to teachers; it recognized them and treated them as civil servants. Since 1862 the department had disclaimed all responsibility; it had said that it was no party to the engagement of a teacher; it refused to be a court of appeal or even a moderator in regard to dismissals; it shuffled off all responsibility. It tested the teacher and certificated him; it dis¬ missed him from a post for which he was not qualified; it took a great deal of care that he performed the functions assigned to him, but it declined, though it had often been asked to do it, to see that the salary paid to him was sufficient. It shuffled off the responsibility for that onto a board or committee, which was in the position of a contractor with the State. In other cases the Government took care that contractors did their work well, paid their employees properly, and treated them in a proper way ; it secured fair play to the workers ; it repudiated this responsibil¬ ity only in the case of teachers in their relations with school managers and school boards. It insisted on certain conditions as to fair wages, proper hours, and suit¬ able management in shipbuilding yards, in army clothing factories, in printing works, and as to their carpenters enrployed at South Kensington. The local gov¬ ernment board took interest in the officials and employees of the boards of guardians. THE TEACHER’S PAY. If a beard of guardians appointed a medical officer at an insufficient salary, the local government board said, “ You must pay him more.” The education department never did that kind of thing. Why should it not do so? If it did, the present lamentable state of things as to teachers would not exist. There are 50,836 certifi¬ cated teachers. There were 435 who had salaries of under £40 a year, or less than 16 shillings a week; 1,342 at under £45 a year, or less than 18 shillings a week; 2,666 at under £50 a year, or less than 20 shillings a week; 18,395 at salaries under £75 a year, or less than 29 shillings a week, and only 2,397 who got salaries of £200 a year and over. This state of things could not exist if the Government dealt with school managers as it dealt with other contractors and saw that they fulfilled their con¬ tracts ; and he had a right to ask that the attitude of the education department toward school managers and teachers should be radically changed. TENURE AND EXTRANEOUS TASKS. These contractors exacted from teachers tasks which did not properly belong to them — the performance of extraneous duties in connection with church and parochial work; and it was the duty of the dex>artment to secure teachers against these exac¬ tions and impositions. Then managers could dismiss teachers without just cause, and for the teacher there was no remedy. If a question was asked in that House about a wrongful dismissal the vice-president would rex>ly, “We have no power to interfere.” Well, it was high time they had power to interfere. The teachers were as much entitled to protection as carpenters at South Kensington or tailors in army EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 135 clothing works. Why should the education department decline to take steps to safeguard the interests of teachers when the House had determined that it would secure tho payment of fair wages under Government contracts? They could do it by simply inserting in the code conditions as to the payment of grants. They could lay down that grants should be withheld where salaries were not suitable and sufficient, where extraneous tasks were compulsory, and where unreasonable and capricious dismissals had taken place. This view might seem to be new at present, but as time went on it would cease to be new. The education department would have to yield on these points as other departments had yielded on the labor question. THE SUPERANNUATION QUESTION. In other departments public servants who were in direct relation with the Govern¬ ment received superannuation allowances or pensions, but in the case of the teachers there was only the most meager provision for a limited number. Eleven months had passed since the last debate, when a favorable statement was made, but nothing had been done to realize it. Still the bulk of aged and infirm teachers had nothing to look forward to but charity or the workhouse. That meant a waste of educational resources. The teacher past work still “lags superfluous on the stage, ” and that involved a waste of money and of the time of the scholars. The State did not get what it supposed it was paying for, and thus the question became an economical one as well as a sentimental one. But even the sentiment ought to have some weight, for here you had men and women who had worked out their lives for a mere pittance ; they had done valuable work, contributing to diminish pauperism and drunkenness and to empty prisons, and their reward was that some of them got pensions of £25 a year, and the bulk of them had not even that prospect. The teachers had inti¬ mated their willingness to accept the minimum scale of allowances proposed by the department; less than was proposed by the select committee, less than was given in tho civil service, less than the police scale, and less than the county council scale; but this minimum, so accepted, was still withheld. Why, he did not know. The sum required was from £30,000 to £35,000 a year, and in the first five years it would not be over £100,000. He did hope the right honorable gentleman would be able to hold out a hope that something would be done. He believed that money ought to be given to voluntary schools, but when it was given it ought to be on condition that the full benefit of the extra grant should go to the underpaid teachers. [School¬ master, July 18, 1896.] CHAPTER IV. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. Articles on education in central Europe published in previous reports. >rts. Report of — ■ Page. 1888-89 32 1888-89 53 1888-89 75 1888-89 150 1889-90 281 1889-90 293 1889-90 295 1889-90 297 1889-90 299 1889-90 306 1889-90 308 1889-90 549 1889-90 313 i 1889-90 419 1889-90 455 1889-90 451 1890-91 165 1890-91 369 1890-91 377 1890-91 676 1891-92 139 1891-92 197 1891-92 239 1891-92 247 1891-92 369 1892-93 279 1892-93 323 1892-93 357 1892-93 393 1892-93 521 1892-93 548 1892-93 657 1892-93 1893-94 206 1893-94 1 225 1893-94 i 245 1893-94 1 298 1893-94 l 302 1893-94 j 306 1893-94 | 308 1893-94 ! 314 1894-95 j 322 1894-95 329 1894-95 345 1894-95 380 1894-95 403 1894-95 406 1894-95 426 1894-95 j 449 1894-95 I 460 1894-95 ! 471 1894-95 1 1123 1895-96 138 1895-96 147 1895-96 156 1895-96 165 1895-96 180 1895-96 | 187 1895-96 ! 158 1895-96 Title of article. 1 Comparison of the schools of Germany, France, and the United States, with dia¬ grams . Courses of study in graphic representation . . . School population of the civilized world. Charts . Bird’s-eye view of the schools in central Europe . Middle and intermediate schools in Prussia . Promoting public play of school children . Education of neglected and depraved children . Juvenile wage workers . The schools of the Kingdom of Saxony . Economic development of Saxony . i School gardens in Germany and Austria . I School population in the civilized world. Charts . 1 The December conference on secondary schools . I Brief view of the schools of Austria-Hungary . ! Brief statement of the school system in Prussia . I Proportion of population in elementary, secondary, and higher institutions . j Industrial and technical education in central Europe . I Statistical summary of school population, teachers, and expenditures for schools in the civilized world . I Legal education in Europe and America . i Public kindergartens in European and American States . ; The training of teachers in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland . The Swiss school system . . School museums and educational exhibitions . : German universities, history and present status . | Schools for recruiting the civil service in France and Prussia . i Recent developments in the teaching of geography . . ‘ The schools of Bavaria . . . Child study and experimental psychology, with bibliography . Bibliography of Herbartianism . " . German criticism of American education . j j Criticism of educational exhibitions . ; German view of American technological schools . Statistical table of elementary instruction in foreign countries . . I Results of Prussian common-school statistics discussed . i Common-school teachers of Prussia . . . Development of the common-school system of Berlin . . Attendance in secondary schools for boys in Germany . . Courses of study in history found in vogue in Europe . , Bibliography of the history of education . j Statistics of university libraries in Europe . : German bibliography of arithmetic . i The new education in Germany . i Is German pedagogy in a state" of decomposition? . . j 1 Supplementary and industrial schools in Germany . , . . | Ungraded schools in Germany . . . ! German opinions on monitorial instruction . Comparative review of courses of study in sixteen German cities . ! Kormal schools in Switzerland . Mental fatigue in school . Rational features of female education . s Public instruction in the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg . i Pensions for teachers . | The present report contains the following articles : ! Public industrial education in Berlin . j Salaries of elementary teachers in Germany . . . . ■ Salaries of elementary teachers in Austria . ! Statistics of higher education in central Europe . Foreigners in central European universities . Music in German schools . i Reform schools in the Grand Duchy of Baden . Mental fatigue in school . ED 96- 137 138 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public Industrial Education in Berlin. When the old Trade Institute of the city of Berlin was changed into an industrial academy, and later was transformed into what is now known as the Polyteehnicum of Charlottenburg, there became apparent a gap between the public elementary school work and the technological education, as well as a gap between school and practical life. It has always been well understood in Germany, that the education supported by the State and general taxation must not be special education, but aim at general culture. In other words, public education can not pre¬ pare for any particular profession, vocation, or occupation; it is intended to lay the foundation for a general culture desirable for all citizens of the State. While thus any special preparation for the trades, or for commerce, or for the higher professions is excluded from institutions that offer education gratuitously, on the other hand there has arisen a difficulty which makes the establishment of trade and industrial schools a necessity. The labor unions, prompted by self-interest, frequently prohibit their members from engaging apprentices ; naturally then their number is very small, hence very few chances are offered for the learn¬ ing of trades. The great extension of mechanical contrivances and machines of all kinds has liberated much human power that was for¬ merly engaged in mere mechanical performances. Hence the labor of the hand has become much more complicated, much more difficult to learn, and, therefore, also needs much more careful study and exercise. All these causes combine to necessitate the establishment of a number of special schools, and the city government of Berlin, fully aware of the changed conditions of labor, liberally provided for them. But it must be well understood that all the trade schools and institutions for the preparation of skilled laborers in Germany have this one characteristic feature, to wit, that they bestow less attention upon manual labor and more to the underlying principles and the knowledge skilled labor pre¬ supposes. This is the reason why drawing, mathematics, the sciences of physics and chemistry, and the like are taught in trade schools. The shop work, so often spoken of, and held up as models of imitation in this country, is comparatively very limited and confines itself to mere application of principles learned during lessons. It seems as though these German trade schools carefully abstain from coming into competition with the labor market. A recent report of the superintendent of public schools in Berlin, privy councillor, Dr. Bertram, states that the sum of 542,445 marks was spent in the year 1S95. Of this sum 86,159 marks were contributed by the State of Prussia; 325,401 marks by the community; 16,565 marks by trade unions, societies, mercantile firms, etc., and the board of trade contributed 4,000 marks ; while 110,320 marks, or about one-fifth of the sum total, were paid in the form of tuition fees. To this sum total of 542,445 marks ($129,102) must be added various donations in form of EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 139 tools and other things, such as material, for which no correct estimate can be made. While this money is spent entirely in the interest of schools preparing for skilled labor, there must be mentioned also the fact that 337,560 marks (0SO,339) is expended by the city for so-called u continuation or supplementary schools,” in which industrial education is a very essential feature. These latter-named schools offer post¬ graduate instruction to boys and girls who have gone through the eight years’ course of the elementary school. Most of these supple¬ mentary schools offer gratuitous instruction, but not all.1 Though Berlin is a metropolis of large size, it seems remarkable that it should pay about 0200,000 per year for purely industrial education. How this sum is distributed, and for what purposes it is used, can be seen from the following statements taken from Hr. Bertram’s report. The great variety of trade institutions and their scope appear to cover up the fundamental idea, but careful observation reveals it. It is this : The city authorities desire to give young men of aspiration who are desirous of gaining knowledge, as well as persons of more advanced age, opportunities for the development of their special talents and skill that can not, in the nature of the case, be found in the workshop or the factory. It is the desire of all concerned in this department of education that the student should not engage in actual practical work for pay, and to put the instruction in close contact with the circumstances or occupa¬ tions of the learners. Moreover, and this appears to us here in Amer¬ ica the more important and nobler object of the schools, the entire range of instruction in these trade and industrial schools tends to unify several branches of labor and to prevent too much specialization. Apprentices and young beginners are very apt in our modern time of application of machines to learn to work mechanically. Specialization is going so far that the workman is often degraded to an assistant of the machine, instead of the machine being his assistant. A few grips, a few touches, a few motions, are all the man has to do, and he loses his respect for the dignity of labor and can not see ail the bearings of a single trade. These industrial schools lift the young man to a higher standpoint, from which he can view all the bearings of his trade and its organic combination with other trades. In accordance with this central idea the choice of courses of instruc¬ tion is left free to the student, and a systematic, rigid course of study is introduced only in cases where experience has proven incontestably in certain trades that such a course is profitable. The authorities also desire to interest and solicit the active sympathy of trades unions, societies, and experts, by offering for every trade that kind of instruc¬ tion which is apt to supplement its practical application by theory. The eminent success of the royal art schools and industrial museums is utilized by employing the graduates of these institutions as teachers in Compare article on such schools in last year’s annual report. 140 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. the trade schools, for it is argued that a teacher should know very much more than he is to teach. Hence mere artisans can not be teachers in Berlin trade schools. The authorities insist upon their being graduates of schools of design and other art schools. The system of industrial education of Berlin, it is admitted, is not entirely developed, and some of the schools belonging to the system are still in their infancy; but in the main features the course of education for young tradesmen and skilled artisans is designed to be as follows : First, it must be remarked that the course of education sketched in the following lines is designed for boys, because trades and industrial fields in Germany are, as a rule, not crowded with women. Every boy, then, may attend a public elementary school, the so-called people’s school, which offers instruction gratuitously. If he and his parents conclude to aim at a higher education than the elementary schools offer, he may enter one of the twelve higher burger schools in Berlin, called Bealscliulen, which are so organized that a boy coming from the elemen¬ tary schools at the age of 12 years may at once enter the fourth grade, above which instruction in foreign languages begins. These schools admit pupils at 10 years of age, but in the first two years the chief work consists of language (mother tongue), history, a little of the science of physics, and geometry. These high schools are of course without Latin. The graduates of these institutions receive the privilege of only one year’s army service. Boys of the elementary school who enter these higher schools at the age of 12, and cannot pay for their tuition, receive their instruction gratuitously. Boys who at the age of 14 leave the elementary school or are dropped out of the Bealschulen owing to poverty, find oppor¬ tunity for continuing their studies in the evening or on Sundays in so- called supplementary or continuation schools. Here the mother tongue, arithmetic, geometry, physics, and some other branches are taught gratuitously. Some of these continuation schools also teach higher branches, such as foreign languages and double-entry bookkeeping; for these higher branches a small tuition fee is to be paid. And now we come to the purely industrial institutions: (1) The two trade schools of the city. The older of the two began in October, 1880. It Avas called into existence by the city authorities with the active cooperatioii of the State. From the moment that the new principal, Professor Jessen, was called from Hamburg to take charge of this first trade school in Berlin the latter has increased in extent and importance beyond everything that even the most extravagant expectations could have imagined — enrolling 2,193 students in 1894-95. The other school is almost a copy of the first, following in all essentials the plan evolved by experience in the first trade school. Professor Bertram describes it as follows : The original plan intended to give persons beyond the age of compulsory educa¬ tion, and who have completed the work of the elementary school, instruction in industrial drawing and modeling, in arithmetic, mechanics and physics, and, lastly, EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 141 in bookkeeping and arithmetic. The school was intended to accommodate 600 stu¬ dents; the expenditure, aside from the tuition fee charged, was estimated at 30,000 marks per annum, of which the State intended to pay one-half. At present (in 1895) the State pays 20,000 marks and the city 100,000 marks. The school fully lives up to the original plan, hut it has extended its field of usefulness so much that it is a source of pride to the industrial world of the German Empire. To prove this it may be mentioned that in the courses for mechanical drawing it prepares its students for the work of a great number of trades, such as watchmakers, stone masons, and the like. In day classes it prepares fresco painters. Students of these classes come only in winter, and they come to Berlin for this particular purpose from all over the Empire. Similar classes prepare cabinetmakers, wood engravers, etc. The school has lately opened day classes for mechanical engineers, and likewise for electro-technical work. Among the students there are found masters, journeymen, laborers, drawing teachers, side by side with students who are just beginning to prepare themselves for a trade. This Berlin Trade School is a nursery of special schools, the first beginnings of which are found within its walls ; thus, for instance, we find the typographical school started here ; but, above all, it is a nursery of modern methods of teaching. This, indeed, is its most characteristic feature, and we may describe it by stating it to be an experimental station for teaching trades. Iii order to relieve the school of its overcrowded classes a second trade school was established in October, 1892, This second school had already in 1895 a total of 850 students. This school follows the first in all essentials except in physics, which science is excluded owing to want of suitable rooms ; instead of that it has a day class for painters, and has lately opened also a class for artistic metal and brazier work. Drawing of metal and conventionalized floral designs is a peculiar fea¬ ture of this school. The builders’ school, representing all the trades engaged in the erec¬ tion of buildings, is formed according to the model prescribed by the Prussian State authorities, and it is, like the two trade schools, sup¬ ported by the State and the community jointly. It has 381 students in four succeeding yearly classes. The weaving school in Berlin was formerly intended only as a special school for apprentices and journeymen in the textile industry, in order to give them an opportunity to go from one department to another without going through the otherwise necessary period of apprentice¬ ship. But the school has greatly extended its usefulness by attempting to represent, and, as it were, foreshadow, the frequently changing fash¬ ions in the branch of textile industry. This school, like all other trade and industrial schools in Berlin, constantly keeps this leading idea in mind, namely, every workman should know more, and should be able to do more, than one thing. It is not only desirable but in the nature of the case necessary for him to know many branches of his trade. If he be a weaver in silk he should know the tricks of the trade of the linen weaver, or the cotton weaver, or the woolen weaver ; and the same holds good in other cases. The instruction extends over hand looms, mechanical looms, and work in passementerie. The possibility of offer¬ ing to Sunday and evening school students so fine an equipment in 142 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. apparatus and means of instruction dates from the year 1889, when, in addition to these courses, day classes were opened which, according to the present terminology, are called the higher weaving school. The two divisions are supplemented by an evening school for merchants of the textile branch $ and lately the beginning of a school for dyers has been made. The organization of all Prussian weaving schools is occu¬ pying the secretary of the department of commerce and industry, and his object is to make them more uniform than they are at present. Tuition fees are not required of apprentices and workmen in the textile industry. Two other institutions must be mentioned which are prob¬ ably characteristic of the city of Berlin. They are the cabinetmaker’s school and what is known as the Industrial Hall. In the continuation of supplementary schools it was noticed that mechanical drawing engaged the attention of a large number of young X^eople in preparation for certain branches of instruction closely allied with and forming the basis of trade and industrial education. Indeed, this special kind of drawing, the so-called drawing of working models, seems to be the backbone of instruction offered in the continuation schools. The further this system of schools developed, and the more the number of pupils increased, the more desirable became professional supervision and technical instruction in the industrial features of draw¬ ing: and to meet this demand it was deemed appropriate to establish what is known as the Industrial Hall. The courses of technical draw¬ ing arranged for locksmiths and artistic metal workers, machine build¬ ers, tinsmiths, instrument makers, etc., remained where they had been given, but in the Central Industrial Hall all branches of industry were united in one and taught by a specially and well- qualified group of teachers. At the head of this institution was placed a very skillful man who had, through long years of experience in the trades school, proved to be particularly well fitted for this position. He is the super¬ visor of technical mechanical drawing courses; he selects proper teach¬ ers and determines the method and means of instruction, so that now the city authority has some guaranty that the various industrial courses are appropriately prepared for by the instruction given in drawing. The Industrial Hall has ten subdepartments distributed over the vari¬ ous parts of the city. This is to enable the students in all parts of the city to participate in the instruction, so that everyone finds instruc¬ tion near his home. These courses are offered in the evening and on Sundays. The drawing does not confine itself to technical and pro¬ fessional drawing only, but includes projective drawing and mechanics. The authorities entertain the hope that this instruction in drawing which centers in the Industrial Hall, and which was participated in during the winter of 1895 by 1,400 students, may in future time change into a day school for machine builders. A similar development has been noticed in the school of cabinet¬ makers. Cabinetmakers have great need for technical drawing, and EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 143 especially in designing new models; lienee it was desirable to establish proper supervisors, so that tbe various courses offered in the city might be fostered and cared for uniformly. The city of Berlin has now a large number of drawing courses for cabinetmakers, altogether seven different departments in various parts of the city. The next step con¬ templated is to combine a school for turners with the cabinetmakers’ school. The Turners’ Union has expressed the desire that such a school be established, and it is the intention to connect it with an established school, especially since the two trades of cabinetmaking and turning are so closely allied. Woodcarving is carefully attended to m the cabinetmakers’ school, and not having the desired space, some of the apprentices of this school have occupied the upper halls of common schools, which, of course, in the nature of the case, can be utilized only in the evening. It may be of interest to remark that a successful trial has been made to change this cabinetmakers’ school into a day school, for many of the apprentices and sons of masters in that trade have been able to secure a release from work in their shops in order to attend the school for a certain number of days a week. But in all parts of the school, whether in the central school for cabinetmakers or in the various branch schools, it is drawing which forms the chief branch and mainstay of the course of instruction. Aside from the schools thus far mentioned, Berlin has 15 other special schools for trades, namely, for masons and carpenters, for painters, chimney sweeps, barbers, wheelwrights, glaziers, shoemakers, black¬ smiths, paper hangers and decorators, basket braiders, bookbinders, gardeners, printers, and tailors. The potters also have a school, but that is supported by the city only in so far as the city allows the use of certain available schoolrooms for its use. It is confidently hoped that this school will soon enter into closer relations with the city government. Most of these schools have originated in trades unions, or, if not that, they have been suggested and aided by the unions. In most of them drawing is greatly fostered, although some of them represent trades in which drawing is not essential, but which require only manual dex¬ terity; thus, for instance, the barbers and hairdressers, whose trade is very extensive in the city of Berlin, and whose school is very numer¬ ously attended. Wheelwrights began with a small workshop for pupils. The bookbinders have gone much further, using rooms which were specially designed and erected for them. The same may be said of the basket braiders’ school. For such trades as bookbinding, basket braid¬ ing, and the like the necessity of maintaining a practice workshop is very urgent. In the bookbinders’ trade the division of labor has pro¬ gressed to such an extent that a number of apprentices can practice through their apprenticeship without ever having completely seen how a book is bound. This school shows all the various branches of the trade and enables the student to try his hand at all of them, so that 144 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. when he changes from one workshop to another in after life he may he able to change his occupation as necessity or the vicissitudes of life demand. There is scarcely a specialty in the trade that is not carefully and judiciously represented in the bookbinders’ school. Similar things may be said regarding the basket braiders. They have so-called common beaten work as well as fine artistic work ; they also manufacture wicker and rattan furniture. Each master of a shop usually has a^specialty, and hence apprentices in his shop would learn only that specialty 5 but in a braiders’ school he learns all the many features of the trade. Other schools, like those of paper hangers and decorators, shoemakers, and tailors, show certain features of the trade and certain devices not commonly taught to apprentices in workshops* Thus, for instance, the students of tailoring and shoemaking are taught to use the cutting machine and to calculate mathematically the size of every part of the garment, one part being given. The authorities of Berlin noticed with satisfaction that the courses in garment cutting were attended by masters as well as by apprentices and journeymen. The house decorators’ school in Berlin is in a very prosperous con¬ dition, partly owing to the flourishing trade of paper hangers and fresco painters. Berlin since 1870 has grown more rapidly than many Ameri¬ can cities. Much building and remodeling of houses is going on, and the refined taste of the inhabitants of the capital seems to require the art of decorators more generally. Other trade schools need not be described ; a mere mention will suffice. The gardeners’ school draws into its influence young gardeners from far and near. They chiefly study botany and drawing, make excursions with their teachers, and practice surveying and leveling, drainage, and other practical parts of landscape gardening. Dr. Bertram, being asked, 44 What is the result of these various trade schools'?” says: I caji not as yet give utterance to a definite opinion concerning the results, because this extensive system of industrial education has not existed long enough to have developed fruit ; hut I may confidently state, without apprehension of saying too much, that with the opportunities that were offered the eagerness to learn increased extraordinarily, which is a most hopeful indication of wholesome influence. I observe, secondly, that the opposition against trade schools, which used to be very strong among the masters, has almost died out, and that, thirdly, the usefulness of apprentices in workshops and factories is being recognized all over the city, because they can apply in actual work that which they learn theoretically in school. The real value of a system of schools can not be estimated until its graduates have' had time to prove to the world what they have learned, and how successfully they can apply their knowledge. That requires more time than many impatient people will concede. The authorities in Berlin entertain the hope that the further devel¬ opment of this system of trade schools will aid the trades in one particular, to wit: The school teaches the construction and use of machines used in trades, and acquaints the student with various EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 145 motors, which will gradually lead to an extension of the tradesman’s business. The present extensive system of electrical motors enables a poor man to use mechanical power in his shop, and thus to compete with his wealthy rival. A connection between workshop and factory is established or made possible, since the factory owner will, it is evident, prefer men who have learned in actual contact with machines how to perform skillful manipulations. And whenever new inventions change the aspect of any trade, the men skilled in numerous phases of their work are apt to find occasion for their talents, while those who only understand the mechanical part are easily stranded. A summary of statistics of the trade schools in Berlin is here appended : Summary of statistics in 1894-95. Schools. Humber of teach¬ ers. Number of stu- j dents. ' Expend¬ itures. First City Trude School - . . - _ - _ ------------- . . 65 2,193 I $32, 557 Second City Trftde School _ _ . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 31 908 14, 342 Citv Builders’ School . ...... _ ............... _ ................ 34 381 21, 395 City W eavers’ School ............ _ ........................ _ ... 30 363 ! 12, 006 Central Industrial Hall . . . . 53 1, 235 j 10, 202 School for— Cabinetmakers -- . . . . . . . . 15 755 4, 504 Bricklny ers _ ----- - ...... ........... ...... 6 233 2, 222 3, 155 372 "Psrintfvrs _ _ _ ..... _ ........................ 11 388 Chimney sweeps _ ..... . . . - . - . . 5 120 Barbers . . . . . .... _ _ 20 492 1, 869 883 373 W wrights _ ........................... 5 95 Glaziers . - . 5 88 Pnpprti at* crprs _ _ ... _ _ .............. 6 250 2 702 Shoemakers . . . . 11 228 1, 783 BlapTrsmitlis . . . . .... _ _ _ ............. 5 168 522 BraiHprs . _ ... _ _ _ .................... _ _ _ _ . 5 27 506 Bookbinders .... _ _ _ ... _ _ _ _ _ .................... 7 111 1, 071 287 Gardeners . . . . . . . . . ...... 6 98 Printers . . . - . . . 13 372 1, 767 Tailors . . . . . 6 330 723 Saddlers . . . . 3 162 891 Total . 336 8, 992 113, 132 Extraordinary expenses . 15, 970 Grand total . 129 102 .Amount spent for industrial education in continuation schools . 80, 339 Grand total . j 209,441 1 In connection with the foregoing statement of what is done for indus- trial education in the city of Berlin, it is interesting to note an Ameri¬ can opinion of industrial education in Germany, and its effect upon the success of that Empire in commerce and various domains of industry. The following quotation is an editorial article in the Scientific Ameri¬ can (September 26, 1896), which deserves great credit for shrewd obser¬ vation and candid statement. The article is headed “ The secrets of Germany’s industrial success.” Perhaps the most notable fact in the industrial world just now is the commanding position which is being won by the German manufacturers and the rapid encroach¬ ments which they are making upon the foreign trade of other nations, and particu¬ larly upon that of Great Britain. In taking note of this development we must remember that it is nothing new — that it is not the result of a sudden outburst of 146 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. energy. It is merely tlio larger development, tlie coming of age, of a system which has been steadily at work in Germany for many years.. Her industrial trinmnh, which has come as a surprise to the world at large, and with a rude awakening shock to Great Britain in particular, is no surprise to the German people themselves. In school and college, in workshop and factory, by carefully planned organizations at home and abroad, they have set in motion a system of industrial forces which are now working out the desired results with mechanical regularity and precision. Tho German mind is essentially scientific and methodical. It was these qualities that contributed largely to the signal triumph of the German arms in the memora¬ ble war of 1870, During the quarter of a century that has intervened since tho close of the struggle and the consolidation of the Empire, Germany has been applying the same scientific methods to the arts of peace; and with such success that it begins to look as though her industrial armies were going to occupy the broad fields of inter¬ national commerce with the same resistless energy with which her battalions marched from Saarbriick to Sedan a quarter of a century ago. Germany owes her industrial success to her system of scientific training in schools and colleges, to the close fellowship which exists between her factories and her schools, and to her elaborate organizations for the control and development of com¬ merce. That the scientific course in German schools was thorough and effective has always been well understood; but it has been reserved for a private letter written by Pro¬ fessor Ostwald, the distinguished German chemist, to his English friend, Professor Ramsay, to open the eyes of the world, and particularly of the English people, who are most nearly affected, to the practical use to which the scientific researches of their specialists are put by the German people. It appears from this letter that there is a close alliance between the German manufacturers and the universities and high-grade technical schools. In the chemical industry, for instance, it seems that splendid inducements are offered to the graduates of technical colleges to enter the laboratories which form part of the equipment of the factories. These young men are engaged, not for the executive work of the establishment, but for purely experi¬ mental work in the laboratory. They form a brigade of skilled inventors, who devoto themselves to the discovery of improved processes and methods of manu¬ facture Speaking of this system, Professor Ostwald says: “The research laboratory in* such a work is only different from one in a university by its being more splendidly and sumptuously fitted than the latter. I have hoard from the business managers of such works that they have not unfrequently men who have worked for four years without practical success; but if they know them to possess ability, they keep them notwithstanding, and in most cases with ultimate success sufficient to pay tho expenses of the former resultless years.” When we bear in mind that “there are often more than one hundred Ph. D.’s in a single manufactory,” and that this little army of qualified scientists is occupied solely in “making inventions,” we begin to understand why it is that Germany is already preeminent in certain markets of the world, and is likely to become so in others before long. Invention is no longer left to the unaided efforts of the well- meaning but often uninstructed individual. In the special laboratory there will be no long hours of fruitless search for an object whose supposed existence is based upon ignorance of the first principles of physics or mechanics. In this admirable combination of the skilled theorist and the trained mechanic there is little left to chance, and the development of an art is carried on by the sure and logical process of experiment, invention, and design. Of scarcely less importance in German industrial economy is her elaborate system for the fostering and extension of trade. This includes the founding, in certain industrial centers, of chambers of commerce. These institutions are intended to deal with questions of home and foreign trade in the broadest possible manner. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 147 “ Tlicro is no question connected with tlio development of trade interests, of manu¬ factures, credit capacity of foreign countries, advantages to Re obtained by treaty stipulations, injuries resulting from measures adopted by other nations in restraint of trade, which is not thoroughly discussed and carefully considered by the many German chambers of commerce scattered over the country. These bodies report to the minister of commerce with regard to the influence and bearing of all such matters, as they are connected with the commercial interests of the various localities; and by petition or otherwise they often secure action through their minister and the minis¬ ter of foreign affairs which is of great advantage to them.” As the necessary counterpart of this organization at home, the Germans are about to establish a system of commercial attaches, whoso agents shall be specially trained for the service and shall form a recognized part of the national representation in foreign countries. The work of the attache will be similar to that which is now embodied by our own consuls in their “consular reports,” many of which, be it said, are admirable documents and worthy of a wider circulation. He will furnish to the home government a statement in detail of the particular commodities which are required in his district, and will keep it informed of the volume and nature of the trade done there by competitors ; and, indeed, he will report any facts which might be of service for dissemination among the various local boards of trade above men¬ tioned. Visitors to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago will remember the truly magnifi¬ cent display that was made by Germany, and particularly the collection which figured so prominently in the Liberal Arts Building. It was a special effort, care¬ fully planned and effectively carried out, and German foreign trade is feeling the stimulus of that costly display at the present moment. Our brief consideration of this subject suggests that, while it more immediately concerns the commercial supremacy of Great Britain, it has also a practical interest for the United States. In our future commercial development and expansion we shall certainly enter into a most active competition with the two nations above mentioned. It is a question which we shall do well to ask ourselves, whether our native inventiveness and mechanical skill should not be stimulated and rendered more efficient by such a triple alliance of science, industry, and organization as is now carrying Germany to the front by leaps and bounds. Salaries of Teachers in the People’s Schools in Germany. The question of raising the salaries of teachers has of late been a subject of discussion in legislative bodies of the various German States, especially in Prussia. A bill laid before the Prussian Piet during its session in 1896 regulates the salaries, but in every case it refers to the minimum beginner’s salary, and leaves the adjustment of the maximum sum to the communities. The following tables, with explanations, are gathered from an article by Rector J. Tews, of Berlin, who carefully compiles and critically analyzes the educational statis¬ tics of his native country from official and private sources. He says: In order to j>resent the situation as it now actually exists in Germany, it is neces¬ sary to bring together as many statements as possible. There are varied opinions as to what constitutes the proper pay for elementary school teachers. From some States it was impossible to obtain the statistics, namely, from Alsace-Lorraine, Meck¬ lenburg, Schanmburg-Lippe, and Waldeck. Little irregularities could not be 148 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. avoided ; they are explained in the text accompanying the tables. It is quite aston¬ ishing to see how many teachers are paid minimum salaries. According to the tables from Wiirtemberg that refer to the year 1891-92, there were 3,406 teachers, of whom 511 were marked as belonging to the eleventh year of service, yet these 511 were still drawing the minimum salary. Besides, Wiirtemberg had in the same year 1,280 teachers not definitely employed who had been teaching between one and ten years. In Saxony, during the year 1894, Mr. Rocke prepared a statement from which it is seen that among 8,239 teachers there were 1,902 definitely engaged and 336 assistants who were still drawing the lowest salary, which is equal to 28.3 per cent of the whole number of teachers in Saxony and 26 per cent of the assistants. The tables following on pages 153 to 155 are arranged according to the annual increases pre¬ scribed by law or governmental regulation. 1. Only the minimum salaries, with regular increases owing to the age and length of service which are required by law, are recorded in this table. No voluntary addition to the salary voted for by communities has been considered. Though these cases are quite numerous, it did not seem to be correct to consider them, inas¬ much as it is the object to state the legal requirements only. 2. Wherever in any State, as for instance in Hessia, Gotha, and Weimar, higher salaries are fixed by law for the cities and lower salaries for rural schools, the lower salaries have been inserted in the table in preference to the higher, the latter being in the minority. 3. Where professional teachers, such as assistants, adjuncts, substitutes, etc., receive a salary fixed by law, these salaries have been recorded in the proper col¬ umn. Where promotion to a definite appointment is not regulated by law, the average provisional period is assumed. 4. Where free fuel is granted in addition to the salary of teachers, 100 marks is added in the salary in the table, and 50 marks to that of assistants. This has been done with statements from Sondershausen and Liibeck, and also Saxony. For Hamburg a different figure had to be taken, namely, 150 marks for teachers and 50 marks for assistants, since these are the actual sums paid. 5. Wherever the teacher acts as organist or sexton and receives extra pay for such work, the pay is not mentioned in the tables, because, practically, it has nothing to do with the actual school work and its remuneration. Special notes are made with reference to each separate State : Bavaria : This Kingdom has no maximum salary fixed by law. The law prescribes increases of 90 marks at intervals of five years. After forty years service the Bava¬ rian teachers draw 1,720 marks; after forty-five years, 1,810; after fifty years, 1,900 marks; while the teachers in the Palatinate draw only 1,620, 1,710, and 1,800 marks, respectively. This necessitated a double entry in the table for Bavaria. In Wiirtemberg the beginners in the profession draw 620 marks per annum dur¬ ing the first five years, and 790 marks until they reach the tenth year. Aside from the salary, they are provided with a furnished room, fuel, and light. The compiler has estimated the cost of this at 70 marks, hence the figures in the column will be found to be 690 and 860, respectively. Definitely appointed teachers are allowed by law supplies to the amount of 70 marks. In Saxony the assistants are granted free fuel or a sum of 50 marks. Very few communities in Saxony have gone beyond the minimum salaries prescribed by law. In Badeu the candidates, that is, the beginners, receive 800 marks, and after having passed their State examination the salary is increased to 900 marks. For older assistant teachers many communities pay as much as 1,100 marks, which is the begin¬ ning salaries of rectors or principals. Rent is calculated at 150 marks for such teach¬ ers. Principals in schools with four teachers receive 100 marks, and where the school has more than four teachers 200 marks, additional. If the teachers serve in supplementary schools and evening classes the work is paid for by the year, namely, 100 marks. If he teaches gymnastics an additional 25 marks is paid. Since most EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 149 teachers in small communities act as organists, and some as sextons, their income is increased to a much greater sum than is stated in the table. In Hessia a new law has been passed which will come into force April 1, 1897. Definite appointment of the teacher is calculated from the date of passing the second State examination, while in other States it is the first examination. This examina¬ tion is usually passed at the expiration of two years after graduating from the normal schools. In larger communities much higher salaries are paid, but since it is the object to show the minimum salaries they are omitted from the table. Oldenburg: The teachers in Oldenburg are classed as headteachers and assistants. Head teachers are the principals of graded schools and the teachers of ungraded schools in the country ; all other teachers are called assistants. The minimum salary of a head teacher is 900 marks, but in the cities 180 to 300 marks are added. To the minimum (or “stock”) salary are also added six increases at 75 marks each after five, ten, fifteen, twenty, twenty-five, and thirty years of service, counted from the definite appointment. The teachers are employed temporarily for nearly four years. There is a further classification of the assistants into those of the first and second class. This makes it difficult to calculate the salaries for insertion in the table. The increases are not in most cases regulated by law but depend upon the good will of the authorities m office. Hence the table contains statements for Oldenburg, with reference to the first ten years of service, that may not in every case be correct, but they are the result of careful computation. The higher salaries could not be stated with exactness either, since in most cases a local increase is voted which is rarely less than 300 marks. In graded schools the second teacher draws the salary of a head teacher. The principal receives an indemnity of 90 to 120 marks if his school, or rather his residence, is not provided with an extensive garden in which to raise vegetables and fruit. This indemnity for land is invariably inserted in the table aud quoted at 90 marks. The Government of Oldenburg is at present engaged in preparing a bill to regulate the salaries of teachers. In Weimar there is a distinction made between rural districts and towns of the third, second, and first class. The minimum salary fixed for towns of the third class ranges between 860 and 1,710 marks, in towns of the second class between 890 and 1,860 marks, and in towns of the first class between 920 and 2,010 marks ; obtainable after twenty-seven years of service, counted from the day of graduation in the nor¬ mal school. There is a movement on foot in the duchy to do away with the differ¬ ences aud place the teachers all on the same level with those of towns of the first class. The teachers also claim remuneration for service in church, either as organist or sexton, or whatever other service the church insists upon. In Brunswick the cityffeachers have between 750 and 2,100 marks; besides that they enjoy free rent, which in the country is paid “ in natura” and is estimated at 150 marks, or an indemnity of 90 marks for the first five years, 120 marks for the second five years, 150 marks for the third five years, and 180 marks after the eighteenth year of service. In Anhalt the teachers are not paid extra for rent. Where there is a residence for the teacher connected with the schoolhouse, rent is deducted from his stock salary. If he draws less than 1,500 marks, the sum of 60 marks is deducted; if he draws more than 1,500 marks, 90 marks is deducted for the use of the residence. In the table these sums arie already deducted. There is a slight difference between the salaries paid in small cities and in larger cities, but the teachers are endeavoring to equalize the salaries and the Government is willing to meet the teachers in this. In Gotha there is a higher scale of salaries for the three cities, Gotha, Ohrdruf, and Waltershausen, than the table contains. In Coburg the scales for city teachers are considerably higher than those mentioned in the table. In Meiningen the Gov¬ ernment gives the teachers an additional salary of from 100 to 200 marks and 200 marks indemnity for rent. In Altenburg the rural teachers are classed with the teachers of towns of the third 150 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. class, and it is this minimum that is contained in the table. In Reuss (senior line) the head teachers receive an additional salary of 60 marks for supervision of their schools, but the cities pay the salaries. In Schwarzburg-Sondershausen rent is not paid, but fuel and light are allowed. These differences have been adjusted in the tables. Schaumburg-Lippe has not been inserted in the table because there was found no basis of comparison between the teachers called head teachers and assistants and between teachers of the various classes of towns. It may be stated, however, that the salaries range between 850 and 1,200 marks, and increase at intervals of five years 100 marks each time. Increases are calculated from the day of definite appointment, and church service is calculated at 300 marks per year. The salaries of rural teachers of the State of Hamburg are as follows: Assistants from six to eight years receive between 800 and 1,000 marks, a furnished room, and 50 marks for fuel. Among the definitely appointed teachers, the following categories are to be distinguished: “ Stock” salary. After 3 years. After 6 years. After 9 years. After 12 years. Teachers in ungraded schools with less than 35 pupils : Maries. Marks. Marks. Marks. Marks. Minimum . 1, 000 1,100 1,200 1, 300 1,400 Maximum . 1,200 1, 320 1,440 1,560 1, 680 Teaehers in ungraded schools with more than 35 pupils : Minimum . . . . . . 1, 200 1, 320 1, 440 1, 560 1,680 Maximum . 1,500 1,650 1, 800 1, 950 2,100 Head teachers in graded schools : Minimum . 1, 500 1,650 1,800 1,950 2, 100 Maximum . 2, 000 2, 200 2, 400 2, 600 2, 800 To these sums must be added a fixed sum for rent for unmarried teachers, or a free dwelling, with garden and fuel, for married teachers. Where these can not be fur¬ nished in close proximity to the sehoolhouse, an adequate sum of money is paid as an indemnity. At present the school council of the State of Hamburg is consid¬ ering a new scale of salaries, in which the minimum salaries are greatly increased. The so-called free city of Hamburg consists of the city proper, with about 509,000 inhabitants, and a surrounding territory called Hamburg land; both together form one of the constituent States of the German Empire. Bremen: The figures quoted in the table for Bremen contain the sums paid for rent ; hence they appear greater in comparison than they ought to be. It is reason¬ able to deduct 20 per cent to arrive at the actual salary and thus make them com¬ parable with the other salaries granted. Liibeck: The rural teachers of the country districts of the free city of Liibeck have free dwelling, fuel, and not less than 25 acres of garden and field. This is very much more than is comprised in the provisions for Prussian teachers, since Prussian teachers are provided with the kitchen garden, but certainly not with 25 acres of field. Fuel for the teachers in Liibeck has been calculated at 100 marks, hence the scale quoted should read 1,000 to 1,500 marks, beginning with the fifth year of service. Though all these various calculations, which were unavoidable in the attempt to equalize the figures so as to enable comparison, may not in every case be abso¬ lutely correct, they are certainly as near the truth and the actual facts as possible. Essential errors are excluded and the figures submitted in the following tables, therefore, vfitk the possible exception of Oldenburg and Bremen, offer a safe basis for comparison. The first of the two tables following makes possible the reply to a number of important questions, for instance: What salary is offered a teacher at an age when marriage seems proper and advisable? Let us take a completed twenty-eighth year EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 151 of life, which \vould be about the ninth, year of service as a teacher, and we shall see that (excluding Bremen) Hessia stands at the head with 1,200 marks, while Prussia falls short of that by 220 marks. After twenty-five years of service the teachers in Anhalt are at the head with 1,860 marks, while those of Prussia fall short by 420 marks. The figures in full-face type indicate the date at which the maximum salary is reached. Here we notice enormous differences. Hamburg (land) stands at the head with from seventeen to twenty years of service; Wurtemberg at the foot of the scale with thirty-six years of service. Bavaria has no maximum salary fixed at all. The second table contains the total sums paid for salary as well as average sums. These figures appear to be of greater value than those of the first table, inasmuch as they exemplify the actual value of certain orders or classes. In both grand totals, namely, in that of twenty-five years and that of fifty years of service, the little State of Anhalt is at the head, while Prussia remains behind with 227 and 323 marks, respectively. If the numerical relation of the Prussian teacher^ is taken into consideration, a greater emphasis must be laid upon the salaries up to the twenty-fifth years of serv¬ ice; greater, certainly, than upon the increases offered after that time. For this rea¬ son in the year 1891 there were engaged of every 100 teachers— In first to fifth year . In sixth to tenth year . . In eleventh to fifteenth year - In sixteenth to twentieth year .. In twenty-first to thirtieth year In thirty-first to fortieth year . . In forty-first to fiftieth year - More than fifty years . 22. 42 20.80, 15. 42 10.43 43.22 }2, 85 15.98 15.98 10. 57] 3. 98 > 14.95 . 401 Total 100. 00 100. 00 The salary reached after the thirtieth year of service is drawn only by one-seventh of the total number of teachers, while two-thirds of them reach the salary offered at fifteen years of service. The figures in the tables must not be mistaken to mean minimum income, but they are to represent the salaries only. There are other sources of income for teachers, and their normal school training prepares them for that purpose. The professional preparation of a teacher includes instrumental and vocal music, particularly the playing of the organ. We quote a few figures showing what income teachers in Germany derive from this church service; but it must bo understood that the figures are all minimum not maximum salaries, since it is the intention to show the mini¬ mum income of German teachers. In Bavaria service as organist or sexton is paid for only in a few communities, and the compiler is unable to state the salary with any degree of accuracy. In Wurtemberg the teacher is expected to serve in church without any special pay whatever. In Saxony the income from church service is calculated only when it amounts to more than 900 marks. In Baden all church service on the part of the teacher is prohibited except that as organist, and the least salary paid for that is 100 marks a year; but in most cases it is much more. In Hessia the same conditions prevail. In Oldenburg the highest salary for service in church is paid in the Prot¬ estant communities, namely, 300 marks. In Catholic communities the payment of salary is not regulated, and varies considerably. In Weimar the teachers7 pay for serving in church is not regulated either. In Brunswick 200 marks, in Anhalt between 100 and 150 marks are paid, while in Gotha the rural districts pay only 99 marks. In Coburg the salaries for church service vary and are not regulated. In Meiningen the salaries for church service in rural districts amount to 175 to 250 marks. In Altenburg no salary is paid, and in Reuss (senior line) 240 marks while 152 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. in Reuss (junior line) 200 marks are paid. Schwarzburg-Rodolstadt pays from 100 to 150 marks. In Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 200 marks; in Lippe, according to tbe size of the congregation, from 70 to 250 marks ; in Schaumberg-Lippe, 300 marks ; in Bremen (rural districts) between 200 and 600 marks. These sums must be divided by four to express them in American money, but that procedure would not approx¬ imately come near the real state of affairs, because the purchasing power of money is very much greater in Germany than it is in America ; however, while the neces¬ sities of life, such as bread, fruit, and meat, are only a little cheaper than in this country, everything that bears the character of luxury or contributes to comfort is vastly cheaper than in this country. One more point may be stated, and that is the number of years after which a definite appointment can take place That period is counted from the date of grad¬ uation from the normal school. Bavaria, after seven years; Wiirtemberg, after nine to ten years; Saxony, after three years; Baden, after eight years; Hessia, after four to five years ; Oldenburg, after four years ; Weimar, after two years ; Brunswick, after five years; Anhalt, after two years; Gotha, after two years; Coburg, after two years; Meiningen, after two years; Altenburg, after two years; Reuss (senior line), after two years ; Reuss (junior line), after two years ; Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, after two years; Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, after two years; Lippe, after four years; Hamburg (land), after five to eight years; Bremen (land), after five years; Liibeck (land), after four years. We add a list of German cities with the statement of average salaries paid to teachers in elementary schools. This list has been compiled from a work entitled “Die Gehaltsverhaltnisse der Yolksschullehrer,” by H. Henck and H. Ischerland. A cursory glance at this table will show that the teachers in cities are not as well provided for as they deserve. AVERAGE SALARIES IN GERMAN CITIES IN 1889. As a basis of calculation it is assumed that the average length of service of teach¬ ers in Germany is thirty years. Calculations made in this Bureau from official tables published by the minister of education in Berlin make this appear correct, for the result arrived at was twenty-nine years and five months. The following list states the amount of salary only, and does not include any indemnity for rent, which is almost invariably paid, in addition to the salary, at the rate of 20 per cent of the latter. For the convenience of American readers the amounts are expressed in dollars and cents : Frankfort on the Elberfeld . .... $581.00 Ulm . . $534.00 Main . $743. 50 •Barmen _ _ .... 581.00 | Hamm . . 528. 50 Leipzig . 701. 00 Bremen . .... 577.00 ! Miilhauseu . . 528. 25 Berlin . 700. 00 Liibeck . .... 576. 00 ! Alton a . . 527. 60 Hamburg . 694. 00 Offenbach . . . . .... 574.25 Hof . . 526. 75 Mannheim . 673. 75 Fiirth . .... 572.40 Breslau . . 526. 75 Regensburg . 644. 00 Kiel . .... 563.25 Aix la Chapelle . . 517. 00 Munich . 638. 75 Essen . .... 563.25 Burtscheid . . 517 00 Mavence . 626. 25 Brunswick .. . _ 560. 00 Hanover . . 515. 00 Carlsruhe . 621. 25 Worms . .... 559.00 Bayreuth . . 515. 00 Dresden . 617. 00 Cassel . .... 558.00 Bremerhafen .... . 515. 00 Nuremberg . 606. 80 Dortmund . . . . Posen . . . 510. 00 Darmstadt . 606. 50 Augsburg .... .... 550.00 Wiesbafien . . 504. 00 Ludwigshafen .... 603. 50 Diisseldorf _ _ 542. 00 Bochum . . 502. 50 Freiburg . 595. 50 Coblenz . .... 541.50 Ansbach . . 4S8. 00 Chemnitz . 590. 60 Strassburg . . . .... 536.50 Diiren . . 494. 00 Chari ottenburg .. 590. 00 Duisburg . .... 535. 75 Han au . 492. 25 Cologne . 582.00 Miilheim on the Sclialke . . 486. 00 Wurzburg . 582. 00 Rhine . .... 534.50 Heilbrom . . . 484. 00 EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 153 Willielmshafen . .. $478. 00 Osnabriick _ . . . $452. 00 Danzig . $405. 75 Hagen . 478 00 Gbrlitz . . . . 452. 00 Paderborn . 405. 75 Rostock . 476.00 Jiilich . ... 450.00 Lippstadt . 404. 50 Siegen . 475. 50 Passau . ... 445.00 Yerden . 404. 50 Speier . 475. 50 Nenss . ... 442.50 | Brandenburg . 403. 25 Remscheid . 474. 50 Bingen . ... 442.50 Hirschberg . 400. 00 Saarbriicken . 474, 00 Celle . . ... 441.25 1 Griinberg . 392. 75 Stettin . 471. 50 Liineburg . . ... 441.75 ! Goslar . 392. 75 Glogau . 471. 50 Liegnitz . ... 441.00 Thorn . 392. 75 Cannstadt . 470. 50 Stade . . . . 435. 75 Coslin . 391. 00 Gmiind . 470. 00 Altenburg . ... 435.25 Lnckenwalde .... 390. 50 Tubingen . 470.00 Spandan . ... 434.25 Marburg . 389. 00 Halle . 468.00 1 Em den . ... 431,00 Biinde . 382. 25 Miilheim on tbe Elbing . ... 431.00 Angermnnd . 383. 00 Ruhr . 467. 00 1 Eberswalde _ ... 423.00! Halberstadt . 381.00 Solingen . 465. 00 Nordhausen . . . . . . 423. 00 Hochst . 379. 75 Bielfeld . 462. 00 Bromberg . ... 423.00 j Frankfort on the Gelsenkirchen .... 460. 00 Erfurt . Oder . 37J. 75 Hameln . 459. 50 Glauchau . ... 417.50 ! Konigsberg . 377. 25 "\f q crrl pTinro* 458. 50 458. 25 Schwerin . . . 417 . 00 1 Coburg . 377. 00 1»JL U O Ul ^ - ...... Neu Brandenburg. Kopenik . ... 415.50 Lauban . 367. 00 Gottingen . 456. 25 Ballenstedt ... ... 415.25 W ernigerode . 364.00 Schwerte . . 453. 25 Bernburg . ... 415.25 Sondershausen ... 362. 50 Hiklesheim . 452. 00 Cothen . ... 415.25 Wittenberg . 354. 00 Potsdam . 452. 00 Zerbst . ... 415.25 Bunzlau . 353. 25 Table 1. — Minimum teachers’ salaries in German States, in man, , including periodical increases. [Sums expressed in marks, equal to 23.8 cents in American money. Add abont 20 per cent paid for rent.] State . Prussia, bill of 1896 . Bavaria, regulation of 1893-94 Palatinate, regulation of 1893-94 Wurtemberg, law of 1895 . Saxony, law of 1892 . Baden, iaw of 3892 . Hessia, bill of 1896 . Oldenburg, law of 1888 . Saxe-TTeimar, law of 1892 . Brunswick, law of 1895 . Anhalt, resolution of 1892 . Gotha, law of 1892 . Coburg, law of 1895 . Meiningen, law of 1894 . Altenburg, law of 1893 . Beuss (senior), law of 1891 . Eeuss (junior), law of 1893 . Schwarzburg-Budolstadt, law of 1891 . Schwarzburg-Sondershau sen, law of 1896 . Lippe, law of 1891 . Hamburg (rural), 1879 . Bremen (rural), 1891 . 1, 100 1. 100 1, lOOjl, 100 1, 100 Liibeek (rural), 1892 . II, 000 1. 000 i. 000 1, 000 1. 100 Year of service, counted from the date of graduation from normal school. l- i 2. 3. 4. 5. | 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. j 11. i 720 ' 720 720 720 1 900 ! 900 900 980 980 980 1, 060 1 817i 817 817 8171 817 889 889 1 000 1, 000 1, 000 1, 0901 640 1 640 640 640 : 640 702 702 900 900 900 990 69u : 690 690 690 690 860 860 860 860 860 1, 1501 7701 770 770 1. ooo!i, ,000 1, 000 1, ,000 1, 000 1, 000 1, 000 1, 200 1 800 800 900, 900 900 1 900 900 900 1, 100 1, 300:i. 1001 700' 700 900 900’ 900 1, 100 1. 100 1, 1001,200 1, 200 1, 200 1 495 1 495 525 655 685 700 850 850 925 l, 065 1, 065 1 850 850 950 950 950 950 950 1, 090 1, 090 1,090:1. 0901 720 720 900 900 900 1, 000 1, 000 1, 000 |l, 100 1, 100J1. lOOjl 840 840 940 ! 940 940 1.040 1, 040 1, 0401, 140 1, 140,1, 1401 720 720 880 880 1 880 880 880 1, 030 1, 030 1, 03011. 030 ll 650 650 800 j 800 800 1,000 1. 000 1, 000jl, 000 1,0001, 150 1 750 750 1, ooo'i. ,000 1, ,000 1, 000 1. ,100 1, 100 ll. 100 1, 100 1, 100)1 720 ; 720 1, 050,1. , 050,1. ,050 1, 050 1 ,050 1, 050 1. 050 1, 100 1, 1001 690 690 840 840 ! 840 840 840 990; 990 990 990 S 9001 900 1,00011, , 000 I ,000 1,000 L ,000 1, 150|l, 150 1,1501, 1501 750 ! 750 1 900 900 900 900 900 975j 975 975 975 1 858 858 8581. ,003 1, ,003 1, 145 I, 145 1,1451, 145 11, 145 1, 2881 720 720 , 720 720| 820 820 820 1, 000 1, 000 11, 000 1, 0001 850 850 , 850 8501 850 850 1, ,150 1.150! 1.150 1, 250 1, 2501 12. 990 990 990 3,140 150 1, 300 975 1, 050 1,500 1, 100 1, 500 1, 50011, 750 1, 7501, 750 1. 1001. 1631, 16311, 163 1,225 250 2, 000 1,225 1, 350 2, 000 1,225 154 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-93. Table 1. — Min imum teachers' salaries in German States, in marlcs, including periodical increases — Con tinned. Tear of service, counted from tlie date of graduation from normal school. State. Prussia, bill of 1896 . Bavaria, regulation of 1893- 94 . Palatinate, regulation of 1893-94 . TViirtemberg, law of 1895 . . Saxony, law of 1892 . Baden, law of 1892 . Hessia, hill of 1896 . Oldenburg, law of 1888 . Saxe- Weimar, law of 1892 . . Brunswick, law of 1895 . Anhalt, resolution of 1892 . . Gotha, law of 1892 . Coburg, law of 1895 . Meiningen, law of 1894 . Altenburg, law of 1893 . Reuss (senior), law of 1891. . Reuss (junior), law of 1893.. Schwarzburg-Rudol s t ad t, law of 1891 . Scliwarzburg-Sonders hau- 14. 15. 16. I 17. 18. 140 1, I iso r. I 0801, 1501, 200 1, 2001, 300 1, 140 1. 1801, 300.1. 290;i, 1801, 150.1, 2501, 1001, 1-10 1, 300 1, 140 1,1401,2201,220 1801 080 150 200 300 400.1. 140.1. 1801 3001 4401 180 1 1501 2501 1501 140 1 3001 2701, . 1701, 150 1, 3501, 3001, 4001, 1401, 1801, 4001, 4401, 1801, 3001, 2501, 150,1, 140 1, 3001, 270 1, 270 I 170|l. 170 2001, 200 3501, 350 300 1, 400 400 1, 500 140 1, 140 180 1, 300 4001,500 4401,560 180 1, 330 300 1, 300 40011, 400 150 1, 150 140 1, 290 300 1, 450 1, 0501,050 1. 0501,050 1, 125 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 1,220 1, 300 1, 300 1, 300 1, 330 1,330 1, 380 1, 460 1, 270 1,270 1, 360 1, 300 1, 360 1,360 1, 360 1, 450 1,170 1,170 1, 260 1, 260 1, 260 1, 260 1, 260 1, 350 1, 200 1, 200 1, 200 1, 250 1, 250 1, 250 1, 250 1, 250 1,350 1, 350 1, 500 1, 500 1, 500 1, 500 1, 500| 1, GOO 1,400 1,400 1, 500|1, 500 1, 500 1, 600' 1, 600 1, 600 1, 500 1, 500 1, 6001, 600 1 1, 600 1,700 1, 700 1, 700 1,215 1,215 1, 215 1, 215 1 3> 215 1, 290 1, 290 1 1, 290 1, 300 1, 300 1, 300 1, 300 ! i, 450 1,450' 1, 450 ' 1, 450 1,500 1, 500 1, cool, 600 1 1, COO 1,700 1, 700 I 1, 700 1, 560 1, 560 1, 7101, 710 i, 710 1,860 1, 860 1, 860 1, 330 1,330 1, 3301, 330 i, 480 1,480 1, 480 1, 480 1, 300 1, 300 1, 4501, 450 i, 450 1. 450 1, 450 1,< 600 1, 400 1,400 1, 400;l, 550 i, 550 1, 550 1, 550 1, 550 1, 150 1,200 1, 2001, 200 i, 200 1, 200 1, 300 1, 300 1,290 1, 290 1, 2901, 290 i, 440 1,440 1, 440 1, 440 1,450 jl, 450 1, 450 1, 450 i, 600 1,600 1, GOO 1, 600 1, 125 1, 125 1, 125 1. 125 200 sen, law of 1896 . Lippe, law of 1891 - Hamburg (rural), 1879. Bremen (rural), 1891. . . Liibeck (rural), 1892 . . , 1. 2881,2881,430,1,430 1, 150 1, 150 1, 150 1, 150 1, 3501,3501, 450 ;1, 450 2, 000 2, 250;i, 250 2, 250 1,288 1, 2881, 288!1, 350 i I ! 1, 43C 1, 300 1,450 2, 500 1, 350 1,43011,430 1, 573! 1,3001, 3001,300 1,580 . | . 2, 500 2, 500 2, 750 1,3501, 4131, 413 1,573 1,300 2, 750 1,413 1,573 1,450 2,750 1,475 1,5731,573 1,715 1, 450jl, 450 1,450 bVo"oo| ’ ii r ’ . . .. 1,47511,475 1,538 Year cf service, counted from the date of graduation from normal school. States. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. Prussia, bill of j 1896 . I 1, 460 1, 450j 1,3501 1, 300 1, 600 1, 700 1,800 1, 290 1, 450 1, 800 2,010 1,480 1, 460 1, 450 1, 350 1, 300 1, COO 1, 700 1, SOO 1, 290 1,000 1, 800 1, 540 1,450 1,350 1, 300 1,600 1, 700 1,800 1,365 1 1, 540 1,450 1, 350. I 1,300! 1,600 1, 800 2,000 1. oG& 1, 540 1,620 1, 510 1, 440 1, 400 1, 700 1,800 Bavaria, regula¬ tion of 1893-94 . Palatinate, regu¬ lation of 1893-94 W ur t e m b e r g , law of 1895 . Saxon v, law of 1892" . Baden , law of 1892 Hessia, bill of 1896 . 1, 540 1, 440 1, 300 1,700 1,800 1,540 1,940 1, 400 1, 700 1, 900 1,540 1, 440 1,440 1, 700 1, 900 1,540 1,440 1,400 1, 700 1, 900 1, 630 1, 530 1, 400 1,800 : 2,000 1, 630 1, 530 1,500 1, 630 j 1, 530 j 1, 630 1,530 . . 1 . 1, 630 1 1, 530 Oldenburg, law of 1888 . !l, 365 1, 365 1, 365 1,440 1 Saxe-W eimar,law of 1892 . Brunswick, law of 1895 . 1, 800 1,900 1 . Anhalt, resolu¬ tion of 1892. . . . Gotha, law of 1892 Coburg, law of 1895 . 1 1,630 . - . Meiningen, law of 1894 . . .. 1,700 1,300 1. 440 1,700 1,300 1 .5.50 1,700 1,300 1, 700 I 1,400 1, 700 1,400 1,800 1,400 Altenburg, law of 1893 . 1,400 1, 400 1,500 1 . Reuss (senior), law of 1891 . ■ Reuss (junior), law of 1893 . i 1,600 1,750 ! 1 Schwarz b u r g- Rud o 1 s t a d t , law of 1891 . Sch war z burg - Soudershausen, lav/ of 1896 .... j Lippe, law of 1891 Hamburg (rural), 1879. 1 450 1 .660 .... “ ? - 1 Bremen (rural), 1891 \ . i Liibeck (rural) 1892 . 1, 538 1 538 1 .600 i 1 i Minimum teachers’ salaries in German States, in marks, including annual increases. [Add about 20 per cent paid for rent.] EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 1 55 1 to 50 years of servico. Aver¬ age. Ss^SlslslSlIlSSS s 18155 r-T HHHNH Total. gisilllllllllllll 8 lllle 31 to 50 years of service. H < ** I!tSii!I!ii§§si!i I 51111 rH nHHMH Total. llilliiiililiiill 1 11111 | i P 1 = Aver¬ age). llslllllllllliill 1 Sills Total. §sss§.k§§§§Ji§s§§s § sssss ^(ML-rfOL^HOhOOOOOKCLO^ O C 1> t- O » t>T t-T eT o' cd co cf cd i> cf cT t> cd ccf o co cd~ oo i>oV 1 to 25 years of service. Aver¬ age. ilSSSSSiSSsaSiiiS s 16811 Total. 18111111111118111 g |i||g ssasss'sssfsssss'gsss a s's'sss' 21 to 25 years of servico. Aver¬ age. ll8_Sil_lSl|g||llll § bIIIS t— ( r-i r-i r-i CTQ r— 1 Total. § i Isis ii ii is si is i i ism ooocd't^t^'otfcooodcjoc^'t^'t^osirt-r o t> cc tC Is £1 i S £ 1 o ° 5 d 4? ipSIISSlipilSSI 1 81881 „ Total. Slllg'l 11 1111 Ills 1 § Still o' o' is m o' o' L-io'ct-' t-'o" o' o' o' o o' o' t-'cV'fio' 11 to 15 years of servico. !& 13111111211881811 I llllt Total. SlstillSssSlsslll 8 Hill o'o o o o o o o o o'o o o o oo o o' o o' o' o' o' G to 10 years of service. Aver¬ age. II 1 1 11 Si sill 111! 1 1 SiaiS Total. IssIlllIslIlllllS 1 BIIIS ^ TJ 13 C ^ Ll O o ^ U d 15 Tf 13 -j. o-^o t> o 1 to 5 years of servico. Aver¬ age. 75G 817 640 GOO 8G2 8G0 820 571 910 828 900 81G 740 900 918 780 9G0 840 91G 740 850 1, 100 1,020 Total. iiisiisiiiiiiiiii i mu tjT t* ~ o' o' a Q Prussia, bill of 1896 . Bavaria, regulation of 1893-94. . . Palatinate, regulation of 1893-94. Wurtomberg, law of 1865 . Saxony, law of 1892 . Baden, law of 1892 . Hessia, bill of 1896 . Oldenburg, law of 1888 . Saxe- Weimar, law of 1892 . Brunswick, law of 1895 . Anhalt, resolution of 1892 . Gotha, law of 1892 . Coburg, law of 1895 . . Meiningen, law of 1894 . Altenburg, law of 1893 . Bcuss (senior), law of 1891 . Ileuss (junior), law of 1893 . Scliwarzburg - liudolstadt, law of 1891 . Schwarzburg-Sondersh auson, law of 1896 . Lippe, law of 1891 . Hamburg (rural), 1879 . Bremen (rural), 1891 . Liibeck (rural), 1892 . 156 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Salaries of Teachers in the People’s Schools of Austria. The Yearbook of Political Economy and Statistics, edited in Jena, Germany, by four eminent university professors of Halle, Breslau, and Gottingen, contains in the second number of the volume for 1896 an article on the income of persons engaged in elementary and burgher schools. The author refers in this to the forty-second volume of “ Austrian Statistics, Official Organ of the Government”, which gives minute information concerning the expenditures for public education in Austria. This publication is especially welcome, since information on this subject has been very difficult to obtain. The position of Austrian teachers is a new factor in the social life of the Empire. This is plainly seen from the rapid increase both in the number of teachers and the amount of salaries paid. Year. X am ber of teachers. Salaries paid. 1865 . . . . . . . 20, 164 20, 099 24, 795 29, 950 40, 733 Florins. 4, 940, 000 7, 302, 000 12, 921, 000 17, 290, 000 25, 738, 000 1871 . 1875 . . 1880 . 1890 . During the lasDtwenty-five years about 20,000 teachers have been added to the number engaged in 1865, and the great change in their social position is seen from the fact that their entire income to-day is five times greater than it was twenty- five years ago. But if we con¬ sider that the number has doubled, we may take it that the same social stratum of 1865, placed on an equal footing with 1890, may be said to have an income two and one-half times as great as twenty-five years ago. Many of the 40,000 teachers (the annual statistics published by the Government shows the number of teachers to be in the neighborhood of 70,000 instead of 40,000, but this includes all teachers of religion and special branches, such as music, drawing, gymnastics, etc., which special teachers are not included in the number of regular class teachers ; the 40,133 includes only class teachers, such as head teachers and princi¬ pals, teachers and assistants) are engaged in city schools; hence the profession of teaching begins to exercise a political influence in munici¬ pal public life. That the teachers in Austria are considered a new factor with which it is well to reckon is seen from the action taken by the legislative bodies of the Empire as well as of the Grown land. As is well known, the citizens of Austria and Germany are divided into electoral classes, and the teachers are included in the class of officers of the State. These classes vote separately on election day, and the intelligence of the teachers in political affairs is not without influence, as is plainly seen in large cities, such as Vienna. The constantly increasing number of women teachers also is an impor¬ tant social factor. At present the number of women teachers is a little less than one-fifth of the total number. The numerical relation of the EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 157 female sex in the various grades of tlie profession may be seen from the following table: Men. Women. Total. Principals and. bead teachers .......... . . . . . 8, 284 15,318 5, 276 447 8, 731 Teachers - - _ _ _ _ 3, 820 j 19, 138 7, 046 Assistants definitely appointed.. . 1, 770 Assistants, provisory . - . . . 5,121 1,768 1 6, 889 . Total .. .. ...... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ...... _ _ ....... 33, £09 I 7, 805 41, 804 This table shows that the position of women among the head teachers is a subordinate one, since in the highest grade, in that of principals and head teachers, the women are represented only by one-twentieth of the number ; in the next lower grade, in that of teachers, they are represented by only one-fifth of the number; but in the next lower grade, in that of assistants, they are represented by one-fourth of the number. The cause is, partly, that the women in Austria have only recently turned to the profession of teaching; hence those engaged in it are not experienced — that is to say, not old enough to have been promoted to the highest grades of the profession. But the cause may also lie in the fact that the governmental authorities do not consider women adapted for executive duties. A better insight into the social position of the teachers in Austria, and partly into the difference existing between the social position of the two sexes, is gained by a study of the following table, based upon official data of 1890 : Salaries of teachers in elementary and hurglier schools in Austria, 1890. Salaries. | Xnmber i of men. Xnmber of 1 women. Eatio of— ! Men. Women. Per cent. Per cent. 200 florins . . . . . . 593 830 1.7 10.6 200 to 249 florins . 468 256 1.3 3.3 250 to 299 florins . 1. 520 559 4.4 7. 2 300 to 349 florins . 2, 180 674 6.4 8^6 350 to 399 florins . . . 2, 718 344 8.0 4.4 400 to 450 florins . 3, 655 1,019 10.8 13.1 450 to 499 florins . 1.215 561 3.6 7.2 500 to 549 florins . 2, 219 344 6.5 4.4 550 to 599 florins . 2. 074 321 6.1 4.1 600 to*649 florins . 2, 246 685 6.6 8.8 650 to 699 florins . . . . 2,349 401 6.9 5.1 700 to 749 florins . 1,979 278 5.8 3.6 750 to 799 florins . . . 1.691 179 5.0 2.3 800 to 849 florins . 1.514 184 4. 5 2,4 850 to 899 florins . . . 1.198 197 3.5 2.5 900 to 950 florins . 1, 191 206 3. 5 2.6 950 to 999 florins . 1,041 135 3.1 ! 1.7 1, 000 to 1, 099 florins . 1,216 280 3.6 | 3.6 1, 100 to 1, 199 florins . 1,045 273 3.1 3.5 1, 200 to 1, 299 florins . 368 39 1.1 . 5 1, 300 to 1, 399 florins . 449 31 1.3 | .4 1, 400 to 1, 499 florins . 356 6 1.0 i .1 1, 500 to 1, 599 florins . 294 3 . 9 1, 600 to 1, 699 florins . . 125 .4 1, 700 to 1, 79S florins . 58 .2 ; 1, 800 to 1, 899 florins . 96 .3 ! 1, 90G to 1, 999 florins . 40 .1 2, 000 florins and more . *. . 101 . .3 Total . 33, 999 7,805 100 100 158 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. If the foregoing data, are grouped we obtain the following represen¬ tation : Salaries. Men. Women. Less than COO florins . Per cent. 48.8 42.5 8.7 Per cent. 62.9 32.6 4.5 600 to 1,000 florins . . . More than 1,000 florins . . . 100 100 This shows that nearly one-half of the men and two-thirds of the women teachers receive the u minimum of existence,” which statisticians have estimated at 630 florins ($303.66) ; 42J per cent of the jpen and 32.6 per cent of the women receive salaries ranging from 600 to 1,000 florins. This again shows a very disadvantageous position of the female sex, which is particularly noticeable in the highest group, where only 4£ per cent of the women are ranged, while 8.7 per cent of the men are found there. The foregoing tables plainly exhibit the fact that the income of teachers, be they men or women, is low, about 650 florins at an average. Although the sum total paid to the teachers amounts to nearly 26,000,000 florins, and although this social class has become an impor¬ tant political factor, it must still be admitted that the pecuniary condi¬ tion of many teachers in Austria is very modest indeed. This is the more striking as the school laws passed in 1868 lifted the profession of teaching to a new social footing. The appropriations and taxes voted for and paid by communities, districts, and Crown lands for school purposes, and which have during the last thirty years added new burdens to the taxpayers, are constantly increasing. Modern life lays claims upon the exchequer of the modern State which were unknown in former times. The new school buildings, furniture, and equipment require enormous sums; so that interest-bearing debts increase the annual appropriations for school purposes and even frustrate the best intentions of raising the salaries of the teachers. Austria has just cause to be proud of its enormous expenditures for school purposes in recent years, and particularly for its magnificent school buildings. The teachers of Austria stand foremost in the profession and command the respect of the world for their heroic efforts in behalf of public education. Reform Schools in the Grand Duchy of Baden, Germany. The system of reform schools1 in the Grand Duchy of Baden in Ger¬ many is regulated by law of May, 1886, which began to operate January, - 1887. The secretaries of the departments of justice and the interior 1 These data are translated from a German magazine of recognized authority in statistics, Jahrbiicher fur National Oekonomie und Statistik, Volume XIII, Heft 3, page 446. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 159 prepared tlie rules and regulations necessitated by tlie new law. The law is similar to paragraph 55 of the Imperial Criminal Code, adopted February 26, 1876. According to this code, persons who commit a crime before they are 12 years of age can not be tried for crime, but may be kept in custody for the purpose of reforming them, according to the special law of the separate State. Such children may bo placed under reform training, if both the criminal and the orphan court have so decreed. The Baden law goes two steps farther than the general imperial code: (1) It fixes the maximum time limit at 16 years of age 5 that is to say, juvenile criminals are not prosecuted or tried for crime in Baden if less than 16 years of age, but are retained in reform schools. (2) The law does not confine its operations to criminal acts, but requires that youths up to 16 years of age be assigned to reform schools for moral misde¬ meanors, provided (a) that parents or guardians endanger the moral life of the children by misuse of their authority or by neglect; or (b) that the conduct of the children proves that neither the good efforts of parents and guardians nor the means of discipline in school are adequate to prevent their moral depravity. The Baden law (section 12) further decrees that if a person accused of crime between 12 and 18 years of age1 is acquitted owing to his tender age and want of good judgment, the court shall state whether he is to be returned to his family, or placed in custody of another family, or be detained in a reform school. The execution of the law is left in the hands of the county courts (criminal and probate “Bezirks-Aemter”). The courts are charged with the careful investigation of the conditions of the child’s home environments, in order to decide whether the home gives proper assur¬ ance of wholesome influence in the future. In aggravated cases of moral depravity, which require constant supervision and strict disci¬ pline, the culprit is to be sent to a reform school without further delay. Concerning the age of reform school pupils, only the maximum (16 or 18 years, respectively) is clearly defined, while with regard to the mini¬ mum the law is silent; but the ministerial regulations state that chil¬ dren under 6 years should be sent to reform schools only in specially urgent cases. The law specifically states that poorhouses, hospitals, and asylums for persons of defective senses are not to be regarded or used as reform schools in the sense of the law; but it admits to legal recognition as reform schools all institutions established by corpora tions and private persons or through endowment which have the pur¬ pose of saving morally depraved children and training them to be useful citizens and members of society. This recognition is granted by the secretary of the interior; courts are not permitted to designate any institution as a reform school so long as the secretary of the interior withholds his recognition. In exceptional cases tlie time limit is extended to 19 years. 160 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Tlie State’s right to educate u by force ” (that is, in reform schools) ends with the completed eighteenth year of the juvenile offender. Pupils may be dismissed from reform schools before they are 18, if the purpose of their reform training has been accomplished, or if it is rea¬ sonably secured by other means. This release is revocable at first, for if inquiry reveals that the guardians fail to follow up the good work of the school, a pupil may be brought back by the police. One-third of the costs of this compulsory training is borne by the poor fund of the town or district from which the pupil comes. In case the parents can afford to defray the expense, the town may collect from them, and the State bears two- thirds of the expenses, except the cost of traveling, which must be borne by the town or district. So much concerning the legal requirements. How let us see what the results of this compulsory training are. According to official state¬ ments (year 1893) the number of pupils in the various institutions for that purpose and under the charge of families, was : Number of pupils under reform training. Year. Boys. Girls. Total. Legiti¬ mate. Illegiti¬ mate. Ratio of illegiti¬ mates. 1887 . 69 48 117 96 21 Per cent. 18 1888 . 181 88 269 224 45 16.7 1889 . 303 138 441 368 73 16.6 1899 . 410 191 601 734 507 94 15. 6 1891 . 505 229 622 112 15.3 1892 . 583 267 850 721 129 15.2 1893 . 697 341 1,038 893 145 14 From this table it is seen that more boys than girls were subjected to compulsory training. In 1893 the number of boys amounted to 67.2 per cent of the total number, hence more than two-thirds. It is of inter¬ est to note, also, that the percentage of illegitimate children decreased from 18 to 14 per cent within six years. It is evident that family life in Baden has improved even in the strata from which refractory and depraved children are taken to reform schools. The official statement from which the contents of this article are drawn gives no information concerning the occupation or profession of the fathers. With reference to the kind of provision made for the children in need of compulsory training, it is stated that 440 (36.5 per cent) of the total number in 1893 were assigned to private families and 763 (63.4 per cent) to institutions, so-called reform farms or reform schools. Of the whole number (1,038), the majority (namely, 888) were less than 14 years old, and of these 336 (37.8 per cent) were placed in private families, while 552 (62.2 per cent) were assigned to institutions. Of the 315 who had passed the fourteenth year of life, 104 (33 per cent) were placed in families, and 211 (67 per cent) in institutions. Year after year, as the operation of the law became more effective, and the number of children assigned to compulsory training increased, the number of EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 161 those assigned to reformatory institutions remained in the majority. The latter proportion amounted to 57.3, 61, 60.8, 68.4, 65.7, 68.2, and 61.3 per cent in the successive years from 1887 till 1893. At the close of the year 1893, 19 pupils (1.9 per cent) of reform schools or given into custody of private families had escaped from supervision. Of the 290 boys over 14 years of age assigned to families, 224 were apprentices learning trades; 114 in cities, 110 in the country. Of these apprentices 144 were between 14 and 16 years of age, while 68 were 17 years, 6 were 18 years, and 6 were 19 years of age. The causes which induced the authorities to assign these boys to reformatory training were (a) degrading influence on the part of the parents in 71 cases, (b) depravity of the children despite good home influence in 153 cases. The conduct of 186 apprentices out of 224 (83 per cent) was reported to be good or satisfactory. Forty trades or occupations were represented by the apprentices; 33 were employed as stable boys, 23 as farm hands, 19 learned the cobbler’s trade, 18 were in joiner’s shops, 17 were bakers, 17 tailors, 11 saddlers, etc. Of the 82 girls over 14 years of age assigned to families, 46 were employed as house servants, 3 as factory hands, 6 as dressmakers and seamstresses. Of these 55 pupils, 42 were between 14 and 16 years of age, 9 were 17, 3 were 18, and 1 was 19 years of age. The causes for which they had been placed under compulsory train¬ ing were (a) degrading influence on the part of the parents in 33 cases, (b) depravity of the children despite good home influence or neglect in 22 cases. The conduct of 45 (81.8 per cent) proved very satisfactory. The official data give no information concerning the occupation of children under 14 years of age, but it is presumed that they attend school. Considerable differences are noticeable in the ages of the pupils. They are here tabulated in percentages for each year that the law has been in operation : Age of pupils under reform training. 1 Year. Under 10 years. 10 toll years. Over 14 years. Total. 1887 . Per cent. 35 28. G 31.5 21.3 24.3 20 19.8 Per cent. 47 57.8 49. 7 51.1 46.1 44.1 | 46.8 ! Per cent. 18 13.6 18.8 27. G 29.6 35.9 33.6 Per cent. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 1888 . 1889 . 1890 .... . 1891 . 1892 . 1893 . Average . . . I 25 48.8 26.2 100 1 While the annual number of children between 10 and 14 years of age remained at about one-half of the sum total, the numbers of those under 10 and over 14 show an almost uniform change, the former of descend¬ ing the latter of ascending tendency. From this it is seen that the authorities commit young children to compulsory training much more ED 96 - 6 162 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. rarely of late years than seemed desirable at the beginning. It is possible that the cost of maintenance of these children induces the authorities not to resort to reform training. German governmental authorities recognize in their statistical tabu¬ lations only three religious denominations: Catholic, Protestant, and Jews, to which sometimes they add a column for Dissenters u or others.” The proportion of Catholics and Protestants among the children under discussion was as follows : Tear. Catholics. Protestants. 1887 . Per cent. 58.1 Per cent. 41.9 1888 . 66.9 33.1 1889 . 61.9 38.1 1S90 . 72.4 27.6 1891 . 65.7 34.3 1892 . 64.7 35.3 1893 . 64.7 35.3 This proportion is very nearly analogous to the proportion of Catholics and Protestants in the population which was in 1890, 36 per cent Protestants and 62 per cent Catholics. It is interesting to observe how many of the children under reforma¬ tory training had parents. At the time when the courts decided upon their fate there had — Tear. Both parents. J Only father. 1 Only 1 [ mother. | Xeither ‘father nor I mother. 1837 . 60 25 30 2 1888 . 76 21 48 62 9 1889 . 76 31 12 1890 . 72 28 67 7 1891 . 72 38 55 4 1892 . . 92 26 44 8 1893 . 109 55 66 g Total . . 559 224 372 50 Of the total number 46.3 per cent had both parents living, 18.6 per cent had only father left, 30.9 per cent only a mother, and 4.2 p>er cent were orphans. The remarkably greater representation of children who had no father is esplained by the relatively large proportion of illegiti¬ mate children, partly owing to the relatively larger number of widows. The census of -1S90 showed that Baden had 29,521 widowers and 70,236 widows. Another cause of the apparent disproportion may be found in the fact that woman’s labor is poorly paid, hence that lone mothers are not always able to properly train and look after their children. Likewise interesting is the fact that among the 224 children who had only a father 29 per cent were girls, and that among the 372 who had only a mother 35.5 per cent were girls. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 163 Tlie following table gives information concerning tlie causes that made reformatory training necessary: Year. Parents endan¬ gering children’s character. Depravity or inadequate home training. Criminal acts. , X umber. Patio. Xuruber. | Patio. Xomber. Patio. 1887 . 77 Per cent. 65.8 39 Per cent. 33.3 1 Per cent. 0.9 1888 . 82 53.2 71 46.1 1 .7 1889 . 80 44.2 97 53.6 4 2.2 1890 . 75 43.1 94 51.0 5 2.9 1891 . i 69 40.9 94 55. 6 6 3.5 1892 . 67 39.4 98 57.7 5 2.9 93 39.1 138 58.0 7 2.9 Total . 513 45.2 | 631 52.4 | 29 2.4 The length of reformatory training in 26 cases was less than one year; in 44 cases, one to two years; in 65 cases, two to three years; in 51 cases, three to foui* years; in 41 cases, four to five years; in 17 cases, five to six years, and in 5 cases, over six years. Children released were returned to their parents in 63 cases ; given over to relatives or guard¬ ians in 16 cases; 121 entered some sort of service; of the remaining 32 cases, 5 u went to America;” 9 having learned a trade, became travel¬ ing journeymen; 3 remained in the institutions to learn housekeeping; 3 were sent to asylums for idiots or insane; 7 escaped; 4 were taken to prison, and 1 girl was “ lost in bad company.” Of all those who since 1888 had been released, 125 (among whom were 13 girls) entered upon some kind of industrial pursuit; 23 (only boys) chose farm labor; 41 (of 70) girls entered upon domestic service. These facts give hints as to the strata of society from which the chil¬ dren came. The results or effects of reformatory training depend essentially upon the causes which necessitate it, that is to say, whether the children are subjected to dangerous parental influence, or whether their home influ¬ ence, though not vicious, is nevertheless injurious, because inadequate, or whether their own depravity is so great that society is endangered by them. It depends, furthermore, upon the sex, age, and method of training of the pupils, and, lastly, upon their being assigned to an institution or to a private family. With regard to these various influ¬ ences, the statistical data at hand state results which may be tabulated. To facilitate comparison ratios are employed. Of every 100 pupils the effect was — Satisfac¬ tory. Doubtful. Xot satis¬ factory. j Unknown. Of those released . Per cent. 77.1 76.8 Per cent. 12.1 7.8 Per cent. 10.4 13 Per cent. 0.4 2.4 Of all the pupils . . . . . . 164 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Generally the effect was satisfactory. Of every 100 pupils — In families. In reform i schools. Average. Of all the pupils . . . Per cent. 85.2 Per cent. 71.7 Per cent. 76.8 84. 2 87.6 71. 6 76 Of girls . • . : 71.8 78.4 Of children under If . . . 92.3 68.1 78.6 Of children over 14 . . 82. 1 74 75. 8 Of bovs under 14 . 91.2 67.5 76.1 Of bovs over 14 . 81.9 75. 8 76 Of girls under 14 . 93.9 72.1 82.7 Of girls over 14 . . 82.7 71.6 75.1 Of children admitted because endangered by parents (cause a) . 88.2 80.2 83.3 Of children admitted owing to inadequate home training or viciousness (causes h and c) . . . - . 82 66. 1 71.4 Of boys (cause a) . . . 85. 6 78.4 81.1 Of bovs (causes b andc) . 83.1 68.3 72.9 Of girls (cause a) . 92.3 82 86.3 Of girls (causes b and c) . 77.2 61.8 66.9 Of released pupils : Total../. . 75. 6 88. 3 77. 1 Bovs . . . 78. 7 84.4 75. 6 Girls . . 72. 7 93.8 80.5 The data show that the effect of compulsory training is not the same for botli sexes, nor the same with regard to institute and family train¬ ing. Generally speaking, the results are less favorable with the boys than with the girls; much more favorable with children under 14 years of age than with those over 14, and less favorable among those who were admitted owing to inadequate home influence or their own depravity. In viewing the effects of family and institute training it must be borne in mind that (I) the worst characters are assigned to institutions — chil¬ dren who could not well be put in families, and (2) that the opinion concerning what is satisfactory conduct in institutions and families is not in all cases equally well based. The expenditures for the support of pupils under compulsory training amounted to — Year. In families. In institu¬ tions. Total. Per cap¬ ita. 1889 . . $9,857 $22. 71 22. 16 1890 . $3, 731 4, 087 5, 083 $10. 773 12, 848 14,504 1891 . 16.935 21.12 1892 . 15, 614 16, 277 20,697 19,826 1 21.74 1893 . 3,549 ! i 19. 10 The decrease in expenditures is explained by the more frequent assign¬ ment of children to families who desire to take them free of cost, a practice which does not recommend itself, since experience shows that the children thus assigned are unduly burdened with work and merely used as drudges, and that the families who petition that pupils be assigned to them do not always exercise the most wholesome educa¬ tional influence upon their charges. It is a matter of self- evidence that the cities furnish a larger propor¬ tion of pupils who need reformatory training than the rural districts. Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Freiburg, and Heidelberg are represented with EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 165 37 per cent of the sum total of pupils, though these cities have only 23 per cent of the population of the Grand Duchy. The population of the United States is about thirty-six times greater than that of Baden $ hence we ought to have 39,368 children under reformatory training, taking the number Baden represents as a cri¬ terion, while actually we have only 20,201, according to the statistics offered .in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1893-91. These 20,201 children cost the States (in 1893) $2,562,411, which is $126.85 per capita, cost of permanent improvements for grounds and buildings not counted. The per capita in Baden was $19.10 in 1893. This enormous difference is explained by the foregoing facts. Statistics of German, Austrian, and Swiss Universities, Poly- technica, Agricultural, Veterinary, Forestry, and Min¬ ing Academies. The statistical data concerning German universities offered in the following tables are based upon official publications for the two semes¬ ters quoted, namely, the winter semester of 1894-95 and the summer semester of 1895. The Lyceum Hosianum in Braunsberg has not been included, inasmuch as the characteristics of a university are wanting there; it comprises only a theological faculty. The data concerning the agricultural school in organic connection with the university of Bonn do not reveal a separate number of students ; this, however, is a mere trifle. The data concerning the polytechnical and other professional schools are based upon direct information furnished by the officials of these institutions. It was somewhat difficult to state the totals correctly, since the course of study in these institutions varies considerably, some leaning more toward mechanical engineering, others toward other branches of technology. The statements concerning the number of foreigners among the students of technological universities are not complete, although it would be particularly interesting to compare the attendance of foreign students in these institutions with that in uni¬ versities. Irregularities and peculiarities in the employment of pro¬ fessors and the attendance of students are stated in footnotes to each table. The tables are compiled by the editor of. the Academische Revue, published in Munich. (Vo. 16, vol. 2, pp. 200-212.) professors in 1894-95. 166 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Philosophical faculty. S§5SS§S!3SgSgSggSSSSS5S. 1, 299 PROFESSORS IN 1895. 186 70 69 30 51 •saojnx ->* ci co -r-i - d • go co -nn ■ d • -win ■ 3 • Cl CO « rH •sjuoo -op ojuAiaj SdS^s^indS^ssss^^d00 1 •saossojoad LjuuipjoRjjxa; 1 ® 3 ® * SaOSSOJ -cad Lnuonopr CO | ; ; CO r-i • ; d 00 • ; © • CO r-i -CO | J 3 CO • j j CO •saossoj -oad Xreuipao 552 ■ SScSS^ Medical faculty. •Piox Sg3S3S5SgS383SgS32 8 124 40 39 15 35 •A'ajsrj -U9pj0SJU990(X r- 1 • 1— i :r* : : : : CO •SJU99 -op 9 JUAiaj 1 3 •saossajoad .ifauuipaoBajxg; COrH^OO'#OOOCOO°OOCOeCO I 31 11 14 5 11 •saoss9j -oad Lreaouopj ■ • ■ ■ r-l ■ • d d ■ -HH ■ : : s -tfiH j > '• •saossoj -oad ifanuipao oc ci ci cs s OHHon Law faculty. ‘Fjox O H CO t> 1 O CO o o o •SJU90 -op ojn Aiax O Cl CO -NHH ■ '(NcOSOTjlO : O d CO •saossojoad Liuuipaouajxg; COHH Cl r-l £ CO d H •saossoj -oad Lreaouopj CO • • -1 : : : oo CO • • •saossoj -oad Lreuipao HCO^Oir5COCCil>^lOCO^O i— 1 r-l r-t rH lO Cl 5> O 1 1-t o o o o r— i r-i Protestant theological faculty. •Pioi 18 11 11 9 _ l O N O Cl CO CC t- j-J r-J 4 11 G 8 O r-l 1-1 C5 •8JU90 -op 9juAtax d (M Cl CM ■ -=n « co i-i ci j ci co la - : §S (M Cl Cl (M •saoss9joad 1 Aauuipaouaix^p | b- CO CO H HHHNHHH’dlCl Cl iH CO l> CO CO tH •saossoj -oad ^auaeuoH rH ; ; ; • • CO H * 1 1 •saossoj -oad iCauutpao ccoc-o USt-Ot-OlOOlOMO ^ oo m 1 Cl © © © 1 S’ Ji¬ ll o c3 o TB1°X . 10 11 -MM! 10 11 • o o 8 • O d • r— ( rH rH •SJU99 -op ojUAiaj : : : ^ i i i : : iH Cl ; ; ; •saossojoad ifauinpaoua-ixa; • d Cl iTPiJ- _ Total . Berlin . Bonn . Breslau . Erlancren _ _ _ Freiburg . EDUCATION IN CENTKAL EUKOPE. 1G7 1,304 ■CO • OC CO ■ CO CO ' CO • ?H ■ CCC5rH-" COC'IOO rH rH go t>oaoo/Mj-joccoooqLq Lfi r-l 00 CO o j CO I It — l j jcocoo-^^ : s d rH • rH H< rH • • CO r— 1 CO tH • S • rH • rH ■ Cl • • rH • 00 LA. CC1> O ^ h O O O t> H o t- lc 151 CHOr^QCCChH^O o o o ! 3 ;'^i«'^i-tC0 ; CO CO tX *- i • CO HrlTHCJHHH^W • Cl rH • CO : : : : : : CO 1C O O D C O Li O X O lO t-io I 2 ■--• ■*• 1 1 ‘ • . • 1 f D rH • O O § • • • » 1 « 1 ( 1 1 H 8 2, 458 i i m universities — Continued. 168 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. •SJauSta.rojj; 2, 079 C •bojbjs UTjrajay jaqjo jo saAi;B^[ pS§gg§S6§§ggSgg|ggg§§ § ! ■paXBaoj st Ars -jOArun qotqAs. ut aqj jo saAijBjq sslIsISlSlSlIlllsllll COHH r-T r-T -f i CO 3 o H r-4 5 & i ! -nap put; .foBtnxeqx SgggSggSg : ig 8 •a-imxnaij; -Sts put? ‘Ataouoaa isaijiiod ‘aouunt^ 3gS g :§: : s • 'saoaaios jB.TnjBn: put? e'atjBiuaqjBK o s c4 •T aojsrq pne ‘SSo loitqd ‘Aqdosojtqx gjg§SSSg8ggggg§g§£33§g 8 CO~ 3' o IsslSsl^f IlSsIllISlil 1 oo it ssiiis&iiftssgss :.mm - ! I | Law. ssltlSPSIS-IISS i8|g| ,-r t— r ■ 1 Theology. •jusjsajojx gggg sggps-Sogg i i^gg : ! ; ; ; 1 co' •otioqjBO jsa.j.4: j M H i : i iss j iss s i •sjtrapnjs paj'Bpn -OTJj'eni jo joqranu pjjox l!lsl!lsl!!si!l§!IIIS 8 s -s.i9.iBaq jo .Toqmnn jbjox Is 1 is 1 1 S 111 S § SI S5 § ! si CO r— 1 H H t— i r— 1 r—t CO CO H H 1 g s u , a s 5 a ssss 1S-"S 1185 WHH P_ls ClT — ~ r-T r-^ : S3S3 cs 3£S3§SSs3SS3S§ r-T IggSlSsliggi "SS^SIS ci2S S§S§ S§| i i? CQ © & 3 £ ii 5iSSSgig«2CS3iS§ llllglggspglllll I 1 - a ^ “ 8 £ , g?| :| i :f.^Jl!p h 1:1 g^l | *1 fl §11 l|| li? I ED 96 - 6* 169 II. — c German technological universities. 170 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. L-O o CO 3 J3 HO(M(NNt-(NN.(N 3 | •sjiiujsiss y | Cl Id ISICINOO ■ C-J . O SJUOOOp OJt’AtJJ MO^OOHHOC CM a sjossojo.id ■ifiuaipjouijxg; CCCOO'tfr-‘t-t>, c; X CO lO •SJUTJJSISSY l O CO (M ^ t- o O CO CO o •SJU8DOP OJBAU J I ; r-1 T* -* T-i ^ ■(MW 00 CM ■sjossojoid i ^jcuipjoujjxg; j HCl^H ' H CO r-i CM o CM •sjossoj -ojd i’aunipjo t-OOCOl£>OCM^fCM of c © |1 I o| o •p5}Oi -H CO — • CC CM O lO CO CM r-t CO CM r-. r-i r-i r-(p lO CO •SJUUJSTSSY ^gHrtO^oow o ■sjuaDopeicAuj; jc CO ■siossejojd ^jBaxpiouijxg; \ H Ci CO • 1 H H CM CO o CM •SI0SS8J -ojd ^uuipao I O 3 t- ^ C U1 t> C. « o S '2 5 S j o' ~ •IBjox C- 05 C~ C5 Cl o 00 CO CM •SJUBJSISSY CM CC 1 H CM O (M iC H CM • o • s juooop 0 JBAI » ^ « • • rH * r-i CM oo •siossojojd ^JBUipjOT?JJX3[ 1 !"■*"“ i" i i Is •SJ0SS8J -ojd AJBUipJO o Cw ° O s •IB+OX 000300^0^1^ nOCI r-i r- r-i CO o CM •SJUBJSISS Y CM CM I ' r-i CM CM • r> • « ; CO 00 •SJU90OP 8JBAUJ 1-1 ^3 ; 1-1 ; N ^ CMCOr>HHH CO •SJOSSOJ -ojd .^JuaipjQ o o co o loi t- a t' io 5© •sjossoj -ojiI jo .Toquinu [Ujox CLO^rJOCCCOO OCIHCOCt>L-°Gt> o o Institution. Aix la Chapelle . Berlin-Charlottenburg . Brunswick . Darmstadt . Dresden . Hanover . Karlsruhe . Munich. . Stuttgart . Total . II. — German technological universities — Continued. STUDENTS IN 1894-93. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE, 171 t-i rt ^ a rH © 2 2 o o o TU°X | Cl ■ «D 00 1C (M rH O CO r-H 1 rr C W CUM O • CM 466 •s;ucjtdsoH; • • O t- 'HN© • • • rH • lO • O CM •SJOIUOJI j - ■ ^ T— 1 • • • CO ' r— l CO t- •sjuopn^s p9jBinoij;t!pf ’• ' o r-J (N ^ O O CI • • CM CM H lO ^ 177 1 8 jS'o ?s S.S £ - *m°x | • * rH t— • • H CC X • • cm o • wh • • (N • • 375 •sjuBjidsojj j i i • O • 1 • O ■ O CM ‘SJ8JB9JJ I ■ a i i i i • O 23 •sjuapn^s | poj'BtnouiBjq; • 'r-ll> I 'H(N(N • • CM CO • • h* CM . > CJ • • 323 .Department of chemical tech¬ nology. *FI°X -fH(N(MOHOOH Ot'COOO^COrf l> r-H rH CM rH rH CO a o •SJUBJldsOJI ■ rH • O 'OHH « 1 • CO » rH • O rH CO • 149 •SI9JB8J3; O • CM • CO O • CO CM • CM • rl CO 'HH 130 •SJU9pn;S pajBinou^BjY i.O O O O CO CM >o ic 00 814 Department of me¬ chanical engineer¬ ing. W>x L- X H (N lO h- l> CO CO HCOCO^OHCCO 3,243 •SJUBJldSOJJ . o • ’—H 'X • . O • CM • lO CO H ' . CO • 427 'SJ8.IB82J b- 'CO • 1-0 CO • u- o (M • O 'CM • Tji 5© 234 •siuapnjs pajBxnoujBj^; OCOOOrHOOOOC* ooooooooooooocm O nnri»wn 2, 582 | t © © tc 11 B g u C3 © ‘UIOX -^(MOr^«Mt^r-(— »U0 CO t>» O 00 CO O O CM 05 ^ HH CO 1,449 •SJUBIldsOJJ • -h ■ t- 'Ohio I • CM | ; rH • •SJ9JB9JJ CO ’ O 'MM • o © O CM •ejuapn^s pajBpoti^Bj^ HHLCOOHOHO COLO^XtNOCJHX HT HH CO 1,376 Department of ar¬ chitecture. T*WL XHOt^O^LOOlO ^OHL-XHHHCO iO H H CM H 1,365 •SJUBJldSOJI ■O • © rt I • 00 • .-1 * TT T-l QH^ of r-T 7, 317 •S9JBJS aaqjo mojj uo CO CM t—< O0 CM CM CO rH O H o CO CO CM CM ^(N^HmiOCOH co^ '9JB1S JO S9AIJB^[ CNMCICCOONO © mwn ooi — i*o Cl i — 1 Cl Cl LO M 00 M CM CM o o co" •sjuap -njs jo jaqumu fBjox ICO Cl O CO 00 t$< M ICO o O CO - r — — O — ' U- J CO <© CO t> O 00 o ^ i© cf rH o o CM 00 Institution. Aix-la-Chapelle . - Berlin-Charlottenburg . . . Brunswick . Darmstadt . Dresden . Hanover . Karlsruhe . Munich . Stuttgart . Total . PROFESSORS AND STUDENTS. 172 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. t- co cxoo s 1 3 I X t-4 . O <2 X > ^ fc'S® I > © s'SH | <3 W 00 ■g-g CD 2 <* O CO X 00 (M © 9 3 ft a iNXOJX £ p i fe ^ CQ - I fi <1 « © S Hi 3 OCOXXIM § ©.a cs a -5 5.2 «) £© § §■§ w o ft fcjj I <3 ! I t?=3 I 1 ■5c <3 I Hi s © ! - m I PH H ©il © © ^3 CO r- CO CQ ■S'S^ - * a a s © © 5 © 3^3 ©3 0*5 IIS AND STUDENTS. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE, 173 VII. — Austrian universities. 174 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. in C5 & H CQ zn zn to O >> ft m o o >s o c3 [=< t" CM 00 «C lO t- OCO -J> | wntj mtjim in in oo CO o io •sjojux iftCQ 1 H H< 'H •SJOSSOJOld AauurpaoBajxg; oooo CM tH •S.IOSSOJ -oad Aacaouoji :::::: : : : ■ •saossaj -oad A’acuipjo (MlOrHWOlO OCHC HnCQiM(NH CM M CM CO Medical faculty. T^IOX • 't-HOOH OO O N • • CO CM CM CO CO oo CM CO •Aajsrjuap jo jossa jojx : : : rH •sjuao -Op OJUATJtJ • • in m t- • oooo tH GO •saossajoad Ajcuipjocjjxa; • • 00 tH rH • QO(M tH tH •saossaj j -oad Ajbjouou 1 : : : : •saossaj -oad Aacuipjo • • CO Ci O H CO CM 10 • • tH rH HH(M CO GO c3 O £ o cS pH ' H H CO H (MXO nHHnrtW nr H o iH •sjuaa -Op OJUATJcJ ! LO (M H O Cl H H H CO CM 00 •saossajoad AamnpaoBJjxg; hc:h> o o pH •ilOBOTJ'Bqj H 00HO WO CO 00 CO CM CO nH rH CO 05 CO 582 •aouetos putt soijnnioqjrpj; CO C5 CM CO t-H H< o 00 1-1 CO CO o ZT O CM H c* CO 199 04 •Xiojstq pau ‘^§o -Xoxtqd ‘^qdosoxiqj; rH rl CM C5 O CM CO H< L- o°° lO •xmox HCMHNOO U- H H O H< CO CO tH CM CM CO CO r— < rH rH H tH rH CM O 1, 741 •ouiotpaj^; • >0^000 H O CO « ■ W lO b- O t^WH • i lO CM CO H< tH CM CM 169 ‘f ■JABq »-0 CM CM ^ iO CO CO CO CO H< O H O O CO CO CM CM LO CM CO 05 lO CM h< r-T CM* 7, 099 •ASopoq; otxoqjBQ CJt'OHOO CM tH CO F* O C5 O CO H l- lO U- CM CO HH 1,292 L _ ‘5681 W S}U3X>njs jo -mqmnu: xbjox W H C. O O CO O rH O CM tH CO CM CO H L-lO O H< CO CO O CM H HHH rH HH rH CM LO 14, 823 Nationality. •sjguSiaaox Ht-NNHH OOOH rH 1>OOOH WHCD CM LO 2,109 •S9AIJT?Js[ 4G8 363 1, 480 747 1, 221 1,414 1,311 2, 769 5,150 14, 923 i i b 13 o w o 3 P4 •^onnijoqx ^ooosq-Hno ooo I 106 49 149 141 189 135 137 294 767 1,967 *9UI0ip3J^[ . • CM CO CC hH CM tH • • O CM CO OO OCOO • • tH CO HI CO Ci CM • » CO 6, 320 •AVBX | 1 »-( CD Oi Ci H '#MOOM'# CO C- t- HHrtH r-T (M O' 17, 032 University. A gram . ChemQ'witz . Graz . Innsbruck . Krakau . Lemberg . Prague : German . Bohemian . Vienna . Total . Y1H.- -Austrian technological universities. 176 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. £ ! g ■sauomjJBdap jugjgjjqp ut sj9.TB9q Jatlio 1 co 10I>^ CQH C CS OS ( a _ ; o •jCjjsiuigqo jo juacujjBdgQ; CO CO 00 rtf Ot>N lO CQ •sjoseojojd AJBUipjoejjxg; CO rtf WHH Cl C CQ O d | S TB1°X 10 21 i xh. « : sj9qoB9j.igqjo 1 ! eo ac *- CO j GO 's : •SJ0SS9J -ojd AJBaouojj CO IQ oc •sjossojoad ' ^JBUipJOBJ^Xa ; *-* 1-1 •SJ0SS9J -Oid A.IBUtpjLQ rtf t— ! •sjugpnjs jgqjo rtf D- Cl •juocajjBd - 9 p Suijpmg i rtf rH •p*WL 1 o oo 00 Cl , sjgqoBg; jgqjo ! cs I 1 •SJOS89J -OJtd AJBJOUOJJ cn m oc ■- •sjossqjoad jfjBUtpjOBJJX^ ; 1-1 r“i •8JOSS9J -ojd XjBUtpjQ rtf CO o EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 177 p 5 o I go a H w fa 2 ft g.o fi ®. -g ■+-) > § 'u © f^-§ | Is O ft© £ x C5 ci CO 05 Cl H .CO r-i 1-1 rH r-i r> ."SXOSS9J -oxd a'xbjouojj 1 ; tH ■ CO r-H •8J08S9J -ojd £jv UipjQ t> t> l> CJ CO 0 00 HHHdHdH 03 Medical faculty. w>x 00 iO X J H <0 10 C5 10 lO 1> •8JU99 -Op 9 J B A I J •SJ0SS9J -oxd jfjuuipjo : N O M « t# 0 00 IO O Protestant theolog¬ ical faculty. *r*wt | H fc- [>b*OCl 0 0 •8JU99 . -Op 9JBATXJ CO H r-H t* 05 *8J08S9J0Jd ^XBUipjOBJjxg; CO CO • iH - t- I •SJ0SS9J -oxd jfxBXOUOJT 1" • i-H - CO | •8J0889J -Oxd ifjBUipjQ C- -<* O 4* 10 CO CO j Catholic theological faculty. ■ 0 • ■ rH •8JU99 -Op 9 J B A I X J , •8X0SS9J0Xd iCxuuipxoBxjxg; ! •SX0S89J -oxd jCxBxoaojj •SX0S89J | -oxd ifxnuipxo i • 4* 0 • ! T*< •BX0SS9J -oxd jo aaqraua jejox £0 . a +» ■s S.-2 © s |.s S S £ § i © £ nw^Oi-!^i!S3 03 os (M os co to in >-!>-! rt — j s s ia ^ ^ j§ | 1 o n 00 • iO -}< IO CO bjo : £3 'o £ 2 2-2 cS © £ S 2 m — 3^N XI. — Siwiss universities — C on t i nu o cl . 178 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. z p >3 i h OMLlOu'i'H'O ic t-::oooo 8 Stu¬ dents. SlssP8 1,148 Medicine. Hear¬ ers. CO T—i tr¬ io Stu¬ dents. 362 212 |S is I -r i & Hear¬ ers. r-fOOOHOOKM § Stu¬ dents. 1 Theology. Protestant. Hear¬ ers. lO > t- I ^ ■ o Stu¬ dents. 78 34 £ Catholic. c3 Stu¬ dents. i-a 1 1 j i 3 Matriculated students. For¬ eign¬ ers. *SS§S“S 1,275 1 ^ ^ PM ! & M o 11318“! 1,849 j i i 5 Women. 8 Men. §^00^00 1 Matriculated students. Women. ws 132 20 1 133 S Men. 111S1S3 2,753 Total number of stu¬ dents. MBssssU 3, 827 J University. Basol . Berne . Genova., . Lausanne . . . Neuchdtel . Zurich . Total . S | ,-T O (M • O (M • O * ‘ r— 1 § 149 186 p js 1 RwaociH-f eg « co oo a eo o 1 O T— ( • r-i ■ rH • o» S3 60 51 18 36 1 : jc 3 i i i : § • o ^ • • • • . CO • • « • . T-l * , « • 1 87 170 120 438 212 8 306 1 i-r 350 437 115 229 214 59 369 s 3 1 125 20 2 125 8 IsiSPS 2, 759 mills 3,701 Basel . Berne . i uiu ui g . . Genova . Lausanno . Heuchdtel . Zurich . , . Total . PROFESSORS AND STUDENTS. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 179 £ &£ K3 ® 326 Na¬ tives. 431 II oar¬ ers. 473 Special¬ ists. I S A ^ o Agri¬ cul¬ ture. S Fores¬ try. £ i 1 §| • os 1 Ph £4 ills e 3 O r- « 129 Me¬ chan¬ ical en¬ gineer¬ ing. 1 ‘§>e! ci 198 Archi¬ tec¬ ture. 3 | s=lli| SJ1 !*J 757 | 135 H t1 Assist¬ ants. 3 1 1 i §!?■§?« >§aeui t- 3 If 2 °SP ^ © 180 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Foreigners in Universities and other Higher Institutions of Learning in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, Summer of 1895. The statistics offered in the following tables are taken from official statements furnished by the rectors of the various institutions men¬ tioned. They are here reproduced from the Academische Revue of March, 1896. A glance at the totals shows that the number of foreign¬ ers studying in Germany is not inconsiderable. It must be borne in mind, however, that the numbers given represent only those of matric¬ ulated students, for those are the only ones who can be considered in official reports. The number of those who visit German institutions as hearers for some length of time, and without being matriculated attend clinics, work in laboratories, and listen to private lectures, is very large, but can not be stated with accuracy. It is estimated that that number exceeds those of matriculated' foreigners. In the summer of 1895 the universities and other institutions of learning in Germany had upon their rolls the names of 3,362 foreigners. That is, in comparison to the total number of matriculated students, equal to 8.48 per cent. Of these 3,362 foreigners the universities proper had 2,015 (7 per cent), the polytechnica 1,041 (13.1 per cent), the veterinary schools 15 (1.53 per cent), the agricultural academies 101 (9.37 per cent), the forestry acade¬ mies 58 (18.6 per cent), and the mining academies 132 (32.4 per cent). Of the 3,362 foreigners there were 966 Russians, 514 Americans, 467 Austrians and Hungarians, 346 Swiss, 180 Englishmen, 158 Hollanders, 142 Bulgarians, 116 Swedes and Norwegians, 82 Roumanians, 69 Ital¬ ians, 57 Asiatics, 53 Frenchmen, 37 Servians, 36 Belgians, 36 Turks, 27 Greeks, 26 Hanes, 22 Africans, 14 Australians, 8 Spaniards, 4 Por¬ tuguese, and 2 Montenegrins. In the Austrian universities and other institutions there were matric¬ ulated 1,106 foreigners in the summer of 1895 among a total of 18,031 students, or 6.14 per cent. Of these 1,106 foreigners there were 987 (6,58 per cent) students of universities, the polytechnica had 84 (3.1 per cent), the mining academies 16 (7 per cent), and the agricultural academy in Vienna had 19 (7.66 per cent). The 1,106 foreigners con¬ sisted of 239 Germans, 236 Russians, 115 Servians, 111 Italians, 106 Americans, 76 Roumanians, 71 Bulgarians, 33 Turks, 31 Englishmen, 25 Swiss, 11 Greeks, 10 Frenchmen, 9 Hollanders, 9 Swedes and Norwegians, 8 Africans, 6 Belgians, 6 Asiatics, 3 Spaniards, and 1 Montenegrian. The Swiss higher seats of learning matriculated no less than 1,667 foreigners among a total of 3,908 students. The percentage of foreign¬ ers here was 42.6. The universities alone enrolled 1,341, or 42.2 per cent, and the polytechnical school in Zurich 326, or 43 per cent, of a total number of the matriculated students. Of the 1,667 foreigners Germany had sent 549, Russia 399, Austria-Hungary 143, Bulgaria 137, EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 181 Koumania 86, Italy 68, America 65, France 63, Asia 26, Holland 25, Turkey 22, England 20, Greece 19, Servia 17, Sweden and Norway 15, Denmark 5, Belgium 3, Portugal 2, Africa 2, Spain 1. From these summaries it is seen that as far as attendance of foreign¬ ers is concerned, Switzerland ranks first with 42.6 per-cent of the total number, then follows Germany with 8.48 per cent, and lastly Austria with 6.14 per cent. This does not, as has been said before, include the so-called free lances who attend these higher seats of learning only for a time and who, being without proper preparation, can not matriculate, hence can not be counted as students by the officers of the institutions. They have, as a matter of self- evidence, most of the privileges of the students by becoming the private students of renowned professors, have access to the libraries, laboratories, eximrimental stations, and other accessories which are open to those who can pay the fees. In Germany it is the mining academies which are, comparatively, attended most frequently by foreigners (32.4 per cent), and the veterinary schools are attended least by foreigners (1.53 per cent). The proportion of for¬ eigners in German universities has risen from 5.16 per cent in the year 1880 to 8.48 per cent in 1895. In Austria the school of agriculture in Vienna has the greatest proportion of foreigners, namely, 7.66 per cent, while the polytechnica have only 3.1 per cent. In Switzerland univer¬ sities and the polytechnica! school are attended by foreigners at about an equal ratio. We give the tables in full as found in the Academische Revue. . UNIVERSITIES. 182 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. •sjugp njs pa^B[noij;uni x^jox •sjaaSioaoj xbjox ■bixbjjshy •Bisy •Boiagray •Boijjy •i£83[jnx •UTBdg •piIBIJOZ^TAVg *BTAJ9g '^BAVJOJsi; pnu U9p9AYg •Bissrvg; •BiuBraao^; •X^Sn^Joj •ajbS -nn.g-uiJ4sny •epuBXJaxilON; •ojS9U9juoj'j[ •pPBXSuX •9098J£) •gOUBJ^J •3X.IBPIU9CI •BiJBSxng: •raniSxQa; ir5C000'<#iMt>I>t>C-C}^'^-^O;(MCO C« 'HHHQHH • O CO INHH • 1 • • ■ rg ■ fcJQ | ^ flbD,§rg ; © ; : S ■ m 1 ^ j h 4X)sJuss'l-2s M • r* C3 P (D d 03 .£ C3 P ^ A rO CO-r^q-) r-H d P go ^ co fl O © o u u u i* •? :o ^ vjj CO O id O CQ 00 CO 00 1 I b- O ! I : i • i « a | • ■ CQ • • i * 1 § . . cq • 1 • 1 s 8 H : § -og«o o 5 •HHO s : : -1 12 t- O b- 5 O O O r-i 8 : : : : NOXO £ OS»N c7 : i40 i CO • j *— i Cl 12 O i | ; 3 eo Tjf t>- : : 00 1358 1 CD EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 183 rl O H b* H 15 - : rH •^HH | o (M 1 - rH iH 21 rH i2 • ■ ' ggggss l iisi 8 ill! §gg 405 9 30 93 | H H CO 12 • ^ OC Cl O CO 12 00 ; * ; ? : - - “41 47 s - : - CJ CO CO 3 i2 • \2 CO H O(MC0i — I JO CO 05 P4H I. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND MINING ACADEMIES. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 185 i> ^ in o h- s t> •sjuap -njs pa^'B^uou^Bui p?jox ^-OMCt- O •n m •» ri , •SJ0HSt9JOJ IT5JOX •BtjBJjsnY © o © u c si -t-j •BISY : :&*> Is I •BOIJ0TTIY Ln :: w ^ h x 1 ^ 1 ^ •BOtJXY - • : CM •jC95[Anx cm c- -• s •medg •BiAjag CM cc • s ' ABAVJO N rk, and Albert Barnes and Theodore Clapp, both clergymen of great public influence in the Middle ' and Southern States, were of the number. It is doubtful if any American college everr sent forth a larger number of influential men in public and professional lifo than Union during the sixty-two years7 presidency of Dr. Nott. In Governor William H. Seward and in John C. Spencer, secretary of state and superintendent of schools, he gave to Hew York the most important agents in the organization of the present common school system of the Commonwealth. EMMA WILLARD. While the great work of Dr. Nott was going on at Union College, Schenectady, another enterprise, fraught with equally decisive results in the State of New Y’ork and the nation, was inaugurated at the new city of Troy, 20 miles to the east, on the opposite side of the Hudson from Albany. This was the establishment, in 1820, of the Troy .Female Seminary, under the lead of Mrs. Emma Willard, with the cooperation of her husband, Dr. John Willard. Although but 5 miles from the capital, Troy was, in more than one respect, half a century away from its neighboring city of Albany. The latter was the center of the solid conservatism of the ancient Dutch regime; a rural capital city, where the active end of society revolved about the yearly meeting of the legislature and the residence of the State officials; a city that, until the advent of Dr. Nott and his new Presbyterian Church, had failed even to provide sufficiently for the schooling of the children of its superior families, to say nothing of its neglect, until 1850, of any substantial arrangement for the education of the masses of its people. It would have been impossible for Union College or the school of Mrs. Willard to have become the characteristic institutions they were if located at Albany, even as late as 1820. Dr. Nott wisely planted himself on the frontier of civilization, at Schenectady, as a point “out W'est.” Mrs. Willard, after the usual discouraging experience with New York legislators of that period, left the little village of Waterford, where for two years she had supported a school, and accepted the offer of Troy to furnish a $5,000 schoolhouse with a public gift of $4,000 and private subscriptions, that in this new city, practically a New England colony on the Hudson, her great experiment might be tried for the higher education of American girls. As in the case of Dr. Nott and so many of the educational agitators and actors of this period of educational transition in New l"ork, Emma Hart was a New England girl, straight out of the center of Yankeedom. She was born at Berlin, Conn., in 1787, the year when Manassah Cutler, of Connecticut and Massachusetts, was manipulating the congress of the confederation in behalf of the magnificent gift of the national public lands to the New Northwest, which gave this empire beyond the Alleghanies the first great lift toward its proud elevation of public education, to-day its best claim to the admiration of the world. She was the sixteenth of her father’s seventeen children, the youngest being Almira, afterwards Mrs. Lincoln Phelps, who, in her day and place, was the true 11 other half” of this pair of great EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 241 Connecticut girls. Slie came of good stock. Her mother, a second wife and the parent of ten of the seventeen children, was one of those devoted, thoughtful, per¬ sistent women who seem horn to refresh the generations hy the gift of great daugh¬ ters and sons. While yet little children, Emma and an older sister were sent out every year, at the time of carding and sorting the wool of which the family clothing was made, to scatter the remnants for which there was no home use on the hushes that the birds might gather them up to huild their nests — a beautiful prophecy of the big nest for the shelter and training of American girls built by Emma forty years later at Troy. Her father was one of that class of religionists who, even at that early day, revolted with all his heart and soul and strength from the terrible theology and ironclad bigotry of the old Puritan creed and social order. Being compelled, as an official act by his position in the church, to prosecute two men who refused to pay the regulation parish tax to support a church in which they did not believe, he did his duty — paid the tax himself, took the men out of jail, and “ freed his conscience” by leaving the church, into which he could not be coaxed again until the day of his death. It was out of such a combination of deep religious mother faith and love for all God’s creatures and the father’s defiant courage in “.forcing the fight” of dissent that the character of this most womanly of women, most courageous and capable of educational reformers, was all compact. Her education until the age of 15 was obtained from her parents, with the aid of the ordinary district school of the day. After 15 she spent two years with Dr. Miner, where she studied hard to keep ahead of her examinations, even wrapping herself in a big overcoat and sitting on a horse block in her father’s woodshed to study her lessons while the home resounded with the racket and roof-splitting fun of a young people’s party within. At the age of 17 she was urged to open a school for young children in her native village. The forenoon of the first day was spent in the vain attempt to bring her crowd of incorrigible youngsters into any condi¬ tion of obedience or attention to the orders of the young schoolmistress. At the noon recess she supplied herself with a bundle of stout rods and spent the whole afternoon in administering a sound thrashing to every member of the school. After¬ wards that particular school understood that “ order is Heaven’s first law.” At the close of the term her reputation as a teacher was established at home and “through the region ’round about.” From this experience she turned again to her own schooling, and spent two years at Hartford, Conn., in two of the best schools of the town, with tuition at “two and six¬ pence and board at 12 shillings a week.” This was the end of her school life, although she remained a persistent student until the end of her life at the age of 83. She returned to teach the academy at Berlin, from which she was soon invited to attract¬ ive positions in three States. She lingered at the old academy at Wes.tfield, Mass., a few months on her way to her final New England work at Middlebury, Yt. Here she established a school for girls which soon made itself felt in such fashion that the great dons of Middlebury College condescended to attend its examinations and com¬ mencements and warmly praised the young schoolmistress, with the qualification that “it would be altogether irregular for her and her girls to be seen on similar occasions at the college.” But already this bright young maiden had “taken the measure” of the college itself, and asked herself the decisive question that nobody but a wise and brave woman can answer, Why can not the girls of America be admittted inside the iron gate through which their brothers pass into the enchanted land of the higher education? Happily for her and the cause she so magnificently represented for half a century, she was now turned aside into the “green pastures and still waters” of a happy marriage, and for five years, until the age of 30, lived as the wife of Dr. John Willard, a physician by profession, then a high official of the State and an enthusi¬ astic political follower of Thomas Jefferson, whose educational ideas he had also accepted. The loss of his political office and financial reverses were the guiding hand of Providence to lead the young wife back to her own great vocation as the 242 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-9G. pioneer of a superior education for young women, especially of the great world beyond the Berkshire Hills. It would be an untold advantage if the “lady prin¬ cipal” of the American female seminary could always, like Emma Willard, come to her work with a personal knowledge of the common schools of the people and a teacher’s experience in every grade of elementary and secondary school, crowned by a few years of a successful and happy marriage. The launching of thousands of young American girls, with only the experience of a few years spent as pupils in an exclusive female seminary, even ignorant of the common routine of homo life, doubly oblivious of the nature and habits of children, not even aware there is such a science and art as pedagogics, into the most responsible posts of instruction, often the principalship of a large school for young women, is one of the least hopeful edu¬ cational signs of the times. When, in 1814, at the age of 27, furnished with that experience of life which to such a woman includes the best in the highest schooling, Emma Willard stepped forward in the reestablishment of her model school at Mid- dlebury, Yt., she knew just what she wanted to do. With the hearty cooperation of her husband, who managed the practical details of the enterprise, she succeeded in bringing 70 girls about her, and up in the highlands of Vermont began to draw to herself the daughters of the most influential people of the neighboring State of New York. * She early recognized the absolute importance, in every enterprise of education, of keeping herself and her cause before the people. She had no respect for the absurd attitude of exclusiveness and overstrained public reserve by which a class of schools for American girls seeks the patronage of the peculiar type of families whose ambition seems to be to educate their daughters “under glass.” Emma Wil¬ lard was a woman of the people, not in the vulgar sense of being an educational dema¬ gogue, appealing to the false pride and cheap ambition of the great crowd whose desire is to clutch the prize of high position and eminent success without the labor by which no real place in American society can be secured and retained. But she stepped forth at once as a superior woman, sure of her own position, knowing what she would do, claiming by her right as the representative of thousands of young American women to demand the approval and cooperation of the most influential men and women of the time. While yet at Middlebury she began that habit of cor¬ respondence with the most distinguished public men of the time which was so large an element in her future success. She wrote to President Monroe, Chancellor Kent, and other less celebrated but influential gentlemen in New York, unfolding her plans through her letters and a prospectus of a college for girls, carefully prepared by herself, and such as had not until that time been addressed to the educational public of the nation. It may be remarked that this was seven years before the city of Boston had attempted to establish its free high school for girls, which after a brief existence was abolished and waited a generation for its resurrection. There were already a few schools for girls in New England, and fewer still in the Middle and Southern States, where the claims of a thorough and extended system of education were acknowledged. But these were generally of an exclusive type, accessible chiefly to the daughters of the educated and well-to-do families of the leading cities. Mary Lyon had not yet gone forth in Massachusetts on her great work of making the secondary education so cheap that the girls of the poorer class of farmers and mechanics could “ work their way ” up to an educational outfit for good service in the school and church. Mrs. Willard’s eye was upon the whole country. She realized that New England could safely bo left to make its own way to the best results, while the great new world opening beyond the Hudson and the old States extending down the Atlantic Coast was the most inviting field in which to plant an institution of national proportions. She first made a lodgment in Waterford, a suburban -village of Albany and Troy, invited by a few families whose daughters had attended her Vermont school. She at once attracted the attention of Governor De Witt Clinton, the foremost public man that had yet appeared in the State government of New York, the obstinate and EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 243 intelligent friend of education in all its relations to a superior Common wealth. By his approval, through his messages to the legislature and the assistance of a group of the foremost men then gathered about the. capital, she obtained a charter for her school in "Waterford, under tho patronage, such as it was, of the board of regents, with the expectation of being admitted to the distribution of the small annual income of the literary fund. Her application for an appropriation and endowment by the State, similar to that by which Union College had been lifted from the obscur¬ ity of a small village academy to a position among tho great colleges of tho country, after two years of alternate hope and disappointment, fell to the ground, although backed by the great influence of the governor and other powerful friends. Already the persistent opposition of the denominational academy and college, which has always been one of the serious drawbacks of popular education in the States beyond the Hudson, was felt in the influence that defeated the movement which would have made the Mary Willard Seminary the Yassar College of New York half a century before its establishment at Poughkeepsie. Convinced that she had mistaken the source of patronage and material aid in dealing with tho legislature, and with a decided sense of disillusion in her enthusiastic and reverent estimate of the “ fathers of the State,” she turned in 1820 to the offer of the young and progress¬ ive city of Troy, then and for many years after one of the most energetic and intel¬ ligent of the new American towns. The city corporation raised $1,000 by tax. Another fund was raised by subscription. A brick building 60 by 40 feet, three stories above the basement, was erected in the very heart of the town. The building was rented to Dr. Willard by the city government, and in 1821 the beginning was made of the most celebrated school for girls that had been hitherto known in the New World, and according to eminent authorities no school of equal influence was then known in Europe. Her model school was now a fact, housed in a spacious building in the heart of a progressive and friendly community, in the best possible situation to cover the entire space of the old Atlantic and new Western school public. But this was only the material beginning of the new education that was to be the living soul of the institution. She showed her wisdom by discarding the name “ college,” under which so many inferior schools were already masquerading before a credulous public, and then and always was the “principal of the Troy Female Seminary.” Her leading teachers were largely from the class of young women she had already educated, and her younger sister, now a young widow and an accomplished woman, for nine years was her alter ego in the practical work of the seminary. She decided at once that while the general education in a way more exhaustive and thorough than had hith¬ erto been known was an important need of American girls as an outfit for home and social life, this could never be achieved until a superior race of women teachers was educated to take the places of the class of brokendown females, second-rate “masters,” and inferior instructors who were established as the principals and man¬ agers of the regulation “female college.” Her seminary at once became the great normal school for the training of young women for the office of teaching their own sex; the first great school that began and continued through its long and splendid career with this intention at its heart. To accomplish this it was necessary that a system of student aid should be inau¬ gurated, whereby a large class of superior young women, unable to incur the expense of $500 a year, could enjoy the opportunities of the institution. This she took in hand as her own vocation, and by a system of loans to her pupils, not half of which could ever be repaid, she expended $75,000 during the years of her principalship, one of the most reliable contributions to the education of woman that had been made at this period of American history. Then came up the great necessity of the improvement of text-books suitable for the education of young women. She at once determined on a class of manuals higher than those used in the ordinary public schools, to make science, philosophy, and the structure and literature of the language a prominent feature in the curriculum. This 244 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. necessitated the making of suitable books of instruction. Her attention was first called to the study of geography, which had been only recently admitted into the course of study in any class of school^. Beginning with the fundamental proposi¬ tion, “ However well it may be for a man to have a good knowledge of geography, yet it is better for him to have a sound judgment and a well-established intellect,” she called to her aid Mr. William C. Woodbridge, of Connecticut, the foremost prac¬ tical American geographer of his day, and in 1821 published the first American geography that proposed the instruction of that science by appeal to the eye through maps and charts and the accumulation of material in portable shape to be carried in the memory. In this career, as the author of a series of schoolbooks, with several volumes of history and science, including the famous Temple of Fame, a valuable chart of universal history, she persisted during her life. Her text-books at the time were a great step in advance, had a circulation of 1,000,000 copies, and were only superseded by others made in the light of past experience in the expanding move¬ ments of instruction. She was also a prolific author of articles and public addresses, often of great value, especially to the home and social life of American society. Her habit of correspondence with distinguished people in all departments of activity was continued till her death. She wrote a model hand, and was in the best sense a woman of the world — beautiful, accomplished, high principled, and tactful; but with all her womanly and social attainments concentrated on one supreme interest — the eleva¬ tion of American young womanhood by the lever of an improved system of education of a genuine American type. Another and most important step was taken in her refusal to organize her school on the regulation denominational religious platform. Her father’s experience had long since made of the daughter at once a most devout and loyal member of a Chris¬ tian church, a thorough hater of bigotry, and a dissenter from the ordinary ideas of denominational partisanship. Her letter to Rev. Dr. Beaman, then the head of the Albany Protestant pulpit, declining his offer to assume the office of religious instructor and pastoral guide to her seminary, and outlining her own ideal of religious instruc¬ tion in a girl’s college, is still excellent reading, and at that day must have exerted a great influence in high educational quarters. Her plan was to leave her girls free to attend the church of their own choice and derive from their pastors such spiritual aid and comfort as might be desired. But she assumed the responsibility of giving a course of instruction in the fundamentals of natural and revealed religion, being careful to stop at the point where the different Christian sects divide.” In a letter to Catherine E. Beecher, of Hartford, Conn., in 1829, she outlined her idea on the rising question of the generation, “ woman’s rights,” bnt conservative in thought, she was ever mindful of the fact that her own seminary was a nursery of the great idea of the progress of American womanhood toward the goal of equal influence in Ameri¬ can life, which is now the note of the higher society of the Republic. It is not remarkable that a school organized on this principle at once assumed a leadership in American education. Her pupils were largely drawn from the most influential families of the whole country and from the remarkable class of able and accomplished girls who sought their outfit for a career of usefulness. The pecuniary outcome of the institution and the liberality of her jiatrons placed her above the necessity of that demoralizing yearly hunt for pupils that so degrades, especially a seminary for girls. In 1825 her husband died, and, with the help of her younger sister, already a distinguished teacher and author of text-books and afterwards the principal of excellent schools in Pennsylvania and Maryland, she assumed the entire control of the enterprise with eminent success, until she delivered it into the hands of her son and his wife, Mr. and Mrs. John Willard, in 1838, at the end of a career of unexampled prosperity. After the unhappy experience of an unfortunate marriage, from which she disentangled herself with the resolution and common sense conspicu¬ ous in all her undertakings, she established herself as a resident in the school grounds of her beloved seminary at Troy and gave herself to a life of beneficent activity. She was greatly interested in the establishment of a school for girls in Greece. She was EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 245 active in tlie nsual charitable and missionary enterprises of the day. On several visits to Europe she made the acquaintance of many eminent people, and was heartily appreciated in the highest educational circles, being the especial friend of Maria Edgeworth and the Marquis de Lafayette. But she did not leave this world until she had crowned her long and admirable success by several years of valuable labor in the cause of common school education. The closing years of her seminary life, from 1820 to 1854, covered the central period in the development of the people’s common school, which is the subject of this portion of our essay. Under circumstances so painful that many a noble-hearted woman would have fallen into despair, she found in Dr. Henry Barnard a friend and comforter. At 50 years of age she returned to her native town, and for a year, under the instruction and oversight of this great apostle of the new education, the superintendent of public schools in Connecticut, labored as a model superintendent of common schools in Ken¬ sington, a district of Berlin, with such eminent success that these four country schools became a model for the State, and nothing but the popular reaction that threw Dr. Barnard out of his position and the State back for a brief time upon the failure of the past generation prevented her from leading in the establishment of the first normal school of the State. Returning to Troy, she became at once interested in the important movement in public instruction in the State by which the system of county superintendents had taken the place of the inefficient management of the boards of township commissioners complicated with district trusteeship. She began a series of extended journeys through the rural districts of the State, in which she visited several of the more important counties, addressed great bodies of teachers and peo¬ ple, attended large educational conventions, and in all ways illustrated what may be done at a critical period of the school life of a community by a ministry of education which includes all the elements of a Christian civilization in its comprehensive scope. Her last years were signalized by a patriotic and most Christian effort to stay the rising tide of civil war in 1860. Relying greatly on her personal influence, not real¬ izing fully that the country had come to the parting of the ways, where the final des¬ tiny of the people, in the language of Abraham Lincoln, was to be “ all free or all slave,” she went to "Washington with a memorial signed by 4,000 American women in her hands, which was presented to the Senate by the distinguished Senator Crit. tenden, of Kentucky, and by Governor Graham, of North Carolina, to the House of Representatives. But while this patriotic plea for peace and brotherhood failed of effect and was subjected to the natural misapprehension of some of the most dis¬ tinguished statesmen of both sections, it was in itself an indirect testimony to the peril of the neglect of universal education through vast regions of the country, which it has been our duty to record as a part of the educational history of the colo¬ nial and early national period. Had the wise and earnest warnings of all the great fathers of the Republic — Washington, Jefferson, Franklin, Adams, Marshall, and Cutler — been followed by the early establishment of an efficient system of education, reaching from the country district school to the State university, and had the higher education of the old thirteen States been developed on the broad and practical lines of advance of which Union College was the most successful experiment, this dire calamity of the greatest civil war of modern times would have been averted and the national curse of negro slavery would have been abolished through the peaceful methods of public life, to the satisfaction of all reasonable people in all portions of the Union. But, repelled in her effort for the arrest of hostilities, Mrs. Willard fell at once into her own place as a most intense and patriotic supporter of the Union cause, as far as her advanced age and afflictions would permit. She died in 1870, at the age of 83, her life having been consecrated for sixty-six years, from the age of 17, to the grand ministry of education. It is doubtful whether any woman in American life has lived out her career in a way more womanly, with such profit to so many young women, with such an amplitude of influence ranging through all departments of society. Her pupils had beer numbered by the thousand. Her text-books had been used by 246 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. multitudes of tlie most influential teachers in tlio country. Her labors for common schools were appreciated not only in two States but known all over the land. Her seminary became the model for many schools, and her teachers carried her plans and the spirit of her instruction to every State in the Union. Emma Willard doubtless had her limitations and weaknesses, like all who live on the high plane of human estimation. But when we met her for the first time, in 1860, still as enthusiastic as a young schoolmistress, in attendance on the annual examina¬ tion of the Troy Female Seminary, we felt that it would be many a year before the country “would look upon her like again.” At the death of her son and his wife the school was suspended. But its site has been adorned by a memorial statue and building in the city she served so faithfully, erected by the children and descendants of the mothers who sat under her powerful and inspiring administration of the educa¬ tion that educates, in the noble foundation that has just been laid for the Emma Willard College on the site of the famous Troy Seminary. Meanwhile, as the period of the great national revival of the common school approached its inauguration in 1830-1840, the half-conscious premonition of the people for great impending events, always evident to the careful observer of American life, was more than evident in New York. The settlement of western New York, prac¬ tically the first 11 Great West” to the people of New England, was being rapidly stim¬ ulated by the coming of steam navigation and the building of the Erie Canal. It was a prophetic instinct of his future that sent young William H. Seward from his home in Florida, Orange County, on the Hudson, first to Union College and after¬ wards to Auburn, then a new village on the extreme frontier, as his place of abode. The new population of the State west of Schenectady was largely of New England origin, who brought to their beautiful new homes the peculiar habit of “ spreading themselves” and u stirring up things” — chief among all things the opportunity for the education of the whole people. We have seen that a memorial from the new city of Rochester had already made a stir in the legislature. The educational journal of Francis Dwight, printed first in one of the western towns of the State, had awakened an interest. The great influence of James Wadsworth in the establishment of dis¬ trict school libraries and generally in the advocacy of popular schools was a power¬ ful addition to the movement. The interesting experiment of the “public school society” in the chief city of New York had demonstrated two things: (1) That the people of that metropolis would demand a system of popular education free from ecclesiastical direction; (2) That it was becoming apparent that no private organ¬ ization, however respectable and above suspicion of sinister motive, could con¬ tinue to handle the educational affairs of a great city. The association met its death¬ blow in the great debate on “Religion in the common schools,” precipitated by Archbishop Hughes in the interest of subsidizing the parochial schools of his church. The outcome of this able discussion was that, while the vast majority of the people indorsed the conclusions of the opponents of this scheme, their own argument would upset any private organization in its attempt to make the State tributary to its plan of the education of the masses. The way was thus paved for the dissolution of the public school society and its absorption into the common school board of the city. In the vote in 1851 on the acceptance of a free-school system by the State, the favorable majorities in the cities of New York and Albany were the most decisive in the Commonwealth ; indeed, with a few smaller cities, constituted the entire majority. The endeavor to subsidize the academies for the training of teachers for the com¬ mon schools, although a disappointment to the friends of public education, kept alive the conviction that the teaching force of the State must be improved and that only the people in their primary function of founder, supporter, and supervisor of public education was competent for its success. In 1836 could be seen a group of important schools that were making the capital city, Albany, the most important center of education for a generation to come. Among the admirable public men whose careers make it easy to believe all that may be affirmed of the influence of the original emigration from Holland in the making EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 247 of tlie Empire State was Stephen Van Rensselaer, of the great family whose posses¬ sions included a good part of the three counties of Albany, Rensselaer, and Columbia. Born in affluence and connected by marriage with tho most conservative, social, and political class in tho Commonwealth, he was in fact one of the most liberal and far- seeing of the statesmen of his day. He was a member of the legislature and Con¬ gress; lieutenant-governor and candidate for governor of the State; one of the original commissioners of the Erie Canal, and an associate with De Witt Clinton in that important enterprise. He was the foremost and most important member of the State Agricultural Society and the promoter of the first geological survey of tho eastern portion of the State. At the opening of the Erie Canal he sent an eminent popular lecturer on a tour of its entire extent to wake up an interest in natural science by free addresses, illustrated with apparatus and instructions for the collec¬ tion of cabinets. In 1826 he projected the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, with the hope of support from the legislature. Defeated in this, like Mrs. Willard, he supported this important school of the high industrial scientific type largely at his own expense for fourteen years. This concentration of schools of the secondary and higher education around the capital city, Union College, the Rensselaer School of Technology, and Mrs. Willard’s seminary at Troy, with the Albany male and female academies, was making Albany the most important educational center of the State. The growing interest in his¬ torical literature shown by the increasing importance of the State library, under the directorship of Dr. Homes, one of the most valuable collections for the use of a public man in the country, tho establishment of the medical and law departments of the projected State university, the foundation of the geological and other scientific surveys of the State illustrated by the fine collections in Geological Hall, the annual gathering in the city of the most accomplished and influential body of people around the legislature, the appearance on the field of politics of a younger generation of public men, Thurlow Weed, and the famous group that followed the fortunes of William H. Seward, reinforced later by Horace Greeley and Henry J. Raymond, representing the rising power of the new metropolitan journalism, itself almost a department of the common school, the rise of the corresponding agency, the popu¬ lar lecture that culminated in the period of the great civil war, the appearance in Albany of a remarkable group of young artists, Page, the Harts, Palmer, Boughton, Thompson, and others, the great influence of the large body of capable political speakers in which New York then surpassed all States and sections of the Union — all these developments of a broad culture were prophetic of a revival of the people's common school as the corner stone on which the fabric of the secondary, higher, and all true education must rely for its permanent foundation. Tho board of regents still held on at tho capital city a respectable, almost vener¬ able, testimonial in behalf of what should be attempted by the Commonwealth. And, finally, the great uprising in the East in favor of popular education, responded to by the corresponding revival in the new Northwest, was calling as with a thousand voices to the Empire State to add to all its previous honors the crowning distinction of the leadership of the American people in a new organization and administration of the American common school. NEW JERSEY. A popular historian of New Jersey prefaces the first chapter of his elaborate account of the schools of the State by the flattering announcement: “From the first, New Jersey was in advance of every American State in education.” The record of the educational achievement of this colony previous to the Revolutionary epoch already made in a previous essay will explain the significance of this remark and illustrate the patriotic intention of the average local American historian to mag¬ nify his own beloved Commonwealth at the expense of its neighbors. In one respect it may possibly be said that New Jersey, from the first, was in advance of 248 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. all other of the American States. This was in the persistence with which the eccle¬ siastical idea of the sectarian parochial schools was kept before the people by the leading clergy and the churches of every religious body for more than two hundred years. The history of education in New Jersey, among the older colonies, in one respect is almost an anticipation of the record of the State of Indiana in the new Northwest. In both these important States the American common school fought its way up to its complete establishment against the intense and persistent opposition of a hostile party composed of the most influential classes of the Commonwealth. In Indiana the conflict was greatly complicated for a term of years by the efforts to establish negro slavery as a permanent institution, although the jealousy of the Southern religious leaders was an important feature in the contest. But in New Jersey there was a long delay of two hundred and fifty years in securing the possession of a system of free common schools for the masses of the people, which brings us down to the year 1871. We have already seen how at once on the settlement of the colony in 1638 the Dutch, Swedish, and afterwards the Quaker settlers established, in connection with each of the churches, a school of the sect, though in many of the communities the people relied on the clergy for the secular schooling of their children. We have also seen how absolutely inefficient was this method of overcoming the illiteracy which, in the early period of colonization, was the most dangerous foe of civilization, and how abortive were the efforts of the people, up to the era of the Revolution, to obtain a good working system of instruction outside the limits of sectarian domi¬ nation. We have also borne testimony to the praiseworthy efforts of the Presbyte¬ rian people in the establishment of the College of New Jersey and the building up of several important academic schools, as well as the extended influence through the Southern colonies of eminent educators sent from Princeton to the headquarters of the Southern higher education. The statement that the appropriation of an island opposite the present city of Burlington, N. J., for educational purposes in 1683 was the first school fund in America, is disposed of by the fact that in every American colony from the first similar appropriations for local purposes were constantly being made. The permissive law passed by the colonial legislature in 1693 has also been shown to have been practically of no avail. The same influence that persisted until 1838 against the founding of a public school system and, even until 1850, left the common school in a state that exposed it to the contempt of its friends, could be trusted to nullify the success of any permissive scheme of public schooling. Indeed, until 1838 the entire school legislation of the State was retarded by the provision which required that the State moneys distributed to the towns should be expended only for the elementary schooling of children of paupers' and the poorer class of the people. The first constitution of the State, established in 1787, when the new Common¬ wealth had a population of 184,000, made no mention of education. The first step to establish a permanent State school fund was made in 1816, when the sum of $15,000 was appropriated for that purpose. In 1817 this was raised to $114,000. In 1820 “the first general act to authorize towns to raise money for the support of schools ” was passed in the form of a statute that remained in force till 1838, to tax the public to educate the children of paupers and poor people. In 1824 the legislature provided that one-tenth of all State taxes should go to the increase of the school fund. In 1828 the people of the towns were authorized to raise money in town meeting for the building of schoolhouses. In the same year, 1828, the friends of an efficient school system seem to have made their first impor¬ tant demonstration. A committee of education appointed a “central committee” to work in connection with local committees to canvas the State and collect statis¬ tics of general educational import. The result was another demonstration, if such were needed, of the inability of any system of parochial schools either to furnish the means of education or to persuade the people to avail themselves of what was on EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 249 the ground. It was found that more than one-third the children of the State were in no school. Some of the counties in their reports showed an advanced spirit. Essex advised the establishment of a State normal school. The same result of the sectarian system had been reached in New York and Pennsylvania. After a two hundred years’ experiment in the city of New York it was found in 1S05 that a large proportion of the children of the city were not in the denominational schools, and the famous Public School Society was established by an association of the most distinguished men of the city to meet this crying need. This association, the most important and unselfish of all the private combinations to support public education ever formed in our country, went to its destruction on the same reef of denominational jealousy. The same contention of sects delayed the coming of the common school in the great and wealthy State of Pennsylvania until a period later than the educational revival in New England in 1830-1840. The fact, always ignored or contradicted in the plan of the advocates of this method of supporting universal education in this Republic, is that, like many other things passably good in their day and generation, this is a method that can only be used effectively under the union of state and church. All its proposed modifications in our country lead the community to the old notion that the State shall take cogni¬ zance of the different religious sects and either stand behind one exclusively, as in the mediaeval days, or, as in Great Britain at the present time, divide its bounty among a large number, or, as now proposed here, extend a subsidizing charity to all. But when “the people of the United States” in the organization of their General Government distinctly ignored and rejected all connection with ecclesiastical affairs, and when the people of almost every State placed a similar clause in their constitu¬ tion, the deathblow was given to this system of public education. All attempts to introduce it during the past one hundred years by indirection, as in Connecticut and New Jersey, and in local and city systems of schools, have been in open defiance of the fundamental American idea that no distinctions of religious creed or polity shall be recognized by the State or nation . It was not remarkable that a body of colonists, trained in the imitation of the ideas of the Europe of three centuries ago, should use all the machinery of their powerful church systems to influence State and city gov¬ ernments to evade or override the express will of the people ; but although the con¬ test may be prolonged, as it was till 1838 in New Jersey, the final result will always be the same. In this State, once relieved from this system, the people took the field, and since the civil war have placed New Jersey among the foremost of all States in the most ample provisions for the schooling of the masses, while her colleges, acad¬ emies, professional and scientific schools, rank high iu the general record of the whole country. The startling revelations of the “central committee” of 1828 resulted in the inaug¬ uration of what has been styled “ the first comprehensive and practical school legis¬ lation” in the State. The school law of 1829 contained some important provisions, though still clinging to the mischievous idea that free education is only to be offered as a public charity to pauperism and poverty. It included: (1) A provision for an annual State appropriation of $20,000, to be divide among the towns in proportion to their tax valuation; (2) a body of town school commissioners, empowered to dis¬ trict the town for such purpose, examine teachers, inspect the schools, and report annually on their quality; (3) an election of school trustees in each district, who were authorized to provide schoolhouses and take the full control of schools ; (4) the school age was fixed at 4 to 16, as a guide in the local distribution of State school funds. But as in all similar contentions between the mass of the people and the powerful organized party of its opponents, the inevitable results came. In 1831 the ecclesi¬ astical forces captured the legislature and swept from the statute book every pro¬ vision for a practical common school system. By this law the State funds were to be paid not to the trustees of school districts, but directly to all sorts of schools in session in the town, including, of course, private and church institutions. The 250 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. school district lines were abolished, and teachers were no longer required to submit to examination by any public board. Here was proposed the most complete surrender of a State government to the demands of the ecclesiastical j>ower on record by any American Commonwealth since the inauguration of the National Government. And it is important to note the fact that this demand was not confined to one church, but represented practically a com¬ bination of all church organizations. In fact, the Catholic Church in our country has suffered the unjust imputation of being the sole opponent of the American com¬ mon school. Until a period not forty years ago the same attitude toward the system of public instruction was taken by a powerful section of the clergy and leading- laity of every influential church. It is noticeable how, through the free and seem¬ ingly helpless effort of the masses of the American people during a period of almost three centuries, our favored land has been fully delivered from this system. This fact should be a significant warning to all — that, whatever temporary success may attend such efforts as these, the movement will go the way of all previous efforts of similar character, and the end will come more speedily with every advancing decade of the educational life of the nation. A seven years’ endurance of this law seems to have been the final test of the patience of the people of New Jersey. On July 16, 1838, the most notable conven¬ tion of the common school public ever held in the State assembled at Trenton. Chief Justice Hornblower presided, and Bishop Doane, of the Protestant Episcopal Church, presented an address to the people that remains one of the most emphatic and convincing arguments heard during the first section of the present century. We ask no apology for presenting this memorable document in full. The State and Education. [An address to the people of New Jersey in 1838. q “Fellow-Citizens : We were appointed by the convention of your own delegates to address you on the subject of common schools. We approach you with solicitude, as deeply sensible of the great importance of the interest intrusted to us, yet, as freemen speaking to freemen, with prevailing confidence. “The points which we propose for your attention, and, if we might, would press into every heart, are few, simple, and practical; the necessary consequences, it seems to us, from principles which all admit. We say that knowledge is the uni¬ versal right of man, and we need bring no clearer demonstration than that intellec¬ tual nature, capable of it, thirsting for it, expanding and aspiring with it, which is God’s own argument in every living soul; we say that the assertion for himself of this inherent right, to the full measure of his abilities and opportunities, is the uni¬ versal duty of man, and that whoever fails of it thwarts the design of his Creator, and, in proportion as he neglects the gift, of God, dwarfs and enslaves and brutifies the high capacity for truth and liberty which he inherits. And all experience and every page of history confirm the assertion, in the close kindred which has every¬ where been proved of ignoranc^and vice with, wretchedness and slavery. And we say, further, that the security of this inherent right to every individual, and its extension, in the fullest measure, to the greatest number, is the universal interest of man; so that they who deny or abridge it to their fellows, or who encourage, or, from want of proper influence, permit them to neglect it, are undermining the foun¬ dations of government, weakening the hold of society, and preparing the way for that unsettling and dissolving of all human institutions which must result in anarchy and ruin and in which they who have the greatest stake must be the greatest sufferers. A lesson, clearly taught by that divine philosophy, in which the 1 The convention assembled in Trenton on the 27th and 28th of January, 1838, Chief Justice Horn- blower presiding. The address was prepared by the Right Rev. George W. Doane, in behalf of a com¬ mittee consisting of Bishop Doane, chairman. L. Q. C. Elmer, M. J. Rhees, T. Freilnghuyscn, J. S. Green, D. B. Ryall, A. B. Dod, A. Atwood, and S. R. Gummere. EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 251 Mater of mankind becomes tbeir teacher, reveals the world as but one neigborhood and men as brethren of one family, and writes upon all social institutions these golden truths, the fundamentals and essentials of the true political economy, which neither individuals nor nations have ever disregarded with impunity: ‘All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you do ye even so to them/ ‘None of us liveth to himself,’ ‘Whether one member suffer all the members suffer with it, or one member be honored, all the members rejoice with it/ ‘Bear ye one another’s burdens, and so fulfill the law of Christ.’ ‘•If the truth of these positions bo established their application is self-evident, and there never was a nation since the world was made in which their obligation was so clear or its airplication so important. In the theory of our Constitution the people are the governors. In practice they ought to be. And is ignorance the qual¬ ification for good government ! Would you select a man to make your laws who can not read, or one who can not write to execute them? lret the authority which they exercise and the abuses of which they are capable are nothing in comparison with theirs from whom all power proceeds, and without whose permission no wrong can be done. Fellow-citizens, we are republicans. Our country is our Common¬ wealth. We have all unequal share in her. Her laws are alike for the protection of all. Her institutions are alike for the advantage of all. Her blessings are our common privilege. Her glory is our common pride. But common privileges impose a common responsibility, and equal rights can never be disjoined from equal duties. The Constitution, which under God secures our liberties, is in the keeping of us all. It is a sacred trust whieh no man can delegate. He holds it for himself not only, but for his children, for posterity, and for the world, and he who can not read it, who does not understand its provisions, who could not on a just occasion assert its principles, no more sustains the character of an American citizen than the man who would not seal it with his blood. “It is in Amin to say that education is a private matter and that it is the duty of every parent to provide for the instruction of his own children. In theory it is so. But there are some who can not and there are more who will not make provision. And the question, then, is, Shall the State suffer from individual inability or from indi¬ vidual neglect? When the child who has not been trained up in the way in which he ought to go commits a crime against the State, the law, with iron hand, comes in between the parent and his offspring and takes charge of the offender. And shall there be provision to punish only and none to prevent? Shall the only offices in which the State is known be those of jailer and of executioner? Shall she content herself with the stem attribute of justice and discard the gentler ministries of mercy ? It was said of Draco’s laws that they were writ with blood. Is it less true of any State which makes provision for the whipping post, the penitentiary, the scaffold, and leaves the education of her children to individual effort or precarious charity? It was well said by the distinguished head of our judiciary,1 even more distinguished as the president of the late convention for common schools, ‘ The State has an interest in every child within her limits.’ May not still more than this with equal truth be said — the welfare, nay, the being, of the State is bound up in the character of every child ? Think of the blessings which Washington, and Franklin, and Fulton, and Marshall have brought down upon our land. Think of the scorn and execration which the name of Arnold brings with it, the single name in our whole history at which the nation needs to blush. “If the positions be maintained that the education of the people is indispensable to the preservation of free institutions, and that it is therefore the duty of every free State to provide for the education of her children, we are prepared, fellow-citizens, for the inquiry, How far has provision been made for the discharge of this duty in the State with which we are most intimately connected — the State of New Jersey ? That the duty of making some provision for this end has long been recognized, the twenty- ! 1 Chief Justice Hornblower, by his deportment as the presiding officer of the convention, added new dignity to his office and to himself. 252 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. one years which have elapsed since the passage of the first act ‘to create a fund for the support of free schools ’ sufficiently attest. That what has been done is insuffi¬ cient, you have yourselves home witness in the general impulse which, in December and January last, originated so many of those primary assemblies — in our Republic the true sources of power and influence — for the consideration of this subject ; and in that large, intelligent, and most respectable convention, composed of delegates chosen by yourselves to express your own views on the provisions for the public instruction, by which it was resolved with singular unanimity that ‘the general laws of this State on the subject of common schools are essentially defective and ought to be repealed.7 Into the question, ‘ What shall be substituted for the present law ? ’ the convention did not enter. It was for them to declare the wishes of the people for a more effective system of instruction. The plan and its provisions they left with perfect confidence to the wisdom of the legislature. The course'which the conven¬ tion pursued is even more becoming for us — the rather as the matter is at this very moment in the course of legislative action. And after all, fellow-citizens, the ques¬ tion what the law is, is by no means so important as the question, What is public sentiment? If the people are but right the legislature never will be greatly wrong; or if they should, the remedy is easy and the cure infallible. “Omitting all considerations, then, of what has been or of what may be legislative enactments on the subject, we address you as the sovereign people, and we say that it is your duty and your highest interest to provide and to maintain, within the reach of every child, the means of such an education as will qualify him to discharge the duties of a citizen of the Republic, and will enable him, by subsequent exertion, in the free exercise of the unconquerable will, to attain the highest eminence in knowl¬ edge and in power which God may place within his reach. We utterly repudiate as unworthy, not of freemen only, but of men, the narrow notion that there is to be an education for the poor as such. Has God provided for the poor a coarser earth, a thinner air, a paler sky? Does not the glorious sun pour down his golden flood as cheerily upon the poor man’s hovel as wpon the rich man’s palace? Have not the cotter’s children as keen a sense of all the freshness, verdure, fragrance, melody, and beauty of luxuriant nature as the pale sons of kings? Oris it on the mind that God has stamped the imprint of a baser birth, so that the poor man’s child knows with an inborn certainty that his lot is to crawl, not climb? It is not so. God has not done it. Man can not do it. Mind is immortal. Mind is imperial. It bears no mark of high or low, of rich or poor. It needs no bound of time or place, of rank or circum¬ stance. It asks but freedom. It requires but light. It is heaven born, and it aspires to heaven. Weakness doos not enfeeble it. Poverty can not repress it. Difficulties do but stimulate its vigor. And the poor tallow chandler’s son that sits up all the night to read the book which an apprentice lends him, lest the master’s eye should miss it in the morning, shall stand and treat with kings, shall add new provinces to the domain of science, shall bind the lightning with a hempen cord and bring it harmless from the skies.1 The common school is common, not as inferior, not as the school for poor men’s children, but as the light and air are common. It ought to be the best school because it is the first school; and in all good works the beginning is one-half. Who does not know the value to a community of a plentiful supply of the pure element of water? And infinitely more than this is the instruction of the com¬ mon school; for it is the fountain at which the mind drinks and is refreshed and strengthened for its career of usefulness and glory. “Fellow-citizens, it is the wise ordinance of God that man shall work for what he values. In all the dealings of your ordinary life you act upon the principle. You plow your fields. You urge your spindles. You ply your fisheries. You tend your shops. With sweat of brow or sweat of brain each precious thing that man possesses must be gained and kept. At no less price can liberty and its attendant blessings be enjoyed. ‘That which makes a good constitution,’ said wise and pru- 1 See Franklin’s Life. EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 253 dent William Penn,1 ‘must also keep it, men of wisdom and virtue: qualities which, because they descend not with inheritance, must he carefully propagated by a virtu¬ ous education of youth/ Ask not, then, when we enjoin on you the duty of pro¬ viding for the public instruction, where the cost shall come from? Were your house beset with robbers, would you stop to ask the cost of its defense? If an invading army were to land to-morrow on our shores, must we stop to count the cost before we march to meet and to repel them ? The common schools are in the place to us of arms and troops and fleets. They are our nurseries of men. They are indeed ‘the cheap defense of nations/ What constitutes a State ? Not high-raised battlements or labored mound, Thick wall, or moated gate ; Not cities proud, with spires and turrets crowned, Not bays and broad-armed ports, Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride; Not starred and spangled courts, Where low-browed baseness wafts perfume to pride. No — Men, high-minded Men. ***** Men who their duties know, But know their rights, and, knowing, dare maintain; Prevent the long-aimed blow, And crush the tyrant, while they rend the chain : These constitute a State.2 “Fellow-citizens, it is for you to say what shall be the present character, what shall be the future destiny of New Jersey. We have indeed a goodly heritage, but it has been long and shamefully neglected. We have undervalued our privileges. We have overlooked our duties. We have been content to be a pendent merely, when we ought to be an independent State. There is now, thank God, the sound as of a trumpet in the land that stirs the old heroic blood. We feel the remnant sparks of the forgotten fire which warmed our fathers’ hearts. The spirit of the elder day is breathing on us with its quickening and invigorating power. Let us accept the omen. Let us obey the noble impulse. Let us arise to duty and to glory. Men of New Jersey, it is you that are to rise. You are the State. You create and you control the legislature. You enact and you sustain the laws. Yours are the means. Yours is the influence. Yours is the work. You make, you are the State. Go on as you have now begun. The system of common schools which shall be adopted by the present legislature, take into your own hands. If it is not what it should be, see that the next legislature make it such. Act together. Act with system. Act like men. The organization for the purpose is complete. The general committee, the committees of correspondence for the counties, the committees of the townships — there is not an inch of ground that is not reached; there is not a citizen of New Jer¬ sey whose heart may not be roused by this electric chain. Lay to your hands, then, and employ it well. The work is great, and great must be the effort, and great the confidence. You must trust yourselves. You must trust your fellow-citizens. You must trust the legislature. A system of public instruction is a great and arduous enterprise. You must repose such confidence in those who are to frame it as shall enable them to do it well. When it is framed you will do wisely to commit its over¬ sight, subject to legislative supervision, to a judicious board,3 selected carefully from your most tried and faithful men, with wisdom to direct and with devotion to exert 1 Preface to tbe Frame of Government, 1682. 2 Sir William Jones, in imitation of Alcsens. 3 It is said that there are prejudices against a board of education and a superintendent. We can hardly think that they are general. If so, our appeal is to the good, sterling, common sense of the people of New J ersey. Is there a turnpike road, or a steamboat, or a bank, or a cotton factory, whose affairs are not intrusted to a board of managers ? Is there a mill in all the State without a miller, or a locomotive in the land without an engineer? Is the education of the people less important than all these ? Or is the system of public education to be the only case of a machine that goes alone ? 254 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. its powers. Above all, give tlie direction of tlio engine, with a large and liberal discretion, to a skillful engineer. And when it is made and manned, and set in operation, you must still support it ; you must watch over it; you must bo yourselves a part of it. The school fund is not equal to the work. And if it were, it would not be so well for you. Tax yourselves for the support of common schools and you will never be in danger of taxation from a foreign power — you will need less taxa¬ tion for the support of pauperism and the punishment of crime. Look to your schoolhouses. See that they are convenient of access, that they are comfortable, that they are neat and tasteful. Look to the teachers. See that they are taught themselves and apt to teach; men that fear God and love their country. Seo that they are well accommodated, well treated, well remunerated. Respect them and they will respect themselves, and your children will respject them. Look to the scholars. Have them much in your eye, and always in your heart. Remember you are to grow old among them. Remember you are to die and leave your country in their hands. “ ‘Good common schools/ says Governor Everett, of Massachusetts, ‘are the basis of every wise system of popular education.7 This is precisely what they are, tho basis of a system; but the basis only. Let us now lay their broad foundations deep and strong — foundations that will stand themselves and bear the noble structure which our children and our children’s children, as wo trust, will rear upon them. Wo are the citizens of a small State. We can not, by our votes, control the electoral college. We can not, by our political influence, aspire to be the Empire State of the confederacy. But there is a nobler empire, whose dominion does not come by numbers or by physical power. We may aspire, if wo are just to ourselves and to our opportunities, to wield the suffrage of mind. The men of Athens were but fow, their territory small, their soil indifferent, yet did Athenian arms prevail against tho myriads of the East; and to Athenian letters and Athenian arts admir¬ ing nations still award the palm. In the same noble lists let us engage ; and make the mastery of intellect the prize of our ambition. Let us devote ourselves and con¬ secrate tho State to tho great work of education. Let us lay hold in earnest of tho remarkable advantages which we possess in this respect, in our accessible position, our temperato climate, our freedom from absorbing interests, the moderate habits, and the simple manners of our people. Let us sustain our present seats of learning; and let kindred institutions in every varied form be multiplied about us. Let us collect the children of the land, and on their minds make tho mark which shall go down to latest generations. Let other States excel in commerce, or in agricul¬ ture, or in manufactures. But let the staple of our State be mind; the products of our soil, with God to bless the culture, knowledge, and patriotism, and virtue; our highest object and our noblest aim to be the State of common schools, academics, and colleges — the educating State, the nursery of freemen.” Tho event proved that the convention had not mistaken the purpose of the influ¬ ential and progressive majority of the people. The legislature of the following win¬ ter repealed the law of 1831, and reenacted substantially the act of 1829, revised and improved. In this act the limitation of the State educational bounty to tho children of paupers and the poor disappeared forever. Tho State appropriation was raised to $30,000 annually, the money to be given exclusively to public schools — the town¬ ships required to raise $2 for every $1 received from tho State, the moneys to bo dis¬ tributed to all, a board of examiners for each county authorized to examino teachers, the minimum of tho school age fixed at 5 years, and district lines restored. A sup¬ plementary act in 1815 established a general superintendency of schools over the two most advanced counties, with the power to accept the same privilege by the other counties at their own choice. This took place in 1816, and from this first rec¬ ognition of the common school idea dates the real progress of popular education in New Jersey. But the actual condition of the common schools in the country may be gathered from the report of Mr. H. F. King, first State superintendent in 1818. His plan for EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 255 increased appropriations, new legislation to aid in building and furnishing school- houses, to enforce general attendance on school, and for the establishment of school libraries, with an eloquent plea to the friends of education, is enforced by the most graphic picture of the actual condition of affairs. In 1844-1846 the following articles were placed in the revised constitution of New Jersey : “Article IY. — Section 7. — The fund for the support of free schools, and all money, stock, and other property, which may hereafter be appropriated for that purpose, or received into the treasury under the provision of any law heretofore passed to aug¬ ment the said fund, shall be securely invested and remain a perpetual fund; and the income thereof, except so much as it maybe judged expedient to apply to an increase of the capital, shall be annually appropriated to the support of public schools for the equal benefit of all the people of the State ; and it shall not be.competent for the legislature to borrow, appropriate, or use the said fund, or any part thereof, for any other purpose under any pretense whatever.” PENNSYLVANIA. It is the privilege of the Christian patriot to believe that to every American State in its most vital and sacred interest, the education of its children for American citizenship, there comes once in its history a leader who is not only an educator of unquestioned ability but an apostle of universal education. Such an one was James Pyle Wickersham, superintendent of common schools of the State of Pennsylvania from 1866 to 1881. Born in the State, of good English stock, a country schoolmaster at the age of 16, and from that age on until his honorable public career termi¬ nated in an appointment as minister of the United States to Denmark, holding almost every office of importance, local and State, in educational affairs; creator and principal of the first State normal school at Miliersburg, State superintendent during the fifteen most important years of the development of the present system of public instruction, with a hand in every good movement for educational reform; president of State and national teachers’ associations, chief architect of the famous system of teachers’ institutes of the State, and author widely read and of extended influence, universally respected by the foremost educators of the country, he would seem to have been to his native Commonwealth what Benjamin Franklin became to the entire colonial life, the representative of good schooling and good training for the new type of American civilization that emerged from the clouds and thunders of the great civil war. It will be a grateful task to give a fit record of his administration as State super¬ intendent of schools at the proper place in a subsequent work. But here it may well be said that in no way has he better served the educational public of the country than by the closing work of his life, the admirable History of Education in Penn¬ sylvania, published in 1886. As a careful and judicial record of the evolution of the American common school out of a most complex tangle of hostile elements and environments, it is invaluable to the student of our national educational history. As a conclusive argument for all that has yet been achieved by the American common school, clothed in the garb of a charming historical narrative and glowing with the patriotic appreciation of the radical significance of universal education to a repub¬ lican state, it will attract and inspire while it instructs. Had many States of the Union been so fortunate in the attempt to narrate their educational history, a work like the present would have been almost an impertinence. His book stands alone, yet a model for the coming race of enthusiastic young scholars who will discover a new field of historical investigation in the story of the American system of universal education, without which the history of academies, universities, and all private ecclesiastical and corporate schools of the secondary and higher culture must be fragmentary and often misleading. No apology is needed for making this record of the educational history of Pennsylvania from 1785 to 1840 practically an abstract 256 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. of tlie copious narrative of this author, -with our own comment on what seems to he the occasional bias of citizenship of his own great Commonwealth. The reader who comes from our account of the educational status of the province of Pennsylvania to the story of the first half century of its history as one of the most important States of the new Republic, will not be surprised at the statement that at the beginning and the close of the- Revolutionary war were the most unprom¬ ising periods of its educational condition at any time in its history. The State then had a population of 350,000, outside a few important centers thinly sprinkled over a vast area of 45,215 square miles. The old-time interest inspired by William Penn, Franklin, Rush, and other laborers in education, was largely local and municipal, and offered few opportunies for the rural districts. The main achievement so far had been the establishment of several reliable schools in Philadelphia, including the University and the Friends’ public school. The different religious denominations were, as usual, at their work of establishing education on sectarian lines, although some of them, like the Presbyterians, had a broader outlook beyond their own house¬ hold of faith than others. But then, as for an entire generation afterwards, the children of the common people were sacrificed on the altars of nationality, sec¬ tarianism, and social discrimination. “ In 1775 not only was the number of scholarly men in the province small, but comparatively few grown persons could do more than read, write, and calculate according to the elementary rules of arithmetic, and many remained wholly illiterate.” “ The college, the Friends’ public school, the academy at Germantown, and scarcely a half dozen private classical schools in the older settled counties, with in all an attendance of 300 or 400 students, absolutely exhaust the advantages of this character enjoyed at home by our Revolutionary fathers.” In 1776 the first provisional constitution was formed for the State, and in it we find the following provisions concerning education : “A school or schools shall be estab¬ lished in each county by the legislature for the correct instruction of youth, with such salaries to the masters paid by the public as may enable them to instruct youth at low prices, and all useful learning shall be duly encouraged and promoted in one or more universities.” In 1789-90 the subject of education came before the conven¬ tion on constitutional revision, and here was the first great “ general engagement” of the opposing forces of universal education in the new Commonwealth. Under the lead of Timothy Pickering, a native of Massachusetts and a resident of the portion of Pennsylvania settled from New England, a proposition was made for a constitu¬ tional recognition of the New England system of general education. Defeated in this, Mr. Pickering substituted a compromise measure, under which the battle for the free education of the whole people was fought with varied success until 1874. This clause in the revised constitution of 1790 reads as follows : “ Article YII. — Section 1. — The legislature shall, as soon as conveniently may he, provide by law for the' establishment of schools throughout the State in such manner that the poor may be taught gratis. “2. The arts and sciences shall be promoted in one or more seminaries of learning.” Meanwhile the legislature had made provision for an indiscriminate appropriation of public lands to seminaries of all sorts and conditions. For years it seemed chiefly to concern the fathers of the State to “aid the church and neighborhood schools in carrying forward the work in which they had been engaged for a hundred years.” Between 1790 and 1834, the period now under consideration, “ there were contributed funds to one university, five colleges, and about sixty academies, one in nearly every county of the State, a sum amounting to $400,000 or $500,000.” In this way did the antipublic school sentiment of the State interpret the provision of the constitution, “for the establishment of schools.” None of these “seminaries” were under State control, although some of them seem to have been under the direction of officials elected by the people of the county, and most of them were required to educate a cer¬ tain number of “poor, gratis.” The only provision of the legislature appropriating 60,000 acres of land for public schools failed of effect, the land having been appro¬ priated to themselves by the academies, which were practically the only efficient EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 257 educational power in tlie field. It was twenty-five years from the founding of the State and the first constitutional provision for education before the Commonwealth, in 1802, provided by general statute for the free instruction of the poor. A rally was made by the friends of a common school system in 1794, and a hill con¬ taining the elements of such a scheme was drawn by the educational committee, and passed by both houses, but lost in conference. This was the last distinctive effort for a general system of public instruction until the law of 1834, forty years later; the educational Gettysburg of Pennsylvania, which permanently crippled the forces of the opposition. But, as in the great civil war, the hostile force, though grievously wounded, held on for an obstinate resistance through another period, including the passing of several generations of the children of the State. In 1802 an act was passed to “ provide for the education of the poor class, gratis.” This act, renewed in 1804, and somewhat improved in 1809, remained in operation until the radical change in the policy of the State occurred in 1834. It is said that “this act did not provide for the establishment of a single school, nor did it attempt to regulate in any way the existing schools it proposed to patronize.” “ It compelled parents to make a public record of their poverty, to pauperize themselves, and to send their children to school with this invidious mark upon them.” Here did Penn¬ sylvania, for the first half century of the National Union, cast in her lot with Vir¬ ginia and the South rather than with New England and New YTork, in her policy for the noneducation of the masses of the people. The meager endowments of acade¬ mies and colleges were good in their way. This was probably the only way then available in the state of public opinion by which the State could grant material aid to education. It not only discriminated in favor of the more prosperous classes, but, what was more harmful, built up a great educational interest that for more than half a century fought the common school idea at every point, and to this day remains victorious at the most vital department in the school system of a State — the organization and administration of the normal seminaries in which are trained the teachers for the common schools of the people. But, as in Virginia and the South, this x>olicy from the first was obliged to contend against an able, zealous, and persistent minority. The common school public was always a force not to be despised in Pennsylvania, and here, as in the State of New York, the truth “hid from the wise and prudent” fathers in the church and great schools was “revealed unto the babes” who, during all these years, pleaded the cause of the people. From the first, without a notable exception, the governors of Pennsylvania persisted in calling the attention of the legislature to its economical policy in educational matters, and in every instance a report was laid before that body in which the advantages of universal education under the patronage of the State were pictured clearly and often with extraordinary power. A stout volume could be gathered even of extracts from these messages and reports which would not only present the fundamental principles of public education, but furnish a series of admirable themes for public declamation by the school children of to-day. There is no want in the literature of public education so pressing as a series of works of this character in every State, containing the whole or copious extracts from these utter¬ ances of distinguished public men on the subject of general education. And no refu¬ tation so complete for every educational heresy now afloat could be furnished as these classics, the high-water mark of American statesmanship, with an accompaniment of comment showing “with what a price” has this people of the United States bought this bounteous provision of the American common school. In 1812 a supplementary law to the statute of 1809 was passed for the special bene¬ fit of the city of Philadelphia, authorizing the county commissioners to establish public schools in such manner as the council of the city of Philadelphia and adjacent municipal districts should approve. Six years later Philadelphia was declared “ the first school district of Pennsylvania,” with the power to provide a system of educa¬ tion on the Lancasterian plan, at public expense. This included the provision for ED 96 - 9 258 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. “a model school,” in which the older children and youth were supposed to be pre¬ pared to teach under this the most imperfect and wasteful method of public educa¬ tion that ever deluded the American people. Under this loose-jointed arrangement one master was placed in charge of a great school of several hundred children, his only assistants being such of the older pupils as could be intrusted with the teach¬ ing and discipline of the younger classes. Here was sown the seeds of the disease that so long, like a malaria in the vitals, has cursed the common school systems of all the English-speaking peoples; the belief that anybody and everybody, from an impecunious dame to a green school boy or girl, is good enough to be placed in the most responsible educational position — the elementary training of the child. To call this “model school” of Philadelphia the “oldest normal school in the United States” is a misrepresenta tion of the true idea of a State or city training school for teachers. Its claim to this high compliment is less than that of any respectable academy or college that in giving a youth a competent general education does lay the founda¬ tions of success in the work of instruction accordiug to the maxim “You can teach only what you know and as you know it.” Under the incubus of this theory the city of Philadelphia and several of the larger towns in 'Pennsylvania established schools, all of which died a natural death as soon as the people of the State woke up to their duty of placing on the ground a genuine system of common instruction, free from the old discrimination in favor of poverty, in 1834. Dr. Wickersham gives a copious list of the various local, church, and charity schools by which the people of Philadelphia for almost half a century attempted in good faith to educate the children. As early as 1800 there were more than 200 pri¬ vate schools taught by women in the city. Chi^f among them was the benevolent system of the Quakers, who supported, in connection with the Friends’ Public School, 14 charity schools in 1824. The University of Pennsylvania until a later date also supported a system of elementary schools. Dr. Benjamin Rush and Bishop White labored to build up the original English system of Sunday schools, in which elementary instruction in the “ three r’s” was combined with moral and religious catechising, for the benefit of the children of the poor. The city was long handi¬ capped by, and to-day bears the marks of, these false methods of dealing with the illiteracy of the less-favored classes. It was the perpetuation of the “ good old way,” a superior class bending down to a lower class to dispense such “aid and comfort,” mental and spiritual, as in its estimation will be adapted to fit and not unfit the children of want in preparing for their proper sphere of life. And when, in 1818, the city woke up to the idea of a reconstruction of its scatter¬ ing and wasteful separate, denominational, and private efforts, it still looked abroad for leadership and invited Lancaster himself to the superintendence of the new sys¬ tem of Lancasterian schools. This famous educator was born in humble circum¬ stances in London, where, in the attempt to breast the great flood of lower class ignorance and dependence in the England of the eighteenth century, he opened a school in his father’s house for the poor children of the neighborhood in 1778 As the school grew he was forced to call on the assistance of his older pupils for instruc¬ tion. The system Gaught the fancy of distinguished people; was appreciated by King George the Third; and, under the leadership of Lancaster, attracted attention among the literati and educators. A great number of schools under what was named “'The Lancasterian System,” were established in Great Britain. Of course, some people were aided by this crude arrangement and, under the name “Model Schools,” a sort of normal school system was established. The people of the city of Kew York, in 1805, discouraged by the failure of the attempt of the different religious sects to educate the children of the city, sent a deputation to England to examine the system. The famous “Public School Society,” that for forty years attempted to deal with the problem of public education in the metropolis, adopted this scheme of instruction. It won the approval of several eminent statesmen, DeWitt Clinton giving it a persistent support. In 1818 the city of Philadelphia was moved by the same excitement. Lancaster himself was brought EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 259 to tlie city and placed at the licad of the new system of schools. He remained several years in the State. Ho was invited to South America, at the suggestion of Presi¬ dent Bolivar, in 1823. But the public interest had greatly declined when he returned. He lived in Philadelphia in sickness and poverty, only relieved by death that came to him in New York by accident, in 1838, In 1824 a system of infant schools was established in Philadelphia which resulted in the support of 30 elementary institu¬ tions at public expense. All these schemes for public education, including the Lancasterian scheme of 1818, were simply devices for educating the children of the poor. Neither the State nor the city rose out of this old European delusion that common schools were only for “the common people,” even the lower grade of the unlettered class, until half a century after the organization of Pennsylvania as a Commonwealth of the highest grade. While great good came from this benevolent care of the poor by the moro favored portion of the people, like all similar charities, the permanent influence was un-American and mischievous. It fixed in the mind of several generations of the superior people of that wealthy and cultivated city a pernicious idea that a “ com¬ mon school ” is no place for the education of a child of good parentage and comfort¬ able means, a popular notion which, until the last twenty years, made the second city of the Union perhaps the least favorable example of popular education of any community of similar importance in the Republic. “Philadelphia had no free schools open to the children of the rich and poor alike until the law of 1818 had been amended in 1836 so as to admit all children without distinction.” The able historian of education in Pennsylvania says of the Lancasterian scheme: “In most respects [it was] a mere show or sham that ought not to have deceived anybody, but it required an experiment of twenty years in Philadelphia to expose its defects.” One good result was brought out of the “model school,” by a bold figure of speech called “The First Normal School in America.” This institution finally became the Philadelphia, Public Normal and High School for Girls, similar to the Girls’ Normal College in the city of New York. In this arrangement a depart¬ ment for training common school teachers was combined with a imhlic high school for girls. At the present time this department of pedagogics is separated from the general High School for Girls and has recently been housed in one of the most admirable public school buildings in the country. In 1834 the city of Philadelphia had 20 public schools, 31 teachers, and 6,767 pupils. The ten years succeeding the reorganization in 1834 multiplied the number of schools tenfold, there being in 1843 214 schools, 499 teachers, and 33,130 pupils. But the common school xiublic of Pennsylvania through all these years represented a slowly rising tide, every decade encroaching upon tho powerful influence which, wedded to tho older system of subsidizing elementary schools of all grades and relying.upon jirivate, corporate, and ecclesiastical agencies for secondary education, still held back this great Commonwealth from joining the grand army of popular education which had already captured the Empire State and was gathering its forces for the assault along the whole line in 1830-1840 which established universal educa¬ tion under State supervision as the policy of the North. In 1824 this resolute and aggressive minority made another effort in the legislature, repealed the law of 1809, and put on the statute books an act that was a positive advance on any previous legislation. After making a more thorough provision for the free education of the children of the poor this statute contained a permission to any community to establish a system of public schools, free to no child for a longer periodthan 3 years, supported by public taxation, school books and stationery free, and an examination of teachers by elected authorities. But even this advanced position was qualified by a provision that any religious school could be admitted to the bene¬ fit of public support, and provided that no teacher should bo appointed in such school without the approval of its own authorities. But even this mild administra¬ tion of the public school medicine was too much for the patient at that time. The obnoxious act never went into operation, was repealed in 1826, and the old law of 260 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 1809 reenacted. It is not to be wondered at that Governor Shulze uttered these memorable words of warning in his message to the legislature in 1827-28: “Knowl¬ edge can not be supplied to all in equal measure, but it is hoped the time will come when none shall be left entirely destitute. Then will the legislature truly be, in this respect, what the framers of the constitution desired it should be — a parent to the children of the poor; and they, in return, will have strong inducements to love, honor, and do their utmost to xierpetuate the free institutions from which they derive so great a benefit, so prolific a source of happiness. To devise means for the estab¬ lishment of a fund and the adaptation of a plan by which the blessings of the more necessary branches of education shall be conferred on every family within our borders would be every way worthy the legislature of Pennsylvania.” The outcome of the policy of the State for the fifty years from the close of the Revo¬ lutionary war has been tersely stated by Dr. Wickersham as embracing two objects: “(1) The establishment in all parts of the State of endowed academies, in which a small number of indigent pupils were to be taught gratuitously, mostly with refer¬ ence to their becoming teachers; and (2) the free instruction of poor children in the existing church or neighborhood schools.” The first object is declared by the same authority to have been “only a partial success.” Indeed, the policy of educating a body of youth in the endowed academies undei a system of pauperization as teachers in the common schools of the State shows the popular estimate of these schools at the end of the first half century of the national life in this great central Com¬ monwealth of the original Union. A series of legislative reports, up to the year 1830, reveals the more than “partial failure” of the favorite system of educating the children of the poor. These reports show the inevitable result of this un-American policy in the neglect, abuse, and often absolute ignoring of the laws already in force* There were then in the State not less than 350,000 children between 5 and 16 years of age. Of these, in 1828 less than 5,000 were educated at the expense of the State. The secretary of the legislative committee proclaims the fact, borne out by all experience in educational affairs, that even then the State of Pennsylvania was expending money enough, “if applied under the control of agents familiar with the most approved systems of elementary instruction, to extend the benefits of an education to all the children within the State.” The unfavorable comparison drawn by Dr. Wickersham between the New England States and Pennsylvania, on the ground that some of these States kept a rate bill attached to their school system even after Pennsylvania made her schools free, ignores the vital difference between Pennsylvania and her sisters of New England and New York. In none of these States was the public school system established or supported as a refuge for “the children of the poor.” From the first, it was “a common school” for the whole people, good enough for all, supported and under the management of the whole people for their children. That for many years it exacted a tuition fee is in accordance with the experience of every State or city in the early stages of its proper educational life. It was practically an impossibility for any American community before or for many years during the first half century of the national life to support an effective system of common instruction by public taxa¬ tion alone. The attempt in Connecticut was a failure and, in New York, to a late date, the rate bill was relied on, as now occasionally in the South, to prolong the schools and meet other expenses. In this respect these States did not differ from Pennsylvania, for all remitted tuition fees in behalf of those unable to pay . But the contrast appears in the radical idea of a public school. In this, Pennsylvania, until 1833, cast in her lot with the South. She did not pretend to do more than establish a system of free schools for the children of the poorer classes. Without the excuse of these States in their peculiar social and industrial organization and intensely aristocratic type of society, Pennsylvania, one of the most prominent, patriotic, and wealthy States of the North, the center of the old Union, with a persistence worthy of a better cause, legally till 1834, and practically till a later date, cast upon the American common school the blight of her public and private disapprobation, as a EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 261 school where only the poor, on satisfactory proof of poverty, might enjoy the meager opportunities, at hest, found in all sorts and conditions of schools. The reason of this policy was found in the heterogenous elements of population in this great State, the firmness of its ecclesiastical organizations, the refusal of the seminaries of the secondary and higher learning to indorse any general system for the common schooling of all children at public expense, and the high aristocratic type of society in Philadelphia and the chief cities of the Commonwealth. That in due time all these different elements were persuaded or forced to unite in the sacred cause of popular education and that to-day Pennsylvania is one of the foremost edu¬ cational States in the Union is another testimony to 'the irresistible force of the American idea which, sooner or later, brings every community into line and will finally compel, by the mighty power of republican institutions, every religious sect, exclusive class or nationality to forget its prejudices and unite with all for the common welfare. The State of Massachusetts led the way about the middle of the eighteenth century by the common consent of its towns in making the common schools free to all, in this respect not only the pioneer in America but leading the world as the first community that, as a permanent policy of the government, sup¬ ported free schools for all its children. The governor of an American Commonwealth, if a wise, energetic, and broad¬ minded man, is the moral and mental barometer of the State. By a careful perusal of the messages of the successive chief magistrates of all the 44 American States from the date of their admission to the Union there could be formed a tolerably fair estimate of the condition of public affairs on this important interest. The words of Governor Shulze, of Pennsylvania, in 1828, were prophetic of a more elaborate utterance by Governor Wolf in 1831. This governor, under whose admin¬ istration the State finally broke out from her old inclosure of caste, creed, and nationality, had been a teacher himself and saw the point more clearly than any of his predecessors. His message was reenforced by a strong petition from the Penn¬ sylvania Society for the Reform of Public Schools and by numerous petitions from other sources. The chairman of the committee on education in the assembly pre¬ sented a report of great force, accompanied by a bill for a complete reconstruction of the educational policy of the State on a common-school basis. Although the legislature was not yet prepared for a movement so radical, it did pass the first law for the collection of a public-school State fund, providing that the proceeds of the public lands should be placed at interest, under the charge of a State commission, until the annual income should amount to $100,000, when this sum should be dis¬ tributed for the support of common schools through the communities in such a manner as should thereafter be provided by law. It was estimated that this fund would amount to $2,000,000 in 10 years. But now the long-hoped-for day of deliverance was at hand. The eloquent his¬ torian writes: “The people were compelled to wander in a wilderness during one hundred and fifty years, and to learn wisdom from its hard lessons before they were permitted to enter the promised land of universal education. Up to 1830 the great free-school idea was either yet unborn in Pennsylvania or concealed by parents fearful of dangers that threatened the life of such an infant in those old times.” In 1828 the Pennsylvania Society for the Promotion of Common Schools put a series of memorials before the legislature which largely contributed to bring that conserva¬ tive body to a sense of its duty to the children of the State. This society had Robert Yaux for its chairman, and numbered many of the most distinguished citi¬ zens of the State as its members, several hundred in all. Standing on the bed rock, it declared : “In every school system it should be a fundamental principle that every child should have an opportunity of receiving an education which will fit him to fulfill his duties.” It exposed without mercy the inevitable failure of the jumble of devices that for one hundred and fifty years had been forced upon the State by the jealous intrigues and makeshifts of the classes indifferent or intensely hostile to the American system of universal education for American eitizenship. In the memorial 262 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. of 1830 it declared, without contradiction, that of 400,000 children in Pennsylvania between 5 and 15 years of age not 150,000 were in all the schools of the State. “Many of the children never go to school at all. Multitudes are living and con¬ tinue to live in ignorance, and multitudes now receive at best the most superficial instruction.” In 1831 Governor Wolf again summoned the legislature to its obligation, but again the cause of the common school suffered a defeat by the negative of the senate. In two successive years of the legislature bills were introduced by strong reports, but failed of enactment. It was not till the session of 1833-34 that the gathering impulse acquired a consistency and push which inspired favorable hopes of success. The implacable governor became a very “wolf at the door” of both houses of the legis¬ lature, and his voice resounded louder and louder to every member of that body. And now, as so often in similar emergencies, another leader from “ Yankee laud” appeared on the scene in the person of Senator Samuel Breck, of Philadelphia. This excellent gentleman, already on the verge of old age, had come to the legislature with the one view of promoting the cause of public education. He kept a diary in which were written his hopes and fears of the progress of the great, good cause. Appointed chairman of a joint committee, with a strong body of free-school mem¬ bers as associates, he made a voluminous report which was a treasure house of infor¬ mation drawn from a wide correspondence with all the more advanced States of the Union The result was that in 1834 was passed, almost by unanimous consent, the “Act to establish a general system of education by common schools,” which com¬ mitted this great and prosperous Commonwealth finally to the American policy of universal education. While lacking in some of its administrative features, this law contained the elements of a working system of free public schools for the whole people. This law laid off the State into divisions of counties and districts, of wards and townships. It took one step in advance of the time in a permissive clause author¬ izing every district to introduce manual training. It also had an elective permission for the inspection of schools and made the secretary of state general superintend¬ ent of public instruction. It clinched the nail by appropriating $75,000 from the income of the State school fund for general State aid until the interest should reach the sum of $100,000. The school fund had now reached the sum of $1,550,000. The president of the public school society proposed that a volume entitled The Pennsyl¬ vania Youths and Freemen’s Book of Duties should be prepared and introduced into every school, a suggestion that has recently been adopted in more than one State of the Union, and is rapidly coming into popular favor among university men as a depart¬ ment of “civics” to be added to the curriculum of the American common school. Well may the historian declare : “Historically, the passage of this bill was the most influential event connected with education in Pennsylvania, the first great victory for free schools.” In this law the provision for the official management of the divisions and districts was essentially the same as at present, as were also the powers and duties of school directors in the location of schools, building schoolhouses, visiting schools, and making reports. But the conflict was not yet at an end. The passage of this beneficent law, like an alarm bell, woke to its full capacity for resistance all the hostile influences in the Commonwealth. The statute was permissive, although declaring that only the counties voting to impose a local tax should receive the State aid, thus virtually putting into the hands of the majority of voters in any community the power to deprive it of the benefits of a common-school system. Then, and for years, the majority of citizens in most of the counties and districts were averse to the change. At first it was fully accepted by only a few districts and gained strength chiefly by the offer of State aid. “ Of 987 districts then in the State, 485 either voted altogether against free schools or took no action.” The bitterness of the conflict rose to the full height of the most exciting political canvass. The northern counties, settled EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 263 largely by emigrants from New England and New York, generally favored the law, and the new portion of tlie State west of the Alleghauies, the stronghold of the Scotch and North Irish people, also received it with gladness. But in the old Pennsylvania, the central, southern, and southeastern region, and, greatest of all, in the German counties, the opposition was formidable. The causes of this opposition have already been clearly set forth. But it should be said in respect to the ecclesiastical opposi¬ tion. that it was chiefly from the evangelical Protestant sects, the Catholic and Epis¬ copal churches not yet being sufficiently numerous to represent an effective opposition. The Friends, Lutheran, Reform, and Moravian peoples, with few exceptions, voted strongly against the American common school. All these religious bodies for a hun¬ dred and fifty years had been earnestly engaged in building up their own parochial systems by the expenditiire of money and the assistance and cooperation of similar bodies in the old country. It required more than a quarter of a century yet to modify these objections of sect and class and bring the whole people of Pennsylvania into hearty accord concerning the education of the children. Of course this opposition at once took the form of a furious political campaign to repeal the obnoxious law. The statute had been passed by an unprecedented major¬ ity, only 4 negative votes in the senate and a solitary individual lifting his voice in opposition in the house. But the result of the campaign inaugurated in opposition threw into the statehouse in the sessions of 1834-35 a decisive majority of opponents in the senate and a doubtful majority of friends in the house. The governor “ stood to his guns," although with premonitions of the defeat which came at the ensuing election as the “reward of merit *7 so often served out to the public pioneer of a good cause. But now appeared on the scene another champion of the children. Thaddeus Stevens, the son of a poor farmer, was born in 1792, in humble circumstances, in Vermont. By severe labor and the savings of his mother he obtained an education in Dartmouth College, and at the age of 23 appeared as a teacher and law student in Gettysburg, Pa. In 1831 he was sent to the legislature, labored in favor of an educational grant to a local college, and voted for the school law of 1834, though with no hand in its construction. He was then and always remained unmarried, but, like many another childless man, became a most conspicuous advocate of the .children’s cause in its hour of peril. The legislature was flooded with petitions for the repeal of the new school law, 32,000 people having signed or caused their names to be signed to documents which, if rightly described by a committee of examination, were in themselves the most convincing proof of the necessity of education, more than 10 in every 100 having depended on the ability of somebody to write their names, and not 5 in 100 signing in English, with a woeful disregard of the minor proprieties of cleanliness and legi¬ bility. The German clergy of the State had been thoroughly aroused, and a very formidable element of oy>position was the sect of Quakers. But Governor TYolf and his successor, Governor Ritner, were of the superior class of Germans, “solid" for schooling, and with refreshing obstinacy stood by the ship and defied the rage of the opposition. The senate at once passed an educational bill which partially repealed the law of 1834 and sent it to the house, where the friends of repeal challenged the school men to a “'fight to the finish.77 It was the sort of conflict where victory comes only as the reward of the fearless, positive, and relentless devotion of a leader fully compe¬ tent and afraid of nobody. Such a champion was found in Thaddeus Stevens, who, to the amazement of friend and foe, with small outfit of personal popularity, took the floor, routed the enemy by a torrent of mingled argument, sarcasm, and denun¬ ciation, and so confirmed the wavering and inspired the faithful that the law of 1834 was not only sustained, but sent back to the senate revised and improved by a majority that compelled acquiescence. This and a subsequent speech in 1838 in behalf of the endowment of colleges and 264 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. academies placed Mr. Stevens at the head of the grand army of educators in his State during the remainder of his life. These speeches were printed on silk and pre¬ served as precious relics, and a memorial hall commemorates his name in Pennsyl¬ vania College. When that long-waited-for work, Notable Deliverances in Behalf of Universal Education, is compiled, this series of legislative orations by Thaddeus Stevens will take an honorable place by the side of the most eminent in the educa¬ tional literature of the Republic. The date of this great victory was April 11, 1835. Governor Ritner, who owed his election to a split in the Democratic party on the educational question, against a strong resistance among his own supporters bravely and wisely stood by the new policy and secured the practical working of the law in 1836 by diverting $500,000 of the “ surplus revenue” received by the State from the nation to a fund for building schoolhouses to receive the incoming throng of pupils. It was none too early. The new statute had forever abolished the odious distinction between the rich and poor and made the public schools not only open to all, but free from every trace of a rate bill, a notable advance in which Pennsylvania placed herself twenty years ahead of her neighboring State, New York. In the smoke and tumult of that great battle one- half the ancient policy of the State — that the public school is a pauper’s school — dis¬ appeared forever. The yearly State appropriation, exclusive of the sehoolhouse fund, had leaped from $75,000 to $400,000 in two years, a dollar for each taxable inhab¬ itant of the State. The governor was fortunate in his secretary of state, the first efficient superintend¬ ent of schools in the Commonwealth, Thomas H. Burrowes. A young man, educated in private schools and abroad, he came to his difficult office not only inexperienced, but with confused and inadequate ideas on the whole subject of popular education. But the practical experience of administration educated him rapidly into one of the most efficient of the early superintendents of education in Pennsylvania, although his peculiar notions, especially concerning normal school instruction, aided to fasten on the State the present system of subsidizing a group of academies for the training of common school teachers. Mr. Burrowes held the office for three years, but during a long life was a tireless and influential friend of popular education, and in 1862 at a critical time was again called to the State superintendency, did excellent service in the establishment of soldiers’ orphans’ schools at the close of the civil war, and died president of the State agricultural college in 1871. In 1TB37 Superintendent Burrowes reported 742 of the 987 school districts of the State as having accepted the law; 3,384 common schools were in operation, with 3,394 teachers, one-fourth women, and 150,000 children under instruction, with monthly salaries of $18.38 for men and $11.96 for women teachers. The schools were open four months and three days in the year. Thus in three short years the number of pupils had increased nearly fivefold from 32,000, and the office of superin¬ tendent of schools had been put in good working order, with a vigorous adminis¬ tration of educational affairs well under way. Here we leave the consideration of the public school system of Pennsylvania for the present. It was still a permissive system, not yet really taken to the heart of the Commonwealth, still to encounter a long experience of popular indifference and opposition. It was not till 1848 that the permissive feature by which the counties could reject or refuse to act under the statute was repealed and the system made man¬ datory over the entire Commonwealth. Still, the battle of popular education had been fought and won, and after one hundred and fifty years wandering through the desert Pennsylvania was well over Jordan, with a good prospect in due time of il conquering a peace” in the glorious promised land. But for ten years more the people of Pennsylvania were persuaded to hold on to their original policy of leaving the secondary and higher education in the. hands of private, corporate, and church academies and colleges, chartered and very moder¬ ately subsidized by the State, but with no public authority respecting their organi- EARLY COMMON SCHOOLS. 265 zation or the administration of their affairs. Indeed, this statute clung to the common school law like the superfluous tail of an antedeluvian animal on its up¬ ward journey by the highway of evolution — a mischievous provision for secondary parochial schools. It required an earnest effort to reduce this primal irregular habit of State aid to a regular system through five years from 1838, and then to convince the most incredulous of the utter fatuity of this British idea in practical operation in the United States. William Penn brought from England the prevailing idea of a “public school” — a secondary school, generally of the classical type, endowed and sometimes controlled by the government. Such was his meaning in his celebrated document, the “Form of government, ” in which he declared it the duty of the new government and council of Pennsylvania “to erect and order all public schools.” The Friends’ pub¬ lic school was established by order of Penn, chartered by the new government, and put in operation between 1697 and 1711. This was a grammar school with several branches in different portions of the city and county, free to those unable to pay and from which no boy of sufficient qualification was excluded. In this Penn in¬ tended to establish a system of education for the province, a close reproduction of that which sufficed for the schooling of the well-to-do at home. In 1749 *Dr. Benjamin Franklin and his coadjutors moved on a similar plan by the establishment of an academy with branches open to all male pupils and free to the poor. In 1755 the academy became a college, and was reorganized as the University of Pennsylvania in 1779. It was endowed to the extent of less than $100,000 by the Penn family, the provincial government, and an English subscription. At the reor¬ ganization it received a large sum from the confiscated estates of the Pennsylvania loyalists. Up to 1832 it was somewhat aided by exemption from taxation and small benefactions from the State. These were the only institutions of learning that received aid from the government of the province before the war of the Revolution. Between 1783 and 1836 fourteen “colleges” were established by the State, and all but two received a lift from gifts of money or lands. A list of nearly seventy acad¬ emies is given which during the period from 1783 to 1836 were chartered, receiving small gifts of money with land. Superintendent Burrowes reported in 1837 that not less than $240,000 had been distributed among these academies alone, adding: “It is believed that no gifts have ever been made by the State with less general good effect than those to academies.” In 1834 Samuel Breck, the author of the first free school bill, reported to the legislature : “Most of these academies have fallen to the grade of common schools.” It was asserted that only 44 or 45 were in existence. “Most of these have fallen to the grade of the most ordinary common schools, some of them are a burlesque upon the name of “academy,” others have lost their charter, not a few * ¥ * have become entirely extinct.” It is difficult to anticipate any different result from this indiscriminate chartering of local academies in a new country with the meager public gift, in most cases insufficient for a single year’s expenses, at best a temptation to any ambitious teacher or group of people to undertake the establish ment of an institution of learning. In 1838 the State legislature supplemented the common school law, revised and improved in 1836, by an act intended to systematize this matter of State aid to these seminaries of the secondary and higher education. By this law every college or academy with 4 professors and 100 students was to receive $1,000 annually for ten years, and institutions of lower grade a smaller sum, ranging downward to $300 for an academy or other school containing 15 pupils. One advanced feature of this law was the first acknowledgment of the State to aid in the education of girls by including female seminaries in the State benefactions. Under this law during the five years of its existence the State extended aid to 9 “ colleges,” 75 academies, and 40 female seminaries, 124 in all, and expended $217,000 in the costly experiment. At the close of this final effort, after expending from first to last in land and money $1,000,000, the failure was so evident that in 1843 the policy came to an end. It was from the ED 96 - 9* 266 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. first in flat contradiction to the American idea of the support of education by the government, although it had been adopted in New England and continued until a late period in a majority of the old States of the Union. The attempt to show that it was an early acknowledgment of the duty of the State t to educate teachers is of little weight. Of course some of the graduates and students from these academies and colleges became teachers as always and everywhere, even in a State well supplied with normal school facilities. But the only class of persons educated freely in these Pennsylvania schools were the u children of the poor,” whose school life was weighted by the stigma of pauperism with only the destiny of a posi¬ tion as teacher in “pauper schools.” This mode of the secondary education was grad¬ ually supplanted by the extension of the free-school age to 20, which enabled the public-school system to establish a free high-school department. Later came the organization of the present system of normal academies, subsidized and to a degree supervised by the State, flanked by a vast system of county institutes for teachers, which is regarded by the educators of this State as superior to all others. Thus did the State of Pennsylvania respond to the “ star in the East,” the notable revival of the common-school system in New England, under the leadership of Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, from 1830 to 1860. While it was somewhat inspired by that movement, it was a wave of the great tide of educational reform and reorganization that, during the 30 years from 1830 to 1860, swept the entire nation to the most distant precinct of the then new West; including a profound stirring of the mind and heart of the educational public in the South, as shown by numbers of remarkable demonstrations by eminent statesmen and educators and public efforts, more or less successful, to establish a state system of education for the poorer white people of that section. CHAPTER^ VII. THE AMERICAN COMMON SCHOOL IN THE SOUTHERN STATES DURING THE FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC, 1790-1840. It is still a favorite theory of a class of the representatives of the higher univer¬ sity and college education to proclaim the invariable legitimate descent of the second¬ ary and even elementary schooling of the people always and everywhere from this fountain head. In one sense this assertion is “ founded on fact.” Ali things in organized society descend from the fountain head of civilization, among the high¬ lands of personal genius, culture, and character, to the lowlands occupied by the masses of mankind. In ages of darkness; in nationalities still brooded over by the shadow- of barbarism; in European kingdoms and empires, where the superior class is secured m the possession of all the great opportunities of life, with the power to transmit them to their children; in all lands where the people have not awakened to the consciousness of the most imperative need and sacred right of man — the need and right to the education that shall develop the nature and faculties of each as a vital element of the general good; it is true that, not only does the superior minority represent this unconscious need and right of the common people, but, as its agent, is intrusted by Providence with the duty of organizing the forces and administering the institutions and systems of all that bears the name of education. But, in proportion as men are relieved from the involved and obstinate bonds by which freedom has been suppressed for ages, have the people asserted their funda¬ mental personal right to the educational training that develojts their individual and social nature and faculties and prepares them for the experience of self-government. With the earliest exercise of this right arises the inevitable conflict of the cultivated class with the unschooled but aspiring masses. Thus, in every modern European nation the higher and professional, even the effective secondary education, strongly intrenched in the union of church and state, has resisted the elementary schooling of the masses save in such quality and quantity as seemed good to these rulers “by divine right.” It has only been after successive periods of civil and religious revo¬ lution on the continent of Europe that the governments have heeded the clamor of the inferior multitude and finally established, in the majority of these countries, a national system of popular education. But still the European continental school systems, from foundation to summit, are practically in the hands of the government — in several of them still implicated with the state church — and represent the w-ell- understood advantages and less commendable defects of this form of administration. In Great Britain the opposite idea has at last prevailed. It is only a quarter of a cen¬ tury since the old time method of government control of a university system, tied up in the bonds of religious exclusiveness, has given place to the present method of sup¬ porting public schools by the subsidizing of all sorts of private and denominational institutions for elementary education, on condition of examination by a government supervisor supplemented by local school boards to supply a marked deficiency of facilities. But here, as always, the fact is apparent that the inauguration and direc¬ tion of popular education jnroceeds from the university and representatives of the 267 268 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. cultivated class, which cooperate to respect and further a universal instinct gradually realized by the masses. As soon as the “common people” begin in earnest to assert the need and right to education, these same representatives of the higher culture, with eminent exceptions, oftener than otherwise are found in combination with a watchful state and church, working at cross purposes with the interest of the people. The original settlers of the first American colonies brought from Europe the notions which, as we have seen in our record of education in the provincial and early days of the Kepublie, were the most obstinate and effectual opponents to the estab¬ lishment of the American common school: (1) The view that the church has the sole and divine right to educate, or at least must hold in its hand the initiative and admin¬ istration of all education in the form of the elementary parochial, secondary, and higher training in the denominational academy and college. (2) The European idea that the government must originate a complete system of education under the form of a university scheme that includes all departments of learning, subsidized by the state. With this idea the leading colleges and universities, from the settlement of the country till the middle of the eighteenth century, were established according to the theory that they represented education itself, and from them must proceed tbe movement downward to the humble ranks of society. In a similar spirit several of the original thirteen colonies attempted an organization which should include all schooling of the people under the form of a state university. The original Harvard University was regarded as the center and soul of the edu¬ cational system of New England. It was established and for more than a century remained, largely under the control of the State. The grammar schools were first made compulsory institutions as an arrangement to supply the materials of its stu¬ dent population, while the elementary schooling was in a fluctuating condition which, even till 1835, left the colleges and academies of Massachusetts still largely in possession of the field. Yale, Williams, Brown, and Dartmouth were, from the first, denominational colleges, neither asking for continuous State support, nor long retained in the enjoyment of its educational benefactions. But Columbia, the Uni¬ versity of Pennsylvania, and William and Mary at first contemplated such a union with the government as should make them the head and front of all else in their respective spheres. In every case the intent was antagonized and finally defeated by the policy of rival sects, which also resisted the growing desire of the people for a definite and effective system of popular education. With the organization of the National Government the same idea appeared in the original establishment in New York of what was called “The University,” with a “board of regents,” and the evident intention that this body should be the great ministry of the government in its entire relation to education. The same arrange¬ ment was made in Georgia which, to-day, by statute includes every school aided by public funds, under the title “ The University of Georgia.” In practice the Common¬ wealths of Pennsylvania and New Jersey seem to have agreed in the liberal subsi¬ dizing of colleges and academies and neglect of interest in the education of the masses. In every Southern State the State university came first, with a more or less liberal subsidizing of academies, with almost total neglect of the public elementary educa¬ tion, till late in the nineteenth century. The most liberal and far-seeing of all these schemes is found in Thomas Jefferson’s plan of education, proposed to Virginia on becoming a State of the Union; a plan to which its author adhered with pathetic obstinacy for half a century, only to see it fall in a mass of ruins, out of which emerged the University of Virginia in 1820. Outside a few local efforts in some of the leading cities, up to the period of the great educational revival of 1830-1840, none of the Southern States had anything which would be regarded to-day as a proper system of common-school educa¬ tion. This powerful movement for the education of the children of all the people gradually extended through the Northern States until, by 1850, all of them had laid the foundation of their present system of popular education. This movement was also felt, especially among the foremost educators, statesmen, and progressive EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 269 people in all tlie Southern States, and led to very interesting and more or less suc¬ cessful efforts to establish a system of elementary instruction for the poorer classes of the white people. Hence the story of the American common-school in the South¬ ern States before 1830-1840 is soon told and, possibly, would be better treated in connection with the movement led by Horace Mann and his associates in 1830-1840, and extending to the present year. Still, it would be doing great injustice to the masses of the people of our Southern States, especially to the record of their great educators, statesmen, and progressive class, to drop these links of the historical chain. For in all these communities the one determined impulse toward universal education is apparent among large numbers even of the humbler sort of the white people. Although the educational movement among the superior classes still held fast by the old European form of the denomina¬ tional college and academy, there was from the beginning an attempt among the people to educate their children. The history of the higher education in the most prominent of these Common¬ wealths has been told in a series of “ Circulars of Information,” published by the National Bureau of Education, in a way that need not in any detail be repeated. But still, the universities, colleges, and academies of these States, up to a period later than 1830-1840, virtually represented the organized educational life of these States, and in a degree attempted to meet the rising demand for the American com¬ mon school. It will therefore be necessary to make a passing record of tlieir'opera- tions during this half century, with an eye especially to their bearing on the “origin of the American common school,” which is the theme of this essay. Here, as else¬ where, Virginia set the keynote, and in abrief record of the great conflict in behalf of the “holy cause” of general education, never absent from the mind and heart of Jeffer¬ son and his educational colleagues for half a century, shall we find our best guide to a fair judgment of the early educational work of all the original States in this section of the country. VIRGINIA. We have already recorded the progress of education in Virginia, from the origin of the colony in 1608 to the establishment of the Commonwealth in 1776. In this period of nearly one hundred and seventy years we find nothing to remind us even of the beginnings of the American common schools, save, perhaps, the action of neighbors in the support of a “field school,” or neighborhood arrangement, tem¬ porary in its character, but the outgrowth of a popular desire for the schooling of the children. At the opposite end of society we have traced the history of William and Mary College through the days of its greatest influence to the edge of its period of declension, accelerated by the removal of the capital from Williamsburg to Richmond. William and Mary was in more than one respect a government college, according to the pattern of the English universities. It was the creature of the home government, named from the two great sovereigns of the new regime, repre¬ sented by a member in the provincial legislature, partly supported by public funds, a vital part of the established church of Virginia, situated at the focus of the civic, social, and ecclesiastical life of the colony. Until the breaking out of the war of independence, it commanded the entire approbation of the foremost society of the province and educated such of the promising young men as were not sent abroad or to the Northern colleges. But, with these advantages, it was, from the first, a fit representative of the old-time high aristocratic side of Virginia, and did not attract students from a rising and most important class of the population. The first educational protest against this policy came from the Presbyterian emi¬ gration to the State, about the middle of the eighteenth century. As early as 1738 the Synod of Philadelphia had petitioned Governor Gooch, himself a Scotchman, in behalf of the religious toleration of the Presbyterian people, then emigrating to Virginia. A favorable response was followed by that remarkable movement of the 270 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Scotch, Nortk-Irisk, and German Protestant people that gave a sort of backbone to the original colony of the old Atlantic South. An early result was the establishment of an academy in Prince Edward County in 1776, under the rectorship of Rev. Sam¬ uel Stanhope Smith, an eminent missionary of this faith, a native of Pennsylvania and a graduate of the College of New Jersey. In 1777 the name of the academy was changed to Hampden-Sydney, compounded of the names of the two great English representatives of civil liberty. The academy developed to the college of that name, which still remains an honored and moderately prosperous college of the conventional type. Until later days, always stinted for the means of support, this institution has graduated many influential men, and numbers of the most successful college men of the South have been connected with its faculty. It established the first theological and model medical school of the State, both of which are still in existence. But its most notable reputation for our purpose is that it was the first declaration of inde¬ pendence from the educational idea of a church and state college under which Virginia had lived until well into the second century of her history. Its higher educational department dates from the administration of President J. P. Cushing, elected to the presidency in 1821. President Cushing was a native of New Hampshire and a graduate of Phillips Exeter Academy. During his administration of fourteen years a proper faculty was organized and the basis of collegiate education laid. But while the Presbyterian Church was in the American colonies, as abroad, a staunch representative of liberty in civic affairs and religious freedom, as far as tho emancipation of the polity of the church from the rule of Rome and the great British State establishment was concerned, being tire first organization of the Chris¬ tian religion, in modern days in which the Christian people appear as the foundation of ecclesiastical power, its ecclesiasticism was still a bar to a further expansion of the colonial educational mind. Almost contemporaneous in point of time came tho movement by which a Presbyterian academy at Lexington, Va., in the Shenandoah Valley, was dedicated as “Liberty Hall,” in 1782 receiving tho first charter of an educational institution made by tho new Commonwealth of Virginia. In 1796 George Washington proposed to devote to an institution of learning tho 100 shares of stock of tho James River Company presented him by his native State. Liberty Llall was selected as the recipient of the bounty and its name changed to AVashing- ton Academy. By aid of this donation, now represented by a fund of $50,000, and another from the bequest of the Association of the Cincinnati of Virginia, amounting to $23,000, and a third of $40,000 from the estate of John Robinson, the academy blos¬ somed into Washington College, and, as a vigorous and well-supported institution, went on its way till the close of the civil war, when it was baptized anew into the name “ Washington and Lee,” under the presidency of the most distinguished commander of the Confederate armies. While this college never contributed to tho cause of popular education, yet through its president, Dr. Henry Ruffner, it made a most remarkable protest against the institution of slavery that defied the unanimity of sentiment that prevailed before the civil war. His son, Dr. William H. Ruffner, was tho first State superintendent of education of Virginia, still the most notable South¬ ern educator of late enlisted in the cause of the people’s school, the Horace Mann of the South. A generation later, in 1829-30, the growing Methodist denomination of the South established the largest institution of the higher education in another part of the State, in Randolph-Macon College. First set’ up in Mecklenburg County, on the borders of North Carolina, it took to itself the names of the two Representatives in Congress from the adjoining districts, Randolph and Macon. At the close of the civil war, the college was removed to Ashland, near Richmond, where it now flourishes, one of the most noted and useful of all the great schools of the State. From the first this col^ lege has been characterized by a certain progressive spirit and broad catholicity of administration. As early as 1839, long before such a movement was entertained by the older colleges of the nation, it established a department of English under the charge of Prof. E. D. Sims, and to tho present day has been known as a persistent EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 271 representative of that important study. In 1839 it combined with this another new departure in a resolution by its trustees, “That, as soon as practicable, the trustees of Randolph-Macon College will establish a normal school, as a department in the college, in which a good and liberal English education can be obtained and which, in its organization, shall be especially fitted to educate common- school teachers, and that the professor of English literature shall be the rector thereof/’ The rapidly increasing Methodist body thus, at a period of thirty years before the establishment of the present system of common schools in Virginia, recognized tho importance of lifting the inefficient and unpopular “free school ” of the Old Dominion into respect¬ ability through the influence of superior teaching. The elective system of studies was also established on the removal of the collego in 1868. It is not remarkable that in an educational atmosphere so genial, a group of the mosj progressive and distinguished of the college men of the South has been found in Professor Price, now of Columbia College, New York; Dr. Deems, late of the Church of the Strangers, New York; Professor Lujrton, Chancellor Garland, Bishop McTyeire, and Professor Baskerville, of Vanderbilt University ; Superintendent P9ay, of Richmond; Profes¬ sor "Woodward, of South Carolina College; Professor Sharpe, of Tulane; Professor Edwards, now of Michigan Agricultural College, and others, including its present able and energetic president, Dr. W. W. Smith. Emory and Henry College, planted in an ideal situation in southwest Virginia in 1833-34 by the untiring zeal of Rev. Creed Fulton, enjoyed an honorable and pros¬ perous career until the civil war. It still needs only the good will of faithful friends to make it one of tho most valuable of the higher schools cf the great mining, manufacturing, and agricultural realm of southwest Virginia, which is not excelled by any portion of the United States in its resources and capable, by fair treatment, of becoming itself a prosperous State. Emory and Henry shares this opportunity with Roanoke College, established by the Lutheran body before the civil war, now in a steady course of development. It now shares with the reorganized William and Mary the peculiar merit of sustaining a professor of pedagogy and a historian of education in Dr. Painter. One of the most prosperous and useful institutions of learning now in Virginia, Richmond College, owes its existence to a movement in 1830 by the Virginia Baptist Education Society, “to devise and propose some plan for the improvement of young men who, in the judgment of the churches, are called to the work of the ministry. ” The result of this effort for two years was the placing of thirteen young men in private schools. But in 1832 the society bought a tract of land 4 miles from Rich¬ mond and oj)ened a manual-labor school, called “Virginia Baptist Seminary." Two prominent clergymen of the denomination, Drs. Rylandand Ball, instructed twenty- six students in the elements of an English and classical education; the majority with a view to the Christian ministry. In 1833 the institution was removed to its present site, now in the corporation of Richmond. Land was acquired with a view of extending the manual-labor feature, but this impracticable device for “working out an education” failed here, as everywhere, and was abandoned in 1841. From this humble beginning this institution wrought steadily and honestly at the problem of building up a genuine college until 1850, when it may be said to have been fairly established on its present foundation. Although greatly disturbed by the civil war, it was thoroughly reorganized and liberally endowed on the return of peace and is now one of the most reliable of the denominational colleges of the State. Besides the extended reputation of its early faculty in church circles, Rich¬ mond College has given to the larger educational movement since 1865 two men of national distinction — President Charles L. Cocke, for many years and still at the head of Hollins Institute, one of the best known and most substantial institutions in the South for the superior instruction of girls, and Dr. J. L. M. Curry, for a time professor and now president of the college board of trustees, at present best known of all educators in the Southern States as general agent of the George Peabody educational fund and of the Slater fund for the industrial and normal training of 272 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. colored youth. The history of the gradual growth of Richmond College to its present honorable position, is in one important respect characteristic and worthy of imitation, namely, the honest and persistent intention of its management from the first to avoid exaggeration, work within its means, and make no professions it was not prepared to verify. All but four of these collegiate schools of Virginia were established previous to 1830-1840. It is a signal triumph of the common-school idea that the ancient college of William and Mary, finally rejected by Jefferson for obstinate opposition to his scheme of education a hundred years ago, is now in its reorganization practically a State normal school for young men, with a larger attendance than in the best days of its old renown. All these institutions, established before the period now considered, doubtless con¬ tributed to keep alive the desire for an effective system of popular education; each in its own way, sometimes despite of itself, being made to work toward the coming policy of the New Dominion, the system of common schools for both races and all classes established in 1870. But the University of Virginia, by its very origin, was more closely identified with the original conception of popular education. The details of the establishment and subsequent history of this, for half a century the leading Southern university, are so thoroughly giv^n in the admirable u Circular of Information’’ by Prof. Herbert B. Adams, of Johns Hopkins University, “ Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia,” including its relations to the general educa¬ tion of the State, that we content ourselves with a reference to this work and a passing notice. We have already told the deeply interesting story of the original conception of a system of education for the whole people of Virginia, including the emancipation and schooling of the colored folk, as outlined in Jefferson’s “ Notes on Virginia,” and brought forward at the organization of the Commonwealth in 1776. Also, the practical failure of the popular side of the scheme in 1796, through that most ingenious method of “ heading off” a plan of universal education, a permissive law, placing the initiative of every public school of the State in the hands of the county magistrates, the men of all others who would “ have none of it.” From that date, possibly owing to the preoccupation of Jefferson in national affairs, the movement was delayed until 1810, when the literary fund was established from “certain endowments, penalties, and forfeitures, to the encouragement of learning.” Five years later this was made a substantial reality by the addition of the large sum due from the United States to the Commonwealth. During all these years, an entire generation from the time when the great project of Jefferson was broached, despite the persistent agitation by the great statesman and his most influential friends, Washington, Madison, Monroe, Marshall, and Cabell, the State had hung back from any practical scheme of popular education, even for the majority of the white population. Baffled at every step in the project nearest his heart, the mind' and will of Jefferson more and more centered on the only practi¬ cable part of his large plan, the establishment of a university on the broadest foundations, combining the most advanced ideas for a great training school of the new American civilization, that would become in time the proper head of the educa¬ tional scheme of the State. Jefferson’s extended correspondence with the most eminent educators of Europe and America during these forty years, if collected and properly edited with fit historical and biographical environment, would be a most valuable treatise for the use especially of the educational public of the South. In 1816, the literary fund having grown to the sum of $1,000,000, the board of direct¬ ors, a sort of extemporized State board of education, of which Governor Nicholas was president, was invited by the legislature to report “a system of public education, including a university, to be called the University of Virginia, and such additional colleges, academies, and schools as should diffuse the benefits of education through the Commonwealth.” From this sprung up a vigorous correspondence, in which large numbers of celebrated educators at home and abroad were called to give their EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 273 opinions in regard to an ideal school. As usual, each “ great educator ” addressed presented his own ideal, probably not then realized upon earth, and altogether a mass of very interesting educational literature was placed before the board of direct¬ ors. But Virginia was not yet to be the leader of the educational column. It was no part of the policy of any class, or of any save a select body of the most eminent statesmen and educators of the State, to open the gates of knowledge even to the masses of their own race. The disappointing outcome of the prayers, toil, and sacri¬ fice of forty years was the law of 1818, appropriating the sum of $45,000, accruing from the income of the literary fund for the schooling of “poor children/’ under the direc¬ tion of commissioners of the local courts of each county. These children were to be selected and, with the consent of their parents or guardians, sent to a competent school to he taught the elements of knowledge; supplies were to be paid lor out of the moneys appropriated to the school. Along with this went an appropriation of $15,000 for the support of “The University of Virginia." On this perilous edge of failure did Jefferson and his friends rally for the upbuild¬ ing of the university. A favorable commission of location chose Albemarle County. A generous donation of land on an ideal site fixed the destiny of the school. A series of loans amounting to $180,000 from the literary fund, afterwards remitted by the legislature, placed in the hands of the executive committee the means of putting on the ground the most unique and probably the most attractive group of university buildings then in the Union. Professors from abroad, including the famous Professor Cooper, son-in-law of Dr. Joseph Priestley, then living in Pennsylvania, himself deeply interested in education, though under the ban of belief in an advanced religious creed, were brought to the new foundation. Jefferson, the head and front of the enterprise, proposed with great enthusiasm a scheme of university education, at that time undoubtedly the broadest and most practical in the country, which, as far as possible, was adopted by the management. From the imposing height of Monticello the old statesman through his telescope watched the growth of the school, practically directed the organization, and till the day of his death, in 1826, was its real president. TYithout doubt the organization of a university on a plan so progressive, especially its freedom from sectarian control, though with steadfast adherence to the funda¬ mental faiths of religion and morality, its elective system of study, its broad and benevolent scheme of discipline, its appeal to the pride of a Commonwealth, with only one political rival in the growing power of New York, was a pledge given by Virginia to the coming generation that m due time 'the education of the masses of her people should be equally considered. But it was also inevitable that, after the death of Jefferson, the university should naturally pass under the control of the dominant influence of the class which was committed to the policy then upxiermost in favor. Jefferson could not fail to realize with what a pittance the State was put¬ ting off the majority of her children in the apology for universal education offered by the “poor school,” treated with undisguised contempt by “the poor” to whom it was offered even to the opening of the civil war. Of course, with the colleges and numerous academies, fifty in number, that grew up in all parts of the State, includ¬ ing several valuable female seminaries, and the persistent habit of the wealthy people of schooling its children in the North and abroad, the leading favored class built itself up to a condition of power and national consideration always possible under such conditions. The University of Virginia in time became the most prominent institution of the higher education in all the South and one of the most character¬ istic and influential seats of learning in the Union through the years before the civil war. This is not the place to discuss or even describe the sources of its greatness or its peculiar influence on the rise and development of the educational spirit of the section, all of which will be found so ably and even affectionately set forth in the documents of the National Bureau of Education already referred to. Jefferson died in deep disappointment because of the virtual failure of his grand scheme for the education of the people of his beloved Commonwealth. The words 274 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. in which lie published liis sorrows, in his declining years, are among the most power¬ ful and prophetic in the educational literature of the Republic. But their fulfillment can be traced in the illiteracy that so widely prevailed up to a late date in this proud old Commonwealth, especially through the interesting country beyond the mountains, including the present State of West Virginia and the southwestern section of the Old Dominion. The period now under consideration was not the day of educational statistics, and only by side glimpses and incidental revelations can it be understood how deeply the State of Jefferson suffered for its long delay in accepting his gospel of the true democracy— the education of the whole people for republican citizenship. In 1820 alterations in the permissive laws were made by which the benefits of free primary schooling were extended to all classes of white children. The county could bo laid off into districts of 6 miles square. As soon as the people of one of these districts had raised three-fifths of the sum to build a schoolhouse the remaining two- fifths might bo appropriated from the State literary fund, provided it did not exceed one-tenth the sum due the district from the State. There was the attempt to frame something resembling a general system of common schools; but with the small sum of $45,000 for a State which in 1831 contained 700,000 white people and not less than 100,000 children and youth of proper school age, and, with the extreme improba¬ bility that the counties most in need of education would act, or the schools thus established would be worth attending, there was very remote prospect of any con¬ siderable result. In fact, in 1840 the number of children in the State in attendance on the State schools was only 27,598, one-fifth of all the children between 8 and 15 years of age. The other four-fifths were being educated by the more popular neigh¬ borhood field, private, and denominational methods, or not schooled at all. A picturesque description of one of the better sort of the numerous Virginia “field schools’7 of the old time would give a hint that a good deal was going on in this region of educational enterprise and even during these years was germinating the seeds of a great revival of education. It will be a grateful task to record how, during the period 1840-1860, an increasing body of the most eminent men of Virginia called the attention of the people to the imperious educational needs of the time in a way, not only powerful and patriotic, but proi)hetic of wdiat was in store in a still far off future, when, rising from the awful wreck of war, this grand old Commonwealth, dismembered of a noble estate, should turn at last to the counsels of its great educa¬ tional statesman in the establishment of the complete American system of common schools for all her people, realizing the idea of Jefferson in a way more in harmony with the ideals of the present age. And when, in the summer of 1879, the University of Virginia opened her doors to the first State institute of teachers, it required no poetic imagination to fancy the marble statue of the illustrious apostle of freedom and education extending his hand in benediction, recalling the prediction that he and his aged friend, John Adams, from their abode in Heaven, should look down with rapture on what both had so long desired but had 11 died without the sight.77 MARYLAND. Whatever credit may be accorded to the original government of the province of Maryland for the assertion and maintenance of religious liberty under the adminis¬ tration of Lord Baltimore, there is no evidence that, during the long half century from 1634 to 1689, the government had done anything noteworthy for education . The only attempt to found a school under governmental auspices, in 1671, failed and was never revived. The failure was doubtless more the result of the semi feudal and intensely aristocratic structure of society than from the lack of zeal in a priesthood alwaysready to fortify their church, at least by an establishment of the higher edu¬ cation. It has been well stated that the original Massachusetts law, compelling every neighborhood of fifty families to establish a school, would have been of impos- Bible enforcement in Maryland from the fact that nowhere, outside a few hamlets, wero there as many households within sufficient distance of each other for such asso¬ ciation. EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 275 Originally apart of tlie vast territory of Virginia, the one early attempt in Mary¬ land to fonnd a school of the higher education was swallowed up by the new enter¬ prise that placed on the soil of the Old Dominion the college of William and Marj~. But the wealthy and ruling families of the new colony dutifully sent hack their sons to England or France for education, according to their religious conuections, and the children that were educated at home depended on family instruction or such “aid and comfort” as might he obtained from the very questionable class of tramping schoolmasters ; some of them drawn from the crowd of indentured servants ; too many of them of personal ill repute. The overthrow of the Lord Baltimore regime and the substitution of a Protestant policy at the beginning of the eighteenth century mark the first departure of the government in behalf of education. But until the year 1865 the people of Maryland, outside one or two localities, were educationally in the hands of a class of leaders who seem never to have broadly apprehended the significance of the American com¬ mon school. From an early day, a full century before the organization of the National Government, there was a growing, often a vigorous desire, for something that would offer the “great American chance” to the children who were being trained to face the tremendous crisis of the conflict for national independence. But the triple-headed rock on which every movement successively foundered was : (1) The establishment of a system of county academies of the old English free-school pattern, subsidized by the State. These schools were really of the secondary classical type, though proposing to deal with the elementary training of children for their own preparatory work. But these were not supported from below by any general system of elementary schooling and, after a few abortive attempts to found a college or university, had no outlook above. The majority of them were managed by a close corporation after its first appointment by the government, shut out from all publie or private interference. They were all tied to the Church of England, and honored the Archbishop of Canterbury as their head. In all but the small subsidizing by the colonial government they were in no sense public schools according to the American idea. (2) This very organization was the cause of the pecuniary failure into which they all sunk at last, as into a common pit of impecuniosity. There was no public sense of obligation to support them by a tolerable dispensation of State aid. The school revenue was obtained by a system of taxation on the most important production of the colony, with all the vices and none of the virtues of a tariff levied for revenue or protection. Thus, with no provision for what was most needed — a system of ele¬ mentary education — the mass of the people during the entire colonial period seem to have been chiefly interested, first, in a successful attempt to destroy the colleges in behalf of the academies in which they had somewhat of an interest, and later the unsuccessful effort to divert the small annuity from these to the elementary schools. Instead of being instructed according to the American common-school way— even then in full operation in New England — of putting their hands in their pockets for the public education of the children, these people were divided over the appropria¬ tion of a meager pittance doled out from funds not collected by taxation, now to this and now to that style of educational arrangement. As a result of the lack of the higher education there was no body of competent teachers to make the academies what they should be. It was estimated that in thirty years a sum of money had been sent to the city of Philadelphia alone, for the annual superior training of one hundred boys, amounting to $500,000, which, added to the large expense of the higher schooling abroad, would with proper economy have made a solid foundation for a common-school system for the whole people. (3) Even more fatal was the common blunder of this group of Southwestern Middle States — New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware— of confining the pub¬ lic money spent for education to the support of the children of the poor. Lender the colonial life, not yet emancipated from European ideas, this expedient was never grateful to the recipients, and fixed the stigma of **' pauper school ” on the 276 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. whole arrangement. But after the beginning of the national life it was always and everywhere an invidious and hateful method, entailing inevitable failure on every school entangled with it. Complicated as it was in Maryland, even in the somewhat advanced law of 1825, with the permissive clause which enabled any community to refuse to adopt the system, the fate of public education from the first was doomed to the judgment pro¬ nounced by Governor Lyon in 1855. After more than two hundred years of effort as colony and Commonwealth to educate her people, it was declared by the chief execu¬ tive magistrate of the State that “ our school system, except in Baltimore, is in a state of most utter and hopeless prostration. Our plan of public instruction must he reconstructed anew; made uniform in its operations through the State; supported more liberally by State and county revenues, and, above all, it should be subject to some controlling and primary power, through which all operations should he annually collected and made public, or it will fail to meet the exigency of our con¬ dition or be attended with any public benefit.” Our review of the pre-Revolutionary educational history of Maryland has suffi¬ ciently illustrated this general statement of the causes of failure of the public-school effort, while it has accounted for the wealth of culture and patriotic character developed by the first great effort for national life. The history of the higher education has already been told in a “circular of information,” from the National Bureau of Edu¬ cation. It only remains to briefly indicate the successive attempts of the legisla¬ ture to respond to the growing demand of the people of Maryland during the first fifty years of the Republic for the educational opportunities that never came, save as a sequel to the great war of emancipation from the most formidable obstacle to the American common school, the institution of negro slavery. This institution had lingered in Maryland for fifty years previous only as a burden on the progress of that Commonwealth so favored by nature, and to-day becoming one of the com¬ manding educational centers of the Union. In 1790 the population of Maryland was 300,000. The only public provision for education was the establishment of the “free school” or academy, already described, in a majority of the counties of the State. Of the fifteen foundations of this sort seven were afterwards consolidated with institutions of the secondary grade, four were abolished, one became an elementary school, and two were utilized for the support of the poor. The constitution of 1776 contained no provision for education. In 1805 the support of the State was withdrawn from colleges, and the nominal “University of Maryland,” composed of Washington and St. John’s colleges, collapsed. The funds thus diverted from the higher education were now concentrated, for a quarter of a century, upon the attempt to develop the academic system of the separate counties. Several new academies were chartered, some of which succeeded and are flourishing institutions at the present day. In 1802 a medical school was established in Balti¬ more, which in 1807 was chartered as The Medical College of Maryland, with per¬ mission to work a $40,000 lottery for its support. In 1812 this school put forth the departments of divinity, letters, and arts, and assumed the title of University of Maryland, but the only result was the securing of good medical and literary schools. At a later date, in 1825, the Maryland Institute of Mechanic Arts was chartered at Baltimore, with provision for fifty free scholarships. The foundation has become one of the real schools of the State ; has instructed 17,000 students, and to-day is probably in its highest condition of usefulness. During all this half century the legislature was busy with the chartering of many private and denominational schools, with statutes in behalf of education in separate communities, probably all of more or less value; but nothing in the direction of the establishment of a practical working system of common schools. The disestablishment of the Episcopal Church at the organization of the State government in 1776 sent forth more than fifty clergymen of this faith, only seven of whom returned to England, many of them becoming teachers, to the advantage of that fraternity. The chronic plague of the vagrant schoolmaster seems EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 277 to have been severely felt in Maryland even to a late day. Many of these people were little better than tramps — drunkards, ignorant; in all ways contemptible as teachers of children. The lack of fit home instruction sent multitudes of the superior students to the neighboring States of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, even farther north, for university opportunities. Up to the year 1812 “the elementary education was still a matter of private con¬ cern, except as the academies performed the office of primary schooling.” Each of the fifteen chartered academies was governed by a close corporation of trustees. In 1814 the fortunes of persons dying intestate were appropriated for the schools of Baltimore, and provisions for the schooling of needy orphans at public expense were made by law. In 1812 the first important essay at public aid for primary education was made by a tax on bank stock and some other sources of revenue. In 1816, $50,000 a year was voted for five years’ instruction of the poor, the funds to be raised by a lottery. In 1821 another attempt was made to move the National Government to a plain act of justice by including the original thirteen States in the gift of Western lands for universal education. Maryland especially would seem to have had a claim to this distribution, as it was the action of her Representatives in the Congress of the Con¬ federation that set in motion the scheme for the magnificent land grant to ail of the new States admitted to the Union. An elaborate report was made and resolutions passed, which were sent to all the States, with no important result. In 1823 it was enacted that every academy should educate free one pupil for every $100 received from the State. In 1825 the popular demand had become so urgent that a decided new departure was inaugurated. Mr. Littleton Dennis Teackle was appointed chairman of a legis¬ lative committee to report a system of common-school instruction for the white chil¬ dren of the Commonwealth. After due investigation, the committee came under the influence of the Lancasterian system of instruction by monitors which at this time was in full operation in New York and Philadelphia and largely dominated the official mind of the country. An elaborate plan was offered and adopted. But a great merit seemed to be found in the fact that, by this system, where 300 to 500 children would be under the supervision of one master on a salary of $300 per annum, the entire white youth of the State could be educated for 62 cents per head. The system included: (1) A State superintendency of education; (2) the appointment of nine commission¬ ers in each county by the governor and council; (3) “suitable” trustees, elected for each school district into which the county had been divided by the commissioners, and eighteen discreet persons, also appointed by the commissioners, to form with them a body of school inspectors. The commissioners were to divide the county into districts, examine and approve teachers, distribute the public money, and exercise a general supervision over the working of the system. The public money was to be paid only for the support of teachers. But this remarkable law bore in its own vitals the fatal disease of “local option;” for it was only permissive, the public funds being dispensed on a poll of the legal voters. It never went into full operation in any county; thirteen only adopted and six rejected it. In 1828 the governor reported the law; a practical failure. The State superintendency, held by Mr. Teackle, was abolished, not to be resumed till 1856. The accomplished author of Education in Maryland ascribes the failure to the lack of training in local affairs by the people and indifference and opposition to public taxation for public education. Yet the educational policy of the State since the year of its settlement had been working toward the schooling of all the children. The city of Baltimore, by this law, was empowered to organize a system of public schools, through the appoint¬ ment of commissioners by the city government. In 1825 commissioners were ap¬ pointed who projected a system of elementary education to be put on the ground after five years. In 1828 it was ordered that six elementary schools for boys and six 278 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. for girls should he established. But the funds were not forthcoming, and, in 1829, two schools for males and one for females were opened, on the Lancasterian plan, with one paid teacher for 300 children. The system slowly made head, and it was not till ten years later, 1839, on the establishment of the boys’ high school (now Baltimore City College) and two of similar grade for girls, that the system found itself with a head and entered upon that career of success which has brought the city of Baltimore abreast with the other lnetnrpolitan centers of public education. Baltimore now enjoys a generous system of education*, public and endowed, in its common schools, in the State Normal College, the Johns Hopkins University, and the Peabody Institute, with several foundations of wide reputation for the superior education of girls, industrial and art training, and charitable institutions of the educational type, crowned by the admirable free library, the gift of- Mr. Enoch Pratt. With the inauguration of the elementary school system of 1825 there broke out a war upon the chartered academies of the State, with the view of transferring the funds dedicated to them to the new common schools. But this made no sensible impression on the policy of the State in this respect. Meanwhile, the public-school fund had grown from taxes of various descriptions and through a considerable sum from the national “surplus revenue” donated to all the States in 1836. In 1840 there were in Maryland 12 “colleges,” with 813 students ; 133 academies and grammar schools, with 4,289 pupils; 565 primary schools, with 16,851 scholars, 6,624 of whom were receiving public aid. The number of white adult illiterates in the Commonwealth was rej>orted as 11,891. This record of public education in Maryland is relieved, as in all the Southern States, by eminent examples of the efforts of educational reformers and the gradual growth of a popular demand for better things. But, until 1865, at the close of the civil war, nothing essentially different was attempted. DELAWAEE. Although, in population among the least, and next to the least in size of the forty- four States, Delaware, m her educational history, presents an impressive object lesson on the efforts of her people to overcome the vexatious obstacles to the union of the divers nationalities, sects, and conditions of people of which her population has been made up. Delaware was first settled and governed by the Swedes and Finns, from 1638 to 1655. It was then a Dutch colonial appendage to New York for nine years. In 1664 it passed under English rule. In 1682 the Duke of York ceded to William Benn the two lower counties of Delaware. After an unsuccessful attempt at independence, in 1691, the territory was finally separated from Pennsylvania in 1702, though still under the nominal governorship of Pennsylvania until the close of the Eevolutionary war. As if worried to the last point of public endurance by this game of political battledoor ‘and shuttlecock, Delaware fled to the national cover, becoming the first State that gave its assent to the Union in 1787. The story of the efforts of this original colony of Swedes to perpetuate themselves as a Swedish people in a new country, their obstinate attachment to their own lan¬ guage and the old-country method of combining the church and school during the one hundred and fifty years before this little community of at best 1,200 people was finally merged in the rising tide of British life, might well be published as an instructive lesson to some of our recent European immigrants who incline to the same exclusive policy. Enough to say, that while it is probable these people, chiefly of the humbler sort, were after a fashion able to keep up the home custom of reading their own language, it was fifty years before a school got on its legs and as long before a gift of books came from the Swedish Government with schoolmasters to teach the children to read them. That a people descended from a population so generally intelligent and well-instructed as the Swedes of three centuries ago should have thus struggled for one hundred and fifty years against the prevailing tendency of the new American life, only at last to be swallowed up beyond future recognition, EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 279 is one of tlio convincing proofs of the absurdity of seeking to perpetuate on Ameri¬ can soil any state of society antagonistic to republican ideas and the inevitable abolition of European distinctions in the national character. Even less satisfactory is the record of the brief period of the Dutch occupation of Delaware as a distant suburb of Manhattan Island from 1655 to the conquest of New York by the English in 1664. Despite the vigorous effort to deprive New England of her well-earned reputation as the mother of the American common school, there was little in the original efforts of the Dutch colony, either in New York or the adja¬ cent States, to reveal anything beyond the ordinary parochial school of the day; even at that a feeble imitation of what was a vigorous system over the sea. The Dutch in Delaware seem to have been even less fortunate in securing educational facilities for their children than their brethren in New York, and the little that was achieved was lost in the opening years of the Revolutionary epoch. We have already, in the early history of education in Pennsylvania, given the record of the Society of Friends in regard to universal education. Even the exclu¬ sive sectarian type of their schools seems not to have benefited the province of Del¬ aware while it was a portion of the vast domain of William Penn. Not until 1784 was a denominational school established in Wilmington, Del., by this people, who probably were not in great force in this province. In the possession of a printing press Delaware and Georgia were the least favored of the American colonies, for not until 1761 did a printer take up his abode in Delaware, and but one newspaper was started before the Revolution. Beyond the passing of several acts confirming grants for schools in connection with churches, etc., there was no early attempt at State aid for education in Delaware. The first constitution of the State, in 1792, contained no reference to education. The revised constitution in 1831 directs the legislature “to provide by law for the estab¬ lishment of schools and promoting arts and sciences.” By successive laws of 1796-97 and 1806, the latter law enacted to continue in force till 1820, an attempt was made to establish a State school fund from various licenses. This, with such bequests and gifts as might come from individuals, was to be invested in bank stocks in Delaware and Pennsylvania, with a provision that none of it should be appropriated for the secondary or higher education. A subsequent law empow¬ ered the government to divert this revenue to the support of the courts, with promise of future restitution. It was not till 1817, thirty years from the foundation of the State, that $1,000 was appropriated from this fund “to furnish instruction to the chil¬ dren of poor parents in reading, writing, and arithmetic.” But the protest against the Old World discrimination of the “least favored” of the people came swiftly on the heels of the effort, and the widespread discontent engendered by the attempt to enforce the law paralyzed the common-school movement for years to come. Here came out, in strong relief, the intensely aristocratic spirit of the superior society of Delaware, which, although long retained iu the school geographies as one of the “Middle States,” was, from the first, most thoroughly Southern and slaveholding till the close of the civil war. Probably the only American State that has taken the original Sunday School idea of Robert Raikes into its educational system is Delaware. In 1821 the State pro¬ vided that every school held on the Sabbath day for the instruction of white children should be subsidized at the rate of 20 cents per capita. In 1829 there were nineteen schools of this sort, receiving the aggregate sum of $224. This feature is still retained in the common-school system of the State, and each of its counties receives annually $500 for the maintenance of Sunday schools. Here is perpetuated the old English idea of subsidizing the schools of the different religious sects. But no effort at amendment could reconcile the people of Delaware to the stigma of pauperism injected into the public-school system by even a benevolent dis¬ crimination in behalf of the poor. In this as in other States the foremost public men recognized the fundamental need of the people long before the church or the 280 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. legislative bodies were prepared to surrender to the inevitable American common- school idea. From 1822 till 1829 a succession of governors urged in vain upon the legislature the establishment of a genuine system of public instruction. In 1829 the State school fund amounted to $151,643, with the meager annual income of $9,255 — a bare suggestion of the sum required for even the elementary schooling of the white children of the State. At this crisis, as in so many similar emergencies, New England came to the rescue in the person of Hon. Willard Hall, for forty-eight years United States district judge for Delaware. Born in Massachusetts in 1780, a student at Harvard College with William Ellery Channing, Joseph Story, and Lemuel Shaw, he came to Delaware in 1803, and, till the day of his death in 1875, was in almost constant receipt of public honors. He was appointed secretary of state in 1811, 1814, and 1821, a member of the State senate in 1822, and of the constitutional convention in 1831 ; the compiler of “ The Laws of Delaware to 1829, Inclusive.” As early as 1822 his attention was attracted to the discouraging condition of popular education in the State and he became a resolute advocate of school reform from the first successful legislation in behalf of common schools till the establishment of the present public-school system in 1875. The law of 1829 empowered the levy court to appoint five commissioners for each of the three counties, to divide the county into school districts in which no child should be more than 2 miles distant from a public elementary school, free to all white children and youth between the ages of 5 and 21. The voters of each district might choose a clerk and 2 school commissioners and determine how much money should be raised by taxation, subscription, or other contributions to supplement the appor¬ tionment of the State fund. The erecting of school buildings and all matters con¬ nected with the support of the schools were there determined. A significant illus¬ tration of the estimate of woman teachers appears in the provision to supply a female teacher, “ when small children can attend school and others are engaged in the common occupations of the country.” No district could receive from the State board a larger sum than appropriated by itself. The governor could appoint a superintendent of schools for each county for a year, who, without compensation, should report the condition of the schools to the State. Here, as always, the permissive character of the statute greatly impaired the suc¬ cess of this otherwise progressive law. At first the people seem to have rallied and by 1833 133 districts had been organized. But the people had not been instructed in the alphabet of popular education, the habit of taxing themselves for a common school. The history of this movement for the next forty years, till 1875, is the old story of the persistent effort of a few eminent friends of education, under their brave and faithful leader, Judge Hall, to stir up legislatures and arouse the people in behalf of the most vital interest of the Commonwealth. In 1836 a common-school conven¬ tion was held at Wilmington, with Judge Hall as president, which almost became one of the permanent institutions of the State for twenty years. By its suggestion a portion of the United States “surplus revenue” received by the State was divided among the counties for educational purposes. In order to encourage the reluctant taxpayers, it was enacted in 1837 that the small sum of $25, raised by taxation, should enable a district to receive State aid. By 1843 the school fund reached the sum of $183,000; there were 182 schools in operation, with 6,148 pupils, supported at an expense of $32,000. Up to the year 1818 the higher education had no position in Delaware. The sons of the superior families were educated in the various colleges of the country, and teachers from other States were employed as private tutors in families and to fit youth at home for college. In 1818 the Newark Academy was authorized to raise $50,000 by lottery to establish a college. In 1821 a tax on steamboat and stage lines was added to its. emoluments. In 1835 a further permission to raise another $50,000 by lottery was given. Newark College was established and buildings erected in 1833. EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 281 Among the eminent men appointed as trustees of the institution we come upon the familiar name of Willard Hall, whoso life for a full half century seems to have heen hound up in this sacred cause. The college was opened in 1834 with 10 professors, and Dr. Gilbert, a native of New York, was appointed to the presidency. He resigned in 1835 from conscientious scruples concerning the support of the college by a lottery and general discouragement. His successor remained in office but five years, and in 1840 the college had but 42 students, 19 in the preparatory department, although in former years the number had reached 71. Dr. Gilbert returned to the presidency in 1840. The continued progress of the institution, thus founded in the day of small things, will be noted elsewhere. It appears as a recognized Delaware State college in 1869. But from its foundation till 1850 there were but 77 graduates, and but 270 till 1892. The roll includes a large proportion of the distinguished men of Delaware, with students from some other States. In 1829 the public schools of Wilmington, the chief and the only considerable city in the State, were brought to the head and front of common school education in Delaware. Beginning with 10 districts, 8 of them in 1834 united in a union school. In 1836 there were 716 pupils and instructors. The present excellent system of com¬ mon schools in Wilmington practically dates from the year 1852, when, by special act, a complete system of popular instrtiction was established under the control of a school board elected by the citizens with power to act. NORTH CAROLINA. While the colonies and Commonwealths of Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware through the two and a half centuries of their history previous to the great civil war of 1860-1865, despite the teaching of their great educational statesmen, Jefferson and his associates, held fast to the aristocratic British ideals of school organization and administration, North Carolina, both as a province and a State, from the first was moved by a distinct purpose to afford the opportunity of instruction to the masses , of her white population. The limitations both of the ecclesiastical and civic policy of the colonial government repressed every considerable attempt in this direction pre¬ vious to the Revolution. But the elements of a defiant patriotism had already been gathering, largely through the incoming of the Presbyterian people moving down the slopes and valleys of the Appalachian region and appearing in North Carolina in 1736. No colony was ahead of the old North province in the disposition to “show fight ” for American independence. Baffled in the effort to establish a university of the progressive type by the veto of the home government, the people rallied about the few academies of the superior sort open to their children and, at an early period of the war of independence, their representatives placed in the first constitution of 1776 the comprehensive declaration, almost a verbal reproduction of a similar clause in the new constitution of Pennsylvania: “A school or schools shall be established by the legislature for the convenient instruction of youth, with such salaries to the masters, paid by the public, as may enable them to instruct at low prices ; and all useful learning shall be duly encouraged and promoted in one or more universities.” It has already been sufficiently explained why the original States beyond the Hudson River were practically compelled to originate the great enterprise of edu¬ cating their people by the European method of the establishment of a university and the very gradual descent, through the development of the denominational religious college and various forms of the secondary academy, toward the people’s elementary common school. When we consider all the circumstances of the settlement and colonial history and condition of the people of North Carolina at the close of the Revolutionary war, none of these may claim a more honorable record for a steady advance toward the great consummation of the American common school than the old North State. Although the institution of negro slavery was, by its very genius and practical operation, opposed not only to the schooling of the slave class, but also of the important “third estate” that intervened between the planter and the 282 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. African laborer, yet in North Carolina from the beginning the so-called “ middle class ” included a larger and more important body of its population; which came to the front at an earlier period and in a more decided way than in the adjacent colonies, north and south. Had not the restless love of emigration that so early seized upon this x>ortion of the Southern people during the first half century of the Republic depleted the State of a numerous and reliable class of its most enterprising and pro¬ gressive young men, and had not the same impulse moved the State to give away its splendid endowment of territory west of the mountains, there can be no doubt that North Carolina would have led all the Southern States in the early establish¬ ment of a system of popular education, the nearest approach to the present American common schobl possible under her organization of society. As it was, during the half century now under consideration, 1790-1840, this State did make an educational record, if not in some respects so brilliant as Virginia, yet beyond the Old. Dominion, more decided at first, more steady in the upholding of the secondary education, and, at the close, 1835-1840, was able to place on the ground beyond dispute the best sys¬ tem of public instruction in the fourteen Southern States east of the Mississippi previous to the outbreak of the civil war. In our present essay we can only deal with the preliminary steps of this record, the founding of the State University with a*“ glance at the academic system, leaving for future consideration the very interesting story of the establishment of the public- school system which closed this era of prosperity. Even in this, as in the account of education in all the older Southern States before the war, we only sketch the out¬ lines of the upbuilding of the secondary and higher education, referring our readers for detailed information to the excellent library of “Circulars of Information ” in the National Bureau of Education, treating of this department of instruction in all the orignal Atlantic States, together with Florida and Alabama. It was perhaps fortunate for North Carolina that the decided movement of her people for a university was not, as in Virginia at a later period, antagonized by rival institutions representing, like William and Mary, the educational and civic ideas of the early colonial period, and the presence on the ground of several denominational colleges which represented the somewhat limited ideas of their followers. While North Carolina came forth from the trials of the war of Independence with her pop¬ ulation of less than 400,000 of all classes greatly impoverished, scattered over a vast realm of 52,250 square miles, yet one of the first acts of the legislature was the charter of the University of North Carolina, with the following preamble to the act of incor¬ poration: “Whereas in all well-regulated governments it is the indispensable duty of every legislature to consult the happiness of a rising generation and endeavor to fit them for all honorable discipline of the several duties of life by paying the strictest attention to their education ; and whereas a university supported by permanent funds and well endowed would have the most direct tendency to answer the above purpose : “First, be it enacted,” etc. The corporation of the new school included forty of the most distinguished men of the State. In 1792 the university was located on its present site, Chapel Hill, in Orange County, 28 miles from the capital of the State. The corner stone of the first building was laid October 12, 1793. A conspicuous figure in the occasion was Gen. William Richardson Davie, a commanding officer during the war, afterwards governor of North Carolina and minister of the United States to France. The address was delivered by Rev. Dr. S. E. McCorkle, a native of Penn¬ sylvania, the president of several institutions, to whom was offered the first professor¬ ship, the chair of moral and political philosophy. The act of 1789 endowed the university with “all the property that had heretofore or should thereafter escheat to the State.” This fund in due time became valuable and, with several private benefactions, important for the time. Two lotteries and money from the legislature to the extent of $10,000 made up in 1862 the sum of $148,520.26. The money endow¬ ment went to wreck at the reorganization of the State after the civil war. At present the State legislature subsidizes the university to the extent of $20,000 a year. EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 283 During the first half century of the university until 1840, its history is largely involved in the biography of Dr. Caldwell, its first and, with a brief interregnum, only president till 1835. At the beginning the school was housed in one building with 50 students. Forty were graduated in the first ten years. Rev. David Iverr, a graduate of Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland, was chosen “ professor of humanity” and became the practical head of the institution with Prof. Charles AY. Harris, and S. A. Holmes principal of the preparatory department. This arrangement held for only five years, as, in 1798, Mr. Holmes, the last of the three, resigned. The reaction from the policy of the Church of England establishment, under which the colony had remained up to the outbreak of the war, seems to have sunk deeply into the minds and hearts of a considerable portion of the leading people of the State and produced what was then called u an outbreak of French infidelity,” representing in religious faith about what may be called “the radical wing” of the Unitarian Church of to-day in the United States and Great Britain. The entire faculty, includ¬ ing General Davie, were implicated in this so-called “heresy,” all of them having renounced their faith in Christianity as then commonly believed. Professors Kerr and Holmes retired to the practice of the law, in which they distinguished them¬ selves. Air. Kerr was appointed a judge by President Jefferson. But, along with these theological heresies, this group of gentlemen seem to have been endowed with “a level head ” in their ideas of the higher education suitable for the youth of a new American State. The curriculum is a refreshing contrast to the high classic preten¬ sions of all the colleges then in operation in the country, and about 1800 the degree of bachelor of arts was conferred for proficiency in the English language and the sciences. The advent of Dr. Joseph Caldwell, D. D., to an important professorship in 1796, followed by his chairmanship of the faculty in 1798, and appointment as first presi¬ dent in 1804, was the signal, not only for an important change in the theological tone of the university, but the real beginning of the era of solid work in the institution through the dangers and trials of its first forty years. Dr. Caldwell was a native of New Jersey, of Scotch and French descent, educated at Princeton, for several years a teacher in New Jersey and a tutor in his alma mater, and at the age of 22 called to the infant university of North Carolina, then the only American college south of A’ir- ginia. He at once, in good Presbyterian fashion, took up arms against the new “French infidelity,” converted Colonel Davie, and stemmed the tide of “free thought ” in the school. Dr. Caldwell resigned the presidency in 1812 and was succeeded by Rev. Robert H. Chapman, D. D. His influence seems not to have been sufficiently powerful to check the tendency to disorder and rebellion against authority, then characteristic of all American colleges, and which seems to have met its first decisive check with the advent of Dr. Nott, at Union College in 1820. During the four years, 1812 to 1816, Dr. Caldwell was the professor of mathematics. He then resumed the presidency and held it till his death, in 1835. He gave a decided impulse to the study of the classics. But there was little danger of an undue atten¬ tion to this department in the face of the two great professors called to Chapel Hill from the North during his administration. The best known of these was Prof. Elisha Mitchell, called from Yale in 1817 to the professorship of mathematics. He soon developed the great interest in natural science that made him the early explorer of the splendid mountain realm of -western North Carolina, where he lost his life in 1857 in the ascent of the mountain named for himself, the highest peak east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States. In 1858 his body was removed to the highest point of this noble mountain, which remained until 1889 his only and fit monument. He was a xirolific author in science, meteorology, and the geography of his adopted State. During the eighteen years of his professorship the university increased from 4 teachers and 120 students to 16 professors and 440 students. 284 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Even more distinguished in national reputation was Prof. Dennison Olmsted, a class¬ mate of Dr. Mitchell at Yale, afterwards a teacher and tutor in his alma mater. He came in 1817, at the age of 26, to the professorship of chemistry at Chapel Hill. He persuaded the legislature of North Corolina to intrust to him the geological survey of the State, the first in the Union. In 1825 he returned to Yale as professor, and was widely known as an educator of the first importance, not only in his proper sphere of the natural sciences, hut as an influential friend of popular education and an author of school text-hooks. A third Connecticut man was brought to the uni¬ versity in the person of Prof. E. A. Andrews, who was called to the chair of the ancient languages m 1822. He was called hack to an academic school in New Haven in 1828, and in that place and Boston became a distinguished principal of young ladies’ seminaries and the author of a well-known Latin grammar. These four men of mark, representing Princeton and Yale, with others, were the soul of the university during the critical period of its existence, and lifted it up to a distinction equal to that reached by any American college south of Virginia. The successor of President Caldwell in 1835 was Governor David L. Swain, the son of a Massachusetts emigrant to Georgia, though educated at the Newton Academy, near Asheville, N. C., then the one considerable village in the western part of the State. He was also a student in the university, of which he became president in 1835, and held this position through the civil war till 1868. Under his vigorous and continuous administration the university became famous through the South, at one time with 461 students. All these men were, beyond their duties as college professors and scholars, among the foremost citizens of their adopted State ; ardent friends of pop¬ ular education, stirring up the people to the development of the marvelous resources of this wonderful country that now, for the first time since its settlement, appears to be appreciated as not inferior in possibilities to any State east of the Mississippi. For detailed information concerning the university during these years we refer the reader to the excellent History of Education m North Carolina, by Charles L. Smith, published by the National Bureau of Education. So decided was the success of the State University that it postponed for half a century the movement toward the establishment of rival denominational colleges in North Carolina. Indeed, the original charter of Wake Forest College, established first in 1832 as a theological institute of the Baptist Church, upon a farm 16 miles from Raleigh, on the manual labor system, was obtained only by a majority of one in the legislature, although the State was not expected in any way to endow it. Its final organization as a college came in 1838 Davidson College, the child of the effort to found Queens College at Charlotte, by the Presbyterian body, arose from an attempt to found a school in the southwest corner of the State as early as 1820 under the name Western College. The attempt was revived in 1835 under the name Davidson College, from the brave General Davidson, who died in the patriot cause. General contribu¬ tions enabled the friends of the movement to erect the buildings, and in 1837 the college opened with 66 students. The Methodist Church followed the example of its neighbors and established Trinity College, developed out of an academy founded in 1838, near High Point, receiving its final name in 1859. The famous Moravian Female Academy at Salem was perhaps the first school for the superior education of young women set up south of Philadelphia. It was founded in 1802 and still remains one of the five higher institutions of learning under the control of this fraternity in the United States. For many years it was frequented by the daughters of the foremost families of all the Southern States, and is still one of the best of the female colleges of the Commonwealth. The next movement for education following the charter of the university was in behalf of the academic system, of which the State of North Carolina, with more reason than many of her sister States, has always been proud. At different times before 1840 a large number of these schools for the secondary education of boys and girls were chartered, mostly by the zeal of the different religious bodies, or by the efforts EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 285 and contributions of the communities in which they were placed, but rarely as private ventures. Haifa dozen of these were in existence at the organization of the State. A list of more than twenty is given as established during the last twenty years of the eighteenth century Several of these, like the Caldwell, McCorkle, and Queen’s College schools, had a well- deserved celebrity. The better-off people of the State in¬ clined to this method of schooling their children. Coeducation was a heresy till a later date. A full account of these seminaries may be found in the History of Education in North Carolina, before referred to. Of these the most celebrated was the Bingham Classical School, originally planted in a log schoolhouse, by Rev. William Bing¬ ham, a native of Ireland, in 1794. It has grown with the growth of the State, always holding a distinguished place among Southern schools of its kind, and is now trans¬ ferred to the beautiful little mountain city of Asheville, under the management of the grandson of the original founder. The Friends, Lutherans, and Catholics had their own seminaries of the secondary education. In 1840 there were in North Carolina 2 colleges, 141 academies and grammar schools, and 632 primary and common country schools; in all, 775 educational institutions with 19,453 students. While this development of the higher and secondary education during the first half century of the national life in North Carolina was very creditable, both as to the number and quality of the seminaries, the final effort for a proper common-school system came later, and only at the close of these years, between 1835-1840, was the system put on the ground. Previous to this time there was a large amount of illiteracy among the humbler classes of the white people, especially in the great pine forest country of the coast and the vast mountain world of the west ; a State in itself, even now but little known outside the Commonwealth. Up to 1800 it is recorded that in ten of the foremost counties of the State little more than half the people were instructed in the elements of knowledge, and at the close of the civil war North Carolina stood lowest of all the States in the illiteracy among its white people. But as early as 1816, on the suggestion of the governor, the legislature appointed Hon. Archibald D. Murphey to prepare a scheme of public education. In 1817, Murphey, then a senator from Orange County, presented to the general assembly the report of the special committee on education, of which he was chair¬ man. In this report is proposed an elaborate system of public instruction which provides for every requirement of the social system. It was so far in advance of its time that all its beneficent propositions have not yet been carried out. This scheme, wide in scope and large in proposition, is embraced in the report of that committee. Its high and lofty plane is shown in the opening paragraphs : “That we have much reason to thank Providence for the arrival of a period when our country, enjoying peace with foreign nations, and free from domestic inquietude, turns her attention to improving her physical resources, and the moral and intel¬ lectual condition of her citizens. The war of party spirit which for twenty years has disturbed her tranquillity and perverted her ambition, has terminated ; and political strife has yielded its place to an honorable zeal for the public welfare. Enlightened statesmen will avail themselves of this auspicious period to place the fortunes of the State upon a basis not to be shaken; to found and cherish institu¬ tions which shall guarantee to the people the permanence of their government, and enable them to appreciate its excellence. The legislature of North Carolina, giving to their ambition an honorable direction, have resolved to improve this period for the best interests of the State ; to adopt and carry into effect liberal plans of internal improvements; to give encouragement to literature, and to diffuse the lights of knowledge among all classes of the community. Let us foster the spirit which has gone abroad ; it will lead to the happiest results. If we ourselves should not live to witness them, we shall at least have the satisfaction of having contributed to pro¬ duce them, and of seeing our children receive from our hands a country growing rich in physical resources, and advancing in moral and intellectual excellence. This is the true way of giving strength and permanence to the Government; of giving it root in the hearts of the people, and nurturing it with their affections. What people will not love a Government whose constant solicitude is for their happiness, and whose ambition is to elevate their character in the scale of intelligent beings? Having commenced this great work of humanity, let us persevere in it with a x^atience that 286 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. shall not die, and with a zeal that shall not abate, praying to the Father of all good that He will enlighten and direct our course, and finally crown our labors with success. “ Your committee have entered upon the duties assigned to them with a full con¬ viction of their importance, and of the difficulties which attend their discharge. But believing that let the subject be taken up where it may those difficulties will exist, and availing themselves of the light thrown upon the subject by the wisdom of others, they have prepared a system of public instruction for Xorth Carolina, which with much deference they beg leave to submit to the consideration of the gen¬ eral assembly. In digesting this system they have adhered to the general principles of the report on this subject submitted by a committee to the last legislature, and have embraced a provision for the poor as well as rich, and a gradation of schools from the lowest to the highest. “To give effect to any plan of public education, it is essentially necessary that ample funds bo provided, and that these funds, and also the execution of the general plan, be committed to the care and direction of a board composed of intelligent and efficient men.” The committee considered the subject in eight divisions : (1) The creation of a fund for public instruction. (2) The constitution of a board to manage the fund and to carry into execution the plan of public instruction. (3) The organization of schools. (4) The course of studies to be prescribed for each. (5) The modes of instruction. (6) The discipline and government of the schools. (7) The education of poor children at the public expense. (8) An asylum for the deaf and dumb. In a special report the creation of the fund for public instruction was considered. The board of public instruction is the first division treated in this report. The report recommended that six directors constitute this “board of public instruction,” with the governor as chairman, ex officio ; three of these directors to be elected by the general assembly from the counties east of Raleigh, and three from the western counties; the board is authorized to elect a vice-president and secretary, and their compensation is fixed at the same per diem as that of members of the gen¬ eral assembly. They are to have direct supervision over the entire system of public education, being given the power to establish institutions and regulate courses of study, “and in giving effect to this plan,” says the report, “'the board shall regard the primary schools as its foundation.” Members of the board are ex officio trustees of the university. Section 7 recommends that “ all expenses incurred in carrying into effect this system of public instruction and supporting the same shall be charged upon this fund and paid out of the proceeds thereof.” “In arranging the system of schools,” says the report, “your committee has endeavored to make the progress of education natural and regular; beginning with primary schools in which the first rudiments of learning are taught, and proceeding to academies in which youths are to be instructed in languages, ancient and modern history, mathematics, and other branches of science, preparatory to entering into the university, in which instruction is to be given in all the higher branches of the sciences and in the principles of the useful arts.” “In making this arrangement the greatest difficulties have occurred in organizing the primary schools,” which, it declares, are “of the first importance in any general plan of public education.” In the plan for the primary schools it is proposed (1) to divide each county in the State into townships, to divide each township into wards of one hundred fami¬ lies, and to establish a primary school in each ward ; (2) the schools are to be under the control and supervision of five trustees in each township, these to be appointed by the court of pleas and quarter sessions; these trustees to “select such children residing within this township whose parents are unable to pay for their schooling, who shall be taught at the said schools for three years without charge.” “These schools,” avers the committee, “ would be to the rich a convenience and to the poor a blessing.” Taking the next step in this ascending scheme of instruction, the establishment of academies is recommended, in which institutions the children who have passed the primary school may be “ instructed in languages, ancient and modern history, mathe- EAKLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 287 matics, and other branches of science, preparatory to their entering into the univer¬ sity.” The State was to he divided into 10 academical districts, in each of which an academy was to he established. A strong appeal is made for the University of North Carolina, then twenty years old. “At a moment,” says the report, “when former prejudices have died away, when liberal ideas begin to prevail, when the pride of the State is awakening, and an hon¬ orable ambition is cherished for her glory, an appeal is made to the patriotism and the generous feelings of the legislature in favor of an institution which in all civi¬ lized nations has been regarded as the nursery of moral greatness and the palladium of civil liberty.” Courses of study are recommended for all these institutions : In the primary schools the “three r's,” reading, writing, and arithmetic; in the academies, Latin, Greek, French, English, elements of geometry, algebra, geography, ancient and modern his¬ tory ; in the university, all the higher branches of learning. Modes of instruction and methods of discipline and government receive ample treatment. “ The great object of education ” the report declares to be “intellectual and moral improvement ; and that mode of instruction is to be preferred which best serves to effect this object. This mode is to be found only in a correct knowledge of the human mind, its habits, passions, and manner of operation.” The methods of the schools of Scotland, of Pestalozzi in Switzerland, and Joseph Lancaster in England are discussed. “ In a rei3ublic the first duty of a citizen is obedience to the law. We acknowledge no sovereign but the law, and from infancy to manhood our children should be taught to bow with reverence to its majesty. In childhood parental authority enforces the first lessons of obedience ; in youth this authority is aided by the munic¬ ipal law, which in manhood wields the entire supremacy.” There was need of disciplining at the time, for the committee recalls the fact that i‘ riot and disorder have dishonored all the colleges and universities of the Union. The temples of science have been converted into theaters for acting disgraceful scenes of licentiousness and rebellion. ” “The amusements of youth may also be made auxiliary to the exactness of disci¬ pline,” states the report, and Thomas Jefferson’s utterances regarding “ manuel ” exercise and military discipline are quoted. “ One of the strongest reasons which we can have for establishing a general plan of public instruction is the condition of the poor children of our country. Such always has been, and probably always will be, the allotments' of human life that the poor will form a large portion of every community; and it is the duty of those who manage the affairs of State to extend relief to this unfortunate part of our spe¬ cies in every way in their power. Providence, in the impartial distribution of its favors, whilst it has denied to the poor many of the comforts of life, has generally bestowed upon them the blessing of intelligent children. Poverty is the school of genius; it is a school in which the active powers of man are developed and disci¬ plined, and in which that moral courage is acquired which enables him to toil with difficulties, privations, and want. From this school generally come forth those men who act the principal parts upon the theater of life; men who impress a character upon the age in which they live. But it is a school which if left to itself runs wild; vice in all its depraved forms grows up under it. The State should take this school under her special care, and maturing the genius which there grows in rich luxuri¬ ance, give to it an honorable and j>rofitable direction. Poor children are the pecul¬ iar property of the State, and by proper cultivation they will constitute a fund of moral and intellectual worth which will greatly subserve the public interest.” Thus does this scheme of education rise round upon round until the top rung of scholarship is reached. It is like some finely proportioned Grecian temple whose marble columns rise in stately perfection. But the time was not ripe for its realization. And it is laid aside in the same cab¬ inet with the intricate constitution of John Locke. The ending comes like a benediction : “ When this or some other more judicious plan of public education shall be carried into execution, when light and knowledge shall be shed upon all, may we not indulge 288 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. the hope that men will he convinced that wisdom’s ways are ways of pleasantness and all her paths are paths of peace; and he induced by such conviction to regulate their conduct by the rule of Christian morality, of doing* unto others as they wish they would do unto them ; and that they will learn to do j ustly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly before their God?” The question remained in “innocuous desuetude” till 1825, when the beginnings of a common-school fund were made. This considerable sum was further increased by the transfer of the share of the State in the national surplus revenue to the hand¬ some figure of $2,000,000. Then first did the Commonwealth move decidedly to give to the mass of its white children the opportunity for the education for which the people had pleaded through two centuries of its previous history. The plan proposed to divide the State into 1,250 school districts, each with a schoolhouse, a normal department attached to the State university for the training of teachers; and $100,000, the income of the State literary fund, distributed at the rate of $2.40 to each scholar; a local tax, the amount to be imposed by the county court; all to be supervised by five superintendents for each county and three committeemen for each district; the system to be crowned by a State superintendency of schools. But the plan as it came forth from the legislature was shorn of several of its most useful features. Nearly every county of the State voted for the system and in 1840 the first common-school law was enacted and remained in operation until 1852, when it passed under the charge of a State superintendency. This movement was really a part of that great revival of education which swept like a “ celestial breeze” from a heavenly land through the Republic in the decade from 1830 to 1840, and was felt in the Southland most powerfully in the Old North State. It may be added that when the civil war broke upon the land it found this State in possession of the most hopeful system of public instruction in the South, save perhaps Missouri and Kentucky. Napoleon said, when preparing to cross the Alps with his army to Italy: “Where a goat can go a man can go, and where a man can go an army can go.” One of the interesting elements in the history of education in North Carolina before the civil war, as concerned the education of the negro, was noted in the experience of the Rev. John Chavis. This young man, born free, was sent to Princeton College by some interested friends, “ to see if a negro was capable of receiving a college educa¬ tion.” In 1805, having demonstrated this possibility, he returned to North Carolina as a minister of the Presbyterian Church, became the pastor of several churches, preaching not only to colored but to white people, was noted for the correctness of his speech and the “entire orthodoxy” of his teaching. He opened a classical school in three counties of the State, which was attended by many students that afterwards became distinguished men in the Commonwealth, and it is added that “his school was the best at that time to be found in the State ” To-day no well- informed man in North Carolina doubts the ability of the negro race to receive education, and the children of its former slaves are educated, with equal advantages with the white students, in the public schools, while a large number of excellent seminaries of the secondary and even higher instruction are in operation, supported by the bounty of benevolent people and tuition fees, and aided by the missionary boards of the great Northern churches of all religious denominations. SOUTH CAROLINA. At the close of the war of independence the State of South Carolina, with an area of 30,000 square miles — larger than all New England outside of Maine, and near the area of that extreme northeastern State — had a population of 249,000, of whom 107,000 were negro slaves. In estimating the efforts of the Southern States for education previous to 1860 we must not forget that only to the white population was this term applied. The educational record of South Carolina for the seventy-five years from EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 289 1790 to 1865 represents the effort at first of only 142,000 white people, with a school population of 25,000 from 6 to 15 years of age, not altogether exceeding the number of children and youth in a Northern city of 200,000 inhabitants, scattered over an extensive territory, which was largely an unsettled wilderness, divided into an upper and lower country as jealous of each other as any two sections of the Union; even the more favored planter class in sore financial straits and the masses of the white people in great poverty, with the social extremes of a highly cultivated superior class and a lower estate almost destitute of the elements of instruction in letters to educate itself. But. as shown in the interesting essay of Mr. McCrady already quoted, the colony had not been especially wanting in its provisions for the higher education With several vigorous academies at home and the almost universal habit of sending the young men of the superior families to England for university and professional train¬ ing and a certain amount of tutorship in wealthy families, a strong sentiment for the higher education had been implanted in the leading minds of the new Common¬ wealth. As early as 1770 a movement was made for a college at Charleston, and in 1785 a charter was obtained, with gifts from private sources amounting to $50,000, and the beginning of a library. The legislature responded to the demand of the “up country” by chartering two similar institutions — at Winnsboro in the northeast and at Cambridge in the southwest. A donation of land fixed the location at Charleston, where, in 1785, the Charleston College, still in vigorous existence, was set up, with Rev. (afterwards Bishop) Robert Scott as first president. But in 1797 the move¬ ment went into a temporary eclipse after graduating several men afterwards emi¬ nent in State affairs, only to be revived in 1823-24. In 1827 the Rev. Joseph Adams was called from Brown University, Rhode Island, and under his able and hopeful administration the school rallied and assumed a respectable rank among the smaller colleges of the country. From this date it encountered the formidable rivalry of the State College at Columbia and has always been practically a Charleston seminary. On the departure of President Adams, in 1837, the city assumed the control and until recently has aided its funds by a generous subsidy. The college has also at different times been the recipient of several considerable gifts, and to-day is perhaps the best endowed institution of learning in the State. Its museum of natural history was established or greatly aided by the suggestion of Professor Agassiz in 1851. Up to 188o the graduates numbered 368, among whom are the names of many well and honorably known in the city and State. Under the present management of Dr. Henry E . Shepherd, the college still remains the proper head of the excellent educational system of the city and is especially known for its course in the English language and literature. In the future development of Charleston this foundation may be built upon as the most important center of the higher education on the Southern Atlantic Coast. The Winnsboro “ Mount Zion ” institution is at present incorporated in the graded public school system of that city. In no Atlantic Southern State did the jealousy between the ruling planter class of the low country and the farmers of the “Piedmont district” reach a higher point than in South Carolina during the period following the Revolutionary war. It was with an honest attempt to reconcile this difference and extend the opportunities of education to the upland region, at that time in dire need even of elementary school¬ ing, that the famous school of Moses Waddell was established in 1804 in the Abbe¬ ville district, near the Savannah River. As a fine specimen of the old-time classical seminary consecrated to “ lean living” and hard study, with a Spartan discipline, it was not surpassed by any school of its day. While in full operation, from 1804 to 1819, when Dr. Waddell was called to the presidency of the University of Georgia, it was, beyond question, the most effective school in the State, numbering among its students John C. Calhoun and George McDuffie, with numbers of the promising country boys of the upland region. It is probable that from this little rural seat of ED 96 - 10 290 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. learning came the foremost group of distinguished public men whose influence more and more dominated the political destiny of the State, even to the breaking out of the civil war. Other efforts in this region, especially on the line of manual-labor schools, are on record, ending, as did all this class of seminaries, in speedy failure. But in 1801 the legislature moved for the establishment of the South Carolina College by a grant of $50,000 for buildings and an annual subsidy of $6,000. For this movement the State seems to have been largely indebted to Paul Hamilton, the most conspicuous figure in the educational affairs of the period. Of Scotch descent and limited educational opportunities, at the ago of 16 he enlisted in the patriot army and fought through till the end. His public career began in 1785. He steadily rose through the legisla¬ ture to the office of comptroller of the State, his public life closing by a seat in the Cabinet of President James Madison as Secretary of the Navy. In 1801 Governor Dayton called attention to the obligation of the State to estab¬ lish “free colleges, ” and in due time a committee of the foremost members of the legislature reported a plan for the organization of the College of South Carolina, under thirteen trustees, appointed by the legislature for four years, with several State officials as ex-officio members. This body seems to have had little authority in the management of the college, the real direction being given to the faculty. The new seminary was established at Columbia, the State capital, in a location that still remains one of the most attractive of all the university grounds of the country. Columbia was then a village of 4,000 people, on the Congaree River, and is still almost a city in a wilderness, the prospect from the university towers extending in one direction over a primitive forest from 30 to 40 miles. One of the most powerful motives for the establishment of this seat of learning was the laudable desire to “ unify the State” by mollifying the antagonism between the upper and lower sections. This was perpetuated till the outbreak of the civil war by the original apportionment of representation in the legislature in which, by a property basis of representation, the coast region with its great wealth and over¬ whelming slave population, with a minority of voting citizenship, was able to con¬ trol the public affairs of the Commonwealth. As far as a liberal education could develop the natural capacity of the upper portion of the State, the college was a great success, and many of the most important men of all professions were among its graduates. From the first its affairs took on the generous air of the old South Caro¬ lina gentry in respect to appropriations from the State and the support of its faculty. At first, the salary of the president was $2,500 and of each professor $1,500, includ¬ ing a house. At a later date the president’s salary was $3,500, the professors $2,000, and a tutor $1,000. In the six years from 1814 to 1820 the State had given $286,659 to the college. It was fortunate that, like the University of Virginia at a later and of North Carolina at an earlier date, the College of South Carolina planted itself on abroad unsectarian religious platform from which it has never deviated, though often maintaining it in the face of opposition from the denominational colleges and acad¬ emies of the State. While yet in its childhood, with a student population of 46, the college had the great good fortune to have as its president Rev. Dr. Maxcy, a native of Massachu¬ setts, a graduate and for a time president of Brown University, Rhode Island, after¬ wards president of Union College, New York, from which he was called, in 1804, to the same position in the College of South Carolina. By persistent effort, sometimes involving him in conflict with his trustees and faculty, he built up an effective col¬ lege curriculum, although, until 1820, the study of the classical languages closed with the freshman year. But after 1829 the Latin language became an important feature in the course of instruction. At the death of President Maxcy in 1820 the college passed under the presidency of Thomas Cooper, at the time professor of mathematics. This remarkable man was born in London in 1759 and was educated at Oxford University. He very early EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 291 seems to have displayed that fierce radical temperament and furious passion for personal liberty, amounting to violent eccentricity, which dominated him through life and made him always and everywhere one of the most conspicuous leaders of the party of agitation of church, state, and education. A four months’ residence in Paris, at the height of the French Revolution, in full communion with the leading spirits of that troubled era, exposed him to grave suspicions and even denunciation in Parliament on his return to England. He came to America, married the daughter of the famous Dr. Joseph Priestly, and settled in Pennsylvania as a lawyer. A violent attack on President John Adams, in 1800, brought him in collision with the alien and sedition law- with a penalty of $400 and six mouths imprisonment. The fine was afterwards refunded with interest, although the six months in jail rankled in his memory to the end. John Adams, one of the best haters of a period dis¬ tinguished for good hating, threw in the additional exasperation of denouncing Cooper as “a learned, ingenious, scientific, and talented madman.” Afterwards appointed a judge in Pennsylvania, he was impeached and removed from office at the end of five years for intolerable self-will aud freaks of petty tyranny. He now took to the more peaceable work of education and was appointed a professor of chemistry in Dickinson College aud afterwards in the University of Pennsylvania. All this was but a recommendation to Thomas Jefferson, who, in sympathy with extreme views, was always liable to be what John Adams was not. Cooper was named as the first professor of the University of Virginia, but the clergy of the State raised a tumult that compelled the withdrawal of his name. This was to the intense disgust of Jefferson, who declared that Cooper was the man to whom he especially looked as the corner stone of his university— the greatest man in America in power of. mind and original information.” But for some reason all these things did not militate against his appointment as professor, and, on the death of President Maxcy in 1820, as president of the College of South Carolina. This position he held till 1834. Of the success of his adminis¬ tration as a vigorous and aggressive teacher there can be no question. He raised a tempest in the Dead Sea of the old-time superficiality and woke up the mind of young South Carolina as it had never been stirred before. He was especially successful as a lecturer on history and political economy, in the latter science indoctrinating his pupils with the theory of free trade, which played so important a part in the future public life of that State. He did his best to lift the ancient languages to the foremost place in the scheme of instruction and was in sympathy with a broad study of math¬ ematics and natural sciences. His personal eccentricities were fair game for the crowd of turbulent boys that made the life of a professor in a Southern college seventy-five years ago “a hard road to travel.” But his one unpardonable offense of what was then called “ free thought,” or “infidelity,” kept him in hot water through his entire administration and finally brought him to a trial before the college authorities. Acquitted by them of serious fault, he still felt compelled to resign his presidency and retire to outside work, as the compiler of the laws of the State. He was occupied with constant authorship till his death in 1839. It is not easy in his case as in that of Jefferson, Franklin, and other eminent characters of that day, to decide in just what his “ infidelity” consisted. With these, and Calhoun and Marshall afterwards, he would probably now be received as a mem¬ ber “in full communion ” with a large portion of what is called “the liberal wing” of several Christian denominations of the present day. Certainly, in his views of the Old Testament inspiration and authorship, he did not go beyond the opinions of the most distinguished representatives of the “ higher criticism” in Europe and America. Could his opinions have been combined with a more courteous manner and toleration he, perhaps, would not have fallen by the way. He still remains one of the most interesting of the original university men of the country, and his just biography would be a decided addition to the educational and civic chronicles of the early American history. 292 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. From all sources of information we gather the testimony to the turbulent and reck¬ less condition of student society in this, as in so many other of the early American colleges. In the case of South Carolina this is especially notable. The autobiogra¬ phy of the celebrated Dr. Marion Sims, once a student in the college, is especially full in this respect, as of the state of society in the northwestern counties of South Carolina and afterwards the newly settled State of Alabama. Still, religious services were made a part of the regular college exercises, and on the appointment of Robert W. Barnwell as successor to President Cooper, in 1835, a professorship of the evidences of Christianity was appointed and strict religious observances established. But the college had suffered such diminution from the excitement of the Cooper episode that the sympathies of the religious sects were alienated and only twenty students remained. It was not till the appointment to the presidency of Hon. William C. Preston, in 1845, that the reaction came. This gentleman, celebrated in his day as one of the most accomplished orators of the Union, after his retirement from the Senate of the United States in 1842, was persuaded to accept this office in 1845. During the five years of his administration the number of students reached 237, with an average of 191, the largest in its history. The record of the college from the retirement of President Cooper in 1834 and during the administrations of Preston, Thorn well, and Lieber, and its great influence on the higher life of the State, are not in place here. From its foundation the College of South Carolina has been in fact what so many similar institutions have been only in name, the proper head of the public scheme of education. All the remaining colleges of the State represent the different denomina¬ tional religious bodies, and all were established at a period subsequent to that now under consideration. In 1811 the legislature, on petition of several counties, moved to establish what was evidently intended as a working system of free common schools, open to all white children of school age. The law provided : (1) That in every election district there should be established as many schools as it had representatives to the lower branch of the legislature. (2) The “ three r’s ” should be taught with such additional studies as the commissioners might direct. (3) While every white child of suitable age in the district had the right to this instruction, the preference should be given to destitute orphans and the children of the poor, in case of a deficiency of funds. (4) Three hundred dollars was appropriated for each school, while the people were required to furnish a schoolhouse. (5) The legislature was directed to appoint not les* than three nor more than thirteen commissioners, with power to establish and supervise schools, distribute funds, and increase or diminish the number of scholars, fix the curriculum, etc. But this was declared a provisional and experimental arrangement, until the establishment of a permanent system. The commissioners were directed to make an annual report to the legislature. Here would certainly appear to be a hopeful beginning. But it has been said by one of the most accomplished educators of the State: “In no country or Common¬ wealth has there been witnessed so remarkable a spectacle of unanimity of purpose among the leaders of public opinion on the subject of popular education, with almost utter failure of results, as in South Carolina.” In 1847 a comprehensive and search¬ ing report to the legislature, prepared by Mr. Henry Summer, as chairman of the committee on education, declares that “ nothing was done worthy so sacred a cause as education.” The annual appropriations by the State which, for a period of forty years, averaged $37,000, was of itself a pittance for the education of at least 50,000 children and youth in need of elementary schooling. One hundred and thirty-three schools were at once established. With the following years this number gradually increased. In 1828 there were 840 schools and 9,000 pupils; in 1840, 563 schools and 12,526 pupils. But in 1847, according to this report, “it was declared in the legis¬ lature that the free-school system was a failure, and no one contradicted it.” In 1839-40 legislative reports had attracted little attention and the urgent appeals of different governors failed to stir the slumbrous fathers of the State. “Resolution EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 293 after resolution liad been passed approving the free-scliool system and recommend¬ ing that something be done to diffuse a greater amount of knowledge among the children of the State, and committees appointed at different times to report on the subject. But nothing had been done.” Meanwhile the State was gaining in popu¬ lation and influential position in national affairs. Indeed it was during this period that South Carolina came to the front in a most conspicuous way as a leader in the movement for free trade, coupled with the extreme theory of States rights and including the right of the nullification of national laws implying the right of secession from the Union. Her statesmen in Congress were the peers of any in eloquence and general ability. But still, in 1840, it was reported that 20,000 of her white adult population were illiterate, and of her 50,000 children and youth of school age not one-fourth were under any form of public instruction and probably half were growing to manhood and womanhood with the most meager educational opportunities. At the same time it was reported that there were in the State one college with 168 students ; 117 academies and grammar schools, with 4,326 pupils; 566 primary schools, with 12,520 scholars; in all, 17,000 of the 52,003 between 6 and 16 at school. Of these but 3,524 were “at public charge.” A system of “combination schools” had grown up, as in other States at a recent date, which, private or denominational in their character and removed entirely from public supervision, were permitted to appropriate the public funds and give free schooling to such “poor children” as should be assigned by the commissioners. The causes of this failure can not be found so much in popular opposition to education as in a radical condition of society in South Carolina which continued until the civil war. This is well expressed in an able article in the Southern Quar¬ terly Review, in this pregnant statement: “While the popular habit of the South Carolina people is essentially centrifugal, the politicans and statesmen have strong centralizing tendencies.” No reader of American history will impute to statesmen like Hayne, Calhoun, and McDuffie, a “strong centralizing tendency” in national affairs. The fact seems to be that, while all classes shared alike in the assertion of extreme personal and local independency, the ablest public men saw clearly the prodigious disadvantage of this political habit in State affairs and endeavored to support a real government at the State capital, while the masses insisted on the logical application of the favorite theory and lived almost without a sense of public responsibility to the government at Columbia. The same writer asserts that “a stranger might live among us for years and see no traces of government.” “Out of the towns no organization exists below that of the State,” save a few commissioners for absolutely essential public action. “As organized members of a Republic, our districts and parishes have absolutely no political existence.” It is curious to note how the sensitiveness of the State in its relations to the General Government reap¬ peared in every little district in a jealousy of State legislative action and a practical nullification of all laws not agreeable to the people. The power of great families and influential political leaders in their several localities; the jealousies between differ¬ ent portions of the State, which almost divided the Commonwealth into little hostile nations, added to the lack of effective organization even for local purposes, were the radical causes of the failure of this attempt to school the children. The different districts received the funds appropriated by the State, but failed to report to the legislature in regard to their use. In 1817, of 45 districts 31 made no report ; in the most favorable years not one-half appeared in a report to the legislature. Up to 1821, ten years, $302,490 had been expended by the State. It is easy to see how any amount of money could have been practically wasted under an administration so inefficient. “ Combination schools ” would absorb a good deal ; incompetent teachers, appointed by favoritism in useless schools, would make way with more. The “poor people” were always in a state of protest against a system that held them up as subjects of public charity, and thousands of children were kept out of school by this cause alone. A meager appropriation, incompetent 294 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. teachers, neglect of duty by commissioners, poor school buildings — the whole train of evils that follow a lack of effective supervision — were sufficient to account for the failuro of these schools. Mr. Summer declares in his illuminating report that “the commissioners aro absolutely independent and irresponsible.” “ There is no central power which can control matters and which could inspire a common spirit and life in the whole system.” “After all our legislation we have not even the ele¬ ments in practical operation of a system of public schools ; we have the whole work to begin over.” A fatal defect in the system was also the apportionment of the school moneys to different districts, according to their representation in the legislature. Until the civil war the system of legislative representation in South Carolina was based on property. This gave to the low country, where were found the great plantations and wealthy slaveholders, a preponderating influence in public affairs, and did much to perpetuate the hostility between different sections of the Commonwealth. As a case in point, the district of Spartanburg, in the Piedmont country, with a larger voting population than the two parishes of Charleston, had but five members in the legislature, while the city had seventeen. The school appropriation for Spartanburg was but $1,500, while Charleston received $5,100 for a smaller number of pupils. One great district, St. John’s parish, containing 700 square miles, its extremes being 60 miles apart, its two sections divided by a deep river, had but one school, located according to “pulling and hauling” of patrons or the whim of commissioners. With right Mr. Summer declares at the conclusion of his report: “If the State does not arouse from this torpor she will see men as trees walking.” The prophecy came to fulfillment during the memorable era of “reconstruction,” 1865-1876, when the people saw their beloved State College changed to a normal school for the freedmen and the first State superintendent of education appointed from a little mountain town in Massachusetts. But with all its defects, this experiment, persisted in with pathetic obstinacy for more than fifty years, bears testimony to the great desire of the masses of the people of South Carolina for an effective system of schools for the children under the direc¬ tion of the State. Poor as it was, it did lift many thousands above the slough of illiteracy and kept alive the “hope deferred” from generation to generation. The great desire of the people for education was manifested by their acceptance of the system established in the era of reconstruction, notwithstanding objectionable features. And when the first native State superintendent of schools appeared in the person of that eminent and admirable public official, Hon. Hugh S. Thompson, in 1877, the people responded in the establishment of a proper school system that has survived the storm of recent politics, even as the old time schools of the State still went on through all the furious excitements that shook South Carolina from her sea islands to Caesar’s Head, from 1830 to the outbreak of the civil war. The city of Charleston was from the first the educational head of South Carolina, as it remains to the present day. In fact no city of similar population in the South¬ ern States can boast of better or a greater variety of schools for both races. In 1790 the city established the Orphan House, an excellent asylum with an elementary school attachment, which has been supported from its beginning by the city at an annual expense of $20,000. Its income is derived from private endowments and the grant of escheated property to the extent of $50,000. More than 4,000 orphan chil¬ dren have been educated and protected within its walls, and afterwards apprenticed to various trades and occupations. During the years 1840-1845 the plans were developed for the establishment of the South Carolina Military Academy. This institution combines the feature of military training with a thorough course in the physical sciences, mathematics, history, Eng¬ lish, and modern languages. It has graduated many of the foremost men of the State, and remains to-day in Charleston a State public school, until recently included in the corporation of the University of South Carolina. EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 295 The free schools of Charleston date from the passage of the act of 1811, with an attendance in 1812 of 200, which increased by 1834 to 534. At a later date, 1849-1854, under the suggestions of Dr. Henry Barnard, of Connecticut, who was invited to the State by the public authorities, a new departure was made, under which very satis¬ factory results were obtained; the schools in 1860 containing more than 4,000 white pupils. Notwithstanding the early establishment of negro slavery in South Carolina, the population of the State in 1790 being nearly half of that race, there was always a good deal of effort for the religious and somewhat for the school education of the slave. In 1744 a school was established, probably for free negroes, under the direc¬ tion of the English Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. Until 1834, when by reason of the increasing excitement of the public mind caused by several attempts at slave insurrections the school instruction of the slaves was prohibited by law, this movement was an important feature in the development of the Taee in connection with religious and sometimes industrial training. It is prob¬ able that in a quiet way in private this work went on up to the outbreak of the civil war. It was found, after emancipation, that all the mechanical trades were repre¬ sented among these people, a portion of whom were free and themselves slaveholders. Under the providence of God this institution, so fatal to the peace of the slave States and disastrous to the entire social system of which it was the foundation, was probably the greatest elevator of a savage race in range of a Christian civilization through a period not exceeding two hundred and fifty years, of which there is a record in the history of mankind. Here we leave the deeply interesting story of popular education in South Carolina, -especially relating to the public schooling in all grades of institutions found within the State. It may be said, in passing, that in no Southern State was so much done at public expense previous to the civil war for the schooling of the people in proportion to the white population and with due consideration of circumstances as in this State. The colleges of Charleston and of South Carolina, the academy of Winnsboro, the Orphan House of Charleston, the State Military Academy — with fre¬ quent gifts to private and denominational seminaries, bear testimony to the persist¬ ent interest of the people in the secondary and higher education. The continuous effort to build up a good system of public schools for the white children and youth failed rather from the peculiar organization of society itself outside the towns, whereby the masses of the people seem to have been left almost jiowerless to act in behalf of any good thing, than from indifference or hostility to the sacred cause. Certain it is that no State of the South can point to a larger number of eminent friends of universal education among its leading men than this Commonwealth. GEORGIA. It was a significant coincidence that the first public notice of education in Geor¬ gia after the war of the Revolution should have been made by Governor Lyman Hall, a native of Connecticut, who had been sent as a delegate to the first Conti¬ nental Congress by the New England colony in St. John’s Parish, afterwards Liberty County, before the province had come to the decision to resist the home government. On January 8, 1783, Governor Hall said in his message to the legislature: “It will be your wisdom to lay an early foundation for enduring seminaries of learning; nor can you, I conceive, lay a better than by a grant of a sufficient tract of land that may, as in other governments, hereafter, by lease or otherwise, raise a revenue suffi¬ cient to support such valuable institutions.” The constitution of Georgia of 1777 had already provided that schools should be erected in each county, and supported at the general expense of the State. On July 31, 1783, in immediate response to the executive message, the governor was empow¬ ered to lay out the reserve land, in the town of Augusta, then the capital of the State, into lots for the erection of “ a university or seminary of learning and other 296 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. purposes.'’ By the same act the governor was authorized to grant 1,000 acres of land for a free school in each county. The act also included a provision for the establish¬ ment of an academy in each of three counties, the most important of which, the Academy of Richmond County, was opened in 1785. The master, an importation from Maryland, taught the classical and English languages, mathematics, and common branches. The tuition was $10 per quarter. Beginning with the master and two teachers, this school has gone on till the present day, when, in new buildings, it forms the highest department of the public-school system of Augusta. In 1781-85 this preliminary legislation was supplemented by the act establishing the University of Georgia. Two counties “out west/’ now near the center of the State, Franklin and Washington, were laid out, with a grant of 40,000 acres of wild land, for the endowment of “a college or seminary of learning.” Trustees were appointed, who, with the governor, were empowered to put the act in operation. Here again we meet the beneficent influence of New England in the presence of Abraham Baldwin, a graduate of Yale College, who originated the plan for the Uni¬ versity of Georgia and obtained the legislative grant of land for its foundation. In 1785 this act was expanded into a broader statute, which, for a century past, has fixed the status of the relation of the Commonwealth of Georgia to the educa¬ tion of its people. After an elaborate preamble, reciting the advantages of education to the State and the “ humiliation ” of sending the youth of the State to foreign countries for the schooling proper to republican institutions, this act empowered the trustees aforesaid to establish “ the University of Georgia.” But, like the action of the State of New York about the same time, the university idea was so extended as to include all grades of schools supported or subsidized by the State. To-day every public school in Georgia is legally a part of the State University. The administering of this vast responsibility was placed upon two heads, one a “board of visitors,” composed of high State officials, the second a “board of thirteen trustees,” elected by the legislature. A section of the act declared that “all public schools instituted or to be supported by funds or public moneys in this State shall be considered as parts and members of the university and shall be under the foregoing direction and regulation.” By the same statute all officers of the university were required to be “of the Christian religion” and to publicly take the oath of allegiance. The reli¬ gious test for the officers of the university was afterwards abolished in consideration of the Hebrew connection of one of the professors or trustees. But in the personal direction of the university, as in Harvard and Yale, we find the broad provision that no imrson is to be refused education on account of his religious convictions. But this effort was too great to be expanded at once into a working system of pub¬ lic education. Thirteen years later, in 17S8, although the State constitution of that date required the coming legislature to take measures to establish the university, there was found no pecuniary backing of the enterprise save the 40,000 acres of wild land in a region infested by hostile Indians, and not worth altogether $1,000. Land was too plenty and cheap, every family of settlers being offered by the State 200 acres, “with 50 acres additional for every member, young or old, white or black.” The college estate would not have brought three cents an acre. Even of this, 5,000 acres had been ceded away to South Carolina in a boundary settlement. The finan¬ cial knot was cut by Governor John Millege, by a donation of 600 acres of land in the present location of the pleasant little city of Athens. With this meager outfit, in 1801, the university began its course under the presi¬ dency of Dr. Josiah Meigs, in a city of two houses, with a framed building of one room as its only home, and the great trees of the forest and the broad campus of “all out doors” as an annex. Until 1811 this grandfather of Georgia college presidents labored, with no aid, conducting recitations under the shadows of a giant oak, and graduating fifty students, some of whom were among the future leading men of the State. At the close of Dr. Meigs’s presidency the “university” took a breathing spell of one year, and then called Rev. John Brown, who held on till 1816, graduat- EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 297 iug twenty students. In 1815 tbe money question was solved by the sale of all the college lands, from which $150,000 was realized. The State reimbursed itself from the odd $50,000 and placed the $100,000 in an 8 per cent stock as a permanent fund. From this foundation the university has received $8,000 annually from the State. This arrangement was consummated in 1821. Since then the State has made this annual grant to the university under the steady disapproval of a majority of the denomi¬ national colleges. These enlarge on the fact that the University of Georgia has, during the past one hundred years, with its “branches,” absorbed $1,200,000 of the people’s money, while the Commonwealth could have expended its means to better advantage by giving the opportunities of elementary education to the masses and leaving the secondary and higher education to the care of private and church support. But certainly, until 1819, the University of Georgia was not dying of the “dry rot” of luxury. At that date, fifteen years after its inauguration, “there were neither funds, professors, nor students.” It was a good Providence by which Dr. Moses Waddell was brought from the shades of his famous Abbeville Academy, in South Carolina, to the succor of the expiring college. He raised it from its bed of languishing so that during his presidency of ten years new professors were called, aud, by the aid of a lottery, the library and the stock of apparatus were enlarged. On the retirement of Dr. Waddell, New England was again called on for a president, in the person of Rev. Alonzo Church, of Vermont. To replace a building destroyed by fire in 1830, the State came again to the aid of the university in an extra annual gift of $6,000, continued for ten years. This donation was regarded as a late reimbursement by the State of the $50,000 retained from the purchase money of the original landed property of the institution. These several appropriations, $25,000 in gifts and real estate; the yearly income of the $100,000 funded from the proceeds of the original donations of lands, and the $60,000 contributed between 1830 and 1810, make up the entire contribution of Georgia to its university through all the years from 1802 to 1875. The largest addition of build¬ ings was made between 1830 and 1840. During these years the institution retained its original name, “Franklin College.” Dr. Church held the place of president of the university for thirty years, retiring in 1859. Since that time the institution has expanded through private gifts and the establishment of its several branches, the Agricultural and Mechanical . College at Athens, School of Technology in Atlanta, and the Industrial College for Colored Youth at Savannah. Meanwhile, in 1788, the State continued its policy of the endowment of academies by grants to Sunbury and Savannah in Liberty and Chatham counties. We have already told the interesting story of the famous New England colony in Liberty County and the Sunbury Academy. The Chatham Academy in Savannah now occu¬ pies the same place as the original school in Augusta; it is at the head of the public- school system of that beautiful and prosperous city. The original grant of 1,000 acres of wild lands for every county was supplemented in 1802 and 1810 by a provi¬ sion that confiscated property should be turned over to these schools — a just though small recompense for the mischief and misery inflicted on the people of Georgia by the Tory party of the Revolution. At the opening of the present century some half a dozen of these free schools had been established in as many counties of this State. When we remember that the whole population of Georgia at this period was less than 90,000, perhaps not two-thirds white, and the white school population not exceeding 10,000, we can look with respect on the early efforts of this enterprising Commonwealth to raise, on the boundless wilderness of its immense territory, these little fortresses of the secondary and higher education. But Georgia fell into the same mistaken policy as all the original States beyond and south of the Hudson River, in following the British habit of endowing and sub¬ sidizing that department of the public school from which the masses of her people could derive the least advantage. In the third constitution of the State, 1798, appears the following provision, already quoted: “The arts and sciences shall be promoted in one or more seminaries of learning, and the legislature shall, as soon as ED 96 - 10* 298 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. conveniently may be, give such further donations and privileges to those already established as may he necessary to secure the enlargement of these institutions; and it shall he the duty of the general assembly, at the next session, to provide effectual means for the improvement and permanent security of the funds and endowments of such institutions.” This provision, of course, was made in view of the fact that the University of Georgia included a school system for the whole white people of the State. It has been well said that had these original provisions been carried out? “ Georgia would have had a system of education equal if not superior to that of any State in the Union.” But at first the State moved exclusively in the establishment of tho county academies, and by 1829 had chartered 64, and by 1840, 176 of these schools of every hind, with an attendance of 8,000 pupils. But these schools, in a society even so comparatively democratic as Georgia, ultimately fell into the hands of the well-to-do dominant class, and were declared by a late competent authority, “inaccessible to the overwhelming majority of the people of the State.” They were all tuition schools, in addition to the expense of board and transportation bills, and were founded and worked rather as classical and high schools than on common school lines, from the beginning. They became justly the pride of the people of tho State; the favorite schools in which all families that could afford tho cost were desir¬ ous of educating their children. For more than thirty years from the time of their first endowment, or until 1817, they, with the Franklin College, absorbed and, from 1817 to 1836, divided extensively with the “poor schools” tho educational resources of the State. But in 1840 these 176 seminaries contained but 8,000 pupils, while the white schoohchildren of the State numbered 85,000. During these years not less than $200,000 had been granted to this class of seminaries. In 1817 an upward movement from belGW brought into operation the system of “poor schools,” or rather appropriations for the free education of poor children. Under this system the State languished in the most vital interest of its educational life for more than half a century, until the present system of common schools wa3 established in 1870. Under this system tho interest of $250,000, in 1817, and in 1821 of another $250,000, with some additional endowments, was appropriated to the project of teaching indigent children, each for three years. Thus, for fifty years and more, was the stigma of “pauper schools” applied to the most central and vital institution of the Republic. In 1836 the great educational revival of the nation, in its progress toward the Gulf, struck the “Empire State of the South.” Tho sum of $350,000 from the surplus rev¬ enue was set apart as “'a permanent free-school and educational fund,” and a “plan of common-school education” was digested by a joint committee of the legislature, which, in 1837, established a general system of common schools, to take effect in 1839. By this act the academic and free-school funds were consolidated and tho old status revived. But in 1840 came the reaction, and the State appropriations for education were merged in the free-school fund, and thereafter every pupil outside the Frank¬ lin College, though enjoying the exclusive title of the university and receiving aid from the State, was burdened with the badge of pauperism. By this time — the close of the first half century of the Republic — the mind of the leading class in Georgia had so fallen away from the ideal of the fathers that there seemed to be no more intention left of educating the mass of the children at public expense. Under the conditions then existing the State was afflicted wTith a malady of white illiteracy. The “poor people” rejected with contempt the pittance doled out to their children. In 1845 only 53 of the 93 counties applied for their share of tho fund. From 1817 to 1860 an annual distribution of $30,000 was the extent of the contribu¬ tion of the State to the education of the people, m all $1,290,000. With the addition of the $8,700,000 appropriated since 1870, the State, during seventy-two years, expended $10,000,000. During the years from 1817 to 1845, the school population of the State was 20,000, 30,000, and 50,000 for the successive decades. EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 299 From this point of view, wo can 'well understand tlio criticism of the common school public so freely made by President W. A. Candler, of Emory College, that up to tho present timo considerably more than $1,000,000 has been applied by the State to the higher education, while up to 1870 tho mass cf tho children had been put off with a sum not larger. Meanwhile it is stated that no alumnus of tho University of Georgia has given it an endowment, and no one has been elected to its presidency. Ini 833 Mercer College was established at Macon by the Baptist, in 1835 Oglethorpe University by the Presbyterian, and in 1830 Emory College by the Methodist denom¬ ination. These, with other similar institutions founded previous to 1810, have now become important features in the educational life of tho State, but their chief importance has been realized subsequent to the date assigned to this essay. Of course along with this record of the common school we must carry in mind the work of a corresponding system of private and local schools. Indeed, under the “poor school,” and too much under a loose construction of the common-school law, at present the private and academic schools have been utilized to a large extent by their subsidizing for common-school work. Georgia is probably the only State in the Union to-day which subsidizes all varieties of private and denominational schools. FLORIDA. With the educational record of the State of Georgia, the story of the beginnings of the American common school from the establishment of the Union to tho decade 1830-1810 practically comes to a close. The vast territory of Florida, 367,820 square miles in extent, was purchased of Spain in 1819 for $5,000,000. The portion of this purchase included in the present State of Florida, 58,680 square miles, settled in 1565, had been for two hundred and fifty years a land of contention between France, Spain, and England, each making little headway. Until the beginning of the present century there is no record of educational activity even in Alabama, and probably all schooling was in the hands of the Catholic clergy, as the resident popu¬ lation was largely of this denomination. In 1831 a movement came up at Tallahassee which, under the title, “The Florida Education Society,” proposed an extended investigation preliminary to an attempt at the establishment of a system of general instruction, and the governor of the Territory was requested to appoint three com¬ missioners in the interest of this inquiry. About the same time the manual-labor “boom” seems to have struck Tallahassee. The educational commission reported “ an alarming neglect of education in the Territory,"' and that the general indifference and sparseness of the population were unfavorable to any general system of pop¬ ular instruction. Both these attempts seem to have been spasmodic and without special result. The first movement of the Territorial government for the preservation of the school lands assigned to the Territory was made in 1835. In 1839 three school trus¬ tees were ordered to be chosen in each district and intrusted with the duty of organ¬ izing and supervising schools. In 1843 this duty was transferred to tho sheriffs of the counties. The act of 1839, amended in 1840, 1844, and 1845, like the present school law of Texas, directed the judge of probate of each county to officiate as superintendent of schools, with the additional duty of reporting to the central State authorities. But it is doubtful if any considerable success attended the efforts to establish education in a Territory so peculiarly constituted and distracted by obsti¬ nate differences of population before 1845, when Florida was admitted as a State of the Union with 58,680 inhabitants, including its slave contingent. At first the attempt was made to leave the common-school lands to the management of the dif¬ ferent localities, but as only one township organized under that act the State assumed the responsibility of establishing a common-school fund from their sale. 300 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. ALABAMA. The present State of Alabama was first settled by the French, at Mobile, in 1702. For a hundred years later all outside the coast was a wilderness overrun by Indians. The only educational record is the repeated applications of Bienville, the French governor of the province of Louisiana, to the home government for aa college,” which was refused by the Jesuit fraternity, who at this time were at the head of such affairs in the vast undefined region of the New World. The population of the colony did not exceed 300. In 1763 the territory known as West Florida passed under the control of the Brit¬ ish, and in 1783 was transferred to the Spanish. But nothing seemed to have been initiated in education, and beyond the usual activity of superior families, chiefly under the direction of the clergy, there appears to have been nothing of interest in this direction till, the year 1800. The Mississippi Territory, including the present States of Alabama and Mississippi, by 1810 had established three counties within the limits of the present Alabama, which had a white population of 3,481. One John Pierce appears in history as the first schoolmaster of the Territory. From 1810 to 1814 two academies were chartered and $1,000 appropriated by the legislature of the Mississippi Territory for their sup¬ port. The latter, Green Academy, at Huntsville, Ala., is chiefly interesting to us from the fact that it was the real beginning of the present public-school system of the State, supported as an academy for fifty boys, and is now a part of the common- school system of Huntsville. In 1817 the Territory of Alabama was formed, and the State was admitted to the Union in 1819, with a population of 127,000. Previous to this, Congress had appointed a survey of the Territory, the Indian title to which had been extinguished in 1813-14, including the setting apart of the sixteenth section of each township and the one, afterwards increased to two, townships of land, for com¬ mon schools and a “ seminary of learning.” In 1855, when the State first moved for the establishment of a common-school system, it was found that the sales of these lands had placed in the treasury of the State the sum of $1,244,794, the interest of which, with the addition of the surplus revenue, direct appropriations by the State, and other receipts, amounted to $237,515, and the number of children of school age to 145,550. Previous to 1826 no attempt was made at a system of public schools in the State. In that year the city of Mobile began, in the manner by which such movements were inaugurated in the days before the civil war, by the appointment of a board of com¬ missioners, to whom was given full power for the complete education of the white children and youth of the city, already an important Gulf post. In 1830 a valuable plot of land was obtained, and an institution of learning, Barton Academy, was estab¬ lished. But for twenty-five years, until 1852, the history of this seminary appears to center on a perpetual strife concerning its organization and administration. It was finally merged into a close corporation, and the schools of Mobile were at a later date set apart from the general charge of the State in a condition of virtual independence. Up to this date the commissioners had fallen into the habit of subsidizing the vari¬ ous parochial and private schools of the city and county, with no attempt to support a proper system of public instruction The history of the common school in the State really begins in 1855, when the legislature, moved by a revival of interest in the chief city, embarked on the enterprise of giving to Alabama for the next twenty years such facilities as were required in that direction. The framers of the first constitution of Alabama, in 1819, struck a high note of prophecy in the article relating to the obligation of an American State to educate its children and youth. Says this document: “Schools and the means of education shall be forever encouraged in this State, and the general assembly shall take meas¬ ures to preserve from unnecessary waste and damage such lands as are or hereafter may be granted by the United States for the use of schools within each township in EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 301 this State, and apply the funds which may he raised from such lands in strict con¬ formity to the object of such grant. The general assembly shall take like measures for the improvement of such lands as have been or may be hereafter granted by the United States to this State for the support of a seminary of learning, and the moneys which may be raised from such lands by rent, lease, or sale, or from any other quar¬ ter for the purpose aforesaid, shall be and remain a fund for the exclusive support of a State university, for the promotion of the arts, literature, and the sciences; and it shall be the duty of the general assembly, as early as may be, to provide effectual means for the improvement and permanent security of the funds and endowment of such institution.” We have already seen how long delayed was the fulfillment of this noble, prophetic utterance as far as it concerned the most important department of education — the elementary free common schooling of the children. But, in accordance with the prevailing idea of the day, that education must be first organized on the summit of the university that it may descend to the lowlands of common instruction, the legis¬ lature at once moved in the good work of establishing an institution of the higher culture. At the first session of the legislature after the organization of the State government, in response to the summons of Governor Bibb, he was authorized by the general assembly to appoint commissioners in every county in which there were lands set apart for u the Seminary of Learning,” to lease the same till 1821. The two townships reserved for the university had wisely been located in tracts instead of in one block of real estate. Two years later the governor with twelve trustees, two from each judicial district, to be elected by the general assembly, were constituted “ trustees of the University of Alabama,” and were required to report at the next session concerning the proper site, to be determined by the joint vote of the two houses. It is unnecessary to detail the various arrangements for the sale or lease of the university lands or of the investment of the funds. Suffice to say that to the very liberal provision to lessees of lands for ninety-nine years is attributed the finan¬ cial disaster that afterwards overwhelmed the institution. But at first all went well. Fifty thousand dollars was appropriated for buildings. The State increased rapidly in population, nearly doubling in the eight years from its admission to the Union. The raising of cotton became the leading industry. Negro slaves were multiplied, one-third the inhabitants of the State in 1820 being colored, and the annual exports of Mobile were more than 25,000 bales of cotton. Lands were sold at high prices, and the State appropriated the avails as the capital of its new system of banking with interest at 6 per cent. The city of Tuscaloosa in 1827 was chosen as the seat of the university, and the sale of city lots proved favor¬ able to the enterprise. In 1830, Rev. Philip Lindsley, president of the University of Nashville, having declined the presidency, the position was filled by the choice of Rev. Dr. Woods, president of Transylvania University, in Kentucky. Both these men were from the North. Dr. Lindsley was from New Jersey, Dr. Woods from Vermont, a graduate of Harvard and a classmate of George Bancroft, Caleb Cushing, and the distinguished, educator, George B. Emerson. After graduating he spent two years in study abroad, was afterwards elected professor of mathematics in Brown University, Rhode Island, and was called to Transylvania University, Kentucky, on the retirement of Dr. Horace Holley in 1828. On the 12th of April, 1831, Dr. Woods was solemnly inaugurated, and the university opened with the president, 3 pro¬ fessors, 1 tutor, and 91 students. Here first appears one of the most remarkable characters in the educational his¬ tory of Alabama, Henry Tutwiler. A Virginian by birth, and one of the earliest grad¬ uates of the new University of Virginia; a friend of Thomas Jefferson and classmate of Robert T. Hunter and other famous men ; improved by years of travel and acquaint¬ ance with distinguished scholars abroad — at the age of 21 he entered the State Uni¬ versity of Alabama as professor of mathematics, where he remained for seven years. He became subsequently master of the famous Green Spring Academy, where for 302 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. thirty years ho was recognized at home and abroad as one of the foremost educators of the country. The family name still remains among the excellent women of Ala¬ bama in the person of Miss Julia Tutwiler, principal of the State Normal School at Livingston, and widely known a3 one of the most devoted and cultivated of the teaching sisterhood of the Union. The university was established at first in ample buildings, the professors being dom¬ iciled in houses on the college grounds. Two additional professorships were estab¬ lished in the two following years. The incumbent of one, Mr. Henry W. Hilliard, was known afterwards as one of the most distinguished men of his State in public affairs, his official life closing as minister to Brazil in 1877-1881. At the first commencement one student was graduated. But with all of this commendable zeal for the scholarly outfit of the university, one functionary had unhappily been neglected — a competent bookkeeper and penman to manage and keep the record of the material interests of the institution. The result was that within five years of its establishment the university found itself on the verge of bankruptcy and the fund depended on for its support in peril of collapse. It required the labor of two years by an expert accountant and agent to unravel the tangle into which the affairs of the school had been involved from the ignorance or carelessness of its bookkeeping, and it was fortunate that the State escaped with the loss of only a portion of its university fund. Through this great trial Dr. Woods held on for six years, till 1837, when he retired and returned to Rhode Island, where he spent the remainder of his life. Besides the financial trouble, the university was vexed by an extraordinary state of insubordination among the students, attributed to their extreme youth and lack of j>reparation for college studies. This disturbance culminated in the rebellion of the senior class in 1837, which involved the expulsion of the whole number. So discouraging were these early years that when Rev. Basil Manly assumed the presi¬ dency, as successor to Dr. Woods, in 1837, ho was met by only 38 students, the high¬ est previous attendance having been 158. But the new president held on for eighteen years, until 1855, and steadily built up the university in every way. Up to the limit of this period, 1840, the record of Alabama in the public support of education has little more to show. Its institutions of charity, some of which have been widely known, were all organized at a later date, as was the medical school of the university and the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Auburn, under the presidency of Dr. Broun, now one of the best in the South. The various institu¬ tions bearing the name of “ college” established by the different religious bodies, Baptist, Methodist, and Catholic, and the numerous private and denominational schools, some of them of national reputation, all belong to a later period, although some of them had their small beginnings in the decade from 1830 to 1840. But in the brief space of twenty years the State had displayed a spirit and set in motion an arrangement of the secondary and higher education prophetic of good things for the years to come. MISSISSIPPI. The story of the American common school in Mississippi does not begin during the time limit appropriated to this essay, the first half century of the Republic, 1790-1840. Indeed, until the beginning of the present century, there is, for this State, no story of education of any type connected with schools to be told. Settled by the French as early as 1699 on the shore of the great river, passing under the con¬ trol of the British Empire for the brief period of twenty years, 1763-1783, then fall¬ ing under the dominion of the Spanish power, which reigned supreme on the western coast of the Mississippi River from the Gulf to the summit of the Rocky Mountains and the southern boundary of British Canada, finally becoming a portion of the territory of the United States near the opening of the nineteenth century, there was little opportunity for the development of anythiug like education outside the EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 303 family and such instruction of children and youth as always accompanies the min¬ istry of a priesthood so zealous as that of the Catholic Church. But here, as in the early records of the Northwest, wo fmd the local historians reveling in the vision of an ideal social state, in their glowing descriptions of the first Anglo-Saxon settlements in this territory. Up to the year of British possession the country had been occupied chiefly at a few military posts on the Gulf, at Biloxi, and at Natchez, on the river, with small prospect of permanent occupation by the group of wandering adventurers from France, who scoured the country in pursuit of imaginary gold fields or an elusive earthly paradise. But with the approach of the war of Independence there earae hither a considerable immigration' of people from New Jersey, Connecticut, and elsewhere, fleeing to the far-off wilderness to escape the perils of the impending revolt of the thirteen colonies. The early exodus of the British forces from New England, carrying with them a body of sympathizers with the mother country to the northeastern provinces of Canada, had placed these colonies in a state of assurance concerning the final issue of the conflict that was not shared by the middle provinces* which thenceforth bore the brunt of the war, while the South, below Virginia, virtually until the closing period of the strife, was overrun and demoralized by the enemy. It is not always clearly taught in the school histories of the United States that Florida never “rebelled” against the mother country, and during the entire period of the Revolutionary struggle, especially in its western section, was a refuge for tho disaffected class in all the Atlantic colonies. The New Jersey Company, under tho lead of the Swayze Brothers, was granted 19,000 acres of land in Adams County, on the shore of tho Mississippi, in 1772. Later came Phineas Lyman, bringing along a crowd of Connecticut Yankees, who were established on a big estate of 20,000 acres in Chickasaw County, not far away. Rev. Jedediah Smith, father of ten children, was the first Protestant clergyman to invade this primitive Catholic reserve. In the glow¬ ing record of the historians of early Mississippi, these people came to cultivate the soil, brought intelligence and capital, raised indigo, tobacco, and, later, cotton for export, reveled in a rural paradise of meats, vegetables, fruits, “milk and wild honey,” and made everything at home. Although toofar away from Pensacola, the British seat of government, to be affected by the laws, these people “ were a law unto themselves,” paid their debts, dwelt in peace, and by sheer force of personal character and public opinion kept down the evil-disposed folk that inevitably drifted in. Natchez was the only effort at a village, being a settlement of twenty log houses, under a great bluff on the river bank, with four stone buildings. They were undisturbed during the war, hut in 1779 Spain, lying alongside, at war with England abroad, conquered the settlement and established its domain over a territory larger than the old republic east of the Alleghanies. But there seems to have been no interference with the original settlers, even their religion being tolerated, as certainly the Catholic faith would not have been in the old eastern English provinces from which they came. In 1795 the boundaries of the United States territory at the south were drawn . along the northern line of Florida, and this portion of the State of Georgia, extend¬ ing to the Mississippi River, including the three States of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi* then came under the control of the new Republic. But even before this, the great expectations from the opening of the vast Southwest, even to the mouths of the Mississippi, had set in motion another tide of emigration. This body of people came to the southern boundary of the Republic on the eastern shore of the Pearl River. They settled in the pine woods, reared great herds of cattle, and built up a commu¬ nity that, in contrast to the original emigration to Mississippi, was a semiciviliza¬ tion. The natural antagonisms between them and the better sort previously men¬ tioned, laid the foundations of the hitter local jealousies and fends that, for half a century, hindered the progress of all good things in Mississippi. In 1798 the Terri¬ tory was organized, and TTmthrop Sargeant, of Massachusetts, was sent down by the 304 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Government to drive the “wild team” that Mississippi undoubtedly was under cir¬ cumstances so peculiar. Of course he failed, and not till Clairhorne was appointed governor, in 1801, was the first Territorial legislature convened at Natchez and the new Territory really set on its feet. Nobody claims that up to this date there had been any public movement for the schooling of any class during the hundred years of French, British, and Spanish occu¬ pation. Of course the original settlers from the Northeast, in their characteristic extempore honie way, did not let their children “ grow up in so great barbarism” as to be wholly ignorant of letters and unable to “ read the word of God.” To this first deputation of solid Anglo-American folk is Mississippi indebted for a good deal of the remarkable ability and intelligence tlyit in its early history towered above its natural surroundings. Although it is on record that there was but one printer and no newspaper in the colony, and although copies of the first laws of the legislature were made in writing, yet during his short administration, in 1799, Governor Sargeant forwarded a petition of the people in Natchez for “ a seminary ” and a min¬ ister of the gospel. The trials of Parson Jedediah Smith in preaching his gospel of Protestantism are a matter of local history. But the youth of Mississippi did not incline to that profession, and in 1826 it was declared that, up to that date, no native of the State had become a Protestant clergyman. In 1802 the capital of the Territory was located at Washington, a village 6 miles inland from Natchez. This little metropolis in the wilderness at once became the center of all the society and culture, of which there seems to have been a good supply in the Territory. Buildings were erected, a village grew up, and again we are treated to a brilliant picture of the social life of the place, including “wine parties and duels.” The Territory included the present States of Alabama and Mississippi, still chiefly in possession of the Indian tribes and settled only in isolated localities in a boundless wilderness. In 1803 the vast territory of Louisiana, including the city of New Orleans and the mouths of the Mississippi River, fell into possession of the United States. But the central and northern portion of the territory and State of Mississippi were occupied by the Indian tribes until, in 1832, their final exit was accomplished. Previous to this, Gen. Andrew Jackson had carved out a military road from Florida on the Gulf to Tennessee, and along this highway poured in a new emigration, less desirable in some way than the original body of excellent people that “held the fort” at Natchez and on the shore of the mighty river. In 1817 Mis¬ sissippi was admitted to the Union and in 1820 its population was 75,000. In 1813 the first effort of the people clustering about the Natchez district culmi¬ nated in the establishment of the school which became Jefferson College, the practical beginning of the superior education in the new State founded at Washington. It struggled through a varied career of success and discouragement for fifty years, till it declined with the rural metropolis in which it was located. Washington is now only a hamlet in a remote suburb of the city on the bluffs and preserves the remains of the old seminary as a village academy. The Congress of the United States made a donation of lands, first in Alabama, afterwards in Mississippi, in its favor. But misfortune after misfortune blocked its success, first in a short experience as a mili¬ tary school, and it was never practically more than an academy. “In its history of ninety years it has never granted an academic degree.” Yet, like so many of the little seats of education in the new American life, there clusters about it a notable group of students and teachers. One of these instructors was Sir William Dunbar, a remark¬ able Scotchman, of noble lineage, who, for some unexplained reason, drifted to the shores of the Mississippi at this time, pursued his scientific studies on his plantation, became a member of the learned societies of Europe, and the friend and correspond¬ ent of Jefferson till his death in 1810. The great American naturalist, Audubon, was for two years teacher of drawing in this little seat of learning, where his sons were schooled. Governor A. G. Brown, the father of popular education in Mississippi, Jefferson Davis, with others only less distinguished, were also among its students. EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 305 From tho earliest period the upper strata of the Mississippi people persisted in sending their children to the North or to Europe for education. Even as late as 1840 the governor of the State protested against the habit and urged the growing hostility of the North to slavery as a reason why the people should build up an effective educational system for their own State. For the thirty years succeeding the admission of the State to the Union, Mississippi had nothing that could be called a common-school system During the early years of the country the educational situation is described as “deplorable” by reliable native historians. “ Schoolmasters were difficult to be obtained and generally vicious or ignorant.” A settlement of Methodist people, in Warren County, was a positive addition to the educational side of the Territory. The charter of Jefferson College, in 1802, was “the first act of incorporation in Mississippi.” After great vicissitudes, in 1840 it supported a full college course with a president and four professors and 1,500 volumes in its library. The first seminary for girls was established in Natchez in 1801 by Rev. Mr. Ker, an Irish clergyman, afterwards lawyer and judge. It was taught by his wife and daughters. In 1818 was set up at Washington the Elizabeth Female Academy, “the first fruits of Protestant denominational influence in all the extreme South.” Founded by and named from a devoted woman of the Methodist order, Mrs. Eliza¬ beth Roach, it secured for its principal Mrs. Caroline M. Thayer, a granddaughter or grandniece of Gen. Joseph Warren, who fell at the battle of Bunker Hill. This excellent lady, who afterwards removed to another school in the State, is remembered as an educational “ Mother in Israel ” by the grateful daughters of Mississippi, than whom there is no more zealous and farseeing body of school women m the entire South to-day. Its commencement exercises in 1829 are said to have been the first in Mississippi. The average attendance during the first ten years was from ten to fifty pupils. It was abandoned with the decay of the village of Washington in 1843. The earliest division of the sixteenth section of Government school lands in Missis¬ sippi was made at the present city of Columbus, in the northeastern part of the State, in 1821, by the establishment of an academy. Its patrimony included a portion of the present flourishing little city ; the lease, being drawn for ninety-mne years, secured a fair income. Through all the years before the civil war this was one of the most noted schools in the State, maintaining a classical, to which was added an elemen¬ tary, department. At the reorganization of education in 1868 it became the public school of the city in connection with the colored department. To this must be attributed the reputation of Columbus as the proper educational center of the exten¬ sive and fertile country of northeast Mississippi and the recent establishment of the Women's Normal and Industrial State College, one of the most original, character¬ istic, and useful institutions of the New South, already copied in Georgia, North and South Carolina, and worthy of imitation in many States of the Union. In 1826 the Mississippi Academy and College were established at Clinton, Hinds County, 10 miles west of Vicksburg, in one of the most favorable sections of the river country. Mrs. Thayer was called to the principalship of the female depart¬ ment. After an unsuccessful attempt to obtain the State seminary fund, it went through various experiences, until in 1850 it became a Baptist institution, and is still one of the best schools of the higher class in the State. To this school as a professor, and afterwards as president, came Dr. Walter Hillman, from Massachusetts, so well known, with his excellent wife, as the head of the Central Female College estab¬ lished by them at Clinton. We omit here ~the interesting story of this school, including the romantic episode of its continuance by common consent of the rival Union and Confederate authorities during the military operations around Vicks¬ burg — a little island paradise of peace and good will amid a Commonwealth involved in the horrors of civil war. In 1830 a distinguished divine from Pennsylvania, appealed to the Presbyterian people of Mississippi to establish a college at Oak Ridge, near Bruins burg, where General Grant crossed the Mississippi in his final movement upon Vicksburg. He 306 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1895-96. told the people of this State that up to that date no college commencement had ever been held nor had a single college student been graduated southwest of Ten¬ nessee through the States of Louisiana, Mississippi, and the Territory of Arkansas, an area of 145,000 square miles, inhabited by 200,000 people, and not one native mis¬ sionary had entered the ministry. He also declared that there was not a city or village in the State where ho was willing to locate a college, because of the low con¬ dition of morals. Whatever of truth there may have been in his statements, the wealthy people of the State came to the rescue, subscribed $12,000 for the buildings, and gave 200 acres of land, with an endowment, to the enterprise. The plucky presi¬ dent cut down the first tree on Oak Eidge and the new school opened in 1831, with 65 students, and held its first commencement in 1833. Twenty-five thousand dollars was afterwards added for a theological professorship. This college, inaugurated under such favorable auspices, during its existence educated 1,000 students. But in 1851 its funds were lost, from bad investments, and its distinguished president mur¬ dered. After a few years of checkered success the property was sold to the State and transferred to the Alcorn University for colored youth. The remaining funds were used to establish a seminary for young women at Port Gibson, in the neighborhood. These were but a few of the attempts to establish academic and collegiate schools in the State before the movement in 1840-1850 to place on the ground a proper school system and State university. Among others may be mentioned the Oxford Female College, established 1838, still known as the Union Female College in the university town. Centenary College, established by the Methodists in 1839, was transferred to Louisiana in 1845. “During the twenty years from 1820 to 1840,” according to Governor Brown, “no less than 110 colleges and academies, male and female, had been inaugurated in Mississippi. Most of them had a fitful existence and then went down to the great receptacle of old and useless things — the tomb of the Capulets. The children of Mississippi ay ere largely educated in private schools.” To this able and farsceing statesman, Governor A. G. Brown, is the State of Missis¬ sippi indebted for the first positive and persistent movement in favor of a State university and a system of common schools. The seminary lands of the State were first located in Alabama, afterwards in Missis¬ sippi. In 1821 the legislature was moved to locate these lands. In 1830-1833 the Plan¬ ters7 Bank w as established, the State owning half its stock, and being represented by six of thirteen directors. In 1833 the university lands were sold for $277,000. The dismal story of the subsequent failure of the bank, including a loss of $200,000 of this fund, wdth the long struggle of the university, nominally organized in 1841, to get on its feet and into a proper working condition for the next twenty years, need not be told in detail. It is the old story of the futile attempt, in so many of our new States, to establish a university on the basis of the United States land grant, the neglect or perversion and loss of a large part of the funds, and the final rally of the people, often against the determined opposition of the denominational and other adverse influences, to place the State system on its feet. To-day, spite of all hostile influences or early failures, the public support of the higher education, both in its. academic and industrial departments, is as w'ell assured as any policy of the Eepublie. In Mississippi, as in Georgia, the complete success was imperiled by an unwise division of the funds. Governor Brown favored a central university and auxiliary academies. The bitter contentions that raged around the cradle of the university were settled in 1845 by the location at Oxford, and funds at last were gathered for its opening prior to 1850. But this, with the history of the institution after the close of the civil war, the subsequent establishment of the Agricultural and Mechan¬ ical College, and of the Woman’s Normal and Industrial College, will properly come under consideration at a future time. It was not till the same time, 1845, and under the powerful leadership of the great educational governor of the State, Hon. A, G. Brown, that the first movement toward a common-school instruction for the white children and youth of Mississippi EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 307 Tras inaugurated. By tlie help of Judge J. S. B. Thatcher, a native of Massachusetts and a graduate of Harvard College, a plan was devised and a system of education launched upon tho tide of unsuccessful experiment. The first common-school law of Mississippi did not essentially differ from those of other Southern States already described. The State had already placed in its constitution the inspiring words of the immortal ordinance of 1787: u Religion, morality, and knowledge being neces¬ sary to good government and tho happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall ho forever encouraged.” The statuto provided that the county courts should appoint school commissioners, five in each county, who should take in charge the entire business of the establishment of a system of popular education and impose a tax which, with the approval of the people concerned, would set the great machine in motion. But all was predicated on the very uncertain hope that the majority of the voters would consent to accept the system and pay for the school¬ ing of all the children. It was just that which the majority of the voters never decided to do until 1868. But during the fifteen years before the breaking out of the great conflict the legislature was vexed by the persistent efforts of the enemies of the system to repeal the law. As it was, only a few of the counties would accej>t it. By 1860 the original intent of tho law had been evaded and modified by an end¬ less series of enactments for the benefit of separate localities. The partial collapse of the law of 1815 was a new demonstration of the folly of relying on u local option” as the base of any system of public education among a people of such diverse origin in a State torn by such fierce local jealousies as any of our South western Common¬ wealths previous to 1810. But a great deal was undoubtedly done in this way for the education of the people into a growing determination to school the children. The speedy and inevitable decision of all these Commonwealths, even under tho most discouraging circumstances, at the close of the war to adopt the complete plan of the American common school for all classes and both races was the final result of the long and unsatisfactory experimenting of the half century before the great flood of 1861. Meanwhile the state of education, as it existed during the later years of this period, receives an illuminating side light from a letter written in 1817 by Rev. Mr. Morey, of Mount Sylvan Academy, on the prospect of Northern teachers coming to Mississippi. With a detailed description of the peculiarities of the country and the qualifications of the emigrating pedagogue, especially if a woman, he states that two hundred good teachers could find immediate and profitable employment in the State. But he premises, especially to the male sex, u Come determined to teach ; not to speculate or marry; our places for golden investments are all occupied and our heiresses all engaged. Not to farm it or to preach. We know how to raise cotton better than you could, and we have a fair supply of preachers. Not to become politicians or lecturers on phrenology ; the science of government is wonderfully well known here and phrenology is not popular. In short, we need teachers, not peddlers^ or doctors, or lawyers, or literary pretenders.” In 1840 the census of the United States reports in Mississippi 7 colleges, containing 454 students; 71 academies, with 2,553 pupils; 382 primary schools; 107 pupils educated at public expense, and 8,360 white illiterates. LOUISIANA. If the generations could bo educated by proclamation, and if the statute law could establish and support “ seminaries of learning,” the State of Louisiana, instead of being one of the most illiterate, would to-day bo at tho head of educational eminence among the States of the Republic. In reading its body of legislation from the be¬ ginning of the century to 1860, connected with the early hope of educating the masses, the reader is impressed at once with the eloquent elaboration of the state¬ ment and the inefficiency of the administrative methods in providing effective means for the enforcement of the law. Up to the year 1803, when the vast territory 308 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. of Louisiana, including the present State, passed under the control of the Gov¬ ernment of the United States, the educational affairs of the colony were in the hands of the Catholic priesthood, who favored a system of parochial instruction. There is an interesting record of faithful and self-sacrificing labors by the devoted members of the female, Jesuit, and other religious orders in this direction, that only indirectly concerns our present subject. In 1741 Governor Bienville petitioned the home government for a “ college, ” but was put off with a slur upon the insignificance of the colony. The expulsion of the Jesuits and the confiscation of their property of $180,000, perhaps the largest sum of corporate wealth then in that country, in 1764, was doubtless a backset to such arrangements as were then on the ground. But as soon as the Territory of New Orleans was organized, the attention of the Territorial legislature was called to the entire subject of the education of the chil¬ dren and youth. Between 1805 and 1810 a general system of schooling was enacted which, had it been workable under the circumstances, would have launched this beautiful province on a career of intelligence and prosperity unparalleled in the Southwest. A board of “regents of the University of Orleans ” was established, consisting of the governor, judges of the supreme court and United States court, mayor and recorder of New Orleans, and president of the legislative council, ex officio, and twenty eminent citizens, appointed by the legislature, of whom it might almost be said, as of Lord Bacon, that “they had taken all knowledge for their province.7’ They were empowered, by successive laws, to establish “A College of Orleans,” with president and four professors in the city of New Orleans and one or more academies in each parish or county. In their ideas of the education of women, no legislative body of the day was abreast with that of Louisiana. They say: “Whereas the prosperity of every State depends on the education of the feinalo sex, in so much that the dignity of their condition is the strongest characteristic which distinguishes civilized from savage society,” and they authorize the regents of the university to establish as many academies for their education as may be considered fit. The same body was instructed to set up a public library in each parish. In 1808 the judge of each parish was instructed to appoint a “jury” of twelve to twenty-four persons to establish such educational arrangements “as should appear to them most convenient.” Five trustees were to be appointed to administer the system. Here was a scheme of education so broad and admirable that one is interested to learn the names of its framers. They were certainly not behind, if not actually in advance of, any similar group of educators in the country, not excepting Jefferson and his noble bodyguard in Virginia. But when we come to the executive side of the plan our admiration falls into a swift collapse. The educable children and youth of the Territory could not have exceeded a few thousand, as half the population was composed of negro slaves. These were scattered over a realm of 48,720 square miles, which, with its native fertility and resources, was perhaps the most difficult of subjugation by man of any inhabited portion of the Republic. The majority of the white people were still Catholic, and could not be brought into cooperation with any scheme of education outside the priestly programme of the ecclesiastical parochial schools. There was yet no such accumulation of property as would justify the set¬ ting up of a State school system so expensive. To meet the original outlay the law proposed a lottery scheme of $50,000 for the college and academies, and a public tax, in addition to the meager sum that could be realized from the sale of the Government school lands, with the proviso that all persons who objected should be excused from the imposition of the school levy. Of course, with these two provisions the realization of this educational ideal in the Louisiana Territory was only among the possibilities of a millennium. The result followed swiftly on the heels of the endeavor. In 1809 Governor Claiborne sadly informs the fathers, “ with regret, that the act to provide the means of establishing public schools in the Territory is not likely to produce the desired effect. In the parish of Pointe Coupee provisions have been made for the support of two public EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 309 schools; "but no other parish has followed its example.” Still the good governor is pleased to hear that “private schools are springing op in every quarter, and fathers of families are interested in the education of their offspring.” Not till 1811 did the legislature actually lay hands on the treasury and vote $15,000 for the College of Orleans and $2,000 for one or more schools in each county, the entire appropriation amounting to $39,000. Three administrators were to be ap¬ pointed to each county, but only after the schools had been in operation three, and in 1813 six, months, could they profit by the public bounty. At different times until 1841 did the legislature work at this vain problem of “ making bricks without straw,” gradually increasing the bonus to each parish, arranging the school officials in different groups m what always seemed to be a hopeless style of educational “dress parade. ’ The outcome of all was the sustaining of the College of Orleans, of which the celebrated New Orleans preacher, Rev. Theodore Clapp, an importa¬ tion from New England, was a prominent official, until 1826. It never had one hundred students, and was finally transferred, with its funds, to a ‘ State univer¬ sity.” located at Jackson, East Feliciana Parish, with the same array of notabili¬ ties as trustees and a small annual legislative gift for its maintenance. The lottery method was repeatedly invoked, both for the State system and the endowment of the academies that sprang up like a crop of “gourds in the night/ only to be withered by the first sunstroke of actual experience. Even m New Orleans, the center of population and culture, the imblic school in tne second, the most progressive of its three municipalities, did not contain seventy-five pupils; and these probably the children of the poor, whose tuition and school supplies were paid from the pub¬ lic fund The board of regents was finally abolished, and the effort made to work the schools by local administrators and trustees appointed by the legislature or the county court. In 1825 $2 62£ was appropriated to each voter in the counties for public schools, the minimum and maximum of the appropriation being $800 and $1,350. But so meager was the result of all this legislation that as high an authority as President William Preston Johnston of Tulane University, declares, “there was no such thing as public school education in Louisiana previous to 1841. Parish schools were founded and small appropriations made for their support, but they were not free schools, and doled out the pittance of a public education to eight indigent pupils in each parish in 1841 the right and duty of supporting free schools was imposed on the city of New Orleans, and in 1845 a system of public schools was established by the constitution.” It is estimated that $2,000,000 was expended in these abortive attempts to educate the people of Louisiana during the first forty years of the cen¬ tury. A great number of academies were called into being by the offer of legis¬ lative aid, only to fall in pieces on a real attempt to live and do educational work. It is not necessary to impute dishonesty to the various organizations which received or to the directors who handled this large sum of money, although the temptations of a scheme so loose were very great. But, as in South Carolina, it is probable that a good deal of what was appropriated was absorbed by a system of subsidizing local parish and private schools. The city of New Orleans even at that early period bad received many bequests from private sources, the majority of which “vanished into thin air,” or linger in “ innocuous desuetude” to the present day. Well may it be said, in the words of the historian of Louisiana : “No State has ever been more lav¬ ish in its expenditure of money for the instruction of its children and youth and the establishment of schools than Louisiana, but all has been a failure.” But we must not infer from the failure of the legislature of Louisiana during these forty years to put on the ground a system of publie instruction that nothing was accomplished. The education of an American State in a matter so great and complex as the training of its people into American citizenship is not the work of one but of many generations. It was necessary that the people of all the States should learn the chronic obstacles to the upbuilding of the American common school. Even our 310 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. young people nowadays are not thoroughly taught, through reading and hearing, the commonplace arguments in favor of universal education. The only method by which a great and diverse jieoplo can learn any essential truth in the policy of a republican government is by an experience, continued through many years, of a struggle toward the conviction that it is one of the elements of free institutions. The vast majority of the people of the State that is now doing the most for the education of its masses do not support this policy because of arguments yearly addressed to their understand¬ ing, but from an obstinate conviction, almost amounting to a violent prejudice, inwrought into the very texture of public opinion through the conflicts, defeats, and victories that “ blaze” the road to a final success. Such was the experience of the Southern common school public during the seventy- five years from the establishment of the national Government to the close of the civil war. This portion of the Southern people, always including its ablest and most worthy public men, and a growing element among its most reliable citizens, could always bo trusted to advocate the educating of the whole people fora progressive citizenship. The whole proposition was so wrought out and the inevitable result so ground into the consciousness of this class that when by the fate of war the greatest hostile influence was forever suppressed, the common school came to the front almost without opposition, save from the ignorance, prejudice, and bigotry that we always have with us. It must not be inferred that, because of the failure of repeated efforts to establish the common school, the people of Louisiana were left in the “barbarism of igno¬ rance. ;; At every failure an obstinate public opinion appeared in the legislature to demand a new experiment. Every change in the laws previous to 1840 was made in the interest of a greater efficiency, as if the people were turning the matter about by every possible way to find out the one successful method of schooling their chil¬ dren under circumstances so complex and disheartening. And although at the last, on the eve of the great war, not half the white children of the State were gathered into the schools, and illiteracy abounded in some portions of the Commonwealth, yet, on the other hand, many thousand youth had learned something and were waked up by such opportunities as they possessed to a desire for more. The State fund was all the time growing, and only its misappropriation during the period of reconstruction prevented Louisiana from having to-day one of the large educational funds of the South. And no State in the Union during the first half century of the Eepublie received into itself a greater proportion of brilliant, capable, and hopeful people from all lands and every portion of the United States than Louisiana. Every feature of the history of Louisiana during her picturesque past can be easily written into a romance, and her educational record has been no exception to this fact. One of these early histories was that of Alexander Milne, a young Scotchman engaged in the personal service of a nobleman m one of the northern districts of Scotland. Coming home from London, the master of the house is said to have issued an order that his men servants should all cut their hair after a fashion pre¬ vailing in certain great houses in the metropolis. ** Sandy Milne cuts his hair to please no man,” responded the obstinate youth, who thereupon betook himself to the New World, never stopping till he arrived in New Orleans. There, after a suc¬ cessful business career, he found himself for that day a man of wealth, and by will established an institution for boys that still exists in the city. Besides this, he remembered his old home, and endowed a classical school, with the aid of the son of his old master, which has become one of the most useful institutions of learning in that part of Scotland. I pass over the even more interesting stories of John McDonough, Paul Tulane, and a score of others only less known, who from tho earliest years of the city have bestowed generous gifts, too often neglected or destroyed. To-day no city in America can be trusted to guard such a benefaction with more jealous care than New Orleans. So we need not be surprised that tho educational public of New Orleans became EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 311 finally disgusted with tlie fruitless fumbling of the honorable board of State regents •with its educational affairs, and in 1841 dusted tho “College of Orleans” out into the country and obtained a local board of education, appointed by the governor, to establish a central and two primary schools of a public character, partly supported by State funds and a local tax, with 150 poor children educated free. The great revival of tho common school in tho far Northeast had reached even to the Gulf, and the city?" fathers consulted Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, who had already become national authorities in matters of this sort. Mr. Mann recommended Mr. J. A. Shaw, of Bridgewater, Mass., as a fit person to take control of the new experiment in pub¬ lic school work. The city was divided into three municipalities, each independent in local affairs. Its entire population of 103,000, half colored, probably contained 10,000 white children of proper school age. Mr. Shaw came to tho second munici¬ pality as superintendent of schools, and began the work with less than 100 pupils. In a year his schools numbered more than 1,000 and in two years 2,000. Tho schools were graded and taught according to the usual methods then prevailing in the Northern cities, including the French and English languages. By 1844 tho remain¬ ing municipalities had followed; and the city of New Orleans from that day to 18G0 had probably tho best system of common schools in any Southern city, with some features of superiority peculiar to itself. In 1845 the legislature of the State, encouraged by this success, made by far the most vigorous and practical effort of the century to secure the training of the chil- -dren. The following articles were incorporated in the revised constitution, which went into operation in 1845: Title YH — Public education. Article 133. There shall be appointed a superintendent of public education, who shall hold his office for two years. His duties shall bo prescribed by law. He shall receive such compensation as the legislature may direct. Art. 134. The legislature shall establish free public schools throughout the State, and shall provide means for their support by taxation on property or otherwise. Art. 135. The proceeds of all lands heretofore granted by the United States to this State for the use and support of schools, and of all lands which may hereafter be granted or bequeathed to the State, and not expressly granted or bequeathed for any other purpose, which hereafter may be disposed of by the State, and the pro¬ ceeds of estates of deceased persons to which the State may become entitled by law, shall be held by tho State as a loan, and shall be and remain a perpetual fund, on which the State shall pay an annual interest of 6 i>er cent, which interest, together with all the rents of the unsold lands, shall be appropriated to the support of such schools, and this appropriation shall remain inviolable. Art. 136. All moneys arising from the sales which have been or may hereafter be made of any lands heretofore granted by the United States to this State for the use of a seminary of learning, and from any kind of donation that may hereafter be made for that purpose, shall be and remain a perpetual fund, the interest of which, at 6 per cent per annum, shall be appropriated to the support of a seminary of learn¬ ing for the promotion of litcratui’6 and the arts and sciences, and no law shall ever be made diverting said fund to any other use than to the establishment and improve¬ ment of said seminary of learning. Art. 137. A university shall be established in the city of New Orleans. It shall be composed of four faculties, to wit : One of law, one of medicine, one of the natural sciences, and one of letters. Art. 138. It shall be called the “University of Louisiana,” and the Medical Col¬ lege of Louisiana, as at present organized, shall constitute the faculty of medicine. Art. 139. The legislature shall provide by law for its further organization and government, but shall be under no obligation to contribute to the establishment or support of said university by appropriations. The university established by this authority, as far as it had become an accom¬ plished fact, was included in the organization of Tulane University in 1890. By a gift from one of the excellent women of New Orleans, the widow of the former dean of the Medical College, Dr. Richardson, this school is now housed in a fit building, and, with the great Charity Hospital, has become one of the most eminent foundations of medical instruction in the country. 312 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The school law of 1845, enacted in accordance with the constitutional provision, provided for the education of all white youth under the age of 21 by a State tax of 1 mill on the dollar, which, wit1 the income of the State fund, was disbursed to every parish that decided to place itself in connection with the system. All parishes that chose gave up their school lands to the State fund, or held them as they would. A State superintendent of schools was appointed with a salary of $3,000 and $800 for incidental expenses, while Horace Mann began work in Massachusetts for $1,000 a year and paid his own clerk hire. A parish superintendent of schools was elected by a vote of the people, with a salary of $300. Three district trustees were also elected by popular vote. Alexander Dimitry was appointed State superintendent of education in 1847, and for several years worked with great fidelity in the new system of instruction. But no machinery, however perfect, can educate a people without its own hearty consent and cooperation. The American common school has been antagonized in Louisiana, and while it could not be overthrown, has fallen short of the proper results of the best efforts. In 1856 thirty parishes were attempting to school some 12,000 pupils, at an annual expense of $142,000; or, according to another account, forty parishes supported 740 schools, with 7,000 pupils, at a cost of $166,000. There were no very reliable statistics of education, especially in the Southern States, before 1860. Until 1861 the National Library at Washington had no collection of pamphlets, and all that concerns common school education in the way of local information in that vast repertory has been gathered since that comparatively recent date. In 1856 the State superintendent of Louisiana declared that half the children in the thirty or forty parishes referred to were out of school. He says: “More than $2,000,000 have been appropriated by the State in behalf of the system of schools since its origin. Several laws have been enacted which, making no adequate provision for their enforcement, have failed in great measure to attain the object hoped for. It is evident that here is a lamentable failure, for it appears that nearly one-half of the educable children in the parishes have not for the year derived any advantage from the system.” Governor Hobart declared in 1855 : “ The report of the superintendent of schools is far from showing a satisfactory condition of affairs, and the schools may be con¬ sidered almost a failure. The plan adopted at one session of the legislature is entirely modified at the next. It is not a system; it is the bewildering confusion of chaos.” It had already become evident that, whatever might be the success of the Ameri¬ can common school system in a few of the cities and large towns of the South, the sparse settlement and peculiar organization of society in all these States made its satisfactory working through the open country, where nine-tenths of the children lived, almost an impossibility. Alongside the public schools were the private, academic, parochial, and family organizations. The strong feeling of personal and political independence in every locality made all attempts to supervise education by the central government abortive. The slave class in Louisiana was a full half of the entire population of the State. Under conditions like these, it is not surpris¬ ing tnat the persistent efforts of the common school public of Louisiana should have failed to establish a system of popular instruction satisfactory to itself, and that only after the great obstacle to universal education had been destroyed, was this State, at the end, practically, of sixteen years of warfare, brought again, in 1868, to a final attempt to school all its children and youth. TENNESSEE. A late historian of Tennessee, Phelan, declares: “The history of the common schools is in the main the history of the public lands in Tennessee, and the history of the public lands in this State is the history of confusion. * * * More than three hundred acts have been passed upon subjects growing out of the relation between the public schools and the school lands of the State.” President Philip EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 313 Lindsley, of the University of Tennessee, who, from the year 1826, was beyond ques¬ tion not only the most eminent, but also the most aggressive and reliable of the edu¬ cators of the State, declared at different times before 1840 that up to that date “the State had done nothing for colleges or academies, and that, practically, no school or child had been aided by the State school funds.” In fact, during the period treated in this essay — the first half century of the Republic, 1790-1840 — there was no history of the American common school to be told, as nothing of the sort existed in this, from the first and to-day, one of the most powerful and influential of the Southern States. We have already given the account of the early history of such education as was established in Tennessee during its brief Territorial period and early experience, as the third Commonwealth admitted to the new Union in 1796, with an area of 45,600 square miles and a population of 77,000. It has already been related that the earliest school in the Territory, Washington College, in east Tennessee, was founded by Samuel Doak, under the legislative authority of North Carolina, Doak may be regarded as the father of education in this State, and, with his three colaborers, Craighead, Carrick, and Balch was a good representative of the vigorous and intel¬ ligent Presbyterian clergy that we have already met as the pioneers of the superior schools in the Southern Atlantic States, from Virginia to Georgia. Within ten years, the two institutions that promised to become the leading col¬ leges of the State, Dickinson at Nashville and Blount in Knoxville, with several additional academies, had their modest beginning, and, until 1816, these and a few private schools appear to have supplied all the reenforcement of family and ordinary church instruction m the State. At this time Congress made a generous distribution of school lands, which, had they been preserved would have placed Tennessee at the front of the roll of new States m all matters relating to the education of her people. This munificent benefaction consisted of 100,000 acres for two colleges, 100,000 for academies, and 640 acres in each 6 miles square for common schools The history of this great landed property, like that of so many others in different States, is but another testimony to the bottom fact in popular education, that, without an obstinate determination among the ruling class of the people for the schooling of the children and youth, nothing can be done. That determination in Tennessee, as in all the States south of Pennsylvania, was a plant of slow growth. The intermi¬ nable legislative wrangles brought on by the attempt of the common school public to utilize the national bounty for the children, reveal the hostile elements in the eccle¬ siastical, social, and political centers of society that for eighty years postponed an effective organization of popular institutions for even the white children of the State. It was not till 1823 that any serious attempt was made to establish a school fund in Tennessee. Ten years later additional lavs were passed, and in 1837 the fund was made a portion of the capital of the Bank of Tennessee. The fund grew with the passing years, although with no result adequate to the necessities of the people from the distribution of its income. At the breaking out of the civil war the State supposed itself to be in possession of a school fund of $1,500,000, all of which was wrecked in the destruction of 1861-1865. The State, on the restoration of the Union, assumed its present school estate, on which it pays interest as its annual contribution to the common school, although it has not yet assumed any charge of the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Knoxville, which, under the name of The University of Tennessee, is becoming one of the prosperous and well-conducted seminaries of the higher education in the Southwest. One of the most interesting and instructive chapters in the history of education in the Southwest, when fully written, will be the record of the University of Nashville. It was chartered in 1786 by the legislature of North Carolina, first as Davidson, and after a brief period was named Cumberland College. In 1826 it was chartered as the University of Nashville. It was finally absorbed, as far as its literary department was concerned, into the Peabody Normal School, which may yet come to the great opportunity of becoming the first proper normal university of the country. 314 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. But in spile of these fortunes it held up the banner of good learning and universal education, and sent forth nearly 400 full graduates, with 1,500 undergraduates, including 28 members of Congress and a large number of men distinguished in the influential walks of life in the Southwest. In 1824, after twice declining the invita¬ tion, Rev. Philip Lindsley, of New Jersey, a graduate of Princeton College, was persuaded to accept the presidency. He lived and toiled in the service of his adopted State till his death, subsequent to the war, but not till he had seen his beloved insti¬ tution reorganized for its new departure as the Peabody Normal School, under the efficient and inspiring leadership of Dr. Eben Stearns, aided by that great educa¬ tional benefactor of the New South, the first agent of the Peabody fund. Dr. Barnas Sears. By 1806 Blount and Davidson colleges, with an infant academy in each of the twenty-seven counties of the State, all of them staggering under the burden of impecuniosity, were laboring with the problem of education in Tennessee. The first grant of land to Cumberland College was wrecked, although a subsequent gift and the efforts of its friends enabled it to keep alive, with an occasional interregnum, till the first commencement under the presidency of Dr. Lindsley, in 1826. On that occasion the president delivered the first of the series of remarkable addresses on education in the South that has survived the general destruction of school literature, including reports and statistics, in the civil war. He calls the attention of his hearers to the educational condition of the State, from which not less than $500,000 was annually carried beyond the Alleghany Mountains for the higher education, “A tribute to the supreme wisdom of distant and foreign States.” He asserts that, if placed on a firm foundation, in a year 500 students could be gathered within the spacious walls of the new university, and the expenditure abroad in one year, if utilized at home, “ would create a Cambridge at 'our very doors.” His plan for the university was doubtless somewhat copied from the new Univer¬ sity of Virginia, and, could it have been carried out, would have made the University of Nashville for all time the head of the higher education in the Southwest. It included an arrangement of six groups of university buildings, a noble estate of 120 acres six great college dormitories, with recitation rooms that would accommodate one hundred students each, with lodgings for the majority of the twenty-three instructors, and seven houses for the accommodation of the president and leading members of the faculty. Each group of buildings should include a refectory and 8 to 10 acres for gardening and exercise. Machine shops and an additional 100-acre farm would provide for a thorough organization of the industrial department of the university, which included in this plan a group of professional schools of all varie¬ ties. It was believed that $200,000 would be sufficient for the first outlay. Nash¬ ville was already a flourishing city of 4.000 people and Andrew Jackson an early member of the board of trustees. The president did not fail to remind his hearers that the village of Amherst, Mass., with but 2,500 people had recently contributed $50,000 to the founding of a new college on its beautiful hili overlooking one or the loveliest of American landscapes, and dilated on the easy way in which a similar amount could be raised there, in the southwestern section of the Republic. Later, in 1815-1848, we hear again from the indefatigable president. Almost heart¬ sick with “hope deferred,” a veteran yet an athlete, “striking out from the shoulder” in the very face of his adopted State, telling such truths as that, up to this period, outside a few schools and the university, there had been no real progress toward popular education, and recommending a return to the home training of the old New England days, as if a people that had so long neglected their schools would be either disposed or qualified for such an experiment. One-tenth of the white popu¬ lation of Tennessee was still in the bondage of an illiteracy even more harmful to the Commonwealth than the utter ignorance of the ‘'inferior race,” to whom the sympathies of the zealous Northern educator on Southern ground did not seem to extend. EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 315 But no man can do everything, and the work of Dr. Lindsley, carrying the uni¬ versity in his heart and on his shoulders, with an averago attendance of sixty to seventy students, and the indescribable burdens of a man occupying the foremost literary and educational position of an entire section of the Republic, remains a notable memory and a perpetual inspiration to the generous youth of the present day. Nashville still remains the educational center of the Southwest, and, with Vanderbilt University and the reorganized University of Nashville, including the Peabody Normal School; a superior arrangement of common schools, first established in 1848; several flourishing seminaries for the secondary, higher, and professional education of the negro: excellent professional schools; an important public library, and several private and academic foundations for boys and girls, among the best in the South, is the final response of this great Commonwealth to the labors and sacri¬ fices of Lindsley and the noble band of his coworkers who, during the dark days of popular indifference and distracted educational councils, hoped on and toiled toward the sunrise of a brighter day. In 1829 the first real movement was attempted in behalf of a system of common schools in Tennessee. The county authorities were instructed, in 1830, to appoint commissioners “to divide the county into school districts and number the beads of families.” An attempt had already been made, in 1823, to establish a school fund ; and in 1838 the Commonwealth found itself possessed of $18,000 for academies and $100,000 for annual expenditure for common schools. In 1834 the revised constitution of the State provides as follows: Article XI. Section 10. Knowledge, learning, and virtue, being essential to the preservation of republican institutions, and the diffusion of the opportunities and advantages of education throughout the different portions of the State being highly conducive to the promotion of this end, it shall be the duty of the general assembly in all future periods of this government to cherish literature and science. And the fund called the common school fund, and all the lands and proceeds thereof, dividends, stocks, and other property of any description whatever, heretofore by law appropriated by the general assembly of this State, for the use of common schools, and all such as shall hereafter be appropriated, shall remain a perpetual fund, the principal of which shall never be diminished by legislative appropriation ; and the interest thereof shall be inviolably appropriated to the support and encouragement of common schools throughout the State, and for the equal benefit of all the people thereof; and no law shall be made authorizing said fund or any part thereof to be diverted to any other use than the support and encouragement of common schools; and it shall be the duty of the general assembly to appoint a board of commissioners, for such term of time as they may think proper, who shall have the general superintendence of said fund, and who shall make a report of the condition of the same from time to time, under such rules, regulations, and restrictions as may be required by law: Provided , That if at any time hereafter a division of the public lands of the United States, or of the money arising from the sales of such lands, shall be made among the individual States, the part of such lands or money coming to this State shall be devoted to the purposes of education and internal improvement; and shall never be applied to any other purpose. Sec. 11. The above provisions shall not be construed to prevent the legislature from carrying into effect any laws that have been passed in favor of the colleges, uni¬ versities, or academies, or from authorizing heirs or distributees to receive and enjoy escheated property, under such rules and regulations as from time to time may be prescribed by law. The law of 1829 provided that five school trustees should be elected in each dis¬ trict. But one of the most serious mistakes of this and subsequent legislation seems to have been the multitude of officials through which the school moneys were to pass before they reached the schoolhouse. In this journey they were lost or frittered away in a wilderness of detail. In 1838 another act was sent forth into the State to wrestle with the popular indifference or hostility to general education. It appointed a superintendent of schools to preside over the details of the administration of the 316 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. system ; made 6 to 16 the school age ; endeavored to achieve a school course, and restricted the distribution of State funds to districts that supported a school three months in the year. A rate bill was affixed to the system, and five commissioners for each county, elected for two years, managed the executive affairs of the district. In 1845 the feature of self-help was first introduced to the system, each district being permitted to tax itself for education. But in 1848 the governor of the State says: “ The effort for popular education has slumbered and languished and pined and exists now rather as a memento of the past than as a living system for future growth and expansion.” But we have already exceeded the limit of our essay, 1790-1840, in this necessarily fragmentary account of the attempts of the common school public to plant a system of popular education on the soil of Tennessee. Outside less than a dozen cities, no one of the fifteen Southern States previous to the war, save, perhaps, North Carolina, had succeeded in establishing a common school system for its white children that com¬ mended itself either to rich or poor, the stigma of a pauper school and social infe¬ riority everywhere being attached to it. The absence of reliable records, either because of failure to keep them or by destruction during the civil war, must always be a great barrier against the most industrious historical investigation which attempts to do more than sketch the progress of educational affairs and do late jus¬ tice to the eminent men and women who then wrought in the faith and hope of the coming of the great hereafter in all the Southern States. KENTUCKY. To the student of the educational development of the American people, no chapter of this involved history is more crowded with significance than the record of the prolonged and obstinate conflict through which the Commonwealth of Kentucky made its way to the nominal establishment of a common school system in 1838, only then culminating in a final “general engagement,” crowned by the people’s victory, which placed in the constitution of the State a pledge for the safety of the school fund in 1850. The details of this long-drawn battle for the children, which, with all its relations to the building of an American State might be well amplified to a vol¬ ume, have been so often and so thoroughly told by the friends of the common school, especially by the able State historian, Hon. Z. F. Smith, first superintendent of pub¬ lic instruction after the civil war, that we may best refer the reader to these inter¬ esting memorials for more complete information than can be crowded into the present essay. It will suffice for the present sketch to attempt to overlook the field and out of the conflicting records of success and defeat endeavor to draw some general con¬ clusions that shed light on the original drift of American thought and the gradual rise and inevitable triumph of the people’s determination toward the American com¬ mon school. It must be remembered that, in comparison especially with the State of Ohio, the early settlers of Kentucky were neither cosmopolitan by origin nor an independent colony. The early movement upon the new Northwest from New England, and later from all the original thirteen States, was not a journey of exploration by a group of adventurous pioneers, but a thoroughly organized movement, with a fixed purpose of establishing new States under an imperative ordinance that secured the rights of the settler to his home, pledged the faith of the nation to provide the means for all grades of education and the support of the Christian ministry, and placed the infant Commonwealth under the protection of the most complete system of legal guard¬ ianship then existing in the world. On the contrary, from the early exploration of the vast wilderness of Kentucky by Daniel Boone and his pioneer associates, Boone himself a typical North Carolina “man of the woods,” till its admission into the Union as a State in 1792, almost a full generation, Kentucky was a restless backwoods province of Virginia, with all which that implies in our primitive American history. Her early explorers and settlers were not the representatives of the powerful aris- EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 317 tocracy beyond the Appalachian Mountains, but mainly a group of strong, self-willed men, of unusual native intelligence and great military and executive force, largely untaught by books or schools, but with a sprinkling of men educated according to the ideas of the day in that portion of the country. It was as representatives of the great middle estate which, under Thomas Jefferson’ overthrew the most concentrated aristocracy ever planted in the provinces and made the Virginia of the revolutionary epoch and the first thirty years of the national life, that men like George Rogers Clarke and his sort went forth to clear the ground for the coming “ great West,” while Washington and the patriotic Northeast were holding the British Empire at bay along an unprotected coast line of 1,000 miles. At the same time this splendid little extempore army of the Northwest, with head¬ quarters in “the dark and bloody ground” beyond the great mountains, toiled, fought, and died with a chronic sense of the neglect, almost the contempt, of the mother, the Old Dominion. Only a few of the long-sighted statesmen of the home country, above all, Washington, appreciated the importance of what they were doing. The same feeling that, ninety years later, assisted in driving the entire State of West Virginia into the arms of the Northwest in the struggle for the preservation of the Union, wrought like a fire in the bones of Kentucky from the close of the revolutionary struggle till its admission as a State. So violent had this feeling become that the original clique of disunionists, who proposed to carry off the great Southwest, found in this State a hearing and succeeded in producing a turbulent and reckless condition of public opinion not a day too soon checked by the admission of the State to the Union in 1792. Even then, the agitators for the extreme idea of “State rights” in Virginia found in the new legislature of Ken¬ tucky the fit body of daring political theorists to challenge the new Republic in the famous Kentucky resolutions of 1798. It was this political prominence of the State which, like an ambitious and head¬ strong boy that had deserted the home to which he still held with a half-hearted allegiance, fixed the character of Kentucky for many years to come. The early early introduction of negro slavery determined its public destiny, as the aspiring political leader of the new Southwest. Henceforth the cosmopolitan and nationa[ type of emigration avoided this border land and swarmed the mighty realm of free¬ dom from Pennsylvania to the Pacific. This multitude also swept along a later con¬ tingent from the new State, the descendants of the original settlers, men like Lincoln, Miller, and Corwin, thousands of able and liberty-loving youth who found it difficult to resist the steady drift of their native land toward the conservatism which has made Kentucky, of all the southern Commonwealths, perhaps the best remaining representative of the old-time aristocratic social constitution of the Atlan¬ tic South. These facts also explain the history of educatiou in Kentucky during the seventy years from 1780, when the Commonwealth, after a most embittered conflict of opposing parties, finally planted the standard of the American common school in the revised constitution of 1850. The original settlers of Fincastle County, Va., beyond the mountains, were not indifferent to the importance of schooling their own children, and went about the work in the rough-and-ready way only possible to their provin¬ cial life. Each of the fortified villages, which were the only places of safety from the depredations of the savages, set up its school. One was taught by a woman, the humble pioneer of the mighty army of Western schoolmistresses who now teach, Vote, hold office, and generally dominate the rising generation from the Alleghanies to the Pacific shore. More than one of these brave pioneer schoolmasters met liis death about his work; all taught amid an environment of difficulty and peril that make the career of each a special romance. They took their meager pay in tobacco and the produce of the country. Several of them afterwards figured in the pulpit, on the judicial bench, and in the governor’s chair. They surveyed the land, like young Washington, fought wild cats and wilder Indians, and became the “men of 318 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. all work” in tlie new settlement. All these early schools were private, for the origi¬ nal Kentuckian was a man who “had no use” for a priest or a church that propose# to make him a docile disciple of any overhearing ecclesiasticism or stringent creed. In 1780 came the first experiment in Kentucky of the establishment of a school subsidized by the State. Col. John Todd, afterwards a victim of the chronic malady of an Indian massacre, appears as the only delegate of the Kentucky representation in the Virginia legislature who cared to moot the question of education. He pre¬ vailed on this body to make a grant of 20,000 acres of land, confiscated from British subjects in Kentucky, for the establishment of a school of the higher order. In 1783 the seminary that was afterwards developed into Transylvania University was organ¬ ized with an imposing array of home celebrities as trustees, and with strict laws for the examination of its teachers and students, all of whom were exempt from military duty. The charter was premised with a stately preamble: “ It is to the interest of the Commonwealth always to encourage and promote every design which may tend to the improvement of the mind aud the diffusion of useful knowledge, even among the most remote citizens, whose situation in a barbarous neighborhood and a savage intercourse might otherwise render them unfriendly to science.” In November, 1783, the first meeting of this board of trustees, which, according to the local historian, comprised an eminent roll of the foremost men of all the profes¬ sions in the colony, met in the county of Kentucky, near Danville, filled the time with “high debate,” resolved heroically, and adjourned with a solemn call to the peojde of the district to furnish pecuniary aid to the new institution. The fact that “it was found impossible to do so” is one of the side lights, even at the beginning, cast on the educational record of the State. Why this eminent body of the fathers of the section which was alone to be benefited by it did not put their hands in their pockets, but left their enterprise to drag out a stinted existence for six years, until 1789, when its first spasm of genuine life seems to have been experienced at Lexing¬ ton, is not so easy to be understood. The first donation to the school came from distant Virginia, consisting of a small library and some philosophical apparatus. There was yet no newspaper in the colony and “'only a few of the wealthy families from Virginia had books, and they of an inferior class.” The little school, under Master John Mitchell, with a salary of $100 a year, began its humble life under the shadows and almost stunned by the fast and furious din of the local political wrangle which even then dominated the “still small voice” of wisdom, pleading with the j)ublic men of Kentucky for justice to the children. At Lexington, again by a special act of the legislature of Virginia, the seminary found a temporary home in a house on a vacant place in a government lot, until a party of gentlemen raised the funds to build a two-story house and to give its present home to Transylvania in 1793, ten years after the first movement for its existence. Meanwhile private schools of various grades were springing up in different por¬ tions of the Territory, academies were chartered by the Virginia legislature, and pri¬ mary schools generally established by neighborhood groups of families, instruction in the latter being limited to the elements. In 1794 the Methodist Church began its illustrious campaign for denominational education in the West, which, in one hundred years, has sown the seeds of culture through the highways and byways of the thirty Commonwealths stretching beyond the Alleghanies, to-day one of the most potent agencies for the general uplifting of the people. It began by the establishment of Bethel Academy, in Jessamine County, on a high bluff above the Kentucky River. In 1795 the legislature of Kentucky, then a State of the Union, incorporated its first school in the Kentucky Academy. This was a Presbyterian school, started with a remarkable subscription paper containing the names of George Washington 'and John Adams for $100 each, and Aaron Burr for $50. First located near Lexington, it was endowed with 6,000 acres of land by the State. In 1798 the Kentucky Academy was united with the Transylvania Seminary, forming the Transylvania University. The two constitutions of Kentucky adopted in the first eight years of its existence as a State were silent on the' topic of education, as were the messages of the early EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 319 governors; but in 1807 a plea for a more extended scheme of superior instruction ■was made by one governor, and one candidate for the office, who failed of bis elec¬ tion in 1808, though standing on a platform with an educational plank. Not till 1816 did Governor Slaughter take the held in a strong plea for a more generous provision for the people by schools, especially free to “the children of the poor.” In 1817 he returned to the subject in an extended passage in his message, which would make an excellent “fly leaf” for distribution among “all orders and conditions of men” anywhere in behalf of universal education. No Southern State is. richer in an admi¬ rable literature of this sort than Kentucky. But it was not so much an insensibility to education as a source of personal jiower and public prosjierity as an uncertainty about the way of applying it in the building of an American State that made the record of Kentucky in behalf of the schooling of the masses so barren during the first thirty years of her life as a Commonwealth It is true there were many disturbing causes in these years which largely exjilain this neglect. We have already referred to the characteristic feature in the early life of this State, that before its admission to the Union it had been involved in a long and vexatious family difference with its mother beyond the mountains, while, by a prodigal outlay of toil and sacrifice, it had done a great service to the new Republic. This peculiar training of the leading people who came to the front in State affairs gave to Kentucky at once a xirommence in national affairs unprecedented in so young a Commonwealth. The passage of the extreme State rights resolutions in 1798 had directed the attention of the whole country westward. This interest was kept alive by rumors of disunion connected with the great Southwest, aggra¬ vated by the perpetual and bloody Indian wars, and culminated in the war with Great Britain m 1812-1814, which spent its fury in the valley of the Mississippi, and in which Kentucky and Tennessee carried off the honors of the land service. A series of able political leaders from these two States, representatives of Southern ideas in the new Southwest, made the Congress of the United States the central field of activity for the aspiring young men of the section The masses of the people were perpetually excited by calls to arms and by the hardly less fierce struggles of polit¬ ical life. All these things, in addition to the ordinary perils of pioneer life, were doubtless a valid reason for the long neglect to make provision for the schooling of the people. But, in addition to this, perhaps more responsible than all these conditions for what came to pass was the fact that it became more evident as the years went on that Kentucky was to become one of the most conservative and able representatives in the Union of the peculiar ideal of social life produced by the institution of slav¬ ery. The failure of the early attempts to abolish the institution in Kentucky set in motion a steady exodus of the class of young men from the State into the opening Northwest whose presence at home would have told powerfully in the impending national conflict. Hence it came about that, although originally largely represent¬ ing the progressive element in Virginia, the successful public men of Kentucky, and behind them the most influential element of the population, were committed at an early date to the belief that the chief educational interest of their Commonwealth was the training of a superior class for eminence m the learned professions, espe¬ cially the Christian ministry, law, and politics. It was under this influence that the legislature of Kentucky as early as 1798 entered upon the policy of subsidizing a system of county academies and a State university, with absolute neglect of the elementary education. Even in this there was an apparent advance on the line of the Virginia scheme of Thomas Jefferson, which provided that each county or district should have a “college” tributary to the State university, to which a select few should be admitted as free State pupils from the elementary schools, and these seminaries were to be generously subsidized by the State. It has been already shown how Virginia rejected this, with the common school department of the system proposed by her great statesman, and flung but a poor pittance to the masses for the support of what came to be justly regarded as “a 320 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. pauper school.” But the Kentucky legislature took up the secondary member of the triple-headed scheme of Jefferson, and for the first thirty years in the life of the State wrought at its establishment with remarkable patience and for the time a reasonable liberality. A bonus of 6,000 acres of land was given to every county in the State for the sup¬ port of a county academy, still a u college” in the popular educational vocabulary of the section, and a large number of these schools were founded. At the same time Transylvania University at Lexington was, in theory, raised to the position of a State institution, although for an entire generation the State had given it altogether but $20,000. It was on these county academies that the first generations of the respectable Kentucky people depended largely for the schooling of their boys, the girls still being left on the back seat, with small care for their school instruction. But here was again demonstrated the fallacy of the idea that the secondary educa¬ tion can saf ely be made the fulcrum over which the lever of State education shall pry. It is possible, as European experience has shown, that a national government can support a magnificent system of university education, with a limited annex for the secondary studies, as long as the demand for the educated class is not too great and the admission to the upper story of life is guarded by strong barriers of. sect, caste, and political privilege. But the absolute breakdown of the system of endowed secondary schools in Eugland, which has forced from the greatest educators of the Empire the confession that in this department of schooling their country is behind all the leading European nations, was a warning that might well have been taken by some of our American States had it not come so late; for the imperative con¬ dition of success in any great scheme of American public secondary education is found in the establishment of a reliable and extended system of elementary schools, without which the most pretentious academy or college inevitably sinks in rank, the energy of its teachers being absorbed in setting green and ignorant youths on their ft et in the elements of knowledge. This wras the capital failure in the scheme of the Kentucky legislature and in more than one of the Southern and original Central States. Below the county academy, aspiring to handle the entire circle of the liberal education, was nothing but a hud¬ dle of elementary schools, extemporized in neighborhoods or supported by churches, generally inefficient for primary use and quite useless to graduate a class of pupils fit for a proper secondary schooling. In giving these generous subsidies, the legislature seems to have reserved no right of the State, either over the control of the funds or the direction of the instruction. These bountiful land grants were carelessly thrown into the hands of irresponsible boards of trustees, often self-perpetuating. The result w^as inevitable. A genera¬ tion of such experimenting, whatever might have been the temporary result on the education of the young men who attended the schools, left the great majority of these academies financially bankrupt, their generous endowment parted with “ for a song,” the avails of the sale absorbed in the erection of the first building, often with the income and principal the prey of incompetents or dishonest speculators. By 1820 the academic side of the scheme came to naught. The State University only held on a decade longer. From the first the Transylva¬ nia Seminary and University seemed to stand to the different religious bodies of the State as a declaration of war. The appearance of every new faculty was the signal for a fresh outbreak. The conflict came to a head when Dr. Horace Holley, the great liberal preacher of Boston, Mass., was brought to Kentucky, with the most exag¬ gerated expectations of his friends, as president. Of the warfare provoked by his administration, the retirement of Dr. Holley, and his decease shortly afterwards it is not necessary to speak. Enough to say that while Transylvania remained a State institution under the nominal control of the legislature it received within its walls a large number of students afterwards distinguished in local and national affairs, among them the president of the Southern Confederacy, Jefferson Davis. But the EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 321 conflict ended with a victory for the opponents of State direction of the higher edu¬ cation, who captured the institution, which, after a protracted struggle of more than half a century, is now held as a flourishing collegiate school of the Christian denom¬ ination, probably a better institution of learning than ever before. The final estab¬ lishment of a State university wholly under the control of the Commonwealth has been the work of the past fifteen years. Meanwhile the power of the different religious bodies, somewhat in abeyance dur¬ ing the first generation in the life of the State, was now rapidly coming to the front, displayed in the erection of a number of denominational colleges and many acade¬ mies, which still remain the almost exclusive agencies for the secondary and higher education outside a few cities. Here was developed an influence even more unfriendly to the establishment of a thorough system of common schooling than under the former experiment. The first generation of the leaders of Kentucky were not especially enamored of ecclesiastical pretension in any denomination, and in their scheme of subsidizing county academies and the university appeared to have shared the broad ideas of Jefferson. But with the downfall of this experiment came in as a practical necessity the activity of the only set of people who for the coming years appear to have cherished a vital influence in education, the leading clergy of the different religious sects. Under their influence was built-up a great number of schools of the average, occasionally of superior, merit, which in many of the consid¬ erable towns of the State still appear to the leading class sufficient for all educa¬ tional necessities, leaving the common school for the “common people.7’ Still it must be admitted that the movement from 1820 to 1850 in behalf of the common school was largely led by influential clergymen, Peers, Bullock, Bishop) Smith, and Dr. Breckinridge being all eminent leaders in the church life of the State. By 1821 the failure of the system of subsidized academies had been so fully demon¬ strated that the attention of the friends of universal education was concentrated on the support of a system of elementary schooling for the masses. An act was passed, evidently suggested by the policy of Virginia, setting apart one-half of the net profits of the Bank of the Commonwealth as a literary fund to be distributed to the people for a general system of education, and the sum of $60,000 was at once found available. Then opposition came to the front. For thirty years longer the favorite policy appeared to be, after an act of apparently creditable generosity for building up a school system, to reappropriate funds thus established and apply them to the ordinary expenses of the State. The history of the common schools in Kentucky from that early period to the present time is one of the most instructive records in the annals of the Republic of a persistent and patient campaign of education, which, like Freedom’s battle, once begun, Though baffled oft, is ever won. Our present limits will compel us to halt on the eve of the final struggle between the opposing forces, which extended over the entire decade from 1840 to 1850, and was closed by the planting in the revised constitution of the State a provision for the preservation of the State school fund derived from the surplus revenue of the United States and its defense against all comers. The movement for the inauguration of a scheme of public elementary education for the masses of the white people was apparently successful in 1821 by the estab¬ lishment of a literary fund. But the triumph was short-lived. Within five years the legislative majority had captured and diverted the entire sum to other uses, and nothing came of the effort. A sharp contest over the appropriation of the revenues of the branch State bank to Transylvania and Central colleges seemed at first to have established a more liberal policy for these schools. At the same time Kentucky, in connection with several of the States, under the lead of Maryland, was moved, both in its legislative bodies and by its governor, to a remonstrance against the restriction of the educational grants of the national land to the new States of ED 96 - 11 322 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. tlio Union. An elaborate report was made, strong resolutions were passed, and sev¬ eral governors protested vigorously against the great injustice of this policy, which left Kentucky and Tennessee especially “ out in the cold ” in this distribution of school lands. Nothing came of the movement, since, with the exception of the first two new Southern States, all the remaining new Commonwealths shared in this gift, and the old thirteen, for reasons of their own, seemed little interested in claiming their rights. And it could be said with some share of justice that inasmuch as Virginia had abandoned her own claim upon the whole territory of Kentucky and North Car¬ olina upon Tennessee, each of these States had within its own borders, like Texas at a later period, a sufficiency of land for all educational uses. Had the original appropriation of their legislatures for education, reenforced by subsequent direct gifts from Congress, been carefully guarded and wisely used, there would have been little cause for such complaint. But the painful fact was that for a variety of rea¬ sons neither of these States in the first half century of its* life was sufficiently in earnest concerning matters of universal education to insist on any strong control over or a wise and economical use of its valuable patrimony. The same influence that created the literary fund and urged the legislative demon¬ strations concerning the distribution of Government lands went further and caused the appointment of four commissioners, of which Mr. William T. Barry was chair¬ man, to collect information and devise a system of schools x>roper for the State. The attempt of thi3 committee to collect information from the homo schools was a failure, their elaborate inquiries ..generally bringing no response. The result was a striking revelation of popular indifference to the whole matter. But earnest and able responses were secured from eminent statesmen of all sections, including Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, John Adams, and Robert Y. Hayne. The report of this committee is pronounced to-day by the leading educators of Kentucky one of the most impor¬ tant deliverances ever made in the State on the schooling of the whole people. But it fell dead on the legislature, notwithstanding the efforts of Governor Desha to per¬ suade the fathers of the State to try the grand experiment. It did, however, bring out in full force the hostility of the average popular politician of that day to any¬ thing that would so surely, in his estimation, “ disturb the political equilibrium” as a general advance in popular intelligence. For eight years longer this condition of affairs continued, as usual the most intelligent people of the State endeavoring, by the building up of private, neighborhood, and denominational schools of every grade and the growing habit of sending young men and women away from home for education, to supply their own imperious need for the schooling of their own house¬ holds. In 1828-29 the new charter of the city of Louisville provided for the establishment of free schools, and a beginning was made of the present flourishing common school system of that city by the enrollment of some 300 pupils, instructed on the Lancas- terian monitorial plan by two teachers a fc an expense of $1,000 annually. But the rising spirit of educational reform was not daunted by the failure of the movement of 1822. Some of the presidents of the local colleges came forward as advocates of universal education, meetings were held, information circulated, and public opinion again aroused. Meanwhile the buildings of the State Transylvania University were destroyed by fire, and the effort to interest the legislature in the institution was only partially successful. The college struggled on against a hopeless public indifference a few years longer, and finally passed into the hands of the religious denomination which for the past half century and more has cared for its wants and now has made it one of the most prosperous of the collegiate foundations of the Commonwealth. The historians of this period point to Rev. Benjamin O. Peers as the foremost of the educational leaders developed by the emergency now upon the State. Accord¬ ing to one of them, “A close examination into the educational condition of Kentucky made by friendly eyes showed that in the 1,100 or 1,200 primary schools in the State in 1830 there were 31,834 children in school and 139,142 out of school. One large EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 323 county in tlie State, whose children numbered 893, did not have a school in its limits or a single child at school. Large tiers of counties had their children at school iu proportions ranging from 10 to 300; from 10 to 180; from 10 to 140; from 10 to 130. * * * Even the most favored county in the State in 1830 had its children at school in proportion of 10 to 23. The number of people in New York who could then read and write, as compared with the whole population, was 1 to 3; while in Kentucky it was 1 to 21. Our State was behind three-fourths of the monarchical countries of Europe in the matter of education. Only Portugal, Russia, Poland, and France were behind us. The masses of our people as yet had manifested no abiding interest in the educational legislation of the State. Members of the legis¬ lature, when reproached for the slowness of their movements upon this great subject, always responded that their constituents took no interest whatever in the matter.7' Tt is not strange that in such a juncture two pronounced results were sure to occur. The growing common school public of the Commonwealth would be stung to an extra effort, both in the direction of a popular revival and action upon the legislature. But no action of the law-making power could be expected at once to meet an effectual response from a people still content with its position as the extreme rear guard of the educational army. The legislature again responded to the plea of the influen¬ tial and devoted school men of the State, and Rev. Mr. Peers was requested to make a report of his investigations among the common schools of New England and New York concerning matters pertaining to popular instruction. In 1830 he prepared another of those able and comprehensive documents which make the State as cele¬ brated for its rich educational literature as for its long and almost inconceivable pop¬ ular insensibility to the cause of general education. Mr. Peers’s report was not favorable to the attempt to establish a large school fund as a basis for a common school system, for the perversion of the Connecticut fund and the inefficiency of that of New York, these States having the only considerable school funds in the Union, seemed to him of unfavorable import. He saw clearly that an unmistakable popu¬ lar interest is the only firm basis of a movement to educate the whole people. He was also attracted by the success of Massachusetts in supporting her common schools by local taxation and supervision and recommended that as the most feasible plan. But he made the mistake, so common in all the States outside of New England, in supposing that a “ district” carved out of a county or a “township,” which is only a local name, can have the qualification for local self-government of a New England “town.” Each of these towns was a genuine local republic — from its earliest his¬ tory instensely local and insulated in its public interests, endowed with many of the powers and obligations of an American State. Many of them, for a century or more, had been the most effective training schools in Christendom for the ability and dis¬ position to deal with a matter at once so personal and general as public education. Mr. Peers suggested the division of the counties of Kentucky, a new State not yet half a century old, into artificial districts, wdth some of the most important powers and obligations of a New England town for this special use. On the impulse of this enthusiastic report the legislature acted in the law of 1830, which was founded on the Massachusetts system, even then unsatisfactory to the educational reformers of that State. The county courts were instructed to district the State and their people were empowered to establish a system of public instruc¬ tion by local taxation. It was urged, in objection to the bill, that some twenty counties were so sparsely populated that u the heads of families did not average one to the square mile, the districts would be 10 miles square, and the children would require a guard to keep off the bears and wolves.” It was also urged that people with no property were given the power to tax those who had. These ominous pre¬ dictions unfortunately proved to be nearer the facts of the case than the hopes' of the author of the law. The statute only landed another literary corpse in the edu¬ cational cemetery of the State. Not a school district was organized under its 324 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. provisions. The friends of the measure, with a chivalry worthy of that mucn-abused name, moved to wake np the popular mind and heart for eight years longer, until a more practical effort could he attempted. The good providence which at last committed the State to the idea of public edu¬ cation was the distribution of the surplus revenue by the United States Government in 1836. Thus, after a fashion, was made a late atonement for the manifest injustice of the national policy in the omission of the old Atlantic States in its general distri¬ bution of school lands. The State of Kentucky received the sum of $1,433,757.40. The application of this sum being left to the decision of each State, the friends of popular education at once moved for the establishment of a common-school fund, and after the usual legislative wrangle, which raged around every measure for the educational advancement of the people, secured an appropriation of $850,000 as a perpetual fund dedicated “to founding and sustaining a general system of public instruction.” In 1838 this act was followed by the passage of another law “to establish a system of common schools in Kentucky.” The interest of the school fund, $850,000, was set apart for its aid, a school system was put on paper, and, in 1838, Kev. Joseph J. Bullock was appointed the first superintendent of public instruction. The new law was framed on the basis of the New York law, as that of 1830 had been on the system of Massachusetts. It did not propose a free, but a common school, very moderately subsidized by the interest of the State fund, the bonus of the Commonwealth to be given on condition that the people of a district should build a schoolhouse and lay a tax to support a school. In connection with the passage of the law a “campaign of education”' was again attempted in the State, led by the first State superintendent of education. In this campaign, by popular addresses and the press, the people were informed and stimulated to effectual action. In 1840 a few districts in the State had been induced to act. A school tax of 10 to 30 cents on the $100 was voted in several counties. The town of Versailles is said to have organized the first common school of the State under the act, and the county of Wayne adopted the new system entire. Bishop Smith, of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was appointed third superintendent of schools, and all things seemed ready for the final triumph of the good cause. Here, at the supreme crisis of popular education iu Kentucky, we must leave the record of its efforts for schools. For fifty years had the common school public of the State labored, sometimes, perhaps, with “a faith not according to knowl¬ edge,”' but with a persistence and expenditure of personal and moral power that reflects imperishable honor on their State, in behalf of the children against a com¬ bination of hostile influences sufficient to dampen the courage and exhaust the patience of men less in earnest and enthusiastic than themselves. But now, appar¬ ently on the threshold of success, it became apparent to this patriotic “army of the Lord” that it had only come up to the day of decision to face a violent conflict such as had hitherto not been encountered. All the forces of opposition and reaction made haste to combine for the destruction of the new system. This decisive contest was waged with varying fortunes through the coming ten years, from 1840 to 1850. At last the common people of Kentucky were aroused to the true interest of the State, and saw clearly the intention of the opponents of popular education. Happily for the Commonwealth, the great occasion found its great leader iu Dr. Robert Breckinridge, who not only saved the common school to Kentucky, but fifteen years later again came up to the salvation of the Union, fighting the good fight at the State and national end of the great issue. The detailed account of this magnificent defense of the people’s school against all its foes, and the final victory of popular education in Kentucky, may well introduce the history of education in that Com¬ monwealth during the second half century of its life, from 1840 to 1890. EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 325 ARKANSAS. The two remaining Southwestern Commonwealths, whose statehood comes within the range of the period included in this essay, are Arkansas and Texas. The former was admitted to the Union in 1836, with an area of 53,830 square miles and a popu¬ lation of 52,000, the third State carved out of the vast “Louisiana purchase.” Texas, itself an empire in its immense area of 265,780 square miles, more than ten times the size of New York, with a population of 212,500, was admitted, then an independent Repuhlie. into the Union in 1845, with the proviso that it might he afterwards divided into five States in all, an expedient to neutralize the possibility of a continuous accession of free States out of the “'Louisiana district’* of the Northwest. Neither Arkansas nor Texas was in any considerable state of advancement in the foundation of educational institutions by 1840. In each the establishment of the State univer¬ sity was postponed to a period subsequent to the civil war. In 1827 the Territory of Arkansas received the usual gift of one township of land for a university; and in 1833, on receiving a valuable donation of school lands, the legislature devised a plan for leasing all the school landed property of the State. In 1838 the price of such lands was fixed, first at $10, afterwards at $6 per acre. But in 1844 the State turned the 72 sections of the university estate into the common fund for the support of schools, and in 1855 reduced the price to $4 an acre. What¬ ever of educational value was established previous to this time was in the line of the private, family, and church substitutes for a system of public instruction, com¬ mon to the early life of all the Southern and several of the Northern States. In 1836 an article was placed in the first constitution of Arkansas which was good enough in itself to excite a great hope, but was destined to bide its time for a long probation before its prophecy became a recognized condition of society, on the bitter side of the Red Sea of reconstruction through which eleven of the fifteen Southern Commonwealths marched to a final destiny far more glorious than the dreams of their enthusiastic leaders of the earlier days. The constitutional provision of 1836 reads as follows: Article YII. Knowledge and learning, generally diffused through a community, being essential to the preservation of a free government, and diffusing the oppor¬ tunities and advantages of education through the various parts of the State being highly conducive to this end, it shall be the duty of the general assembly to provide by law for the improvement of such lands as are or may be hereafter granted by the United States to this State for the use of schools, and to apply any funds which may be raised from such lands, or from any other source, to the accomplishment of the object for which they are or may be intended. The general assembly shall, from time to time, pass such laws as shall be calculated to encourage intellectual, scien¬ tific, and agricultural improvements, by allowing rewards and immunities for the promotion and improvement of arts, science, commerce, manufactures, and natural history, and countenance and encourage the principles of humanity, industry, and morality. TEKAS. The portion of the Republic of Mexico which, under the name of Texas, had for one hundred and fifty years been a sort of “no man’s land” of border contention, in 1835 revolted from this dominion, and under the leadership of a group of men of extraordinary ability, representing every section of the United States, achieved its independence. After a brief period of existence as the “Republic of Texas,” it was admitted to the Union in 1845. In nothing did the fathers of Texas vindicate their claim to statesmanship so con¬ clusively as in their original provision for the education of the people. While yet a Republic, in 1839, the legislature granted 3 leagues of land in each county for a gram¬ mar school or academy, increased in 1840 to 4 leagues. The chief justice and two associate justices were made a school board for each county to protect the lands and make arrangements for the appropriation of the funds. In the more progressive 326 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. counties schools, generally of the academic sort, were set up and the neighborhood system, resembling the old Southern type, inaugurated. The constitution of 1836 was silent on the subject of education ; but in 1839 three leagues of laud were set apart for two colleges, and every tenth section of the vast territory granted to rail¬ roads and a navigation company was added to the generous school domain. Out of these and subsequent donations, all of which by the terms of admission to the Union were reserved to the State, Texas found itself in 1865 possessed of a school fund in public lands equal to that of half a dozen of the most favored Commonwealths of the Northwest. But the slow growth of the State before the war, its interminable extent of ter¬ ritory, and the system of disposing of school lands, which often seems to have been designed rather to invite population than to school the children, greatly delayed the growth of the public school until the last fifteen years. Since that period the increase has been so rapid that in 1890 there were 150 graded, free public schools in as many cities, villages, and counties, a number probably as large as, at that date, in all the old Atlantic Southern States. Within the past fifteen years the State has established a university for academic and one for industrial education, both well housed, well supported, and embarked on a fair career of progress, with a State normal school, a similar arrangement for colored youth, and a large supply of private academies. But this history of progress belongs to that period in which the details of the great movement of the half century of educational revival in the United States — 1840-1890 — should be written. It remains only to reiiroduce here, for convenient reference, the elaborate iirovisions for general and university education at different times placed in the constitution of Texas. These read as follows : [Constitution of 1845.] Article X. Section 1. A general diffusion qf knowledge being essential to the preservation of the rights and liberties of the people, it shall be the duty of the legislature of the State to make suitable provisions for the support and maintenance of public schools. Sec. 2. The legislature shall, as early as practicable, establish free schools through¬ out the State, and shall furnish means for their support by taxation on property. And it shall be the duty of the legislature to set apart not less than one-tenth of the annual revenue of the State derivable from taxation as a perpetual fund, which fund shall be appropriated to the support of free public schools, and no law shall over be made diverting said fund to any other use; and until such times as the leg¬ islature shall provide for the establishment of such schools in the several districts of the State the fund thus created shall remain as a charge against the State, passed to the credit of the free common school fund. Sec. 3. All public lands which have been heretofore or which may hereafter be granted for public schools to the various counties or other political divisions in this State shall not be alienated in fee nor disposed of otherwise than by lease for a term not exceeding twenty years, in such manner as the legislature may direct. Sec. 4. The several counties in this State which have not received their quantum of lands for the purposes of education shall be entitled to the same quantity here¬ tofore appropriated by the Congress of the Republic of Texas to other counties. [Constitution of 1866.] Article X. Section 1. A general diffusion of knowledge being essential to the preservation of the rights and liberties of the people, it shall be the duty of the legislature of this State to make suitable provisions for the support and maintenance of public schools. Sec. 2. The legislature shall, as early as practicable, establish a system of free schools throughout the State; and, as a basis for the endowment and support of said system, all the funds, lands, or other property heretofore set apart and appropri¬ ated, or that hereafter may be set apart and appropriated, for the support and main¬ tenance of public schools shall constitute the public school fund; and said fond, and the income derived therefrom, shall be a perpetual fund exclusively for the EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 327 education of all the white scholastic inhabitants of this State, and no law shall ever be made appropriating said fund to any other use or purpose whatever. And until such time as the legislature shall provide for the establishment of such system of public schools in the State the fund thus created and the income derived therefrom shall remain as a charge against the State, and be passed to the credit of the free common school fund. Sec. 3. And all the alternate sections of land reserved by the State out of grants heretofore made, or that may hereafter be made, to railroad companies or other cor¬ porations, of any nature whatever, for internal improvements or for the development of the wealth and resources of the State shall be set apart as a part of the perpetual school fund of the State : Provided, That if at any time hereafter any part of the public domain of this State shall be sold, and by virtue of said sale the jurisdiction over said land shall be vested in the United States Government, in such event one- half of the proceeds derived from said sale shall become a part of the perpetual school fund of the State, and the legislature shall hereafter appropriate one-half of the pro¬ ceeds resulting from all sales of the public lands to the perpetual public school fund. Sec. 4. The legislature shall provide from time to time for the sale of landa belong¬ ing to the perpetual public school fund, upon such time and terms as it may deem expedient : Provided, That in cases of sale the preference shall be given to actual set¬ tlers: And provided further, That the legislature shall have no power to grant relief to purchasers by granting further time for payment, but shall in all cases provide for the forfeiture of the land to the State for the benefit of a perpetual public school fund, and-that all interest accruing upon such sales shall be a part of the income belonging to the school fund, and subject to an appropriation annually for educa¬ tional purposes. Sec. 5. The legislature shall have no power to appropriate, or loan, or invest, except as follows, any part of the principal sum of the perpetual public school fund for any purpose whatever ; and it shall be the duty of the legislature to appropriate annually the income which may be derived from said fund for educational purposes, under such system as it may adopt; and it shall, from time to time, cause the principal sum now on hand and arising from sales of land, or from any other source, to be invested in the bonds of the United States of America, or the bonds of the State of Texas, or such bonds as the State may guarantee. Sec. 6. All public lands which may have been heretofore, or may be hereafter, granted for public schools to the various counties or other political divisions in this State shall be under the control of the legislature, and may be sold on such terms and under such regulations as the legislature may by law prescribe, and the proceeds of the sale of such lands shall bo added to the perpetual public school fund of the State; but each county shall receive the full benefit of the interest arising from the proceeds of the sale of the lands granted to them respectively: Provided, That the lands already patented to the counties shall not be sold without the consent of such county or counties to which the lands may belong. Sec. 7. The legislature may provide for the levying of a tax for educational purposes : Provided, The taxes levied shall be distributed from year to year as the same may be collected: And provided, That all the sums arising from said tax which may be collected from Africans, or persons of African descent, shall be exclusively appropriated for the maintenance of a system of public schools for Africans and their children; and it shall be the duty of the legislature to encourage schools among these people. Sec. 8. The moneys and lands heretofore granted to, or which may hereafter be granted for, the endowment and support of one or more universities shall constitute a special fund for the maintenance of said universities, and until the university or universities are located and commenced the principal and the interest arising from the principal’s investment shall be invested in like manner and under the same restrictions as provided for the investment and control of the perpetual public school fund in sections 4 and 5 in this article of the constitution ; and the legislature shall have no power to appropriate the university fund for any other purpose than that of the maintenance of said universities, and the legislature shall, at an early day, make such provisions, by law, as will organize and put into operation the university. Sec. 9. The 400,000 acres of land that have been surveyed and set apart, under the provisions of a law approved August 30, A. D. 1856, for the benefit of a lunatic asylum, a deaf and dumb asylum, a blind asylum, an orphan asylum, shall constitute a fund for the support of such institutions, one-fourth part for each, and the said fund shall never be diverted for any other purpose. The said lands maybe sold and the fund invested under the same rules and regulations as provided for the lands belonging to the school fund. The income of said fund only shall be applied to the support of such institutions, and until so applied shall be invested in the same man¬ ner as the principal. Sec. 10. The governor, by and with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the senate, shall appoint an officer, to be styled the superintendent of public instruction. 328 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. His term of office shall he four years, and his annual salary shall not he less than $2,000. payable at stated times; and the governor, comptroller, and superintendent of public education shall constitute a board to be styled a board of education, and shall have the general management and control of the perpetual school fund and common schools, under such regulations as the legislature may hereafter prescribe. Sec. 11. The several counties in this State which have not received their quantum of the lands for the purposes of education shall be entitled to the same quantity here¬ tofore appropriated by the Congress of the Republic of Texas and the State to other counties ; and the counties which have not had the lands to which they were entitled for educational purposes located shall have the right to contract for the location, sur¬ veying, and procuring the patents for said lands, and of paying for the same with any portion of said lands so patented, not to exceed one-fourth of the whole amount to be so located, surveyed, and patented, to be divided according to quality, allow¬ ing to each part a fair proportion of land, water, and timber. In some respects the details of the constitutional provisions for education in Texas have been changed, due information concerning which will be given hereafter. IOWA. Turning to the new Northwest beyond the Mississippi which was included in the Louisiana purchase, we find the State of Iowa, organized as a Territory in 1838, admitted to the Union in 1846, with an area of 55,000 square miles and a popula¬ tion of 82,000. Even before its existence as an independent Territory the city of Dubuque built the first public schoolhouse in 1833. One of the first acts of the Ter¬ ritorial legislature, in 1839, was to pass a law providing for the establishment of “ a common school or schools in each county for all white children and youth from 5 to 21, school districts to be governed each by three trustees.” In 1840 a more compre¬ hensive law was passed. In 1841, five years before the admission of Iowa to the Union, a State superintendency of schools was established, to be suspended the fol¬ lowing year and revived in the first general plan for common school education, which followed immediately on the admission of the State to the Union in 1846. The first constitutional provision of the new State of Iowa, made in 1846, reads as follows : Article IX. Section 1. The general assembly shall provide for the election by the people of a superintendent of public instruction, who shall hold his office for three years, and whose duties shall be prescribed by law, and who shall receive such compensation as the general assembly may direct. Sec. 2. The general assembly shall encourage by all suitable means the promotion of intellectual, scientific, moral, and agricultural improvement. The proceeds of all lands that have been or hereafter may be granted by the United States to this State for the support of schools which shall hereafter be sold or disposed of, and the 500,000 acres of land granted to the new States, under an act of Congress distrib¬ uting the proceeds of the public lands among the several States of the Union, approved A. D. 1841, and all estates of deceased persons who may have died without leaving a will or heir, and also such per cent as maybe granted by Congress on the sale of lands in this State, shall be and remain a perpetual fund the interest of which, together with all the rents of the unsold lands and such other means as the assembly may provide, shall be inviolably appropriated to the support of common schools throughout the State, Sec. 3. The general assembly shall provide for a system of common schools by which a school shall be kept up and supported in each school district at least three months in every year: and any school district neglecting to keep up and support such a school may be deprived of its proportion of the interest of the public fund during such neglect. Sec" 4. The money which shall be paid by persons as an equivalent for exemption from military duty and the clear proceeds of all fines collected in the several counties for any breach of the penal laws shall be exclusively applied, in the several counties in which such money is paid or fine collected, among the several school dis¬ tricts of said counties, in proportion to the number of inhabitants in such districts, to the support of common schools, or to the establishment of libraries, as the gen¬ eral assembly shall, from time to time, provide by law. Sec. 5. The general assembly shall take measures for the protection, improvement, or other disposition of such lands as have been or may hereafter be reserved or EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 329 granted by the United States, or any person or persons, to this State for the use of a university, and the funds accruing from the rents or sale of such lands, or from any other source, for the purpose aforesaid, shall be and remain a permanent fund the interest of which shall be applied to the support of said university, with such branches as the public convenience may hereafter demand for the promotion of literature, the arts, and sciences, as may be authorized by the terms of such gi ant. And it shall be the duty of the general assembly, as soon as may be, to provide effectual means for the improvement and permanent security of the funds of said university. MISSOURI. In 1820 the Territory of Missouri, organized in 1804 as a part of the vast upper “ District of Louisiana,” was admitted to the Union — the result of the first grand conflict and compromise of the two sections of the Republic on the contested ques¬ tion of negro slavery. The prohibition against the “peculiar institution” in the ordinance of 1787 for the Northwest Territory did not affect the region beyond the Mississippi River. This had been secured to the slavery propaganda by the original contents of the agreement by which the Republic came in possession of the Louisiana purchase. The original French occupants who were found in St. Louis in 1804 were gradually outnumbered by the incoming of immigrants from all the States. In 1810 there were 10,000 people in Missouri, all concentrated in a strip of territory upon the Mississippi River 15 to 20 miles wide. In 1808 two-thirds the area of the State was in possession of the Indian tribes, but by 1815 all Indian titles were canceled. In 1811 came the great earthquake which upheaved a region 300 square miles in extent, from the Ohio to the St. Francis River. In 1812 the population had increased to 12,000, scattered through five counties, each of the size of an ordinary New England State, and in 1820 there were 66,000 x^eople in fifteen counties. In 1804 St. Louis was a French village of 180 log houses, the logs being set upright, surrounded by gar¬ dens. In 1809 it was incorporated as a town, and in 1820 “ had streets of brick houses like Philadelphia,” 232 buildings of brick and stone and 419 of wood. In 1808 the second newspaper published west of the Mississippi appeared at St. Louis, the first having been printed in New Orleans in 1794. There were 1,400 people in the city in 1811, briefly described by the epithet of the first judge of a Cincinnati (Ohio) court as “ hotorogenous.” There were 12 stores and an annual trade of $250,000, largely in “ barter.” From four to six months was the regulation time of a voyage by an ordinary flat- boat from St. Louis to New Orleans, although a sailboat could make the passage in thirty days But in 1817 the first steamboat puffed leisurely up to the wharves of the little metropolis, although that sort of craft had been navigating the Ohio and Mississippi since 1811. By 1819 the whistles of sixty -three steamers were waking the echoes of the boundless wilderness between St. Louis and the Gulf. The Bank of Missouri, established in 1816, had 286 of its 780 shares in the hands of French¬ men ; for many of the original families had prospered greatly in wealth by the rise in value of their estates. The Southern population, originally in a majority among the immigrants to this the northern borderland, flowed into this new province, where “ with two days’ work a week one could do as much as in a full week down East.” There also came a growing contingent from the old States, even New Eng¬ land sending some of her most reliable elements of population to this new land. The early settlers from the old States found little of any sort of education in this new Territory. At first Missouri was only a portion of the vast “ District of Louisiana,” under the Territorial law of Indiana. The population at once felt the striving of the American spirit, and petitioned Congress for an independent organi¬ zation of government and “that funds and lands should be granted for the support of a French and English school in each county, in which also the classics, mathe¬ matics, and Constitution of the United States should be taught.” Eight of these fifteen petitioners were French. In 1807 the unpopular administration of Governor Wilkinson was succeeded by the appointment of Captain Lewis, one of the partners ED 96- - 11* 330 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-86. in the famous Lewis and Clarke western exploring expedition. In 1812 Congress ordered that “all lands not of private ownership ho reserved for school purposes” in a dozen of the larger villages of the now Territory. This grant was confirmed in 1831, with the result that St. Louis ultimately came into possession of a great landed estate, from which an annual income of $50,000 to $60,000 is realized at the present time for common school purposes. For this the city was indebted to Mr. F - , a, native of Virginia, who made a horseback journey from St. Louis to Washington to carry the measure through. In 1812 Missouri was granted a full Territorial exist¬ ence, with a legislature, one house being elected by the people, and a legislative council of nine members, which was appointed by the President of the United States from eighteen chosen by the lower house. As early as 1794 the Catholic Cathedral of St. Louis boasted the presence of a considerable library and several valuable works of art, although a large proportion of the original French settlers were unable to read. In 1811 there were two schools in the little city, on8 kept by a young lawyer who afterwards became chief justice of the State, the other by a Frenchman, J. B. Tradeau, who held on for fifty years, from 1774 to 1825. But all these were private institutions. “As yet there was no such thing in the Territory as a public school.” In 1811 the Catholic College, now the St. Louis University, was founded in St. Louis. In 1817 the first step was taken toward organization for public school purposes in the city, one member of the board being the rising young politician, Thomas H. Benton. But for twenty-one years longer the effort was directed chiefly to carrying on the almost hopeless suit for the recovering of the vacant lands ceded to the city by Congress. In 1820 the State had received the usual grant of xuiblic domain for common schools and a university, with the addition of valuable “saline lands”' at a later x>eriod. It was 1838, and “after much contention,” before the first public school was opened in the city of St. Louis. The State University was established in a very moderate way at Columbia in 1844. Tbe common school domain consisted of 1,199,137 acres, with 46,000 acres for a univer¬ sity. It was not until 1842 that the first public sekeoihouse was erected in St. Louis, at a cost of $10,000. By 1835 the legislature moved for a survey of school lands in each of the counties of the State. But few townshixD schools were established before 1837. In 1843, when the State had a population of 400,000, Ur. William G-. Eliot, long known as one of the foremost educational men of Missouri, wrote to a friend in Connecticut that “'there was no public school system in St. Louis.” There were four public schools for boys and girls, with 500 pupils; their management was almost entirely left to the teachers, although nominally under the charge of a board of directors chosen by the people. The great expectation from the landed prox>erty, still m the courts, was a hindrance to the progress of education, an income of $4,000 being all that could be secured, while the iiresent arrangement was utterly inefficient for the public demand. There were 100 children in Catholic and Protestant xmrochial schools. “There were 80,000 x>eople in St. Louis before there was anything done in behalf of public instruction.” Indeed the historian declares: “Up to 1842 Mis¬ souri, despite the jiatriotic injunctions of her citizens to the contrary, had done but little to favor the cause of xmx>ular education.” In 1839 Boone County obtained the university at Columbia by the x>ayment of $117,900, and $70,000 was obtained from the sale of seminary lands. In 1840 build¬ ings were erected; but for twenty-five years the legislature gave no supx>ort. Uni¬ versity lands, then sold “for a song,” are now valued at $4,500,000. It was nine years before the university was really on its feet. In 1834-35 an act was passed to regulate the sale of the sixteenth section lands granted for schools. In 1839 a State system of schools was established by a law creating a superintendent, 6 to 18 being the school age, and in 1842 thirteen counties of the State received school money. In 1843 10,000 and in 1844 21,000 pupils were in attendance on the schools. By 1850 the number had risen to 73,000, with a distribution of $27,000. EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 331 But the “conclusion of the whole matter ” was that up to 1840, twenty years after the organization of the State, with such opportunities as were granted to no Western Commonwealth, Missouri still “lingered, shivering on the hrinh, and feared to launch away” in the great enterprise of the public schooling of her children. The loud call to the leadership of the new West, through the location of the possible metropolis of the Republic near the junction of her two great rivers, had been thrown away for the poor privilege of adding another to the roll of slave-holding Common¬ wealths. Outside of St. Louis and a few rising cities and towns the common schools had little success, even till the coming on of the civil war. But no State has more splendidly demonstrated the determination of the American people, through what¬ ever difficulties and delays, to educate the children for American citizenship than Missouri during the past twenty-five years, nobly redeeming the promise of her original constitution of 1820, which leads off in this prophetic strain : Article VI. — Of education. Sectiox 1. Schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged in this State; and the general assembly shall take measures to preserve from waste or dam¬ age such lands as have been or hereafter may be granted by the United States for tiie use of schools within each township in this State, and shall apply the funds which may arise from such lands in strict conformity to the object of the grant. One school or more shall be established in each township as soon as practicable and necessary, where the poor shall be taught gratis. Sec. 2. The general assembly shall take measures for the improvement of such lands as have been or may hereafter be granted by the United States to this State for the support of a seminary of learning, and the funds accruing from such lands by rent or lease, or in any other manner, or which may be obtained from any other source for the purposes aforesaid, shall be and remain a permanent fund to support a university for the promotion of literature and of the arts and sciences; and it shall be the duty of the. general assembly, as soon as may be, to provide effectual means for the improvement of such lands, and for the improvement and permanent security of the funds and endowments of such institution. THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. It was characteristic of Washington that in his first message as first President of the United States he should invoke the attention of Congress to the importance of the educational question, and in his own guarded way suggest the direct interference of the National Legislature in its favor. The founding and occupation of the city bearing his name furnished an occasion for a more positive and practical presentation of his educational views. He had long pondered the lurking danger of the obstinate differences of nationality, sect, and section to the new Republic, and through the exasperating and discouraging experiences of the war period had learned how easy it might be to destroy a Union not half appreciated by the masses and fought over with bitterness by the leaders of public opinion. His mind dwelt upon the establishment of a national university in the city of Washington where the promis¬ ing young men of all portions of the country could be educated together into a patriotic pride and affection for their whole country through observation of the operations of the Federal Government that might be a daily instruction in good citizenship and a preparation for a public career. At his death he left what seemed at the time and under the promise of the investment a generous sum in the stock of a projected canal for the establishment of such an institution of the higher learning. But the time was not ripe for the success of a project so broad and beneficent. Each section of the country had already built up its own school of the superior education. Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton, The University of Pennsylvania, William and Mary, with other colleges of less note, were buttressed by an environ¬ ment of academical seminaries, each to a greater or less extent representing one of the great rival ecclesiastical parties of the country. It may not be possible to ascertain what has become of this donation of Washington, or if indeed it ever rep¬ resented a definite value. The fate of the original plan of a national university at 332 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. tb.e National Capital was prophetic of all separate attempts in the same direction. While numerous schools of various grades have boldly assumed the name “national,” no institution of learning has yet been established in Washington to whose merits the rapidly increasing fraternity of colleges and universities has done homage as the legitimate head of the American system of universal education. But could Washington have foreseen the present condition of educational affairs in the great and beautiful city that hears his name, in these closing years of the nine¬ teenth century, even he might have acknowledged that in all essential respects the National Capital is rapidly becoming a national university in a way that no institu¬ tion of learning, however famous, could be. With its excellent system of common schools, probably in general efficiency not inferior to those of any American city, and in some respects, notably in the education of the colored people, the best in the Union; the Catholic College at Georgetown, with Columbian and Howard univer¬ sities already established; the group of private denominational and professional schools; the national library, now sure of a permanent home, with the numerous and valuable collections of books in the various Departments of the Government; the gathering of scientific men of national reputation in connection with Governmental operations; the National Museum and Smithsonian Institution ; the sessions of Con¬ gress and the Supreme Court; the development of music and establishment of one valuable gallery of art; the great variety of associations, clubs, and groups of edu¬ cational people for mutual improvement; the residence of the official representatives of all the nations of the earth, and the development of the most characteristic type of American society — all these and other agencies working together, with the great plans for at least two new universities rapidly unfolding, make the city of Washington to-day the most important arrangement for that all-round education which will realize the ideal of American citizenship that filled the soul of the Father of his Country. But this latter day achievement is largely the result of influences that have come to the front since the close of the great civil war, which, among other things, changed Washington from a provincial to a national capital. The District of Columbia was originally composed of two essentially southern colonies on opposite sides of the Potomac River. Georgetown, the oldest of these, was a rural settlement of Mary¬ land people as1 early as 1751. The legislature condemned 60 acres of land at the falls of the Potomac River, out of which 80 lots were assessed, at a valuation of $280 each, George Beall, the original owner of the territory, protesting to the last against the summary proceeding, but taking two lots by choice, on the principle of “better saving a little than being totally demolished.” But having treated itself to this sensation at first, the little town subsided into an educational slumber of sixty years before its people moved in behalf of popular education. In 1799 Georgetown College, the first Catholic college in the original Union, at first only an academical school, was founded by the ecclesiastical authorities of the Church in Maryland, although it was not till 1815 that it was authorized by Congress to confer degrees. Still this, the original settlement of the District, was in advance of Washington in its appreciation of the need of popular education. In 1810 a hundred substantial citizens of the place formed an association “to secure the advantages of education according to the system devised by Joseph Lancaster,” and raised $1,000 as an evi¬ dence of their sincerity. They memorialized the corporation for aid, but the first substantial gift was a school Jot presented by Leonard Neal, on which a schoolhouse was built and dedicated. The school opened in 1811, under the mastership of Mr. Robert Ould, a teacher sent from England by Mr. Lancaster. This school, which immediately gathered 340 children, was declared by its master “the second rea- Lancasterian school in America.” But a very natural prejudice against coeducation instead of destroying the school was made the occasion for obtaining a gift of $1,000 from the corporation to build an addition to the schoolhouse to accommodate 200 of what were gallantly described by the directors as “the distinguished ornaments of creation.” This gift was made to extend over four years ; but meanwhile the city government consented to appro- EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 333 priate $1,000 annually to tlie school on condition that all poor children should he educated free and at the close of their schooling be bound out to service. Ample arrangements were devised for supervision and reporting. The organization con¬ tinued for nine years with fair success. At this point an application for subsidizing denominational religious schools was made, but after a trifling experiment the city rejected the policy and thereafter went on by the method of supporting a public school through the united contribu¬ tions of friends, collecting tuition fees, and annual public gifts. For thirty-two years this school upheld the cause of popular education, as was done in the city of New York. In 1812 the city corporation assumed its entire control, and put it under the charge of a board of “ guardians.” This date brings us to the close of the period included in the present essay, and marks the change in administration from a private society, aided by the municipality, to the entire assumption of public education by the city. It is a pleasing record, such as was furnished by few communities in the Middle or Southern States at a date so early. But in the neighboring settlement, which afterward became the metropolis of the Republic, the cause of education did not thus prevail. From the first the people’s school moved on its laggard and wearisome way, like a vessel beating up the Poto¬ mac against a stiff north wind. The District of Columbia, composed of Washington, Alexandria, and Georgetown, was organized in the year 1800, each settlement under its own municipal control. The first charter of Washington in 1802 contained no notice of education. But in 1804, possibly through the influence of the first presi¬ dent of the Washington school board, Thomas Jefferson, a provision was inserted in the revised charter “for the establishment and supervision of schools.” An act passed the same year authorized the city “to establish and endow a permanent insti¬ tution for the education of youth.” An elaborate statute, with an eloquent pream¬ ble, provided for the election of a board of thirteen trustees — seven to be chosen by the city council from the body of the citizens and six elected by the contributors to the school fund. The sum of $10 contributed entitled the giver to a vote. This board was instructed to receive contributions at home and abroad toward the expense of educating the children of the poor. The avails of certain taxes, including the tax on “slaves and dogs,” to the extent of $1,500 a year, were available for this purpose. One hundred and ninety-one persons contributed the sum of $3,782, Thomas Jeffer¬ son giving the sum of $200. Jefferson was elected president of the board, with a body of twelve good men as assistants. In accepting the position he writes : “ Sin¬ cerely believing that knowledge promotes the happiness of man, I shall ever be dis¬ posed to contribute my endeavors to its extension.” We seem to recognize the hand of Jefferson in the almost ideal scheme of instruc¬ tion proposed by this first board of trustees. It provided for the establishment of “'an institution in which every species of knowledge essential to the liberal educa¬ tion of youth may ultimately be acquired in three great departments.” (1) There should be an elementary school for instruction in the common branches; (2) a col¬ lege equivalent to a modern high school; (3) a university “in which the highest and most splendid, attainments may be acquired.” It was believed that while the ele¬ mentary school would be the special concern of the District, the college and univer¬ sity would commend themselves to the benevolent consideration of liberal-minded people everywhere, and that national aid might be hoped for. But a current of common sense seems to have blown across the magnificent project, for it is suggested that all this must be of gradual achievement and that the incredulous public should not be too severely tried by the expert. A most eloquent plea, setting forth the advantages of education to the metropolis of the Republic, was drawn up and the “new education” stepped forth to fight its way through a. long period of indiffer¬ ence and hostility, a battle virtually prolonged for half a century. And for forty years it was a battle for life. What would have been the result had the friends of education in Washington, like those of Georgetown, courageously 334 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-S6. faced tlie position and established a proper system Gf schooling for all classes and conditions of white folk, can not be predicted. As it was, the launching of a scheme for the support of a school for the poor, in which the “children of the indi¬ gent'7 alone should receive free education and the “pay department” at best be a sort of uneasy appendage, was sure to array against itself not only the prejudice of an extremely exclusive order of society, but, what was even more obstructive, the scheme was born with the stigma of the “pauper school/” It was not till 1848, when the city came to itself and established a system of common schools for white children on the plan of the Northern and Eastern States, that any real success was achieved. - The city first responded to the enthusiastic petition of the thirteen trustees by an offering of $1,500 a year from the avails of certain taxes and fees. Two small schools, one half a mile east of the Capitol, the other the same distance from the White House, were set up. Mr. Bentley was appointed the first teacher at a salary of $500 a year, with the addition of the fees of the tuition pupils, Out of which ho was to pay the rent of his schoolhouse, hire assistant teachers, and meet all the general expenses of conducting the school. It was soon evident that no school system weighted like tills could live, and this experiment came to a speedy collapse The city soon reduced its appropriation to $800 a year, and in 1809 the two were merged into one school. During the first thirteen years the corporation had furnished but $10,000, and the contributions of the citizens, amounting to $4,000, alone held up the scheme. During ten years twenty different teachers had been elected, only to bo “starved out77 or discouraged by the popular indifference to the obscure institution that was dragging out a feeble existence in the lower regions of the proud little capital on the Potomac. The board of thirteen trustees was a public vagrant, with¬ out a home, meeting anywhere and everywhere, half the appointed sessions failing for want of a quorum. Notwithstanding the concealment of the names of the charity scholars, the “pauper ” element was an indelible stigma that could not be overcome. Baffled in their effort to commend the system to the people of the District, the trustees turned to Congress for “aid and comfort,77 only to meet the same cold recep¬ tion. From 1812 to 1828 their efforts effected nothing but an indirect appropriation of city fees collected by the United States marshal and of all escheated estates. A lottery was authorized, and by a desperate effort, at large expense and the incurring of a city debt, was made to yield some $40,000, which has increased to a present fund of $80,000. Until 1818 there was an annual report by the management. But after that there seems to have been little inducement to “report progress,77 and, for twenty-seven years, until 1845, the goings on of the educational department are to be laboriously gathered up from the occasional notices of the press and formal reference in the city documents. In 1820 the schools were declared to be exclusively of the charity order, no pay pupils being received. The whole story of these years is a melancholy record of a board of well-intentioned gentlemen, working “against the grain77 of a community that could not be lifted up to the hearty support of a scheme of charity education, virtually confined to the children of the poor. In 1836 a new effort was made to interest Congress by a memorial from the three cities, with the usual result. It was not till 1840 that the schools found a wise and persistent friend in the per¬ son of Mayor Seaton. He startled the good people of Washington by the announce¬ ment that only 1,200 of the 5,000 children of school age were attending the public and private schools of the city, leaving 3,800 out of school altogether. This, of course, included only the white children and youths, for all there was of schooling for the free colored folk was by private and personal effort. It is not to be supposed that the white population of Washington was in the desperate state of ignorance indicated by this startling record. But the Washington of that early day was not the charming metropolis of the present. It was a new and disagreeable town, far EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 335 away from the great centers of social and cultivated life, where the wealthy and influential people schooled their children elsewhere and the “lower orders ” drifted on, as in all communities of similar type. The population of the city must have been far less stable than now, and the contentions of national politics during those exciting years, including the second war with England and tho nullification move¬ ment of 1832, were doubtless a great hindrance. It was only by degrees that the press of the city came to pay any respect to the schools. In fact, a scheme of “pau¬ per education,” altogether including less than 1,000 children, with no fit place of abode, with schoolhousesr books, and apparatus of the lowest order, would hardly attract attention outside its own poor environment. But the time was favorable to a forward movement. Mayor Seaton had the good sense to understand that only by a challenge of the town to rise up and establish tho American system of universal education at public cost could there be a reasonable hope of success. The fact that as soon as this plan of the mayor was plainly stated the city responded, and in 1814—15 put on the ground a system of common schools corresponding to that of the chief Northern States, would seem to prove that it was not due so much to tho indifference of the people to education as to the lack of com¬ petent leadership that Washington Had so long remained in the rear rank of Ameri¬ can cities in this respect. In the city council Mr. J. F . Halliday brought forward a plan for a system of seven public schools, to accommodate 3,000 pupils, and a tax of one-sixth of 1 per cent on all the assessable property of the city. This precipitated a sharp discussion in which the poverty of the present arrangement, where 200 children were placed in surround¬ ings rather indicating “a place of punishment for offenders than a school for instruc¬ tion,” was made evident. John Quincy Adams, Caleb Cushing, Justice Vfoodbury, and other eminent residents of Washington added their powerful influence The result was the passage of the school law of 1811, by which a board of twelve trustees, three from each of the four wards, was chosen by the city council, and $3,612 was appropriated for erecting schoolhouses and renting rooms. From this date the pub¬ lic schools of Washington had a real existence. In the four years--f olio wing this action more than $5,000 a year was appropriated. In 1818 a tax of $1 a year was laid on every white male citizen for education, and the board of trustees was assigned a place of meeting in the city hall. One of the most interesting chapters in the educational history of the national capital is the records of the efforts of the free colored people for tho instruction of their children previous to 1860. In the nineteenth volume of Barnard's American Journal of Education will be found an elaborate treatise in which the details of this wonderful story are set forth in a way so complete as to obviate the necessity of their repetition. Of course all this was in the line of private and Sunday-school work, tho Sunday school at one time bearing the same relation to the elementary education of these people as at an earlier period in England. But so persistent was this movement and so thoroughly did it impress itself on the mass of superior colored people that it laid the foundation of tho remarkable public-school movement in 1862 which has resulted in the development of the most elaborate and successful system of common schools for this people in Washington known in the country. In the year 1807, two years after tho earliest movement for schooling the white people of the city, three men, Bell, Franklin, and Liverpool, established the first school for free negroes in the city of Washington. There were then but 5,000 white people in the city, 1,000 slaves, and 500 free negroes. WJien we consider the diffi¬ culties through which the first public school in Washington for white children strug¬ gled year after year through a sickly life with 5,000 people of the “superior race” behind it, we can appreciate the courage of these three men, all mechanics and just emancipated from slavery, in the establishment of their own school, representing but 500 people, with no hope of public aid. Neither of these men could read or write. Bell was the leader in the noble enterprise. His freedom was purchased by 336 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. his enslaved wife for $400, earned by market gardening, and he returned the favor by purchasing her freedom out of the first earnings of his free labor. The teacher of the school was a Mr. Lowe, a white man, and it was continued for several years. About the same time a Mrs. Alethia Tanner, afterwards the housemaid of Thomas Jefferson, began a remarkable career of purchasing, first, her own freedom, and then that of 21 relatives and friends, including the Cook family, which has been identified with the education of their people from the first. In 1818 an association of colored folk, under the name the Resolute Beneficial Society, established a school which first under the instruction of a relative of Rev. John Pierpont and afterwards of John Adams, the first colored teacher in the District, did good service. From that day until the breaking out of the civil war, in Washington and Georgetown, and in Alexandria, until its retrocession to Virginia, in 1846, a series of schools for these people were established, each with some characteristic of special interest. Several of the most successful teachers were from England and Scotland, and a good num¬ ber of Southern white people of recognized social standing. At one time there was a habit of educating colored children in the j)rivate schools for whites, and even slaves were permitted to receive instruction. The Sunday schools of the leading churches had also a colored department. But all this came to an end in 1832-1834, when, as the result of the Nat Turner slave insurrection in Virginia, the public mind in the South wras wrought to a high pitch of excitement. The schools of these people in Washington were largely broken up by mobs, the colored churches assailed, and several of the leading teachers obliged to flee the town. But nothing could suppress the determination of such as remained, and in due time the schools came up, every year better than before. The constituency was not large, the free negroes of the District up to 1840 not number ing more than 6,000. A careful study of the records of these numerous private col¬ ored schools will show that a good proportion of the 1,000 children of school age must have been under instruction. The Catholic Church was not behind in this movement. There was one important school in Georgetown and another under the management of the Sisters of Providence, an order of colored women devoted to the education of their race, is still an important seminary for girls. The school of Rev. John F. Cook, teacher and clergyman, was the beginning of the valuable edu¬ cational labors of this family, one of whom is the excellent superintendent of the colored schools of the city of Washington. In this movement the colored people were supported by the sympathy and encour¬ aged by the aid of many leading people of the District. Thomas Jefferson did not hesitate to publish his belief that the African race is capable of education and should be admitted to all opportunities of good schooling. In a letter to Benjamin Banneker, a remarkable colored man of Maryland, the son of native African parents, who, by self-education, became noted as an author, mathematician, and mechani¬ cian, a publisher of an almanac, known to the learned societies of Paris and London, Mr. Jefferson wrote: “ Nobody wishes more than I do to see such proofs as you exhibit that nature has given to our black brethren talents equal to those of the other colors of men, and that the appearance of a want of them is owing only to the degraded condition of their existence both in Africa and America.” Jefferson sent the almanac of Banneker to the Academy of Sciences at Paris as a 11 justification against the doubts which have been entertained of them;” and it was quoted by Pitt, Fox, and Wilber force in the British Parliament as an argument in behalf of the emancipation and education of the negro race. Out of this notable and most praiseworthy effort of the superior free colored people to educate their children it has come to pass that in no part of the country is there so fine a group of educated and worthy families of this race as in Washington. At the critical period of the civil war, w7hen thousands of emancipated slaves were thrown upon the city, these people came to the front and have been largely influen¬ tial in the organization and highly successful management of their department of EARLY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 337 the public school system, in which 12,000 children are now educated not only in elementary schools, but with excellent high, normal, industrial, and artistic train¬ ing, their teachers being paid the same salaries as those of the white race, with schoolhouses of the most approved pattern. Half the expenses of the public schools of the District of Columbia are now paid by the Congress of the United States, which also makes a generous yearly grant of money to Howard University, one of the earliest and best known institutions for the higher and professional education of this people in the country. CONCLUSION. The close of the first half century of the Republic may be regarded as the limit of the period included in this essay. At this decade, 1830-1840, the idea of the original New England system of public instruction, the organization, support, and super¬ vision of a scheme of education by the people, acting through the ordinary agencies of local, colonial, and State government, had finally been adopted by every Common¬ wealth in the New England, Central, and Northwestern States: and although none of the slaveholding States had fully accepted the system, all were either partially committed to it, or the educational public in each of them — a steadily increasing factor in their educational affairs — was vrorking along the same line, gathering the elements for the prodigious effort for the establishment of the American common school as soon as the chief hindrance to universal education — the institution of slavery — should be removed. Before 1840 every American State had either adopted, or its educational public was working toward, the ideal of a common system of instruction and discipline, under the direction of the State, for the training of the children and youth into good American citizenship. If this story of the origin of the American common school has been fitly told, it will be seen that its one original, characteristic, and essential idea is only the apx>li- cation of the American idea of government and society to education. The American common school is only the American people keeping school. It is their will and pleasure expressed through the agency of a flexible majority. This is the radical note of difference between the American and any other type of national education in any previous age or m any European nation at the present time. And because this is its only essential characteristic the American common school has this con¬ spicuous advantage over all other systems: It becomes, in its development, the recipient of the highest thinking, aspiration, and living of a great nationality com¬ posed of the most powerful and progressive elements of all civilized peoples, work¬ ing under the boundless encouragements and opportunities of a new world toward the realization of the broadest and most xiractical ideal of freedom consistent with a safe and conservative order of society. It is not therefore essential that the American common school should be free in the sense of instruction without direct cost to the pupil, although, since under all conditions the indirect exx>ense of schooling bears more heavily on the family than the xmblic, it is good x>olicy to make the public school free to all. Neither is the system chained to any desx>otic or essential method of organization, discixdine, and instruction. It “lives and moves and has its being r in the exxianding education;;! consciousness of the whole people. Thus, it may with perfect consistency adopt much that is excellent in the systems of other peoples, avail itself of the fruits <■/ the largest educational experience everywhere, and make its own the most admirable results of the wisest thought and noblest achievement in all countries and all time So that, “ without variablenesss or shadow of turning/7 it abides by its o wn idee 1 that this is the people’s school. It violates no radical American x>rinciple and vindi¬ cates its right to “ claim the earth ” in behalf of the children of the Republic. In the rude and tentative beginnings of the American common school, as intLe earliest motions of the colonial life, which was feeling after the beginnings of repul - lican institutions, we have seen that misapx>rehensions and mistakes were inevitable. Hence, no State may claim exemx>tion from criticism and none should resent a corre £ 338 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-90. and fair statement of its early educational history. For no Commonwealth has failed to contribute some valuable element of thought in its foremost educators and rich experience from its various experiments in school-keeping toward the present condition of educational affairs. In each the educational public appeared in due season and became an inevitable and vital feature in the life of the State, wrought in its own way, and finally triumphed. And the most significant fact is that this victory was often achieved in a style inexplicable to the educational pedant, in the face and. eyes of the schemes and predictions of the great educational theorist, in a way that can only be appreciated by him who believes in the American idea of the gradual development of the whole people under the direction of a gracious Divine Providence. The opening decade of the second half century of the Republic became mem¬ orable as the period of the great American revival of universal education. Under this great uplift of public sentiment, through the direction of the most notable group of educational leaders that had appeared in the country, the local district elementary school of the old time evolved into the graded common school of the later years; was immensely extended and enriched in all its departments; was especially improved in its methods of instruction and discipline, chiefly through native genius and experience, gradually by the careful adjustment of the best European methods to home use, and largely under the pronounced influence of the State normal schools, and most important of all is the fact that this was a veritable people’s revival, in which the intelligent and patriotic masses in every State were aroused, educated, and confirmed in the conviction of their imperative right and duty to provide the best for the children. One may see how this fruitful period of reform in education found its grand culmination in the generation that followed the close of the great civil war. Then, first, under the inspiration of a renewed and reconstructed nationality, the Ameri¬ can common school had free course, ran, and was glorified through the entire area of the Republic. And very significant is the fact that the older States, in which the conflict for universal education had been most involved and prolonged, now came to the front in the most decisive wmy and in some respects surpassed all the original States. And the South, that so long remained outside the expanding circle of the common school, has responded to the cry of the children during the past twenty years by the most remarkable achievement in the organization and support of pop¬ ular education recorded in history. To the careful reader of this “ great and wmndrous story,” who is in full accord with the American idea, there can be no conclusion possible save a profound confi¬ dence in the American gospel of universal education, and an abiding faith that under a wise and gracious Providence the American people is now summoned to the apostleship of this gospel in a career only now well begun. [Note.— The fact that the constitution of the State of Delaware in 1792 contained the provision for education, afterwards adopted in the revised constitution in 1831, directing the legislature “to provide by law for the establishment of schools and promoting arts and sciences,” was inadvertently omitted; also, on page 276 the name Lyon should be spelled Ligon. — A. D. M.] CHAPTER VIII. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES.1 References to preceding reports of the United States Bureau of Education, in which this subject has been treated: In annual reports, 1870, pp. 541, 542; 1871, pp. 668- 677; 1872, pp. liii-lvii, 820-887; 1873, pp. lxxxviii-xciv, 729-763; 1874, pp. lxxxvii- xcii, 753-793; 1875, pp. civ-cvii, 797-883; 1876, pp. cxxiii-cxxv, 777-779; 1877, pp. cxxxi-cxlii, 583-585 ; 1878, pp. cxxii, 599-600 ; 1879, pp. clvii-clviii, 618-619; 1880, pp. clxvi-clxvii, 738-741 ; 1881, pp. cci-cciv, 668-671 ; 1882-83, pp. clxxxv-clxxxviii, 694-699 ; 1883-84, pp. elxxxiii-clxxxiv, 724-737 ; 1884-85, pp. ccxxix-ccxxx, 691- 782; 1885-86, pp. 716-719; 1886-87, pp. 901-972; 1887-88, pp. 1031-1039; 1892-93, pp. 575-583, 691-1014; 1893-94, pp. 1503-1504; 1895-96, pp. 339-599. See also in each report statistics of libraries of schools and colleges. Refer also to index m each annual report from 1888-89 to 1895-96 for libraries m foreign countries. In special reports and circulars of information; 1876, Public Libraries in the United States of America, their history, condition, and management, Part I, edited by S. R. Warren and S. N. Clark, pp. xxxv, 1187 ; Rules for a printed Dictionary Catalogue, Part II, by C. A. Cutter, pp. 89; Circular of Information No. 1, 1880, College Libraries as Aids to Instruction, by Justin Winsor and Otis H. Robin- • son, pp. 27; Circular of Information No. 1, 1881, Construction of Library Build¬ ings, by William Poole, pp. 26; 1881, Library Aids, by Samuel Green, pp. 10; 1886, Statistics of Public Libraries in the United States, pp. 98, reprinted from 1884-85 annual report; 1886, Special Report, New Orleans Exposition 1884-85, pp. 650-655; 1891, Rules for a Dictionary Catalogue, by Charles A. Cutter, pp. 140; third edition, with corrections and additions, reprinted from the 1876 special report; Circular of Information No. 7,1893, Statistics of Public Libra¬ ries in the United States and Canada (in 1891), by Weston Flint, pp. 213; 1893, Catalogue of A. L. A. Library, 5,000 volumes, for a popular library, pp. 592; 1896, Papers prepared for the World's Library Congress, held at the Colum¬ bian Exposition, edited by Melvil Dewey, pp. 691-1014, reprinted from annual report 1892-93. The public library is recognized as one of the great forces in modern educational progress. For nearly thirty years the United States Bureau of Education has con¬ stantly emphasized the importance of these institutions as aids to instruction. In every annual report from 1867-68 to the present year has appeared information relating to college and school libraries, and periodically the Bureau has published detailed statistics of public libraries. The annual report for 1870 contained a list of 161 principal libraries not including college libraries. The report for 1872 con¬ tained a list of 1,080 libraries of 1,000 or more volumes. A special effort was made in 1875 to obtain a list of all the libraries in the United States having 300 volumes and over. The list as printed in the report for that year included 3,648 libraries, and of these, 2,039 had 1,000 or more volumes. This list vras also published in the great special report issued by tliis office in 1876. That report was a volume of about 1,200 pages devoted to “Public Libraries in the United States of America, their xBy Alex Summers, Statistician of the Bureau. 339 340 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. History, Condition, and Management.” The volume contained 39 chapters by as many as twenty eminent specialists in subjects relating to libraries. In the annual report for 1884-85 was published a list of 5,338 libraries of 300 or more volumes, 2,988 of these libraries had 1,000 or more volumes. This list was reprinted in a pamphlet of about 100 pages A valuable chapter of about 70 pages appeared in the 1886-87 report devoted to ‘‘Libraries in the United States.” The statistics of 1,779 libraries were published in seven tables, classified as follows: (1) Free public lending libraries, (2) free public reference libraries, (3) free public school libraries, (4) free corporate lending libraries, (5) libraries of clubs, associations, etc., (6) sub¬ scription corporate libraries, and (7) circulating libraries proper In 1893 this Bureau published 20,000 copies of a circular of information of 213 pages, giving the statistics of 3,503 public libraries in the United States having 1,000 volumes and over. The statistics collected were for the year 1891. Also in 1893 the Bureau pub¬ lished 20,000 copies of “Catalogue of A.L.A. Library. 5,000 volumes, for a public library selected by the American Library Association and shown at the World’s Columbian Exposition.” So great was the demand for this publication that a sec¬ ond edition was printed in 1896. This special report ■: outained about 600 pages. The pa^iers prepared for the American Library Association for its annual meeting held at Chicago in 1893, and read before the Worlds Library Congress at the Columbian Exposition, were printed in the Education Report for 1892-93. These papers, which were prepared by about twenty leading members of the association, occupy 324 pages of the above-mentioned report, pages 691-1014. A small edition of the matter was reprinted in a separate pamphlet. One of the most popular publications of this Bureau is Cutter’s Rules for a Dictionary Catalogue, which was published in 1876 as Part II of the special library report of that year. The third edition was published in 1891 in a pamphlet of 140 pages. The special report issued by this Bureau in 1886 on “Educational Exhibits and Conventions at the World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, New Orleans, 1884-85,” contained much valuable matter in relation to libraries. This report is now out of print, «as are all the earlier reports above mentioned. In addition to the statistics of college and school libraries published every year in the annual reports of this Bureau since 1870. many of the reports have contained valuable facts concerning libraries in foreign countries. This is particularly true of the reports from 1888-89 to 1895-96. STATISTICS FOR 1896. Five years having elapsed since the collection of statistics of public libraries pub¬ lished in Circular of Information No. 7, 1893, this Bureau sent out under date of April 1. 1896, forms of inquiry to all the libraries reporting to this office in 1891 and to several thousand others. Efforts were made to secure the names of all the libraries in the United States, but it was the purpose to publish a list of only public and school libraries having 1,000 or more volumes. Nearly 10,000 addresses were obtained and from this number about 8,000 responses were received. The number of libraries reporting 1,000 or more volumes was 4,026; the number reporting less than 1,000 volumes but not less than 300 was 3,167, while nearly 1,000 had fewer than 300 vol¬ umes each. To obtain the 8,000 reports it was necessary to send out 15,000 blank forms between the 1st of April and the 1st of August. Not more than 50 per cent of the librarians responded promptly, and many hundreds ignored the second and even the third requests for information. It is presumed, however, that most of the libraries from which no returns could be obtained were so small that those in charge of them did not deem them of sufficient importance to be included in the list. It is safe to assume that the list of 4,026 public and school libraries published in this report includes very nearly all the libraries in the United Stares having 1,000 or more volumes. (See page 366.) 341 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Table 1. — Summary of statistics of public , society, and school libraries of 1,000 volumes and over in IS 96. NUMBER OF LIBRARIES AND NUMBER OF VOLUMES. States and Territories. Libraries report¬ ing. Volumes. Pamphlets. Increase since 1 Libraries. Volumes. 891. Per cent in num¬ ber of volumes. United States . 4. 026 33, 051, 872 5,444 788 523 ! 7.074,229 27.23 North Atlantic Division . 2. 000 17 647. 723 2.801 270 231 3. 893, 631 28. 31 South Atlantic Division . 322 4, 015. 087 966. 999 18 614. 269 18. 06 South Central Division . 255 1. 360. 451 215. 856 26 j 238. 085 21. 21 North Central Division . 1. 195 8. 016. 780 1, 250 342 175 ! 1 756.970 28. 07 "Western Division . 254 2, Oil, 831 210, 321 73 ! 571, 274 39. 66 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 93 542, 6G6 100 443 7 107.288 24. 67 New Hampshire . 122 595. 800 108 887 35 179.870 | 43 25 Vermont . 67 359, 213 13 827 16 85.702 1 31. 33 Massachusetts . 494 5, 450, 397 1, 231 953 32 997.626 ! 22. 40 Rhode Island . 74 580, 305 95 950 7 113 072 24. 20 Connecticut . 154 1, 102. 082 214, 405 28 216.653 ! 24. 47 New York . 572 5, 251,347 563 914 101 1,289.499 32 55 New Jersey . . 94 801 152 116, 327 4 159 466 24. 85 Pennsylvania . 330 2, 964, 761 355. 564 1 744 455 33. 53 South. Atlantic Division: 14 83 763 15, 264 0 15, 230 22.22 Maryland . 67 985, 330 127. 660 2 143 156 17 District of Columbia . . 55 1, 793. 910 735 231 5 300 855 20. 15 V irgima ..... _ ...... 50 341. 225 31 550 5 686 . 20 "West Virginia . 10 46. 137 7 548 4 11, 157 31.90 North Carolina . - . 40 218, 757 16 192 2 52, 516 31.59 South Carolina . 32 232. 418 9. 372 1 47, 936 25. 98 Georgia . 41 270. 041 19. 262 0 46. 208 20 64 Florida . ... 13 43. 506 4, 920 a 1 a 3. 475 a 7. 40 South Central Division . Kentucky - _ - _ - 47 318, 661 27, 739 a 12 3 924 1. 25 Tennessee . 62 318' 571 29! 436 13 96 109 43. 20 Alabama . . . 28 117! 337 35. 121 5 i 21.171 22. 02 Mississippi . 31 166. 870 23. 915 2 39, 556 31. 07 Louisiana . 27 212. 828 46. 431 al 33. 610 18.75 jL 6X3. S . . ............. 39 131 222 13. 804 12 44, 619 51 52 Arkansas . 17 87,- 600 37, 502 6 a 4. 500 a 4. 89 Oklahoma . 2 5. 157 1. 200 2 5. 1 57 Indian Territory . 2 2. 205 708 al al 561 a 41. 45 North Central Division : Ohio . 202 1. 587, 891 205, 754 29 329 455 26.18 Indiana . . 107 654. 651 53, 357 9 129 825 24.74 Illinois . 214 1, 822, 580 447. 168 11 181. 451 11. 06 Michigan . 153 | 975. 031 70. 455 18 248 765 34 25 Wisconsin . . 102 626 442 132, 224 22 178, 539 39. 86 Minnesota . 75 467 397 46, 364 22 167 634 55. 92 Iowa . 113 607. 765 56. 339 24 176. 070 40 79 Missouri . 104 686 955 115. 355 11 159, 445 30. 23 North Dakota . 6 23 682 3,100 4 15, 802 200 53 South Dakota. . . . 14 34, 863 10 564 5 14. 277 69 35 N ebraska . . 42 226. 743 26. 093 13 58. 492 34.76 Kansas . 63 302. 780 83. 569 7 97, 215 47. 29 W estern Division : Montana . 13 69 222 9. 892 8 48.083 227. 46 W yoming . 4 23. 785 3. 200 1 4.485 j 23. 24 Colorado . 34 300. 990 20. 318 11 178.923 ' 146. 58 New Mexico . 6 13 273 3, 200 1 2,119 19 Arizona . 4 17. 472 250 1 2.472 16.48 Utah . 11 49. 582 | 18, 002 5 24, 856 ioo. 53 Nevada . 6 49. 989 2, 240 0 11. 774 j 30 81 Idaho . . 5 13, 023 10. 230 3 7. 023 j 117. 05 Washington . . 20 76. 646 19, 380 11 35.640 86. 91 Oregon . 16 90, 190 6, 628 1 24.646 37. 60 California . 35 1, 307. 659 116. 981 31 231, 253 21. 48 a Decrease. 342 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Table 2. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896. VOLUMES AND PAMPHLETS ADDED AND BOOKS ISSUED. States and Terri¬ tories. Periodicals. V olumes added during the year . Pamphlets added during the year. Books issued for home use. Books issued for use in library. Libraries re¬ porting. © b P £ Libraries re¬ porting. © rO P P 6 Libraries re¬ porting. © P P P Libraries re¬ porting. © P B p Libraries re¬ porting. © P B United States. - 2, 166 116, 248 2, 851 1, 591, 861 1,303 439,412 | 1, 852 | 35, 075, 055 594 7, 706, 83C North Atlantic Divi- 1 sion . 1, 053 55, 067 1,505 883, 121 615 235, 947 1,088 19, 407, 838 295 2, 349, 927 South Atlantic Divi- ; sion . 153 9, 626 198 120, 588 104 54, 638 89 1, 303, 619 39 310, 995 South Central Divi- r sion . 130 4, 057 149 48, 909 96 22, 3i4 41 185, 086 19 128, 288 North Central Divi- sion . 672 38, 371 832 428, 781 396 88, 398 541 ill. 476, 578 198 4, 330, 105 TTestern Division. . . . 153 8, 527 167 110, 464 92 38, 115 93 2,701,934 43 587, 517 North Atlantic Divi- sion : Maine . 48 1,556 74 21,027 23 16, 822 49 600, 978 14 82, 054 New Hampshire . . . 56 1,402 90 28, 283 34 7,901 74 698, 295 l 10 102, 568 Vermont . 32 973 54 15, 761 16 3, 268 37 316, 304 6 20, 875 Massachusetts . 287 14, 351 406 249, 986 159 65, 409 336 6, 706, 970 61 373, 621 Khode Island . 40 1, 945 58 24, 440 24 5, 389 51 534, 089 9 35 815 Connecticut . 83 4, 065 110 70, 751 49 16, 674 89 1, 480, 748 •17 49. 123 New York . 300 18,119 433 249, 985 189 49, 897 287 4, 525, 641 123 1, 238, 708 New Jersey . . 54 3, 621 53 43, 987 27 9, 919 38 1, 290. 171 15 47. 806 ' Pennsylvania . 173 9, 635 227 180, 901 94 60, 668 127 3, 254, 642 40 399, 357 r South Atlantic Divi- sion : Delaware _ ....... 7 191 12 4, 587 10 1 758 8 149, 001 3 1, 545 Maryland . 40 2, 852 ‘ 42 34, 3S0 26 9, 660 15 706, 006 8 141, 247 Dist. of Columbia . . 21 3, 298 37 42, 723 21 36, 727 14 148, 576 10 148, OS'*. Virginia . 27 1, 244 30 13, 026 15 1, 601 17 90, 987 9 3, 413 West Virginia . 5 118 5 1, 667 3 883 2 58, 616 1 12, 908 North Carolina .... 19 834 20 5, 763 7 1,126 8 27, 651 2 889 South Carolina . 13 376 17 3, 057 7 665 6 34, 954 1 250 1 Georoia _ _ 19 542 26 13, 365 11 1, 568 15 81, 764 3 1, 216 J Florida . 171 9 2, 018 4 650 4 6, 064 2 1,470 [South Central Divi- - ' sion : . 'Kentucky . 23 517 34 10, 557 20 3,678 5 27, 144 6 55, 711 Tennessee . 27 1, 297 26 6, 428 16 1,925 13 62, 432 3 33. 184 Alabama .: . 18 534 17 4, 939 12 2, 325 5 8,797 4 6, 061 Mississippi . 18 427 18 5, 017 13 2, 324 3 10, 855 1 800 Louisiana . 12 493 14 6, 041 10 4,450 2 1,896 1 23, 441 Texas . 18 379 25 5, 001 14 1, 988 8 62, 561 3 8, 589 Arkansas . 11 271 12 10, 312 10 4, 426 5 11, 401 1 500 Oklahoma ......... 2 127 2 574 1 1, 200 Indian Territory . . 1 12 1 40 1 ... North Central Divi¬ sion : Ohio . 122 7, 075 145 62, 945 63 15, 647 78 2, 088, 278 31 549, 157 Indiana . 51 1,604 64 23, 447 29 5, 443 51 843, 191 25 333, 996 Illinois . 119 8,016 144 96, 588 66 17, 678 104 3, 039, 273 35 1,992. 736 Michigan . 73 3, 336 110 59, 965 43 6, 201 85 1, 464, 103 38 676, 077 W is.consin . 57 7, 443 73 40, 944 27 6, 634 50 905. 640 11 45, 612 Minnesota . 49 2, 188 58 37, 300 29 4, 480 32 946, 628 11 327, 937 Iowa . 73 2, 553 75 31, 589 43 7, 441 50 565, 452 11 49, 358 Missouri . 56 2, 284 67 36, 354 39 10, 901 38 894, 391 15 244, 239 North Dakota . . 2 105 3 1,488 2 600 1 1, 257 South Dakota . 8 261 11 3, 892 6 1, 142 6 28, 710 2 1,453 Nebraska . 26 1,120 33 15, 548 22 6, 020 19 445. 824 8 81, 129 Kansas . 36 2, 386 43 18, 741 27 6, 211 27 253, 831 11 28, 411 Western Division: Montana . 10 1, 049 9 7,536 3 952 7 180, 807 4 60, 5S6 Wyoming . 1 43 2 830 2 390 2 10, 980 1 1,200 Colorado . 22 1, 399 26 21, 128 12 2, 033 12 475, 490 5 29, 785 New Mexico _ _ _ _ 3 72 4 1,056 2 700 2 850 Arizona 2 66 3 230 2 95 Utah . 5 179 7 980 0 1, 046 3 14, 824 3 18, 620 Nevada . 6 120 5 2, 069 3 273 5 17, 253 1 1,800 Idaho . . 4 234 5 1, 915 4 3,705 2 1, 540 2 5, 800 Washington . 13 585 13 4, 769 9 3,665 6 132, 645 3 36, 107 Oregon . 13 618 12 3, 967 9 1,486 8 46, 761 3 380 California . 74 4, 162 81 65, 984 40 23,770 48 1, 821, 634 19 452, 389 343 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Table 3. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S9G. SOURCES OF SUPPORT — CLASSIFICATION. Own or rent buildings. Supported by tax- I ation or by corpora- : tion. Free or subscrip¬ tion. Circulating or reference. States and Territories. d Rent. Not reporting. By taxation. By corporation. 0 Not reporting. O O fH | Free for reference. Subscription. Not reporting. Circulating. Reference. Id | Not reporting. United States .... 765 518 2, 713 1,147 2, 346 14 519 1,558 { 635 772 ; 1, CGI 342 ,705 2, 6C0 379 North Atlantic Division 464 287 1,249 600 1,112 13 275 928 276 364 432 216 301 1.348 135 South Atlantic Division 65 21 236 44 216 62 53 71 1 °4 134 1 17 78 173 54 South. Centra] Division. 26 14 215 25 183 .... 47 64 50 60 81 11 77 122 45 North Central Division. 180 178 837 405 696 94 424 209 '230 332 I 92 197 801 105 "Western Division . 30 48 176 73 139 1 41 89 29 54 82 ! 6 52 15G 40 North Atlantic Division : | Maine . 30 21 42 28 58 2 5 41 8 24 20 1 1(3 12 GO 5 New Hampshire . 37 17 68 63 45 14 87 6 17 12 ' 22 8 86 6 Vermont . . 20 12 35 14 38 "l 14 29 9 16 13 i 11 5 4G 5 Massachusetts . 141 72 281 221 243 5 25 301 59 53 81 i 72 65 345 12 Rhode Island . 14 16 44 19 38 .... 17 50 4 11 9 i 7 6 58 3 Connecticut . 52 22 80 37 85 31 72 13 46 23 14 11 122 7 New York . 91 70 411 179 334 . . . . 59 241 106 87 138 38 117 379 38 New Jersey . 34 22 38 17 57 20 30 i 17 16 31 7 14 GO 13 Pennsylvania . . 45 I 35 250 22 214 ”4’ 90 77 ' 54 94 105 29 63 192 46 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 6 1 2 6 2 10 . . . . 2 4 1 G 3 4 3 5 2 Maryland . 8 ! 8 51 10 57 9 15 11 32 G 22 28 11 District of Columbia.. 5 2 48 20 1 24 11 13 17 3 22 21 27 7 Virginia . 11 5 34 3 32 .... 15 7 9 10 24 [1 7 34 8 West Virginia . ; i 9 2 1 4 4 2 4 1 1 3 3 5 2 North Carolina . 5 l 34 3 23 14 4 11 9 16 \"l G 20 13 South Carolina . 8 . ... 24 3 21 _ 8 6 9 4 13 i 4 7 17 4 Georgia . 18 2 21 35 6 5 3 16 17 | 1 6 29 5 Florida . 4 9 1 10 2 3 2 4 4 3 8 2 South Central Division : Kentucky . 15 ! 3 29- 5 41 1 17 G 11 13 17 27 3 Tennessee . 4 5 53 3 39 . . . . 20 7 11 19 25 . i 15 26 20 Alabama . ! 2 26 2 21 5 7 4 6 11 1 3 9 15 1 Mississippi . 1 1 29 3 21 7 6 8 9 8 4 G 14 7 Louisiana . 5 22 3 23 . . . . 1 12 5 4 6 i 3 10 11 3 Texas _ 1 2 37 7 22 10 rj 11 16 10 18 ' 11 Arkansas . 1 1 15 1 14 2 5 6 2 9 8 Oklahoma . 2 1 1 2 2 Indian Territory . '.... 2 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 North Central Division : Ohio . . . 32 23 147 46 128 28 52 1 40 48 G2 1G 45 122 19 Indiana . 18 11 78 43 55 9 44 15 19 29 2 2G 72 7 Illinois . 1 43 41 130 87 122 . . . . 5 88 30 39 57 12 28 158 16 Michigan . ! 24 28 101 60 87 G 71 1 13 35 34 23 12 104 14 "Wisconsin . 12 18 72 44 42 1. ... 16 45 1 19 8 30 7 15 72 8 Minnesota . 4 10 61 30 44 1 24 1 15 10 26 6 17 45 7 Iowa . 24 16 I 73 37 68 .... 8 39 21 26 27 8 18 78 9 Missouri . 9 11 84 16 77 11 17 30 18 39 10 25 55 14 North Dakota, 6 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 t> 2 South Dakota . 2 12 3 8 3 5 G "i 2 *2 10 2 Nebraska . . . i 4 7 31 15 25 r " ” 2 18 8 8 8 3 3 34 2 Kansas . ; 10 11 42 22 37 4 18 1 11 18 16 3 7 48 5 "Western Division : Montana . 3 2 i 8 6 7 10 3 1 3 9 Wyoming . 1 3 2 2 2 2 3 1 Colorado . ! 3 7 24 10 17 .... .... 7 11 j G 10 7 1 8 22 3 New Mexico . 3 1 2 2 4 1 ] 1 1 3 2 4 Arizona . 1 3 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 Utah . 1 10 2 G .... 3 3 « 1 5 3 5 3 N e vada . 3 3 1 5 .... 2 1 2 1 6 Idaho . 1 4 4 1 4 1 2 3 Washington . 2 **3' 15 6 8 6 8 *3 1 ! 8 .... 2 13 ""5 Oregon . 4 3 9 1 14 1 2 5 7 9 i 2 13 California . 11 29 95 41 73 20 44 8 1 31 52 1 ^ 29 76 1 ”28 344 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Table 4. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF LIBRARIES States and Territories. is & 1 . § *3 m © u O J College society. c3 "3 © 0 0 _ •S s si g © © O © j a in j 1 £ T. < § ; Ol | ’E H. 01 c5 1 2 c ! < bp O o 55 c3 , 3 . c 1 s ^ 3 0 0 in Scientific. "5 i V .0 1 S J ! 1* 6 P © i s ; .2 ’3 0 United States . 1,560 940 626 54 127 ! 97 | 44 23 1 26 87 84 14 *!_ 78 60 14 1 10 108 North Atlantic Division. . . . 986 434 115 18 57 50 26 2 10 46 56 ; 2 : 3 43 42 37 5 8 ! 60 South Atlantic Division. . . - 56 70 95 9 i 13 11 5 19 1 2 7 6 3 3 5 5 5 2 > 6 South Central Division . 31 59 122 8 5 3 j 2 6 4 3 3 1 ! 2 1 5 North Central Division . 413 309 247 17 34 29 11 ! '2 5 26 16 2 ! 6 5 22 16 4 1 Tl 30 W estern Division . 74 68 47 2 18 4 : 3 4 3 i 4 4 4 ; 7 2 2 i 1 1 7 North Atlantic Division: ! - I 52 10 5 6 2 ! 1 4 1 ! 5 2 3 1 I 1 90 16 2 1 1 2 3 ---! 1 6 46 13 8 1 | 1 1 | 2 Massachusetts . 315 62 17 1 12 14 i 10 1 2 8 6 1 j 1 12 9 11 1 ; 1 10 50 2 1 1 3 2 1 2 1 1 4 103 23 4 1 ’5’ 1 5 3 i 5 1 2 New York . 193 203 30 O 20 9 ; 9 1 2 13 27 1 T2 15 5 *2*| 3 25 38 26 rj 2 3 5 1 2 2 i 4 1 2 i 1 Pennsylvania . 99 74 45 13 14 U 4 2 8 j 15 2 ! 4 14 8 L 2 12 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . . . 5 i 2 1 1 2 i 2 1 Marv land 12 17 20 1 | 1 4 1 2 2 1 1 I 3 1 1 District of Columbia . 7 9 8 .... 4 ... 2 17 i 1 1 4 1 1 Virginia . 6 12 17 .... 3 3 2 3 1 : 1 i 1 1 TF est V irginia . . 2 2 4 .. 1 1 ... North Carolina, . . 7 13 15 1 1 1 1 1 South Oa.roliua, _ _ 5 8 10 ”2’! 2 1 1 2 i 1 (rp.oro"ia, . . 7 5 15 5 1 1 1 I 2 1 " 3 Florida, _ 5 2 5 T South Central Division.- .... .. Kentucky . . . 5 12 17 3 .... 2 j 1 1 1 1 2 Tennessee . . . 7 18 30 2 l 1 "i 1 1 A la ham a, _ _ _ _ 6 5 13 1 1 1 1 1 Mi ssi ssi ppi _ _ 2 10 14 3 i 1 1 Louisiana, _ _ _ 5 3 13 l 1 1 : 1 1 1 ; 1 ... Texas 4 8 22 2 1 1 .. . 1 1 Arkansas . 1 3 10 ! 1 1 ! 1 L. Oklahoma 2 LI. Indian yTprritnry 1 1 .. . North Central Division : ■ Ohio . . 64 47 46 ! 4 7 9 5 i 5 1 3 1 | 1 5 3 ... 1 2 Indiana 32 28 [ 25 j 4 6 1 | l 1 3 ; 2 3 i 2 Illinois . 91 36 42 ! 7 3 ! 1 2 4 1 2 1 i 1 6 3 ... 8 Michigan . 60 47 I 14 1 4 1 1 2 1 6 1 i 2 1 : 1 12 Wisconsin 42 31 15 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 t 2 T 1 1 Minnesota 22 29 9 1 1 5 2 1 1 I 2 1 I 1 Iowa 44 27 26 ' 3 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 Missouri . 16 36 31 3 3 j 1 ; 3 2 3 2 1 1 2 "N'nrtb 2 1 3 South Dakota . . 2 I 4 7 1 r Nebraska . 15 10 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Kansas _ 23 13 19 1 1 1 1 2 Y 1 Western Division: ... Montana . 8 | l i 2 1 1 Wyoming . 1 i i j l 1 Colorado . . . 10 \ 6 I 7 6 1 1 | 1 0 ... N ew Mexico . 1 j i | 2 1 1 Arizona 1 ! 1 1 i 1 Utah 1 2 6 1 1 Nevada 3 ! i ! i . . 1 Idaho 1 2 l 1 ! W a3hin°*ton 7 6 j 6 1 Oreo'oi i 1 2 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 California . 40 46 ! 15 1 1 ; 7 j 3 1 U i- I 1 i Ia 1 i2 2 ;3 ... I7 i2 h 1 2 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 345 Table 5. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SIZE. Number of volumes to a library. States and Territories. 500,000 and over. 300.000 to 499,999. 100,000 to 299,999. 50,000 to 99,999. ! 25,000 j 10,000 to j to 49,999. : 24,999. 5.000 to 9,999. 1,000 to 4,999. United States . 2 4 28 | 69 155 ' 411 630 2, 727 North Atlantic Division . 1 3 16 35 | 87 192 325 1.341 1 4 12 18 ’ 40 55 192 3 1 6 26 36 184 1 6 14 34 125 174 841 Western Division . 2 5 i 10 28 40 169 North Atlantic Division : 1 4 4 20 64 New Hampshire . 2 1 9 15 95 3 5 10 49 Massachusetts . 1 1 8 | 10 27 62 103 287 3 2 6 10 53 1 | 3 5 11 13 121 New York . 2 6 - 9 27 42 81 405 1 j 3 4 12 10 64 5 | 4 14 41 63 203 South Atlantic Division : 2 • 9 10 Maryland . 2 3 4 9 10 39 District of Columbia . . . 1 1 9 I 6 7 7 10 22 Yircrinia. . . . .. 1 1 9 10 29 West Yir 3 3 63 32 487 18 1 i 15 29 37 1 22 4 New York . . . 282 160! 124 122 8 23 129 213 1 2 24 43 116 60 684 25 3 88 1 104 1 3 8 Pennsylvania . 157 82. 938 16 20 15 106 123 4 11 19 South Atlantic Division : fj 4. 174 0 2 3 3 1 1 2 TVf nry l^pcl _ - 26 12, 817 4 3 19 15 1 2 8 District of Columbia . 9 I! 913 1 . 1 7 8 1 V irginia . . 37 17, 490 ' . : 1 3 33 i 24 8 5 \V est Virginia . 18 9. 426 1 2 1 14 14 3 1 North Carolina . 22 10. 157 3 1 1 17 17 4 1 South Carolina . . 18 8. 100 1 3 14 9 6 1 2 Georgia . . 31 13' 842 | 7 2 22 24 1 6 i 1 Florida . . . 8 3, 913 3 1 4 3 3 2 South Central Division : Kentucky . 48 22, 657 5 . 7 36 29 10 1 8 Tennessee . 51 23, 897 1 7 5 38 32 11 3 5 Alabama . 19 9, 178 3 1 1 14 11 7 1 Mississippi . 30 13, 744 j 8 3 19 17 10 1 2 Louisiana. _ .......... 14 6, 900 1 1 12 12 1 1 Texas . 51 26^ 257 1 6 2 42 34 13 1 3 Arkansas . 22 9. 806 4 1 1 1 16 18 3 1 Oklahoma . 1 600 1 . 1 Indian Territory . 6 2, 465 1 j 5 6 North Central Division : Ohio . 144 68, 529 19 | 9 8 ! 108 127 j 1 7 9 Indiana . 88 41, 258 25 I . 6 57 76 6 6 Illinois . . . 134 66. 992 1 40 12 82 107 5 6 16 Michigan . __ 127 66! 241 49 4 74 109 1 9 8 Wisconsin . 87 43! 416 16 6 4 61 77 1 6 3 Minnesota . 79 41 . 539 36 . 6 37 62 4 9 4 Iowa . . . 139 65, 550 28 i . 14 97 97 8 20 14 Missouri . M . 108 50, 924 26 . 5 77 73 18 6 11 North Dakota . 17 7! 463 1 2 14 16 1 South Dakota . 12 5, 425 1 2 1 8 9 1 1 1 Nebraska . 36 18, 495 10 ’ . 3 23 27 5 4 TCstisps . . 72 34, 322 20 i 4 48 53 6 6 Western Division : Montana . 9 5, 790 4 . 1 4 7 1 1 Wyoming . 1 450 1 1 Colorado . 21 10, 071 4 3 2 12 17 2 2 New Mexico . 4 2, 237 2 . 2 2 1 1 Arizona. . 2 1, 272 2 2 Utah . 13 6, 427 1 : . 1 11 11 1 1 1 Nevada . 2 600 j 1 1 . 1 1 . 1 Idaho . 2 900 1 ! 1 2 . Washington . 10 4 973 1 . | 2 3 5 6 1 2 . 2 Oregon . . 22 10, 091 2 j 2 J 5 13 13 3 2 4 California . 699 294, 644 21 ! 4 10 664 675 1 3 12 1 9 ED 96 - 12 354 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. Table 12. — Summary of statistics of public, society, and school libraries in 1S96 of 300 volumes and over. NUMBER OF LIBRARIES AND NUMBER OF VOLUMES. States and Territories. Libraries having 1,000 , volumes and over. Libraries having less than 1,000 but aver 299 Total libraries of 300 volumes and over. Libraries. Volumes, j Libraries, j Volumes. Libraries. I Volumes. United States . 4,020 33, 051, 872 3,158 1, 544, 386 | 7, 184 34,596,258 North Atlantic Division . 2, 000 17, 647, 723 912 j 496, 441 2, 912 18, 144. 164 South. Atlantic Division . 322 4, 015, 087 176 S4, 832 498 4, 099, 919 South Central Division . 255 1, 360, 451 242 115, 504 497 1. 475. 955 Nortli Central Division . 1,195 8, 016, 780 1,043 510,154 2, 238 8, 526. 934 Western Division . 254 2, Oil, 831 785 337, 455 | 1,039 2, 349, 286 North Atlantic Division : Maine . 93 542, 666 34 19, 145 j 127 561,811 Is ew Hampshire . 122 595. 800 75 40, 176 197 | 635, 976 V ermoot . 67 359, 213 33 16,039 | 100 375, 252 Massachusetts . 494 5, 450, 397 136 76, 041 630 | 5, 526, 438 Rhode Island . 74 580, 305 16 8.807 90 589,112 Connecticut . 154 1,102,082 63 } 32', 487 217 1, 134, 569 New York . 572 5, 251, 347 282 160,124 854 5, 411. 471 New Jersey . 94 801, 152 116 60.684 210 861,836 Penns vl vania . 330 2, 964, 761 157 82.938 487 3, 047, 699 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 14 83, 763 7 4,174 21 87,937 Maryland . . . 67 585, 330 26 12,817 93 998. 147 District of Columbia . 55 1,793,910 9 4.913 64 1, 798. 823 Virginia . 50 341, 225 37 17, 490 87 358, 715 West Virginia . 10 46. 137 18 9, 426 28 55. 563 North Carolina . 40 j 218, 757 22 10, 157 62 22S, 914 South Carolina . 32 | 232, 418 18 8.100 50 240, 518 Georgia . 41 270, 041 31 13,842 72 283, 883 Florida . 13 43,506 8 3,913 21 47, 419 outh Central Division : Kentucky . 47 318, 661 48 22, 657 95 341, 318 Tennessee . 62 318, 571 51 23, 897 113 342,468 Alabama . 28 117, 337 19 9,178 47 126, 515 Mississippi . 31 166, 870 30 13, 744 61 180, 614 Louisiana . 27 212, 828 14 6, 900 41 219. 728 Texas . 39 131, 222 51 26, 257 90 157, 479 Arkansas . 17 87, 600 22 9. 806 39 97, 406 Oklahoma . 2 5, 157 *1 600 3 5, 757 Indian Territory . 2 2, 205 6 2,465 8 4,670 North Central Division : Ohio . 202 1, 587, 891 144 68. 529 346 1. 656, 420 Indiana . 107 j 654, 651 88 41, 258 195 1 695, 909 Illinois . 214 ! 1, 822, 580 134 66, 992 348 , 1 889,572 Michigan . 153 S75, 031 127 06. 241 280 1 041 272 Wisconsin . . 102 626, 442 87 43. 416 189 669 858 Minnesota . 75 467, 397 79 41, 539 154 503 936 Iowa . 113 607,765 139 6-5, 550 252 673,315 Missouri . 104 686. 955 108 50, 924 212 737, 879 North Dakota . 6 23, 6S2 17 7,463 23 31, 145 South Dakota . 14 34,863 12 5,425 26 40, 288 Nebraska . . . 42 226, 743 36 18, 495 78 245, 238 Kansas . 63 302, 7 SO 72 34, 322 135 j 337, 102 W estern Division : Montana . 13 69, 222 9 5, 790 22 75, 012 Wvoming . 4 23’, 785 1 450 5 24, 235 Colorado . . 34 300, 990 21 10, 071 55 311, 06L New Mexico . 6 13, 273 4 2, 237 10 15. 510 Arizona . 4 17, 472 2 1, 272 6 18. 744 Utah . 11 49, 582 13 6. 427 24 I 56, 009 Nevada . 6 49, 989 2 600 8 | 50, 589 Idaho . 5 13, 023 2 900 7 1 13. 923 Washington . 20 76. 646 10 4, 973 30 j 81.619 Oregon . 16 90, 190 22 10, 091 38 j 100. 281 California . 35 1, 307, 659 [ 699 294, 644 834 1 1, 602. 303 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 355 Table 13. — Summary of Statistics of libraries entirely free to the public having 3,000 volumes and over. States and Territories. Libraries. United States G27 Forth Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division.. South Central Division... F ort h Central Division . . . "Western Division . . 2s ort h Atlantic Division : Maine . "New Hampshire . Vermont . Massachusetts . Khode Island _ _ _ Connecticut . . Few York . k'ew Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 421 10 8 155 33 19 33 16 194 24 33 60 13 20 Maryland . 1 District of Columbia . ; 2 Virginia . . West Virginia . 1 Forth Carolina . 1 South Carolina . . Georgia . 2 Florida . ' 1 South Central Division: Kentucky . ! 1 Tennessee . i 3 Alabama . 1 Mississippi . Louisiana . - . ; 2 Texas . ! 1 Arkansas . Oklahoma . Indian Territory . Forth Central Division: Ohio . 19 Indiana . 16 Illinois . - . 39 Michigan . 26 Wisconsin . 17 Minnesota . 9 Iowa . 14 Missouri . 5 Forth Dakota . South Dakota . Nebraska . 5 Kansas . 5 Western Division: Montana . 4 Wyoming . 1 Colorado . 5 Few Mexico . . Arizona . 1 Utah . . Fevada . 1 Idaho . W ashin gton . 3 Oregon . California . IS Volumes in libraries. Aggregate volumes issued for home use during the year. , 9, 062, 363 27, 015, 234 5, 846, 612 255, 297 61. 000 2, 414, 181 485,273 15, 205, 998 848, 631 117, 863 8. 679, 783 2, 162, 959 147, 035 250, 412 128, 273 402, 309 589, 103 270. 355 3, 062, 101 238, 477 330, 718 1, 034, 544 210. 872 444,180 5, 913, 568 418, 051 1, 204, 403 2, 801,195 1, 160, 220 2, 446, 794 28. 834 166, 854 12, 762 14,347 6, 000 22, 000 4, 500 138,255 548, 278 72, 680 53, 345 1,634 23, 439 1, 000 4, 0C0 23, 500 5,000 22, 000 6, 500 8, COO 36, 024 4, 1S8 44 000 25, 651 413. 734 193, 526 634, 791 429. 323 199, 401 176. 420 122. 656 138, 663 9G9, 693 690, 265 2, 574, 801 1, 244. 238 732, 937 869, 691 388. 490 665, 052 74, 870 30,797 1 353, 011 161, 600 43, 224 3,500 j 82,674 167, 774 9, 980 435, 139 3,000 j 6,000 10, 587 j 5,232 22,379 j 116, 420 319, 909 1, 422, 414 356 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Table 14. — Libraries in the United States entirely free to the public having 3,000 volumes and over. Location. Name of library. ALABAMA. Birmingham . ARIZONA. Tucson . CALIFORNIA. Public Library, Public Library Alameda . Berkeley . . Los Angeles . . Marysville. ... Napa . Oakland . Pasadena . Petaluma . .Riverside . Sacramento.... San Diego . San Francisco Sau Jose . San Rafael - Santa Barbara. Santa Cruz _ Santa Rosa - Stockton . Public Library . . do . . do . City Library . Free Public Library . . do . Public Library . . do . Free Public Library . . do . . . do.. . - do . - do . . Free Library . Free Public Library . Free Library . Free Public’ Library . . Free Public and Hazelton Library. COLORADO. Denver . . Do... La J unta Pueblo. . . Trinidad . City Library . . Public Library . . Young Folks Library . McClelland Public Library Free Public Library . . CONNECTICUT. Branford.. . . Bridgeport . Bristol . Canaan . Columbia . Danbury . Danielson . Farmington . Hartford . Jewett City . Lyme . Middletown . Milford . Mood us . Naugatuck . New Haven . New London . Norfolk . Norwalk . Norwich . Salisbury . Shelton . Simsbury . South Manchester South Norwalk . . . Southport . Stonington . Stratford . "Warren ville . Waterbury . Watertown . Willimantic . Do . Blackstono Memorial Library . . Public Library and Reading Room . . Free Public Library . . Douglass Library . . Free Library . . Danbury Library . . Free Public Library . . Tillage Library . Public Library . Slater Library . . Old Lyme Public Library . . . Russell Free Library . Taylor Library . East Haddam Public Library . Howard Whittemore Memorial Library. Free Public Library . . Public Library . . Norfolk Library . . Public Library . . Otis Library . . Scoville Memorial Library . Plumb Memorial Library . . Free Library . J . _ do . Public Library and Reading Room . Pequot Library . Free Library . . . Stratford Library . Babcock Library . . . Silas Bronson Library . . Library Association . Dunham Hall Library . Public Library . - . DELAWARE. Odessa . Wilmington . Corbit Library . . Wilmington Institute Free Library Tolumes. Tolumes issued for home use during past year. 5, 000 4, 188 3, 000 *6,000 20, 342 114, 784 3, 000 6, 746 43, 238 371, 638 5, 940 4, 300 5,092 15. 842 25, 000 118, 605 10, 000 75,710 6, 835 10, 475 7, 337 55, 506 25, 575 69, 220 13, 000 64, 545 85, 000 244, 483 13, 118 100, 555 3, 061 11, 460 10, 770 36, 778 9, 596 39, 004 7, 005 * 14, 010 26, 000 68, 753 29, 005 147, 076 32, 243 219, 562 7, 777 7, 803 6, 589 46, 578 7, 060 *14,120 6, 000 *12,000 26, 092 124, 175 5, 854 32, 316 3,500 15, 590 3,300 2, 000 12, 801 70, 641 3,600 17. 672 3, 193 6, 595 50, 000 207, 685 3,355 8, 666 3, 600 *7, 200 10, 783 20, 976 7, 000 31, 300 3, 900 5, 857 4,047 17, 256 31, 500 232, 014 15, 550 70, 735 7, 175 13, 795 3,300 500 20, 559 97, 562 3, 300 11,631 3,400 16, 764 4,000 5, 000 4, 396 14, 002 3,000 18, 470 8, 000 12, 699 3, 700 11,804 4,500 *9, 000 3, 247 *6,494 51, 954 71.005 7, 412 11, 733 4. 500 8, 685 4, 200 12. 671 3, 132 1,040 25, 702 137, 215 * Circulation estimated. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 357 Table 14. — Libraries in the United States entirely free to the public, etc. — Continued. Location. Name of library. Volumes. j Volumes issued for home use during past year. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. ■Washington . Peabodv Library Association . 8, 000 *10, 000 Do . W ashington City Free Library . - . 4, 762 51, 680 FLORIDA. St. Augustine . Free Public Library . 4, 500 1,000 GEORGIA. Atlanta . Young Men's Library Association . Mary Willis Library . 17, 000 20, 000 W ashington . 5, 000 8,439 ILLINOIS. Aurora . Public Library . 14, 350 90, 117 Batavia . - do . . . . . 5, 450 18, 127 Belleville . . do... . It, 511 20, 529 Belvidere . Ida Public Library . 9, 362 23 950 Bloomington . Withers Public Library . 16 068 79. 562 Cairo . Public Library . 7. 100 17, 565 Cambridge . . do . . 4, €50 *9,300 Centralia . 3, 500 *7, 000 Champaign . . do . 5, 838 15, 171 Chicago . . do . 217 065 1, 147. 862 Danville . . do . 8, 000 30, 000 Decatur . Free Public Library . 14. 766 88. 774 Elgin . Gail Borden Public Library . 17, 000 121, 911 Evanston . Free Public Library . 15,515 55, 271 Freeport . Public Library . 9, 375 41, 688 Galesburg . . do . 18, 469 53, 782 Geneseo . . do . 6, 000 * 12, 000 Jacksonville . . do . 7, 500 | 30, 616 Joliet . 12, 325 59, 954 Kewanee . . do . . 7,400 20, 142 Lincoln . . do . 4, 178 23,443 Macomb . Free Public Library . 6, 882 23, 316 Mendota . Graves Public Library . 4,150 17. 909 Moline . i Public Library . 8, 956 19, 554 Olney . . do . . . 3,383 11, 969 Onarga . . do . 3. 700 11. 253 Ottawa . 1 Reddick Public Library . 8, 000 28, 077 Palo . . Buffalo Free Public Library . 3, 187 5. 747 Peoria . 1 Public Library . 57, 604 131, 691 Princeton . Matson Public Library . 7, 000 21, 000 Quincy _ _ _ Free Public Library and Reading Room 19. 400 28, 000 71.058 93. 809 Rockford . Public Library . Bock Island . . do . . . 12, 634 3, 075 36! 523 Rockton . Talcott Free Library . 7, 500 Springfield . ! Public Library . 28, 639 7, 526 72, 960 Sterling . _ do . 21,476 19, 960 • 8, 717 TJrbana . Free Library . 7. 500 W arsaw . Free Public Library . . . 3, 733 Wheaton . Adams Memorial Library . 3, 000 3,000 21, 743 6,206 4, 597 62. 270 7, 518 INDIANA. Andc.rsnn . Public Library. . . 31, 573 45, 919 38, 196 Evansville . . _ W illard Library . . . . Fort- W ayne . _ . Public Library . . . . . Green castle _ _ _ . do . . IS* 038 Indianapolis . . . do . 233! 776 Kokomo _ _ do . 5, 028 14, 280 7, 000 22. 645 Lafayette . . . do . 59, 277 Madison . . do . 13, 676 Marion . . do . . . . . 3, 500 9 784 2i, 000 Muncie . . do . 18, 181 New Albany _ _ 1 _ do _ _ . 8, 665 4, 912 42, 256 4,000 Plymouth . i City Library . Richmond . ! Morrison Reeves Library . i 20, 314 62. 389 South Bend . i Public Library . 1 6,000 24. 069 Terre Haute . i . do . | 12, 000 35, 361 Vincennes . . do. . . . 4,227 22, 909 IOWA. Boone . Free Public Library . 1 3, 105 10. 160 Burlington . | Public Library . j 14. 928 44, 436 Cedar Falls . I - -do . | 4, 100 5, 860 Cedar Rapids . . . I Iowa Masonic Library . 1 15, 000 350 * Circulation estimated. 358 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Table 14. — Libraries in the United States entirely free to the public, etc. — Continued. Location. Hame of library. Volumes. : Volumes issued for home use during ; past year. IOWA — continued . Council Bluffs . 19, 8S6 62, 970 . do . . 19, 158 98, 292 7, 380 17! 160 4. 000 10. 800 12. 203 52, 333 . do . . . . 3. 000 15, 502 3, 025 9! 987 3. 271 8, 507 9, 600 39, 133 4, 000 13, 000 KANSAS. 4. 000 18. 197 3, 897 12. 932 4 400 10' 000 Peabody . 5. 000 3li 729 Topeka" . Eree Public Library . . . 13, 500 SO, 742 KENTUCKY. 4, COO * 8, 000 LOUISIANA. 18,000 * 26. 000 Do . 4,000 * 8. 000 MAINE. A nnirm . . . _ _ Public Librarv 5, 414 32, 760 Augusta . . . Lithgow Library and Reading Room . 7, 000 * 14'. 000 Bar Harbor . Bar Harbor Library . 5, 200 9, 044 Bath. . I Patten Free Library . 7. 874 32, 331 Belfast . . . Free Li bra ry . _ . __ . . . ! 7. 192 23, 951 Bid deford . Public Librarv . 6. 000 ' 9, 000 Brunswick . . do . .". . 6. 000 21, 000 Calais . . . Free Library . . . . . 4! 891 19! 143 Cumber! a ml Mills . __ Cumberland Mills Library . . . 3. 000 9, 050 Dexter . Town Library . 4. 373 18, 381 Eastnort . Public Library . 4. 977 19, 333 Ellsworth . City Library . 3, 640 * 7. 280 Gardiner . Public Library . 1 5, 610 $, 756 Hallo well _ _ _ Hubbard Free Library. . . . . . 8. 500 13, 079 Kittery . Rice Public Library . 0. 000 13. 952 Eorway . . . Public Library . 5, COO 3! 000 Portland . . do . 41. 583 86, 269 Saco . _ . Dyer Library ...... . . . . 10, 500 27. 000 Westbrook . Memorial Librarv . . . 5, 281 34, 9 SO MARYLAND . Baltimore . Enocli Pratt Free Library . . . 1 160,854 j 548, 278 MASSACHUSETTS. Abington . . 10, 732 19, 691 Acton . . . Acton Memorial Library . . 5. 590 8, 766 Adams . . Public Library . . . . . . . 7, 191 22,671 Amesbury . Free Public Library . 7, 500 27. 757 Amherst . . . Public Library . 7, 070 17, 867 Andover . Memorial Hall Library . . . 13, 826 20, 314 Arlington . Robbins Library . 13, 958 38, 579 Ashfield . Library Association . 4, 200 3. 500 Ashland . PublicLibrary . 4.000 1, 348 Athol . . do . 4, 582 * 9, 164 Attleboro . . do . 4, 200 24, 000 Ayer . Ayer Library . . . 6, 924 8,913 Barnstable . Sturgis Library . . . 12, 718 3, 500 Barre . Free Public Library . . . 5,445 7, 147 Bedford . . do . . . 4, 064 6, 305 Eelchertown . Clapp Memorial Library . . 5, 000 10, 204 Belmont . Public Library _ _ _ _ _ 9, 113 11, 966 Bernardston . Cushman Library . . . 5, 800 6, 557 Beverly . Public Library . 19, 265 4L863 Blackstone . Free Public Librarv . 5, 560 6, 854 Boston . Public Library . . . . 630. 961 847, 321 Boylston Center . Boylston Public Library . . . 3,769 3, 553 * Circulation estimated. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 359 Table 14. — Libraries in the United States entirety free to the public, etc. — Continued. Location. Name of library. 1 Volumes. j Volumes issued for ' home uso j during j past year. Massachusetts— continued. Bran fol d . Public Librarv . 3,914 21, G64 Bridgewater . . do . 9, 929 23, 808 Brimiield . Free Public Librarv . 3, 962 3. 445 Brockton . Public Librarv . 23, 533 102. 835 Brooktield . Merrick Public Librarv . . 13, 417 25, 417 Brookline . Public Librarv . 43,763 88, 633 Cambridge . . do . 50. 128 137, 702 Canton . . do . 8, 450 ! . 17,101 4, 715 10. 960 14, 789 16. 000 20, 600 70. 423 46. 144 45, 018 Clinton . Bigelow Free Public Librarv . Coliasset . Free Public Library . 5. 505 8,692 Concord . . . 27, 848 26, 074 Cummington . Bryant Free Library . G. 500 * 13. 000 Dalton . Free Public Library . 6, 145 15, 833 Danvers . Peabodv Institute . 16. 585 24, 256 Dedham . . . Public Librarv . 13, 500 27, 092 Deerfield . Pocumtuck V allev Memorial Association Librarv . 8,000 * 12, 000 Enfield . Enfield Librarv . 3, 0G0 4. 320 Everett . Pari in Memorial Library . 10. 112 54. 933 Fairhaven . . Miliicent Library . 12, 0C0 54, 000 Fall Diver . Public Librarv . 49, 395 109, 343 Falmouth . Free Public Library . 3,040 8, 086 Fitchburg . Public Librarv . 30, 000 57. 095 Florence . Lilly Librarv . 5, 800 11,461 4. 300 18, 101 6. 000 6. 519 15. 758 42, 564 10,000 19, 153 7, 843 23. 868 Gardner . Levi Hey wood Memorial Library . . . . Georgetown . . . Peabodv Library. - . 8 744 Gloucester . Gloucester Lyceum and Sawyer Free Library - io’ 000 C M ft.QTl _ _ _ _ _ i Public Library . . 8 790 33, 124 1.500 36, 537 7, G75 7, 060 4, 993 Great Barrington . Free Library . . . e] ooo 9, 550 Greenfield . . . do . . . Groton . . . . Public Library . 7 268 Hanover . Free Li brary . . 3. 356 Harvard . Public Librarv . 4.007 Harwich . . Brooks Free Library . 5. 000 * 10, 000 Hatfield . Public Library . 5,000 5,000 Haverhill . . do . 58, 000 80, 392 Hinsham Center . Hingham Public Librarv . 10. 000 13. 155 Hinsdale . Public Library . 3.500 5.000 Holbrook . . do . . 7, 244 12, 979 Holden . Gale Free Library _ _ . 4, 189 5. 336 6, 273 Holliston . Public Library..". . 14.’ 574 Holvoke . . do . is; ooo 46, 692 Hopedale . . do . 5, 079 8, 429 Bopkinton . . do . 3,000 8, 300 Hubbardston . . do . 5. 625 5. 558 Hudson . . do . 8. 000 24, 000 Hy depark . . do . 14, 250 33. 578 Lancaster . Town Library . 26. 204 14, 489 Lawrence . Free Public Library . 44, 713 309. 444 Lee . Public Library . . . i 4, 000 * 8, 000 Leicester . . do . : . 8. 217 8, 954 Lenox _ _ Lenox Librarv . . . . . . . . 1 11.000 7.286 40, 312 25, 131 4.300 5 846 128, 800 Leominster . Public Library _ _ _ 16. 781 Lexington 1 Cary Library _ _ _ _ _ 15. 290 Lincoln . | Lincoln Library . g; 000 e; 476 53,825 Littleton. 1 Den ben Hoar Library _ _ _ _ _ Lowell . City Library . Lunenburg . Public Library . 3,770 5. 636 Lvnn . . Free Public Library . . . 51,991 28, 000 8, 200 119 549 98,658 11. 115 Malden Public Library . . Manchester _ . do . . . Marlboro . . . . do . . . 12’, 000 4,160 4, 050 18, 000 46, 120 Mavnard _ _ . do . . . 40 000 Medfield . . do . 9. 648 52, 985 Medford . 1 . do . Melrose . ' . do . . . . . 11,209 3,408 36, 276 Mendon . j Taft Public Library . . . . . . 4. 246 Merrimac . ' Public Library . _ _ _ .... 5, 000 8, 683 14.000 Methuen.. . Nevins Memorial Librarv . . . . . . 12,815 Middleboro . 1 Public Library . " . 6. 892 23, 781 Middleton . J Flint Public Librarv . 1 4.570 j 5, 225 * Circulation estimated. 360 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Table 14. — Libraries in the United States entirely free to the public, etc. — Continued. Location. Name of library. MASSACHUSETTS— continued . Milford . Mill bury . . Milton . Monsou . Montague.. . Nahant . Natick . Needham . New Bedford . . Newburyport . Newton . North Abington . North Adams . Northampton . Bo . . N orth Andover Depot . North Attleboro . . Northboro . . North Brookfield - North Easton . Northfield . North Beading . Norton . . Norwood. . . Orleans . . Oxford . . Palmer' . Peabody . Pepperell . Petersham . Phillipston . Pittsfield . Plymouth . Princeton . Provincetown . Quincy . . Bandolph . Beading . . . Be v ere . Bockland . Salem . Saugus . . Sharon . Shelburne Palis . Sherborn . Shrewsbury . Somerville . South boro . South Braintree . Southbridge . South Natick . South Sudbury . Spencer . Springfield . Sterling . Stockb ridge . Stoneham . Stoughton . Stow . Sturbridge . Sutton . Taunton . Templeton . Tewksbury . Topsfield . Turners Falls . Tyngsboro . Upton . Uxbridge . Wakefield . Walpole . Waltham . Ware . W arren . Warwick . W aterto wn . Wayland . . Town Library . _ do . Public Library . Free Library . . . . Town Library . . Public Library . Morse Institute . Free Public Library . . - do . . Public Library . Free Library . . Public Library . . do . . Forbes Library . . Public Library . North Andover Public Library . Picbaids Memorial Library . Free Library . Free Public Library and Beading Boom Ames Free Library . Public Library . Flint Library . Public Library . . do . The Snow Library . Free Public Library . Young Men’s Library Association . Peabody Institute Library . Public Library . Memorial Library . Phillips Free Public Library . Berkshire Athenaeum . Public Library . . do . . do . Thomas Crane Public Library . Turner Free Library . Public Library . . do . . do . . do . Free Public Library . Public Library . Anns Library . Town Library . Free Public Library . . . Public Library . Fay Library . Thayer Public Library . Public Library . .' . Bacon Free Library . Goodnow Library . Bichard Sugdeu Library . City Library Association . Free Public Library . Library Association . Free Public Library . Public Library . Bandall Library . Public Library . Free Library . Public Library . Boynton Public Library . . . Public Library . Town Library . Montague Public Library . Public Library . Town Library . Public Library . Beebe Town Library . Public Library . . do . Young Men’s Library Association . Public Library . Free Library . Free Public Library . . do . 1 Volumes. 1 Volumes issued for home use dining past year. 9, 772 28, 756 8. 000 15, 000 11, 000 13, 378 5, 793 10, 287 4,345 7. 870 9, 800 8, 741 17,500 33, 690 4, 100 13, 508 70, 000 108. 128 31, 261 38, 830 49, 775 164, 341 3, 768 9. 094 14, 270 58. 170 35, 650 8. 924 28,347 56. 753 8. 000 19, 000 5, 000 24 984 9, 142 7. 751 5, 128 24, 364 13, 974 14, 216 4, 013 4, 378 4, 024 7,018 4, 000 5.619 6. 570 16, 374 3,200 5,880 5,394 11,439 4,290 12, 273 32, 893 28, 715 7, 000 9, 766 8, 000 5, 000 4, 903 4, 050 21, 000 60. 000 11,300 30, 280 3, 900 4,314 6. 519 11, 812 18, 500 70, 075 15, 000 23, 794 7, 704 21, 165 4, 900 23, 490 9, 185 21, 193 31, 775 108, 071 3, 958 11, 744 4, 444 10, 364 7, 955 *15, 910 4, 900 * 9, 800 3, 950 7, 210 30, 981 68, 231 7. 049 5, 488 10, 877 20. 983 15, 921 19, 752 4, 600 4,500 12, 000 14, 000 9, 735 27, 135 93, 374 119, 000 6, 000 5, 962 7,000 7, 700 8,395 20, 145 6, 041 26. 835 3, 500 11. 250 4, 500 5, 343 3, 491 6, 422 40, 540 73, 009 4, 851 13, 825 4.617 6,191 6, 892 6, 435 4. 345 14, 546 4, 089 2. 394 3, 210 7, 901 8,040 12, 708 12, 157 21. 849 6, 700 19, 420 23, 000 50, 000 10, 882 24. 714 9, 136 13, 922 3, 160 3,254 23, 429 35, 181 12, 374 5, 706 Circulation estimated. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 361 Table 14. — Libraries in the United States entirely free to the piiblic, etc. — Continued. Location. Name of library. Volumes. Volumes issued for home use during past year, Massachusetts— continued. 3,950 19. 739 9.194 1 9. 834 1 16, 422 32, 064 6. 978 4, 779 6, 709 6,961 Westford . Public Library . 8 564 12. 093 Westminster . Town Library . . 3, 400 5, 000 9. 923 9, 303 *10, 000 5, 000 17, 126 64. 771 5, 602 12, 579 9, 500 36, 111 3, 754 8, 314 5, 935 22, 472 42, 734 11, 198 do . 3,820 j 12, 250 Woburn t . . do . 35, 092 54, 704 Worcester . Free Public Library . 105. 000 178, 129 Yarmouth Port . Yarmouth Library Association . 4,401 3,975 MICHIGAN. Adrian . Public School Library . 12, 836 52, 010 Alpena . Public Library . 3, 163 12, 304 Ann Arbor . . School District Library . 5.112 13, 235 Battlecreek . Public School Library . 14. 130 42, 770 Bay City . Public Library . 15. 966 46, 030 Calumet . . do . 3, 800 * 7, 600 Coldwater . Clarke Public Library . . . 13, 585 18, 408 Detroit . Public Library . 139, 360 348, 409 Flint . . do . \ . 7, 000 18, 000 Grand Haven . Public School Library . 3,123 11,758 Grand Rapids . - do . . 41, 381 182, 515 Jackson . Free Public Library . 16, 144 82, 171 Kalamazoo . Public Library . 22, 300 52, 000 Lansing . Public Sc hoof Library . 8, 017 27, 858 Lowell . School Library, District No. 1 . 3,000 14, 000 Marquette . White Public Library . 9.699 26, 608 Menominee . ! Citv Library . . . . 3, 861 20, 000 Monroe . ....'do. . . . 3, 669 10, 371 Muskegon . Hackley Public Library . 21, 412 60, 817 Saginaw East Side . j Hoyt Public Library . . 24, 000 * 48, 000 Do . ! Public Library . . . 11, 163 40, 868 Saginaw West Side . Public and Union School District Library . 8, 125 36, 500 Sturgis . Township Library . 5.500 *11, OCO Three Rivers . i Free Public Library . 4.818 17, 967 West Bay City . Sage Public Library . Public Library . 25, 000 36. 727 Wyandotte . 3, 156 *6,312 MINNESOTA. Duluth. . Public Library . 20, 842 122, 845 Hastings . Public School Library _ _ _ _ 4. 900 4 200 Minneapolis . ' Public Library . . . 84, 000 450, 588 * 7. 000 Moorhead . i Public School Library . . . 3. 500 Rochester _ _ ! Public Library . . . . 3,469 16. 542 St. Cloud _ j Public Library and Reading Room . . . 3, 639 41, 000 3. 088 16. 202 St. Paul . | Public Library . . . . . 186 336 Sank Centre _ j Bryant Library Association . . . 10. 874 W inona . i Free Public Library . . 11, 982 55, 104 MISSOURI. Hannibal . Free Public Library . 6, 000 42, 500 St. Josenh . . . 14. 000 108. 000 St. Louis . * . Public Library . ! 109, 663 476, 000 Sedalia . . do . . . 4, 000 21, 658 Trenton . Jewett Norris Library . i 5, 000 16, 894 MONTANA. • Bozeman . | Free Library . 3, 351 15, 000 Butte . | Free Public Library _ _ _ 19. 423 64. 842 Greatfalls . Valeria, Public Library . _ _ .... 3, 500 16, 950 20, 220 67, 712 Helena . Public Library . . . ED 96- ■12* * Circulation estimated. 362 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Table 14. — Libraries in the United States entirely free to the public, etc. — Continued. Location. Namo of library. Volumes. Volumes issued for home use during past year. NEBRASKA. ' ' - 2, 970 17, 597 3, 000 6, 000 . do . 5' 680 12, 881 11, 800 81, 155 51, 420 235, 878 NEVADA. 10, 587 5, 232 'NEW HAMPSHIRE. 3, 826 * 7, 652 7! 000 * 14, 000 3, 500 *7’ 000 18’ 157 87, 122 20- 500 07, 183 Dublin 3. 000 2' 785 4, 767 10 000 3, 150 7 559 9. 000 17 111 4, 293 » 8, 586 do y . 3. 112 * 6, 224 3 3C5 * e’ 730 4, 500 12. 000 Hollis . 4, 036 5, 000 10, 000 29. 137 6, 488 32, 038 Lancaster do . . . . . 7’ 500 9, 000 Lebanon . . clo . 5. 000 19, 307 Littleton . do . 5. 446 13, 716 Manchester. . . . City Library ..... . . . . 39, 700 59, 495 Marlboro _ _ _ _ Frost Free Library . . 5. 000 5, 200 Milford Free T.i hrnry . ... . . . . . ....... 5! 575 20, 594 Nashua Public. Library . ... _ ...... _ 14, 000 38, 000 New Hampton Ocrr]nn-Ha.sh Li hra.ry _ ... _ _ _ ......... 6, 000 * 12’ 000 Newport. . . . Richards Free Librarv . . . 4, 812 9, 962 Peterhero _ _ _ Town Library . . . 7, 890 12. 260 Portsmouth _ _ _ Free Public Library . . . . . 13, 000 26! 000 Rochester . . Public Librarv . . . . . 4, 135 * 8, 270 Walpole . Bridge Memorial Library . . . . . 5, 697 5, 754 Warner Pillsbury Free Library . . . . 5, 074 8, 893 "Wilton Public, Library . . . . 3, 850 6. 935 "Winchester . do _ _ _ _ _ _ _ G, 000 *12, 000 "Windham . Nesmith Library . 3, 039 1, 590 NEW JERSEY. Elizabeth Public Library and Reading Room ........ 8, 000 27. 381 Ho hole on Free Public Library . . . . 14, 541 104. 633 J ersey City . . . do . 50, 275 376 977 Montelnir. _ .... do . - . . 5. 036 3b 347 N ewnrk . . _ do . . . . 55, 002 332. 078 New Brunswick do . 14, 000 50, 302 Oran (rc Free Li hrnry _ _ _ ... _ _ 7, 989 34. 871 Passaic, _ _ _ Free Public Library . 5, 432 29, 926 Paterson do . . - . . . 24. 939 111, 236 Plainfield Public Library and Reading Room . . . 13, 735 30, 473 Princeton . Jaw Hall Library . . . . 3, 080 *6. 160 South Orange . . Free Public Library . - . 4,883 * 9, 766 Woodbury . . . Hentford Institute Free Library . 3,960 15, 067 NEW YORK. A Thany . . . Catholic. TTm'nn Library ...................... _ * 5, 296 3, 816 Amsterdam . Free Library . . . . . . 3, 021 34, 000 Attica . . Stevens Memorial Library . . . 6, 950 11, 061 Auburn . Seymour Library . . . . . 12, 302 8, 660 Bath . HaAmnport Library.. . 90, 138 9, 802 Ba.yrirlp’e . . Free, Library . . . . . 3, 776 13, 086 Brooklyn _ _ _ Fort Hamilton Free Library . 3, 400 9, 000 Hoi . Free Lending Library of Union of Christian 33, 862 172, 812 Workers. I Ho . Pratt Institute Free Library . 59, 788 j 207, 899 Buffalo . Grosveuor Library . . . . 39, 000 Canandaigua . Wood Library . 5, 000 I 2, 600 * Circulation estimated. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 363 Table 14. — Libraries in the United States entirely free to the public , etc. — Continued. Location. Hame of library. Volumes. Volumes ] issued for 1 home use during j past year. new toek— continued. Cazenovia . Public Library Association . 3, 200 8, C96 Coboes . City Library . 3. 717 lo, Oo4 Drvden . Southworth Library . 5, 708 *11,416 Elmira . Steele Memorial Library . 5, 000 * 10. 000 Flushing . Free Library . 6,000 12. 500 Fredonia . Darwin P. Parker Library . 4.227 5, 073 F niton . Public Library . 3, 000 1.200 6, 239 13, 668 34. 278 62, 368 Glovers ville . . . : . Free Library . . . Herkimer . . do . 4. 309 4, 971 Homellsville . Hornell Free Library . . 10, 000 30. 000 llion . Free Public Library . 8, 733 40, 915 Ithaca . Cornell Library Association . 20,000 15, 000 Jamaica . Public Library . 3,000 10, 000 Jamestown . James Prendergast Free Library . 12. 440 52, 190 Locknort . Free Public Library . 5, 656 15, 844 Lons Island City . Public Library . 5,000 Mount Vernon . . do . 5, 300 * 10, 600 Hew burg . Free Library . 20, 663 67, 700 Hew Rochelle . Public Library . 3, 121 | 15. 658 Hew York . Aguilar Free Library . 31. 166 256, 963 Do . Cathedral Free Circulating Library . 20, 762 59, 169 Do . Cooper Union . 33, 569 Do . Free Circulating Library . 81. 785 654. 451 Do . Free Library of General Society of Mechanics 108, 000 247. 906 Do . and Tradesmen. Maimonides Free Library . 45,131 94. 828 Do . Washington Heights Free Library . 10, COO 29. 219 Do . Webster Free Library . 5, 775 22. 998 Hiagara Falls . Public Library . . „ . . 3. 912 15. 996 Hvack . j Hyaek 'Library . 3. 850 21, 600 Ogdensburg . Public Library . 5, 981 14, 081 Oneonta . . do . 4, 600 22, 000 Oswego City . 1 City Library . 13. COO Owego . Free Library . 7. 000 17, 000 Peek skill . Fieid Library . . 6. 167 22. 000 Port Henrv . Sherman Fre~e Library . 4.945 9. 347 Port o ervis . Free Library . T . 7,201 18, 862 Poughkeepsie . City Library . 18, 963 40, 485 Rochester . ! Central Library . 30,000 10. 873 Do . Reynolds Library . 32, 896 7, 623 3. 316 15, 107 34. 651 5, 548 13, 716 78. 503 Pome . 1 Jervis Library . Salem . Bancroft Public Library . Sing Sing . Public Library . . 35^ 961 30, 000 Syracuse . Central Library . Tarry town . Young Men's Lyceum Free Library . 3, 000 5, 000 Troy . young Men s Association . 33, 400 53, 192 Utica . . Public Library . . . 1 20, 506 108, 258 Watkins . . do . . . 3,500 1, 566 Yonkers . . do . 11, 021 31, 192 NORTH CAROLINA. Ledger . Goodwill Free Library . 6, 660 1, 634 OHIO. Akron . Public Library . 15, 433 68, 000 Canton . j Public Library Association . 4, 763 21, 195 Chill icothe . Public Library . 1 14. 000 17, 305 Cincinnati . . do . - . 188, 409 312, 810 Oirnleville _ _ _ _ do . . . . . . . 1 7, 375 24. 500 24. 123 77. 254 Columbus . Public Library and Reading Room . Davton . Public Library . 36, 903 106, 000 13, 000 4, 257 20. 568 *13, 894 29, 760 Fremont . Birchard Library . 12, 500 3, 359 6, 550 6, 947 6, 675 4 650 Germantown . . • Public Library . Hamilton . Lane Free Library . Hillsboro . Public Library .." . Mansfield . Memorial Library Association . Mount V ernon . . . . Public Library _ _ 18. 953 9. 848 * 19, 232 Perry sburg . . . \Y ay Library . . . . . 4! 800 Portsmouth . . . Public Library . 9. 616 Springfield . i W arder Public Library . 1 17, 034 83, 641 Toledo . j Public Library . .". . 35. 650 111, 758 Wellington . ! . do . : . . : 3, 700 8, 300 Youngstown . 1 Library Association . . . i 10, 870 39. 800 * Circulation estimated. 364 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Table 14. — Libraries in the United States entirely free to the public, etc. — Continued. Location. Name of library. PENNSYLVANIA. Allegheny . Allegheny . Braddock . . Danville . Germantown . Harley sville . Haver ford . Johnstown . Mauch Chunk . Mount Holly Springs . . . Philadelphia . Do . Do . . Do . . Do . . . . . Do . Do . Do . Do . . Do . . Do . Pittsburg . Scranton . Shenandoah . South Hermitage . . Tidioute . . . "Warren . . Wilkesharre . Williamsport . RHODE ISLAND. Ashaway . Barrington Center . Bristol . Central Falls . . Centerdale . Crompton . East Greenwich . . East Providence - East Providence Center. Hope V alley . Jamestown . J ohnston . . Kingston . Lakewood . Newport . Pawtucket . Peacedale . Phenix . Providence . . Do . Tiverton . W arren . Westerly . Woonsocket . Carnegie Free Library . Public School and Citizens’ Free Library . . Carnegie Free Library . . Thomas Beaver Free Library . People’s Institute . Cassel’s Library . . Haverford College . Cambria Free Library . . Dimmick Memorial Library . Givin Free Library . Apprentices’ Library . . Christian Hail Library . . Drexel Institute . . Free Library of Philadelphia . Friends’ Free Library and Reading Room Friends’ Library . Hebrew Education Society . Keneseth Israel Public Library . . Library Association of Friends . Lovell Memorial Free Library . . Moyomensing Literary Institute . Carnegie Library . Public Library . Public School Library . John McAUy Library . Tidioute Library . Public Library. . Osterhout Free Library . . Public School Library . Free Library . . . Barrington Public Library . Rogers Free Library . Free Public Library . Union Free Library . Free Library . Free Library Association . Natchewoket Free Public Library . East Providence Free Library . Langworthy Public Library . . Philomenian Library . Olneyville Free Library . Free Library . . Old Warwick and Lakewood Free Library. People’s Library . . Free Public Library . Narragansett Library Association . Pawtuxet Valley Free Library Association Public Library . Union for Christian Work . . Whitridge Hall Free Library . George Hale Free Library . Public Library . Harris Institute . TENNESSEE. Memphis . Do . Nashville . . Cossitt Library . . I. O. O. F. Hall and Library Association Howard Library Company . TEXAS. Galveston . VERMONT. Public Library Bellows Falls. Brattleboro . . Burlington ... Cavendish . . . Fairhaven . . . Hartford . Montpelier . . Rockingham Free Public Library Free Library . Fletcher Free Public Library .... . do . Public Library . Hartford Library . Kellogg-Hubbard Library . Volumes. Volumes issued for home use during past year. 29, 316 122, 784 15, 000 46. 000 11, 659 51, 952 9, 357 31. 079 3,300 1. 500 8, 000 * 16, 000 32, 255 *64. 510 8,190 63. 067 18, 000 15. 000 3, 000 7.000 17, 333 71, 212 6, 287 10. 512 18, 433 36. 866 105, 308 1, 500. 000 19, 000 13, 401 14, 500 1, 948 3, 000 1. 500 3, 364 19 759 8, 000 2, 290 9, 434 15 492 7.125 6, 448 21, 374 41, 992 26, 239 149. 769 3. 700 15. 000 4. 000 * 8, 000 3, 000 * 6. 000 8. 374 48. 144 23, 632 71, 569 4, 000 * 8, 000 3, 000 6. 214 8. 250 6, 593 12, 254 18, 921 6, 700 15, 632 3, 300 3, 028 4, 616 7, 3.17 4, 300 • 4. 500 4, 021 11, 452 3, 658 2, 882 3, 780 5, 178 3, 805 4, 378 7, 000 20, 000 5, 000 3, 199 3, 155 4. 481 29, 200 34, 407 14. 765 47, 000 6. 239 11, 640 4, 600 10, 271 75, 559 115, 743 4, 759 13, 133 3,415 2, 135 5. 000 12, 600 8,015 26, 905 14, 086 30, 442 10, 000 33, 000 4, 500 3, 024 9, 000 6, 500 25. 651 e, 181 18, 432 10, 000 24, 000 30, 000 48, 762 3, 136 5, 000 3, 100 15, 348 3, 000 4, 400 5 800 * 11, 600 * Circulation estimated. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 365 Table 14. — Libraries in the United States entirely free to the public, etc. — Continued. Location. Xarae of library. Volumes. : Volumes issued for home use during past year. Vermont— continued . Montpelier . Public Library. . . 6. 070 13. 969 Pittsford . Maclure Library . 3, 500 6, 192 Post Mill Tillage . Peabody Librarv . I 5.000 300 ^Rutland . Pree Library . 9, 724 56. 391 St. Johnsbury . St. Johnsbury Athenaeum . 14. 296 27. 513 Springfield . Town Library . 6, 900 * 13. 800 Straft'ord . Harris Library . . . 4.000 1,300 Windsor . Library Association . 7.800 7. 924 9, 766 15, 424 WASHINGTON. Seattle . Public Library . 12, 635 77, 240 Tacoma . 1 City Library . 4, 558 35, 986 Do . 1 Mason Librarv . 5, 186 3, 194 WEST VIRGINIA. "Wheeling . j Public Library . . . 14,347 58, 345 WISCONSIN. Ashland . . T aughn Public Library . 3, 800 15, 333 Beaver Dam . Williams Free Librarv . 6, 038 22, 967 Chippewa Palls . 1 . Public Library . 3. 055 19, 400 Eau Claire . . do . . . 6, 300 38. 287 Pond du Lac . ! Pree Public Library . 13, 868 31, 232 Franklin . : Mission House Library . 5. 360 1, 000 Greenbav . 1 Public Library . 4,800 38, 714 Janesville . . do . . . 10, 000 30, 000 La Crosse . i. _ do _ _ _ _ _ _ 14, 000 14. 561 44, 000 Madison . . i Free Public Librarv _ ... _ _ _ _ _ 55, 509 Menomonee . . i Memorial Free Library . 5. 349 21. 308 Merrill . j T. B. Scott Free Library . 3,813 85.094 14. 351 Milwaukee . Public Librarv . 324. 463 Monroe . do . . . . 3’ 558 16. 112 Sheboygan . . do . 6,210 7, 142 Sparta . | Free Librarv . . . 3,342 7. 196 West Superior . ! Superior Public Library . 10,253 45, 923 WYOMING. Laramie . Albany Conn tv Pree Library . . 3,500 9, 980 Circulation estimated. 368 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. THE STATISTICS IX DETAIL. The list of the 4,026 public and school libraries begins on page 370 of this report, and gives for each library all the information that could be obtained. The informa¬ tion called for covered some 25 items. Most of the larger libraries in which records are carefully kept made reports which are full and satisfactory, but a large propor¬ tion of the small libraries did little more than report the number of volumes. For example, only 2,851 of the 4,026 libraries reported the number of volumes added during the past year, and only 1,852 reported the number of books issued for home use in the same time. The list includes only the libraries reporting to this office. In cases where no reports could bo obtained, after a third request, from libraries which appeared in the 1891 list, a special letter of inquiry was addressed to the postmaster. Wherever the library was reported as still in existence a fourth request for information was sent. These facts arc recited to show that all reasonable efforts were made to secure returns from all libraries having 1,000 or more volumes. THE REPORTS SUMMARIZED. The number of volumes in the 4,026 public and school libraries in 1896 was 33,051,872, as shown in Table 1. This was an increase of 7,074,229 over the number of volumes reported by the 3,503 libraries of the same kind in 1891. Here i3 an increase of over 27 per cent in the number of volumes, while the increase in the num¬ ber of libraries was scarcely 15 per cent. Unfavorable business conditions since 1891 have operated to prevent the establishment of many libraries, yet the cheap¬ ness of books has been favorable to the growth of existing libraries with fixed incomes. More than half the increase m the number of volumes was made by the libraries in the North Atlantic Division, which shows an increase of more than 28 per cent in the five years. The North Central Division also shows an increase of about 28 per cent in the number of volumes, while the Western Division increased its number of volumes nearly 40 per cent. The increase in the South Atlantic Divi¬ sion was 18 per cent and in the South Central 21 per cent. The number of libraries, the number of volumes, and the increase for each State can be seen in Table 1. It is also shown that the 4,026 libraries have 5,444,788 unbound pamphlets. Table 2 shows at a glance the effective work of the libraries during the year ended April 1, 1896. The number of libraries reporting their reading rooms supplied with periodicals was 2,166, and the number of periodical publications thus furnished to the public was 116,248. Only 2,851 libraries reported additions made during the year, the number of volumes added being 1,591,861. The additions to the number of unbound pamphlets aggregated 439,412, made by 1,303 libraries. The records kept in 1,852 libraries show that 35,075,055 books were issued to bor¬ rowers for home use. Only 594 libraries kept records of books issued for use in the library reading rooms. The number of volumes thus issued was 7,706,830. All these items are given by States and divisions in Table 2. Table 3 shows that 765 libraries occupy their own buildings, and 548 occupy rented buildings. Of the 2,713 libraries not reported as owning or renting a large propor¬ tion are school libraries which do not pay rent and yet can not be said to own the rooms they occupy in college or school buildings. This table also shows that 1,147 libraries are supported by taxation, 2,346 by cor¬ porations, and 14 derive their support from both these sources. The remaining 519 did not state how they are supported. There were 1,558 libraries reported as free, 635 free for reference only, and 772 free to subscribers. The remaining 1,061 not reporting this item are m large part cor¬ poration libraries free to members. The number of strictly circulating libraries was 342, the number of reference libraries 705, and the number classed as both circulating and reference 2,600. Table 4 divides the 4,026 libraries into 19 classes, as follows : General. 1.560; school, 940; college, 626; college society, 54; law, 127; theological, 97; medical, 44; Gov- PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 367 eminent, 23; State, 26; asylum and reformatory, 87; Young Men’s Christian Associ¬ ation, 84; Masonic, 14 ; Independent Order of Odd Fellows, 17; social. 57; scientific, 78; historical, 60; garrison, 14; mercantile, 10, and society, 108. Table 5 shows the classification of libraries according to size. There are 2 libraries of more than 500,000 volumes each, 4 more having over 300,000 volumes, 28 additional having over 100,000, 69 more with over 50,000, 155 additional of over 25,000, 411 more having over 10,000, and 630 more with over 5,000. The remaining 2,727 libraries have less than 5,000 volumes each, but over 1,000. Table 14 includes the names of the 627 public libraries having 3, 000 volumes and over. These libraries are entirely free to the public. They have in the aggregate 9,062,363 volumes, as shown in Table 13. EQUIPMENT AND INCOME. Table 6 is a financial exhibit of largely more than half the libraries in the United States given by States and divisions. The total amount reported as received directly from taxation by 600 libraries was $1,679,210, and the amount appropriated to 773 libraries by States, counties, and cities was $1,513,352 for the year. The amount received from endowment funds by 594 libraries was $1,035,052 ; 833 libraries received $386,441 from membership fees; 303 libraries received $38,684 from book rents; 625 libraries received $529,350 from donations, while 1,017 received $729,547 from sources not stated. The total income reported by 2,437 libraries was $5,911,636 for the year ending April 1, 1896. The permanent endowment funds of 605 libraries aggregate $17,570,673. The aggregate value of the buildings owned by 567 libraries is $33,291,259. The value of the books added during the year by 2,333 libaries was $1,574,410. The reader will find it interesting and instructive to examine in detail the statis¬ tics for each State as given in Table 6. This is the first attempt made by this Bureau to present a condensed financial exhibit of public and school libraries. Great care has been taken to give the number reporting each item so that in finding averages the libraries not reporting will not be included in the divisor. THE GROWTH OF FIVE YEARS. Tables 7 and 8 are arranged for comparison, the latter exhibiting certain statistics for 1891 and the latter for 1896. According to Table 7 there was in 1891 an average population of 17,877 to a library while, in 1896, as shown in Table 8, the population to a library was 17,376. The same tables show that in 1891 there were 41 books to each 100 of population, while in 1896 the number had increased to 47 volumes to each 100 of population. An increase is shown in each of the five grand divisions, but in certain States the increase in the number and size of the libraries did not keep pace with the increase in population. It is estimated that the increase in population from 1890 to 1895 was 7,331,750, or nearly 12 per cent. As already shown in Table 1, there was an increase in the number of libraries of about 15 per cent and in the number of volumes of more than 27 per cent. The chart following Table 8 shows the relative number of volumes to each 100 of population in the United States in 1896. THE GROWTH OF TWENTY YEARS. Table 9 shows the number of libraries and. the number of volumes in each State in 1875. There were in the United States 3,648 libraries of 300 volumes and over, having an aggregate of 12,329,526 volumes. Of the total number 2,039 had 1,000 or more vol¬ umes each, aggregating 11,487,778, while the remaining 1,609 libraries of less than 1,000 each had a total of 841,748 volumes. I Table 10 is a summary of similar statistics for 1884-85. There were 5,388 libraries, (with a grand total of 20,722,393 volumes. In the list having 1,000 or more volumes .there were 2,988 libraries, with 19,401,199 volumes; and in the list having less than 1,0C0 volumes, but more than 300, were 2,350 libraries, with 1,321,194 volumes. Table 11 exhibits the statistics of the 3,158 libraries which in 1896 reported 300 or 368 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. more volumes, but less than 1,000. The total number of volumes was 1,544,386. Combining these numbers with those given in Table 1, it is shown that the total number of libraries reporting to this office in 1896 having 300 and more volumes was 7,192, and the aggregate number of volumes was 34,596,258. By comparing Tables 9 and 10 it will be found that the per cent of increase in the number. of libraries from 1875 to 1885 was 46, and in the number of volumes the per cent of increase was 68. A comparison between Tables 10 and 12 shows that the per cent of increase in the number of libraries between 1885 and 1896 was 35, and in the number of volumes the per cent of increase was 67. THE SMALL LIBRARIES. The statistics of the 3,158 libraries having less than 1,000 but 300 or more volumes are summarized in Table 11. The list of these libraries is not published in this report. As no special effort was made to secure reports from libraries having less than 1,000 volumes, it is believed that the number having between 300 and 1,000 vol¬ umes i3 largely in excess of the number given in Table 11. It is not improbable that there are m the United States 4,000 public and school libraries having less than 1,000 volumes, but having 300 or more. Among the 3,158 libraries, the statistics of which are summarized in Table 11, there were 2,455 school libraries, 155 college libraries, 289 general libraries, and 259 of all other classes. It will be observed that 1,043 libraries, with 510,154 volumes, are in the North Central Division, and 785 libraries, with 337,455 volumes, are in the Western Division. California alone has 699 of these libraries, with 294,644 volumes. This is explained by the fact that the State provides for district school libraries. There are hundreds of such libraries of less than 300 volumes each, and doubtless many larger ones, not reporting to this office. The report of the State sux>erintendent of public instruction for California for 1894 showed that the district school libraries of that State con¬ tained 711,161 volumes, and that these libraries were valued at $689,652. The amount expended for books for these libraries in 1894 was $55,722, and there remained a balance to the credit of the library fund of $55,007. New York stands next, with 213 school libraries, in this list. Ohio has 127, Penn¬ sylvania 123, and several other States have over 100 each. Since the statistics in the following pages were tabulated and summarized returns have been received from the following libraries having 1,000 volumes and over: McLean Seminary Library, Simsbury, Conn., 1,200 volumes; Library of Danvers Historical Society, Danvers, Mass., 1,200 volumes; Library of New England Society, Orange, N. J., 1,500 volumes; Philadelphia Seminary Library, Philadelphia, Pa., 1,027 volumes; Pittsfield Public Library, Pittsfield, Ill., 2,000 volumes; Public Library, Charles City, Iowa; 2,500 volumes ; Western Normal College Library, Shen¬ andoah, Iowa, 1,230 volumes; Free Library, Puyallup, Wash., 1,000 volumes; Car- roll College Library, Waukesha, Wis., 1,000 volumes ; Colorado Scientific Societies Library, Denver, Colo., 1,761 volumes ; Iowa Industrial School Library, Eldora, Iowa> 1,950 volumes; Holton High School Library, Holton, Ivans., 3,847 volumes; General Reference Library, Farmington, Me., 3,000 volumes; Smyth Public Library, Candia, N. H., 1,050 volumes; Whipple Free Library, New Boston, N. H., 1,750 volumes; Library of the New England Society, Orange, N. J., 1,500 volumes; The Arthur W. Tams Musical Library, New Yrork City, 150,000 volumes; Southampton Union School Library, Southampton, N. Y., 1,001 volumes; Utica Catholic Academy Library, Utica, N. Y., 1,735 volumes; Diocesan Library, Philadelphia, Pa., 7,000 volumes; Phrenakosmian Literary Society Library, Newberry, S. C., 1,168 volumes. An additional list of libraries having 1,000 volumes and over will be printed in the next annual report of this Bureau. The work of collecting and compiling the statistics of public and school libraries in 1896, ns printed in this chapter, was done by the following clerks in the statistical division of the Bureau of Education under the direction of the statistician : Mr. Lewis A. Kalbach, Mrs. Frances A. Reigart, Mrs. Pearl Woolverton, Miss Nathalie Leveque, and Miss Bertha Y. Hebb. 370 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. l Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. , ! & 5 d o ! Sgj ® “ 1 u 1 fr ; Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 2 3 4 5 6 y § ALABAMA. a 1 1872 Cm _ C. S. B. 2 1893 Col . .. .... C. B. 3 1888 Gen . . ... c. "s’’ B. 4 _ do f- . . Sch . c. B. 5 St. Bernard Benedictine Society. . 1892 So . c. F. i B. 6 Col ... _ 1 S. j B. 1841 Col . 1 c. 1 B. 8 1893 Col ...... . *Fr". B. 9 1856 Sch . c. Fr. ' B. 10 1850 Col . 1 Fr. « B. 11 1859 ; Col . c. S. ! B. 12 1870 Gen . c. C. 13 1840 Gen . c. B. 14 1833 Sch . c. "s. B. 1874 Gen . B. s. B. 16 1828 Gen . T. F. B. 17 _ do . 1879 i Scien . C. F. B. 18 1878 ! Sch . c. F. B. School. i 19 1830 Col . c. B. 20 1868 ! Col . c. *F." C. 21 Talladeaa . Talladega College . Col . c. B. 22 . do . Theological Library _ _ Tlieo . c. F. B. 23 Troy _ ^ . ! 18S8 Col . T. Fr. B. 24 Tuscaloosa . Pierson Library (Alabama Insane A. & B _ C. Hospital). 25 . do . 1 Stillman Institute . . ! 1877 Gen . c. B. 26 Tuskegee . _ . 1 Alabama Conference Female Col¬ Col . c. lege. i 27 . do . Normal and industrial Institute. . 1881 Sch . c. B. 28 University . University' of Alabama . 1831 Col . c. F. ! B. ARIZONA. i 1 29 Phoenix . Territorial Library . 1864 Law . B. T. F. B. 30 Tucson Free Public Library . 1886 Gen .. T. F. B. 31 _ ..do . University of Arizona . 1891 Col . C. B. 32 Yuma . . Prison Library . 1888 A. & B _ C. ARKANSAS. 33 A rlrsdelphin.. . Arkadelphia Methodist College . . 1890 Col . C. Fr. 1 B. 34 ..... do . . . Ouachita College . 1886 Col . c. S. B. 35 Arkansas College . Col . c. S. 1 B. 36 Clarksville _ Arkansas Cumberland College. . . . 1891 Col . c. B. 37 Conway Hendrix College . 1887 Col . c. s. B. 38 "Knyotf.p.vi 1 1 p. Arkansas Industrial University . . 1871 Col . c. Fr. B. 39 TT pi firm, _ _ . "Women’s Library . 1888 Gen . O. c. S. B. 40 Lit, 11 a "R.oc.lc _ Arkansas Female College . 1878 ! Col . c. B. 41 . do . . Arkansas State Library . 1840 State . T. F. B. 42 T, it, tie Book University _ 1874 Col C. F. B. 43 . do . Marquand Library . i Y.M.C.A. B. C. S. B. 44 do Supreme Court Library 1836 Law ...... | p B. 45 Marianna . Male and Female Institute . 1889 ! Sch ... _ Fr. B. 46 Mountain Home .... Mountain Homo Baptist College. . 1884 Col . c. Fr. B. 47 Pine Bluff . Branch Normal College . 1873 Col . c. F. B. 48 Borers . . Borers Academy . 1884 Sch . c. F. B. 49 85nnt.li land _ Southland College and Normal Sch . c. F. B. Institute. CALIFORNIA. 50 Alameda. . . . Public Library . 1879 Gen . B. T. F. B. 51 Anaheim Public School Library . I Sell . 52 Bel mont Belmont School- .... . . ! Sch . r cV" 53 ! 1 Berlrolp.y _ •_ _ Bonne's TTni vp.rsitv Sohnol _ ! Sch . i c. * Fr., free for reference. - 371 PUDLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Stales of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S9G. Volumes. Tfl c Volumes added during year. o is o: © fcjD pH Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Kame of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 l© 11 13 13 14 15 1G 17 IS 9 051 407 500 $1, 821 ! Chas. C. Tkach . 1 000 50 50 A. B. Ellis . 5, 000 1,800 150 300 4, 188 362 1. 000 1, 300 500 25 30 P. Theodose . 1, 500 1. 000 200 15 1. 000 ' 100 2, COO T. J. Simmons, presi¬ dent. 2 000 300 150 ICO 200 C. A. Beasley . 4. 689 1,836 36 93 A. B. Jones, president . . 12 oon 4, 000 207 fine 1,400 330 T). P. Christenherry . l’ 500 500 A . AV. McEnnnev . 1 208 20 50 A nne Rif tley . 3, 000 2, 500 M. Stanislaus Campbell. 6 000 A. C. Moses . . 20 000 941 $1, 500 1. 500 J. M. P.igo-s 5, 190 433 Jerome Cochran health 1 officer. o 000 1 000 1 500 100 6 Miss F1 A!" Hnlstfvn G, 800 1 , 500 162 SCO Jno. H. Mock _ 4, 000 AN". E. Hutchison 2. 250 G. TV. A Twlrfvws 1, 500 800 500 400 1, 000 4, 500 315 E. R. Eldxidge, presi¬ dent. ! 1, 000 200 J. T. Searcy, superin- , tendent. 1, 200 25 A. L. Phillips, superin- j tendent. 2, 000 7, 049 35 121 2, 009 ! T. L. Hunt . 10, 000 5, 005 197 70 706 1 Amelia Gorans _ 10, 000 2, 980 90 20 450 Mrs. H. S. Batte, acting. 1, 711 100 398 Howard J Hall 2, 781 250 40 75 85 H.AV. McKean, secretary 1, coo 50 G. C. Jones, president . . 2, 000 500 J. VT. Conger, president. 4, COO 1,000 25 100 40 Jno. I. Cle-land. president 1,400 50 Lizzie E. Miller . 3. 500 ; 2, COO 200 500 2, 000 200 A. C. Millar, president. . 7, 000 12, 000 456 738 500 J. A. Garside . . 2. 363 1,000 354 150 2, 464 2, 797 1, 500 Myra C. AVarner, prin¬ cipal. 35,000 10, COO 8. 250 500 4, 000 1, 100 J. B. Armistead . 3, 000 1,200 100 300 AV. T. Lewis . 2,500 100 1, 954 320 $4, 200 Thomas Johnson, secre- | j tary. 15. 000 1 4, 000 500 1,000 1, 450 i AV. P. Campbell . 3. 000 1, 000 25 100 1 150 1 T. A. Putrall . 1,000 4, 000 100 1,000 100 AV.S.Johnson, president 2, 777 8C2 152 38 500 500 J. C. Corbin . 1. 3G0 | 983 411 1 . J. AV. Scroggs . 1,200 AVm. Russell . 20, 342 2, 235 114, 784 12, 510 8, 194 8, 194 J. AV. Harbourne . 1,300 | . 1, 200 . . 1,500 l . ::::::::: ::::::::: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 37‘< 54 55 56 57 58 59. 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Class. ^ ° a a 3 rs 2 -2 $2 g u d © m * a s'f? §|ii r r-. c ® §S 5 a ( 2 *H © |fn 5 © 7 8 CALIFORNIA— COnt’d. Berkeley _ do ... - do ... . do ... Cbico College Park. Colusa . Gilroy . Golden Gate . Grass Valley. Healdsburg. . _ do . Hueneme Irvington.... Los Angeles . - do . - do . _ do . - do . - do . _ do . Marysville . - do . Mills College . Modesto . Monrovia . Mount Hamilton. . . . Murpbys . Napa . . Nevada City . Oakland . - do . Head’s (Miss) School . . Institution for the Deaf and Blind Public Library . . University of California . Cbico Library and Free Heading Eoom. University of the Pacific . Public School Library . . . do . . . . do . High School . . Healdsburg College . Public School Library . Public and School Library . W ashington Female Seminary . . . Historical Society of Southern California. Law Library of Los Angeles County. Los Angeles Academy . . Public Library . St. Vincent’s College . State Normal School . U niversity of Southern California . City Library . . College of Notre Dame . . Mills College (Sage Library) - Public School Library . Public Library . Lick Observatory . Public School Library . Free Public Library . I. O. O. F. Library . California College . . . 1888, Sch. 1886[ Sch . 1893; Gen 1869 Col . 1879 Gen - Col . . . ...i Sch. 1895 Sch. _ Sch. 1856' Sch. _ I Sch . I860' Sch. Gen ... - Sch.. 1883, Hist 1891 Law - do - - do - - do ... _ do _ .. .do.... Ontario . . . Orange Oroville . Pasadena - do _ 1887 1872, 1866 1883! 1880' 1859 1893t 1875! 1885 1874 1868 Pomona . Riverside . - do . . Sacramento . - do . . St. Helena . Salinas . San Anselmo . . San Diego . San Francisco . . .do . . . .do . ...do . .do .do - do . cred Heart. Field Semin nr y . . . i Sch . c. ! .... I Free Public Library . 1868 Hen . O. T. F. E. Pacific Theological Seminary .... 1869 Theo . C. F. R. Public School Library . . . . Sch _ St. Mary’s College . Col . c. Public School Library Sch .... I Free Public Library . . 1885 Gen . R. T. F. B. Public School Library . Sch . Public Library . 1883 Gen . 0. T. F. B. Throop Polytechnic Institute. . . . 1891 Col . C. ! B. Pnhlie Library _ _ 1867 Gen . . . T. F. B. Neptune Library . . . . 1858 Gen _ C. S. B. Public Library _ _ 1889 Gen . R. T. s. B. Free Public Library . .. 1889 Gen . R. T. F. B. Riverside County Law Library.. 1895 Law . C. s. R. California State Library _ Gen . F. e! Free P ublic Library . . . . . 1879 Gen . O. T. F. B. _ _ do . 1892 Gen . T. F. B. District. School Library Sch San Francisco Theological Semi¬ 1871 Theo . O. C. F. i E. nary. Free Public Library . | 1880 Gen . R. ! T. F. ; b. San Diego School District Library Sch . R. T. Fr. B. Astronomical Society of the Pa¬ 1889 Scien . R. C. S. B. cific. | Bancroft Library. - . Hist . O. C. F. R. Bar Association of San Francisco. 1884 Law . R. c. S. R. Bibliotheque dela Ligue Nation- 1876 Social . R. c. S. B. ale Francaise. B’nai Britli Library . ! 1870 Gen . c. B. Bohemian Club Library . | 1872 Gen . R. c. "s." R. California Academy of Sciences . . 1853 Scien . . 1 c' F. R. Sch .. Gen . Col .. Sch . . Col .. Gen. . Sch .. Col .. Sch .. Gen. . Scien Sch.. Gen. . Gen. . Col .. Sch . . H. O. F. ! B. .... R. F. B. Fr. B. S. B. S. B. F. B. .... B. F. B. S. R. S. R. .... B. F. B. F. Fr. R. B. Fr. B. i F. B. F. R. F. | B. F. E. F. B. F. B. .... B. S. ! B. 373 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added | during year. I Pamphlets added | during year. Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en- | dowment fund. Name of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 IO 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 1 300 ion Anna Head. . . 2 nno 100 r $40 AY. A. Caldwell. . . 3' ono 500 i oil 100 6,746 $3, 200 3, 200 D. R. Moore, secretary fi9l 39:5 4’ 684 3,868 7, 931 $50, 000 J. C. Rowell . l! 780 45 1, 116 246 Mary P. Hendricks, superintendent. Q 000 3,000 1 200 50 50 50| ,Tno. Fj. Dayman . 1 300 350 100 150 2, 000 1,000 130 AY. AY, Pettit .... 1 083 . 701 485 302 2, 705 806 150 A ilyn 0. Taylor l’ 000 1 ' 200 300 100 50 . 125 H. R. Bull . 1 ’ 050 1, 500 150 50 ; 148! T?. R t- T-doelr 9’ 000 1 100 3 8-50 90 280 . 1201 J. M. Guinn, curator. n 770 95 000 300 5, 000 1,833 3, 833| . F. H. Howard _ 1 000 500 40 40 50 C. A. AVheat, principal. . 43’ 938 3 980 371, 638 169, 819 21, 595 23, 076 4 000 700 50 150 D. .T. Hea.ly . . 4. S8?. TOO 742 20 3, 000 5^ 000 200 200 50 400 10, 000 . L. J. Stabler, registrar. . F cuo 150 4, 300 Mrs. J. A. Saul . 12 300> 1 qoo! 400 30 500 E. W. Bus hn ell 1. 205 1 . 2, 183 50 700 351 377 Mrs. O A.AVheeler 4’, 000 4,000 . E. S. Holden, director. . . 1. 123 . 5, 092 43 15, 842 j 1, 200 1, 200 Alary F Roo-cs 2’ 200 . 76 965 . J. C" Rich ° 5, 000 2, 000 1, 000 200 2, 000 S. B .Morse, president 1,400 108 8 | 36 1 . 80 j Mother Elizabeth supe¬ 1 . . . rior. 1, 000 25, 000 5, 000 3 007 118, 605 . 16,000 16, 537 i . H fin ry T-^tprs^Ti 7’ 025 2! 000 ’684 150 2, 500 1 rxP.oroft \fnnar 2’ 000 10, 000 1,404 ; . . 2, 000 Anna, C. Field _ 1, 000 1 . 10, 000 800 j 1,500 160 75,710 19, 530 7, 109 7, 462 Airs. S. E. Merritt . 2, 400 1, 000 400 200 600 Chas. H. Keyes, presi¬ dent. 6, 835 460 160 10, 475 ! 1, 100 1, 230 Mrs. J. C. Lackie . 4, 000 2, 000 F. F. Barss . 4, 845 322 402 12, 684 3, 699 1, 600 1, 600 E. P. Bartlett . 7, 337 739 55, 506 2, 784 3, 014 Mary M. Smith . 1,000 100 400 100 James Mills, secretary. 100, 032 25, 575 1, 239 69, 220 7,800 7, 977 Caroline G-. Hancock.. . 1,190 100 ' 184 3,417 _ _ 452 466 TiOnisa, Thompson 1, 042 16. 000 1 2. 000 1 1.000 ...... 500 1 Thos. F. T)a,y . . 13,000 . 600 150 64, 545 7, 912 6, 257 6, 747 Mary E. AYalker . 2. 300 . . 110 100 100 C. G-. Tyler, assistant clerk. 1, 200, 1, 000 2, COO 1, 600 F. R. Zeil, secretary - j 60, 000 .... . 5,000 . 750 . R. M. Price . ! 15, 653 j 1, 523 ;| 268 1; 20 1 1 6, 088 . ! . 1, 354 A. Masson, secretary. . . 10. 700 . . 200 1 27, 683 1,000 i _ 1,750 A. AYilner . 8. 000! 1. 70C 1 . . AYillis E. Davis, chair¬ man. 8. 495 6. 00(1 i 722 ! 2,506 F. H. Vaslit, assistant J 1 1 secretary. 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 374 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. 1 CALIFORNIA — COnt’d. j 115 116 . do . j 117 118 . do . ! 119 . do . 120 . do . ! 121 . do . 122 . do . 123 . do . ! 124 125 126. . do . ! 127 . do . 128 . do . 129 . do . 130 . do . i 131 132 San Francisco ; (Presidio). 133 San Francisco . 134 . do . 135 San Francisco ; (Eddy and Larkin ! streets) . 136 San Francisco (1623 1 Broadway). 137 San Francisco . 138 ; ..... do . . ...J 139 ! _ do . 140 . do . . 141 i . do . 142 i . do . 143 . . _ do . 144 145 146 ""'do 147 San J ose . 1 148 do . 149 . do . 150 _ do . . . i 151 . do . 152 . do . ; 153 - do . 154 San Luis Obispo . . . . 1 155 San Mateo . 156 157 . do . 158 San Quentin . 159 San Rafael . 1 160 . do . 161 | Santa Ana . 162 1 ! _ do . 163 i ! Santa Barbara . 164 J . do . I 165 . do . 166 Santa Clara . 167 Santa Cruz . i 168 Santa Monica . 109 Santa Rosa . 170 do . 171 Jo ... _ ...... 172 Sierra Madre . 173 Soldiers Home . 174 Sonoma . . 175 Stanford University Xame of library. Lo _ | 1 xf ! Class. 1 ti; Pi o P— O +J i f- a ° ! ® x g* 5! s O 1 w 6 : i . o : sx^> 5 a fc. J O - 1 a - ^ c ; = o 3 i o fl 5 © 7 S California State Mining Bureau.. Chamber of Commerce . — Be la Salle College . . Free Public Library . Geographical Society of the Pa- j cihc. Grand Lodge, F. & A. M . Heald’s Business College . j I. 0. 0. F. Library Association . . . [ Irving Institute . j Knights of Pythias Library . Ladies’ Sodality Library. . . J Lake's (Miss) School for Girls - Law Library, Southern Pacific Co. Lowell High School . Mechanics’ Library . New Jerusalem Church Library. . Notre Dame College . .....J Post Library . I8S0 185 lj . 1876 1 1879 1881 1854 1876 1874 1870 1887 Scien . . Mer.... Col .... Gen . |.... Scien . II. Masonic . . Sch. . I I. 0.0. F Sch . Soc . Social . . . Sch . Law .... 1853 Presentation Convent . . Sacred Heart Academy . Sacred Heart College. . . St. Bridget's Convent. 1854! 1887; Sch. Gen. Gen. Sch . Gar. Sch. Gen. Sch . St. Ignatius College . St. Vincent’s School . San Francisco Law Library . San Francisco Microscopical Library. San Francisco Verein Library. . . Society of California Pioneers. . . Supreme Court Library . Sutro Library . Y. M. C. A. Library . . Ziska Institute . College of N otre Dame . . District School Library . Free Public Library . High School . St. Joseph's College . San Jose Law Library . . State Normal School". . . San Luis Obispo Library . . Church Divinity School of the Pacific. Public School Library . . St. Matthews School . State Prison Library . Free Library . . Mount Tamalpais Military Acad¬ emy. Public Library . Public School Library . Sch 1855 1856 1866 1872 1852 1853! 1S68I Col. Soc.-.l... Sch . . Law . ! . . . Scien . It. 1851 1880 1866 1886 1876 1862, 1894 Free Public Library . High Scfibol . . Society of Natural History . Santa Clara College . . Free Library. . . . . Public Library . Free Public Libi’ary . Pacific Methodist College . Public School Library . Public Library . Soldiers’ Home Library . Sonoma Valley Hnion High School. Leland Stauford Junior Univer¬ sity. 1887 1891 Soc . . Soc . 1 _ Law . . | R. Scien . ' _ Y.M.C. A.i _ Sch . I.... Col . !.... Sch .... Gen . Sch . Col . Law .... Sch . Gen . Theo . . . Sch.... Sch .... A. &R. Gen ... Sch.... Gen. Sch. 1882- Gen... 1892 Sch... 1876 Gen... 1S511 Col ... 1870; Gen... 1886! Gen... _ Gen... _ Col... _ 1 Sch 1887; Gen... 1889 Social. 1895 Sch ... 1S911 Col . . . It. IFr. F. S. | B. F. ! B. .... B. .... B. .... R. S. ! B. F. B. .... B. S. B. .... It. F. B. F. B. F. B. I S. | B. F. C . t S. ! B. Fr. B. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 375 States of 1,0G0 volumes and over in 1S9G — Continued. C a 1 = § 3 3 _© fcJD ’ll S-3 ® >: £ SC ^ - §■§<2 * o 0G C_ X = g From taxa¬ tion. 1 3 a c ! H "o ^ ll I Name of librarian. 1 9 10 11 12 IS 14 15 16 it 18 26,000 2,015 5, 000 200 68, 753 45, 912 $5, 822 $15. 081 $2, 487 NY. F. Clowdslev . 1 1 6, 000 1,000 150 1, 000 J. A. Barr, superintend¬ 1, 069 1 2. 403 ent. 234 8, 299 925 1,275 | Simeon Housman . 2. 524 130 15, 311 1, 056 1, 116 NY. Dudley, jr., secre- ’ tary. 1 2, SCO I 3, 000 1. 039 200 8. 285 3, 500 782 782 1,500 1.500 5. 000 155 Belle M. Jenkins . 1, 000 1, 200 NY, J, Ham . . 100 300 50 4. 500 200 250 280 F.H. Clark . 1, 300 300 i E. L. Ogden, treasurer . . 12, 180 1.733 A. E. Wlii taker . 2. 476 600 147 5. 500 1,030 200 Mrs. S. F. Megrue . 3. 043 324 24 960 1. COO 50 60 25 304 15, 000 3. 000 150 7, 500 H. G. A. Brane-r . | 2, 500 12. 057 900 ! Susan T. Dunbar . [ 1. 540 828 ; Enos P. Baker, presi- | dent. 29. 005 5, 500 2,101 500 147.076 27. 647 9, 815 j Cbas. R. Dudley . 5, 000 60 550 B. A. Schiffini . 8, 000 9, 000 1,600 5. 000 150 50 250 100 300 300 1, 413 2,000 John F. Spalding, bishop ! Garrett Owens . 32, 243 2, 000 1 7, 282 150 ! 219. 562 21,621 22. 898 1 J. C. Dana . ! 99, 986 602 1,000 Helen M. Nixson, assist¬ ant. 11, 000 ' 3. 000 James A. Miller . 7, C00 200 500 6, 000 1, 050 Nellie D. Oswald . 8, 000 P. H. Cowherd . 1, 000 | 1, 500 15 1 Howard E. NYarner. sec¬ retary. 1,010 5, 781 20 600 150 1, 952 Ee Roy Burdick . 954 i Marguerite E. Stratton . 3, 650 850 225 , Regis Chauvenet, presi- ; dent. 2, 500 500 105 80 515 Fred. E. Smith . 4, 000 500 ! i,ooo 1,800 1, 300 ! Joseph F. Daniels . 7. 777 100 380 16 7. 803 Mrs. Laura Leib . 2, 300 6, 589 1 180 3, 000 A. M. Reed . 1.289 50 46, 578 1, 488 1, 750 500 200 J. NY. Chapman . j 1,000 140 82 12 . tendent. 7, 060 299 Thomas NYinsor . ! 1, 000 3, OOu 500 300 100 650 1,500 NY. F. McDowell, chan¬ cellor. 1, 111 518 119 Jessie E. L. Dennis . 1, 800 100 400 500 E. M. Yeomans, secre¬ tary. 1, 600 800 1, 500 ■ 1, 600 23 NYm.C. De Forest . 1,200 1 25| Chas. D. Evans, secre- i . . tary. 1, 575 118 3, 996, 129 25 11, 000 350 166 Emilv Brandegee _ i 1,500 Mrs *N. L. Bloss . ( 6. 000 . 1 150, 000 A. Yan N ame. trustee . - 4, 500 6, 500 208 277 i . Edward Deacon, cura¬ 1,000 1 tor. H. D. Simonds, princi¬ pal. 1 50 1 i 1 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 378 EDUCATION REPORT, 1805-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. a 1 . ^ a o .£ © ts ft Class. 1 Own or rent building. Supported by t a. x at ion or coi’poration. *! O s© CD © Ph \\i i '-I— ! a ^ A ° 1 is of © g © '5 © 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 CONNECTICUT— cont'd. 228 Sck . C. 229 . do . . Public Library and Reading 1882 Gen . O. T. F. B. Room. 230 1892 Gen . R. T. F. B. 231 1890 Gen _ C. S. C. 232 1821 Gen . . . O. T. F. T> 233 1794 Sch . C. ! B 234 1875 Gen . T. F. 1 4>- B. 235 Sell . _ C. 236 1856 Gen . B. 237 Gen . O. F. b! 238 1869 Gen . B. S. B. 239 1888 Gen . T. S." B. 240 1869 Gen . O, F. B. 241 1892 Gen . It. T. F. R 242 Sch . T. F 1 • B. 243 1856 Gen . c. S. C. 244 1891 Gen . c. R 245 Durham PublkrLibrary . 1894 Gen . T. F. B. 246 1896 Gen _ _ T. F. S. C. 247 Raymond Library . . 1889 Gen . O. c B. 248 East River . . East River Library Company .... 1874 Gen . 0. c. S. b! 219 Fairfield _ Memorial Library . 1876 Gen . s. B. 250 Falls Village . David M. Hunt Library . j 1889 Gen . 0. s. B. 251 Farmington . Miss Porter and Mrs. Dow's ! Sch . :. c. School. 252 . do . Villa, ye Library . . 1890 Gen _ c. s. B. 253 Granbv Public Library . 1887 Gen _ F. b* 254 Green wie.Ti _ Greenwich School . 1894 Sch . Fr. B 255 . _ .do . Reading Room and Library Asso¬ 1877 Soc . 0. c. S. B. ciation. 256 Griswold _ Coit Library Association . 1879 Gen . c. F. B. 257 Groton .... Bill Memorial Library . 1888 Gen . 0. c. F. S. B. 258 Guilford Circulating Library . 1872 Gen . R. c. B. 259 FT ampton Free Public Library . 1S95 Gen . T. F. B. 260 Hartford _ American School for the Deaf. . . . 1817 Sch . I c b. 261 . do . Case Memorial Library of Hart¬ 1834 Tlieo . O. c. F. B. ford Theological Seminary. 262 . do . Connecticut Historical Society. . . 1825 Hist _ . c. F. R. 263 . do . . . . Good Will Club for Boys . ‘ _ 1880 Gen . 0. c. s. B. 264 _ do . Hartford Bar Library . Law . F. R. 265 . do . Hartford Hospital Library . Gen . c. B 266 .do . _ Hartford Medical Society . 1875 Med . c. F. R. 267 . do . Hartford Retreat for the Insane. . 1824 A & R .. . c. B, 268 . do . High School . 1638 Sch . T. .... R. 269 . do . Public Library . 1892 Gen . T. .... F. B. 270 . do . State Board of Education . Ped . 1 F. R. 271 . do . Trinity College . 1823 Col . C. Fr. B. 272 . do . Watkinson Library _ _ _ 1858 Gen . C. F. R. 273 _ do . _ . W o od si d ft Sem i n a.ry _ _ Sch . C. B. 274 Jewett City . Slater Library . 1884 Gen . o. F B. 275 Lebanon . . Buckingham Pastoral Library . . . 1865 Theo . 0. R. 276 Led yard .. .......... Bill Library 1867 Gen 0. c S. B. 277 T,i fell field . . Circulating Library . 1870 Gen . c. S B. 278 do . W olcott Library . 1865 Gen . s. B. 279 Lyme . Old Lvmo Public Library _ _ 1872 Gen . 0. F. B. 280 Meriden Connecticut School for Boys . A. & R ... c. Fr. B. 281 do Hio-h School . . Sch . 282 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1SG6 Y.M.C.A. c. S. | B. 283 M id d 1 eti el d Coo Library Association . 1893 Gen . ’67 c. F. B. 284 M iddl pto wn Berkeley Divinity School . 1854 Theo . 0. c. Fr. B. 285 . do . Connecticutlndustrial School for A. & R ... T. 1 Girls. 1 286 . do . Russell Free Library . 1876 Gen . 0. C. F. ! B. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Stales of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. 379 Volumes. § ! £"< 2 ; & 1 a Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. S 2 4-5 4-5 ~ Xame of librarian. Prom taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. O 10 it 12 j 13 14 ! 15 16 17 IS 26, 092 5, 854 1,332 ?, 500' 1, 000 1.647 2 600 2,014 175 2, 169 504 196 34 124, 175 32, 316 2, 153 15, 500 300 16, 506 $14, 126 j 2, 50C*i $14, 126 3, 150' 35| 200 200 450 $10,000 Agues Hill . C. L. Woodin^ . 53 400 300 250 Fannie L. Palmer, as¬ sistant librarian. 500 75 100 ! 1, 306 1 150 James Stoddard, prin¬ cipal. S. IV. Turner, chairman. 100 2 80o! 500 150 6. 734 ) 207 Ida Wa^er . 3i 300 100 100 2, 000 85 1.500 A. H. Fox . 2. 400 250 174 30 45 ! 120. 2,000 Mary Whitney . 1 050 ! 150 30 1 318 27 Sarah M . Savage . 1° 801 200 70 641 871 5, 500 100,000 Mrs. C. H. Sanford . 3! 600 324 17 672 069 ' 781 F. T. Preston, presi¬ dent. 1 050: 175 240 F. X. Hanekett . 4! 000! Geo. C. Allis . 2. 000 E. A. Markham . 1 000 408 . 5, 953 200 300 Marv J. Camp . 1 000 500 2 500 100 3 400 550 10, 000 1. 340: 35 923 335I 3, 500 Carrie E. Leete . 2. 1-9 500 25 1. 675 ! 50 120 2. 046 . 1, 100, _ 20,000 C. Belle Maltbie . 2, 000 : ::::::::: . 3, 193 150 124 23 6, 595 200 293' 2, 970 Mrs. T. H. Root . 1. 4001 50 69 15 2, 042 i 65 Mrs. A. E. Edwards 1, 056 150 X. B. Hobart, principal . 4. 654 2, 247 466 Mary M. Miller . 1, GOO 75 2 800 157 3, 000 Geo. R. Eathrop, secre¬ tary. 2. 939 38 117' 2 8 257 532 10, 000 Abbie M Clarke 1, 323 200 200 1 600 477 1. 500 150 G, 500 j" 200 Xflto A. Thompson 2, 500 rv 67, 000 35, 000 4,968 3,953 2, 500 6, 218 Alfred T. Perry _ _ _ _ 22, 000 25, 0G0 3C5j 385 17, 500 2,655 14, 275 Albert C. Bates . 1.350 75 75 i . Miss H. M. Bundy . 6. 000 ! 1, 300 J. W. W olven _ . 2, 000 ; . Leander Hall, superin¬ I tendent. 2. 000 1 50 Edward Root . . . 2, 000 j 350 5, 000 H. P. Steams, superin¬ tendent. 4. 650 1 50 600 600 Edward H. Smiley, prin¬ j I cipal. 50, 000 6, 000 207,685 15, 100 50,000 Caroline M. Hewins. _ 2. 500 50 | C. D. Hine, secretary. .. 36. 000 23, 500 500 700 1,300 1, 200 23, 000 Samuel Hart, actin0-. 46, 834 1 1,035 187 5, 666 ! 100,000 Era n k B Ga v ° 1. 100 50 i Sara J Smith _ 3,355 8, 666 606 I A. A. Young, ]r., secre¬ 2. 000^ • tary. 30 1 . 44 1,125 Wm.*S. Palmer . 3, 030 113 5 ' Harriet J. Grav 4. 000 150 4,500 ] . 1 250 Mrs. Marv J. Buell . 1.000 200 1 75 25 125 1. . 110 2,500 fin . . . . 3. 600 1 I ! . 125 ! Jeb Perkins . 1.800 _ I . 150 2, 500 j . I . 8, 000 1, 70C >! 502 300 1 8,872 2, 000 j 939 »' Asa H. Wileox . 1. 670 9C I1 182 90 1 3. 275 j . 210 1] L. A. Rockwell . 22. 000 10, 00c 100 1,000 ! John H. Barbour . 1, 500 1 . ;;;;;; j . 10, 783 ! 493 20,976 1 . 1 1 3, 475 .! co, 000 ' L. F. Philbrook . 228 229 230 231 2.32 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 212 243 214 215 246 247 248 249 250 251 253 256 257 258 259 230 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 235 2S6 Q Q 1 0 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. 1 CONNECTICUT— cont’d. 287 Middletown . 288 Millord . 289 Moodus . 290 Mystic . 291 Haugatuck . 292 Hew Britain . 293 . do . 294 Hew Canaan . 295 H ew Haven . 296 . do . . 297 _ _ .do . 298 . do . 299 . do . 300 . do . 301 302 . do . 303 304 . do . 305 . do . 306 Hew London . 307 _ _ rl o . 308 Hew Milford . 309 Hewtown . 310 Horfolk . 311 Horthfield . 312 Horth Granby . 313 Horth Haven . 314 Horwalk . 315 . do . 316 Horwich . 317 _ do . 318 . do . 319 Oakdale . 320 Oxford . 321 Plainville . 322 Plymouth . 323 Pomfret . 324 Portland . 325 Putnam . 326 Ridgefield . 327 Rockville . 328 Rocky Hill . 329 Salisbury . 330 Savbrook . 331 Seymour . 332 Sbaron . 333 Shelton . 334 Simsbury . 335 South Coventry . 336 . do . 337 South Manchester . . 338 South Horwalk . 339 . do . 340 Southport . 341 . . . do . . 342 Stafford Springs .... 343 .... .do . 344 Stamford . 345 Stonington . 346 Storrs . Xame of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. 1 Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. i j « 5 °.£- . o ° 1 O to \ rH «H A ” o bt-a — © •j3 o © p w © 0 .h, ? o © 3 4 5 <$ 7 1 8 1833 Col . O. C. S. 1 B. 1894 Gen . O. T. F. i B. 1888 ; Gen . R. T. F. i B- 1893 ; Gen . 0. s B. 1894 j Gen . 0. C. F. B. 1853 ; Gen . R. C S. ! B. Sch . c. Fr. ! B. 1877, Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1842 Soc _ _ C. Fr B. 1886 Gen . o. T. F. B. 1859 Sch . T. ! B. 1863. Hist . 0. C. r B. AAR.... B. 1880 i Scien . c. F. B. 1893 Sch . T. Fr. B 1700 ! Col . 0. C. F. b! 1891 Hist . Fr. B. 1870 Tlieo . 0. C. R. 1826 Mer . 0. c. "s." B. Hist . c. s. R. 1891 Gen _ _ 0. F. B. 1886 Gen . R. c. S. B. 1876 Gen . R. s. B. 1889 Gen . O. F. B. 1892 Gen . c. F. C. Gen _ O. T. F. B. 1884 Gen . c. F. C. 1865 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1871 Sch . C. B. 1871 Gen . R. S. C. 1850 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1858 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1884 Gen . O. C. 1 s. B. 1883 Gen _ R. F. B. 1894 Gen . T. F. C. 1871 Gen . R. C. S. B. 18S2 Gen . T. S. B. 1895 Gen . o. C. F. C. 1886 Gen . T. F. B. 1871 Gen . R. C. S. B. 1896 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1794 Gen . R. C. S. B. 1895 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1874 Gen . O. S.’ B. 1893 Gen . T. F. B. 1893 Gen . O. S. B. 1892 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1874 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1880 Gen . 0. C. S. C. 1804 Theo . C. F. B. 1871 Gen . ! 0. c. F. B. 1885 Gen _ T. F. B. 1887 Gen . c. B. 1871 Gen . 1 S. C. 1894 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 1882 Sch . ! c. Fr. B. 1874 Gen . R. j c. F. B. 1880 Gen . 0. c. S. B. 1884 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1884 Col . C. F. ! 1 B. Wesleyan University . Taylor Library . East Haddam Public Library Mystic and Hoank Library . Howard Whittemore Memorial Library. Hew Britain Institute . Hew Britain Hormal School . Circulating Library . American Oriental Society . Free Public Library . Hillhouse High School . Hew Haven Colony Historical So¬ ciety. Hew Haven Orphan Asylum . State Board of Health . State Hormal Training School. . . . Yale University . Historical Library of Foreign Missions. Trowbridge Reference Library Young Men’s Institute Hew London County Historical Society. Public Library . Library Association . . . Hewtown Library . . Horfolk Library . Gilbert Library . Cossitt Library . . Memorial Library . Public Library . Young Ladies’ Institute (Baird’s) . Horwich Circulating Library - Otis Library . . Peck Library of Horwich Free Academy. Raymond Library . Oxford Library . Free Public Library . . Library Association . . Pomfret Library Buck Library .... Public Library . . Library Corporation. Public Library . Library Association . Scoville Memorial Library . Acton Library . Public Library . Hotchkiss Library . Plumb Memorial Library . Free Library . Circulating "Library . Hale Donation Library . Free Library . Public Library and Reading Room Roth and Goldschmidt Free Li¬ brary. Mill Plain Circulating Library. . . Pequot Library . High School...' . Stafford Public Library . Ferguson Library . Free Library . Storrs Agricultural College. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES, 381 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. m !> X Id " t>> 1 a > 5 c % bD BS es ~ H O H •gig I'll © -^ Books issued for use within library. Receipts. O q V- ^ 1 ^ Name of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. 6 'P s 4s o EH 9 io il 13 13 14 15 16 57 IS 45. 000 8 215 $2, 285 $19, 625 17m. J. James . 7, 000 100 5, 000 20 31 300 500 1, 113 W. S. Chase . 1 3, POO 350 275 35 625 Nellie E. Chaffee . ’ 4, 300 142 7 16° 180 Miss A. A. Murphy _ ; 4, 047 10 625 3 17* 256 2, 539 40, 000 E. Spencer . : 15, 905 483 2, 657 70 26 713 2 812 9, 629 165, 000 Anna G. Rockwell . 10, 520 698 425 15 900 Mary E. Goodrich . 1, 000 175 3. 914 $200 320 Martha Silliman . 5, 430 3, 550 75 160 A. Van Name . 31, 500 3, 381 232, 014 16, 650 61, 000 W. K. Stetson . 5.000 'lOO 500 Isaac Thomas . 5. 000 171 440 Dwight E. Bowers . 1, 000 Mrs. G. W. Curtis, j president. 1, 200 1, 500 C. A. Lindsley . 4, 427 1. 188 1. 189 264 210, 000 75, 000 8 090 7, 200 28, 815 111, 000 A. Van Name . 1 3, 696 739 1, 260 210 1. 789 71 ’ 600 I Geo. E. Day . | 3, 500 200 330 5, 500 ! Frank C. Porter . 19. 617 784 . 42, 687 3, 933 9, 000 j 1, 150 500 Wm. M. Stark . : 15, 550 1, 510 1, 429 1 150 70, 735 2, 646 Mary A. Richardson _ 2, 800 100 4, 765 313 Elizabeth JEL Noble . 3, 079 500 110 108 2, 206 1, 000 . 310 200 Abbie D. Peck . 1 7, 175 700 13, 795 2, 138 1,466 250 5, 000 Levi S. Wooster . 2, 500 217 19 3, 388 351 5, 000 Nate E. Dewey, assist¬ ant. 2. 000 100 5, 824 348 2, 000 Harriett D. Andrews. . . 3, 300 500 Lawrence P. Mott . 1, 500 8, 000 . 2, 000 300 James H. Myers . 20, 559 400 1. 344 150 97, 562 6, 928 60, 000 : J onathan TrumbulL 10, 000 750 12, 000 Henry W. Kent . . . 2, 387 190 950 335 7, 000 Lucy R. Parish . 1, 000 ! . ^ W. W. Hughes . 1, 343 417 9, 484 273 Grace Matthews . 1, 750 115 3, 000 272 3, 300 A. S. Beardsley, presi¬ dent. 2.400 300 100 30 1, 600 175 1,030 280 10, 400 4, 200 R. S. Mitchell . 1, 900 200 12, 000 ’ 600 E. H. Johnson, secre¬ tary. 3, 000 118 290 Mrs. W. S. Todel . 2, 500 20 20, 000 Geraldine Keating .... 1, 251 | 54 3 1. 550 135 750 Adelaide W. Wright . . . 3, 300 | 30 3, 300 30 11, 631 600 Della E. Parsons. . 4. 500 300 75 25 225 1, 328 800 320 100 5. 115 300 465 Iva E. Sharpe . 2, 900 80 5. 598 695 Mrs. F. A. Rvan . 3,400 1, 000 16. 764 1,100 • 1 , 200 J . T homli n son , secretary 4, 000 5,000 900 10, 000 E. J. McRoy . 2, 246 110 2, 225 135 Sadie C. Wood . 1, 374 19 4 26 50 39 750 B. F. Perkins . 4, 396 17 255 ! 2 14, 002 39 Alice B. Cheney . 2, 970 313 18, 470 1,107 1, 300 Angeline Scott . 1, 323 125 1, 283 26 Mt-s. Burr Perry . 8,000 200 3, 574 75 12, 699 2, 538 J osephine S. Heydrick . . ; 1,300 25 S. A. Jacobs, principal - -| 2, 000 700 60 1 ICO 8,157 300 236 Alvarado Howard, treas-; urer. 10, 000 1 . 8, 948 2, 381 45, 000 E. V an Hoe venberg - j 3, 700 200 I 11, 804 30 110 K. Hahn . 3 138 ! 2,000 818 1 400 453 1 121 Miss A. Loomis . 1 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 382 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. CONNECTICUT — cont’d Name of library. 347 Stratford . 348 Suffield . 349 350 Taleottville . 351 Terry ville . | 352 Thomaston . 353 Thompson ville . 354 Torrington . 355 Wallingford . 356 Warren ville . j 357 Washington . ! 358 W aterbury . j 359 . do . 1 360 Watertown . ! 361 Wauregan . ; 362 West Hartford . 1 363 Westport . ! 364 West Winsted . i 365 Wethersfield . ! 366 . do . 367 Willimantie . 368 .do . 369 Windsor . 370 Winsted . 371 . . do . . 372 Woodstock . DELAWARE. 373 Dover . 374 . do . I 375 Lewes . 376 Milford . 377 Newark . 378 . do . 379 Newcastle . 380 Odessa . 381 Wilmington . 382 . do . 383 . do . . 384 ' . do . 385 . do . 386 . do . DISTRICT OF COLUM¬ BIA. 387 Washington . 388 . do .T . ! 389 . do . 390 . do . 381 _ . .do . 392 . do . 393 . do . 394 . do . 395 . do . 396 . do . Stratford Library . . Connecticut Literary Institution. Free Public Library . Talcott Free Library . Pree Public Library . Laura Andrews Free Public Li¬ brary. Enfield High. School . Library Association . Public Library . ; Babcock Library . - . j Beading Boom and Circulating Library. Convent of Notre Dame . Silas Bronson Library . I Library Association . { Tillage Library Association . ■ Free Library . ! Staples High School . | Beardsley Library . j Connecticut State Prison . ! 1865 1865 1880 1870 1865 1861 18S3 188 181 Public Library T. M. C. A. Library . 1887 Woodstock Library . ! 1880 Delaware State Library . Scott Library of Wilmington Conference Academy. l nion School . Milford Library . Delaware College . Delta Phi Literary Society . Library Company . Corbit "Library . Brownson Library Association. German Library Association. . . Historical Society of Delaware . Law Library Association of New castle County. Manning Association . Wilmington Institute Free Li brary. 1881 Academy of the Holy Cross . Bar Association of the District of Columbia. Carroll Institute . Catholic University of America.. Central High School . Colored High School . Columbian University . Eastern High School . . Executive Mansion Library . Gallaudet College . 1847; 1781 1S76 1890 I860 Class. CD g; 3,0 £ O Supported hy taxation or corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 4 5 6 7 8 J Gen . 1 O. C. F. B. | Sch . c. B. Gen . j B. T. 'fV B. Gen . o. C. F. ! B. Gen . 1 T. F. ! B. Gen . F. B Sch _ ... 1 ! Gen . c S. B. Gen . .... c. S. B. Gen . B. F. C. Gen . c. S. B. Sch . c. Gen . ! 6. c. F. i Gen . 1 °- c. F. 1 B. Gen . c. S. B. Gen . L c. F. B. Sch . S. B Gen . B. c. s. ; Ii- A. &B _ T. ! C. Gen . T. F. C. 1 Gen . O. C. F. B. Gen . B. T. F. B. Gen _ ! C. F. B. Sch . 0. C. Fr. B. Y. M. C. A .... c. Fr. B. Gen . S. B. Law . 0. T. F. B. 1 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1 Sch . Gen . 1 B. 1 c. S. ! ! Col . c. Col Soc... c. 1 c. Gen . 0. 1 c. 's’* 1 B. Gen . F. i c. 1 Social . 0. c. S. ! c. | Social . 0. c. s. ' c. Hist . B. c. F. B. ; Law . c. s. ! B. Gen . 0. c. s. B. Gen . 0. T. F. ! B. Sch . c. F. B. Law . 1 .... c. B. Soc _ _ 1 c. S. B. Col . j c. B. Sch 1 B. Sch . B. Col . ! c Sch . c. B. Govt _ Col . ! I [ 1 c. Fr. Ij. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES; 3 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S9G — Continued. OB t> 00 o 3 Volumes added during year. 100 1, 811 156 AYm. G. Brinsmade _ j 1.800 1 M ' O o O' 1, 098 254 71, 005 3,764 | 12, 554 207, 991 ; H. F. Bassett . 7, 412 395 lli 733 . 1, 065 20, 000 1 044 J. A. Atwood, agent _ 2, 166 . 96 4, 000 72 1,200 Elizabeth S. Elmer . 2 070 300 9 114 Carrie S. Bradley _ _ 7,240 245 26 8, 896 989 6, 000 Louise M. Carrington . . 2, 800 300 den. 1 9 19 217 6, 457 350 1, 250 Elizabeth P. Andrews, ' i ' | director. 4, 500; 120 52 8, 685 20 i Jennie A. Ford. - . 4, 200 600 254 200 12, 671 100 $500 500 A. Dell Carpenter . 1, 044 31 I Grace M. Blake . 2,500 100 2, 500 100 7901 5, 000 | J.E. Clarke . ; 1, 200 50 ; E.B. Phillips, secretarv. 1, 600 200 100 25 1. 000 75 L. B. Flynn . . . 26, C00 4, 000 900 100 10, 375' 1 Peter C. Gruwell . 1. 200 100 20 20 150 75 AY. L. Gooding, princi¬ j | pal. 1, 400 1 1, G50 500 80 50 . no Miss Georgia Arnold. . . 6! 736 5, 714 1, 938 185 90 386 Everett C. Johnson . 5, 000 800 301 100 2, 600 425 5, 500 B. A . Challenger . 3. 132 500 150 100 1. 040; 30 107 1, 150 Joseph L. Gibson, clerk _ 1,184 500 200 156 5, 380 740 1, 700 Jas. J. Kerrigan, assist¬ ant. " 4. 521 700 ' 50 35 1, 930 435 Fritz ven Bomdon . 1, 000 2, 000 125 200 5' 750 1, 500 Henry C. Conrad . 3, 000 . 700 AY. H. Porter, president 1. 300 265 50 100 300 8001 . 1, 400 Thomas Bakev . 25, 702 1 1 89*? 897 137, 215 . 17, 164 AAullis E. Sewall . 1. 000 j 1, ooo 100 50 7, 500 350 B. Kenuon Peter _ . ! 4. 600 324 186 34 911 AYm. H. Lepley .... _ 1 16. 600 | 2. 000 5 , 000 ! l. ooo 25 20 F. B. Lane, director . - 1, 200 l ’ 1 . F. L. Cardoza, principal, j 9, 000 ! 2. 000 1, 800 590 1. 500 3, 070 7, 890 C. M. Laeev Sites, prin- j 2, 175 cipal. 2, 000 Chas. LoefSer . - . 1 1,673 . 1 1 *>0 4 j E. M. Galiaudet, presi- , 1 1 1 dent. J 83 347 348 349 330 351 352 353 354 355 350 357 358 359 3G0 3GL 362 3G3 . 364 365 336 3G7 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 3S3 390 391 392 393 394 395 395 384 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. © ft Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. A | 3 - 1 ® o| §1 Eh Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 3 3 4 5 6 7 § ! DISTRICT OF COLT7M- bia — cont’d. 'Washington . Georgetown College (Riggs Me- j 1789 Col . C. Fr. B. morial Library). 1 Col . i c. S. B. ' Col . c. 1 1855 Gen . i c. B. sane. i . do . Grand Lodge F. A. A. M . Masonic . . 1 R. c. Fr. B. . do . ■ Govt . ' Library. 1870: Col c Fr B. . do . I. O. O. F. Library . . I. O. O.F.. C. I Fr. B. . do . 1800 Govt . o. T. F. R. Light Battery C Third Artillery . 1870 ' Gar . 1 Fr. R. 1875 Sch . c. : R. Sch . C. i R. . do . Sch ... c. 1 . do . Peabody Library Curtis School . . 1876 Gen . 1 c. 1 F. i B. . do . Col . c. B. . do . . School of Notre Dame . 1873 Sch . c. R. I . do . Supreme Council A. & A. S. Rite. . 1880: Gen . 0. c. 1 1 Fr. B. United States Department of Ag¬ 1869' Govt _ T. i Fr. B. riculture. ' . do . United States Departmentof J us- Govt . T. 1 R. tice. i ! . do . . . United States Department of 1789 Gen _ i T. B. State. . do . United States Department of the 1859 Gen . [ ! T. Fr. B. Interior. _ .do _ Bureau of Education . 1 1868 Ped . T. 1 Fr B. . do . General Land Office . Law . T. Fr. R. . do . Geological Survey . 1882 Govt _ j.... T. ^ Fr. B. . do . Scientific Library of Patent 1836 Scien _ _ T. Fr. R. Office. . do . United States Fish Commission . . 1871 Govt . T. 1 F. R. . do . United States National Museum . . Govt . ! . do . United States Navy Department. Govt . _ T. Fr. B. . do . . . . Hydro °raphic Office . Govt T. I F. R. . do . Nautical Almanac Office _ _ ! 1850 Scien R. ! . do . Naval Museum of Hygiene. . - j 1882 Govt . T. F. B. j . do . . . Naval Observatory . . i 1845 Scien .... T. F. R. j . do . I United States Post-Office Depart¬ 1862 Govt _ 1 i Fr. B. ment. . do . i United States Senate . . 1863 Law . T. R*. . do . United States Soldiers’ Home.... Gen . 0. c. 'f.1 B. . do . United States Treasury Depart¬ Govt . T. B. ment. Rnrpnn rrf Stn/Hst.ic r 457 _ ..do . Col c. 458 . do . 1785 Col . 0. c. s. i B. 459 1879 Col . c. B. 460 . do . Atlanta University (Graves Li¬ Col . c. Fr. | B. brary). 461 . do . Girls’ High School . Sch . 462 . do . Morris brown College . 1885 Col . c. F. i P* 463 . do . Spelman Seminary (Quarles Li¬ Sch . c. B. brary). 464 1 _ ..do _ State Library . . . 1847 Law . F. P. 465 . do . . Y oung Men’s Library Association 1867 Soc . 0. c. F. B. 466 1 Augusta _ Medical College of Georgia . 1835 Med . 0. c. B. 467 . do . Young Men’s Library Association 18i8 Gen . 0. c. ’s’’ B. 468 Ca.vesnring _ Georgia Institution for the Deaf A. & P _ 469 Columbus . Public Library . 1880 Gen . . 0. S. 1 B. 470 Dab inn eon, Horth Georgia Agricultural Col¬ 1878 Col . c. i B. lege. 471 .... -do . . Decora Palaestra Society _ 1876 Col. soc. . . c. s. B. 472 Decatur . . , Agnes Scott Institute. . . . 1891 Col . 0. c. s. B. 473 Hawkinsville . Library and Literary Society - 1879 Soc . p. c. s. B. 474 Laaranee . Lagrange Female College . 1846 Col . c. R. . . 475 Macon _ _ Ballard School . . . 1888 Sch . 0. c. B. 476 1 . do . . Mercer University _ 1837 Col . 0. c. B. 477 ' . do . Ciceronian Society . . 1834 Col. soc. . . c. ’s’.’ B. 478 Phi Delta Society . 1834 Col. soc. . . 0. c. s. P. 479 .....do . Public Library and Historical 1874 Gen . 0. c. s. B. Association. 480 . do . St. Stanislaus College . Gen _ _ _ 0. c. B. 481 . do . Wesleyan Female College . 1838 Col . c. P. 482 Marietta . Sarah F*. Llarke Library _ _ 1893 Gen _ 0. c. s’ B. 483 Milledgeville . Georgia normal and Industrial Col c. College. 484 . do . Middle Georgia Military and Ag¬ 1880 Col c. B. ricultural College. 485 State Asylum _ _ 18S7 A. &P _ F. B. 486 Oxford . Emory Colleo'e . Col . c. s. B. 487 . do . Few Literary Society . 1839 Col. soc . . . o. c. s. B. 488 . do . - . Phi Gamma Society . . Col. soc . . . 0. c. s. B. 489 Pome . . . Shorter Colleo-e . . _ 1892 Col . c. B. 490 . do . Young Men ’ s Li brary A s s ociat ion 1887 Soc . K. c. ‘s’* B. 491 Savannah ........... U-enro-ia. Historical Society 1839 Hist . 0. c. s. B. 492 South. Atlanta . Clark University . 1877 Col . c. Fr. B. 493 _ do . Gammon Theological Seminary.. 1883 Theo . 0. c. Fr. B. 494 Washington _ Mary "Willis Library . . 1889 Gen . 0. F. B. 495 . do . ! St. Joseph’s Academy . Sch . c. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 387 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. o’ 000 2, 314 . Sarah Frierson . 3’ 000 300 20 20 . 50 George Sale . 9! 142 530 906 60 . 300 6, 000 E. Jean Stenabaugh _ 3? C00 i 1,T 000 i 200 14 100 1 A. St. Geo. Richardson, | I president. 3, 000 200 850 1 Lucy H. Tipton, asso¬ I ciate principal. 60, 000 3, 000 Jno. Milledge . . 17,’ 000! 600 20, 000 3,565 12, 250 Hooper Alexander, chairman. 3 000 20 Eugene Foster, dean . . . 7’ 50s 4, 099 l)200 . . . 6. 000 40 8, 500 1, 200 Mrs. Hina Holstead _ 5',000 2, 000 100 100 I ! I. W. Waddell, presi- 1 j dent. 1, 500 107 R. C. Hix . ^ 3, 000 94 403 200 1, 773 35 190 Myra Coney . 1, 200 200 650 200 Leon P. Smith, acting secretary. 3,000 Geo. C. Barrage, prin¬ cipal. 9, 065 300 . J. B. Gambrell . 1 5, 168 34 1, 897 50 W. E. Jenkins . 2, 800 67 50 E. W. Childs . ! 10, 504 356 10, 872 1, 000 Mrs. Hora L. Barbrey . . 1 6, 000 300 40 30 R. A. Kacready _ _ 2, 000 630 144 366 E. F. Andrews . 1 4, 000 200 200 2, 880 500 Kate S. W inn . . ! 2, 000 1, 500 300 200 50 85 J. C. Woodward. _ _ ! 3. 878 3, 339 189 20 2,560 18j 000 3) 000 8, 000 500 H. H. Stone .V. . 1 1, 500 4 1, 000 403 A. D. Kean . 3, 000 1 . H. H. Stone . 1,500 150 " 160 Eleanor C. Gibbs, teacher 2, 500 ! 300 Miss L. P. Hargrove _ 21, 065 3,363 393 344 12, 472 . 5, 406 Wm. Harden . 1, 000 500 1 W. H. Crogman . 11, 200 3, 000 1,000 200 1 W. P. Thirkield, presi¬ I dent. 5, 000 2, C00 8, 439 900 10, 006 Frank W. Barnett, pres- dent. 1,500 442 4 13 444 445 44G 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 478 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 388 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in tbe United Location. 496 Boise 497 498 499 . do ... Caldwell. Hailey 500 1 Moscow 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 Abingdon Addison . . Alton . Atlanta . Aurora . . do . Barry . Batavia . Belleville Belvidere. ... Bloomington. Name of library. Free Beading Boom and Circula¬ ting Library. State Law Library . College of Idaho . High School . . . University of Idaho . Class. 1894 1871 1892 1887 1889 1864 1852 . do . .....do . Bourbonnais . Braid wood . 516 ! Bunker Hill 517 518 519 520 521 - do . Cairo . Cambridge . 1 Canton . j Carbondale . 522 . do . . . 523 i Carlinville. 524 . do . Carrollton . Carthage .. 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 Hedding College . Seminary Library . Jennie D. Hayner Library Asso ciation. Public Library . 1 . Jennings Seminary . 1 . Public Library . I 1882 . do . j 1876 . do . 1882 . do . I 1883 Ida Public Library . i 1885 Chicago and Alton Library Asso- I 1879 ciation. Hlinois Wesely an University ....; 1854 "Withers Public Library . | 1856 St. Yiateur’s College . ! 1879 Public Library . ! . Bunker Hill Military Academy . . ! 1882 Library Association . 1 1868 Public Library . I 1882 . do . 1878 Parlin Library . Library Association . Southern Illinois Normal Univer sity. Blackburn University . Carlinville Library . [ . Public Library . 1873 Carthage College . 1 1871 Gen. Law Sch. Sch. Col . Col . Col . Gen Gen Gen Gen Gen Gen Gen Gen Soc . 1893 1876 1874 _ do - - Central! a . . , Champaign Chicago .... ....do . - do . - do . _ do . _ do . . 1 Pree Public Library . J Public Library . J . do . . do . _ do . . Chicago (465 State street). Chicago (142 Dear¬ born avenue) . Chicago (81 Ash¬ land boulevard). Chicago (Station O) Chicago (Wabash avenue and Thir¬ ty-fifth street). Chicago (Station O) Chicago . Chicago (481 Dear¬ born avenue). Chicago . .do [ Academy of the Sacred Heart. . . . ! Acolythical Library . I Armour Institute of Technology. 1 Art Institute of Chicago . Aurora Turn Yerein . Bibliothek des Germania Manner - chor. Chicago Academy of Sciences. . . . Chicago Athenaeum . . Chicago College of Pharmacy.... Chicago Historical Society . Chicago Theological Seminary (Hammond Library.) Chicago Training School . De La Salle Institute . 1894 1873 1876 Englewood High School... Field Columbian Museum. Girls’ Collegiate School ... Grant Collegiate Institute Hahnemann Medical College Hospital. 1860 1893 1879 1872 1891 1857 1871 1359 1856 1856 1869 1891 1872 1894 Col . Gen Col . Gen Sch. Gen Gen Gen Gen Gen Sch. Col . Gen Gen Col . Gen . Gen . Gen Sch.. Soc .. Col .. Sch.. Gen . Hist Scien Col .. Col .. Hist . Theo. Sch. Col . Sch Scien Sch.. Sch. Med T O. O. o. Pi o g . ■ +3 O m O. B. ^5 3 — Pi . *-§ to g fcto a u o a 73 c cj - Free < scri ™ O £ o 3 U o O o 7 8 S. B. F. E. F. B. F. B. F. E. Fr. B. S. B. F. B. B. F.' B. F. B. F. B. F. B. F. B. S. B. F. B. F. B. Fr. B. F. B. .... B. S. B. F. B. F. B. F. B. S. B. .... B. i S. 1 B- s. ! B. Fr. B. F. B. F. B. F. B. B. S. C. F. B. .... B. .... B. .... B. F. B. B. B. F. B. Fr. B. Fr. B. F. B. F. B. F. B. .... E. .... B. 389 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. [ Volumes. i Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Boolcs issued | during year for home use. Books issued I for use within 1 library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. Prom taxa¬ tion. Total i n- como. 9 IO 11 13 14 15 10 17 1,154 30 300 30 540 800 $403 Fanny L. Cobh, secretary 6 000 340 1, 150 Mrs. Mary S. "Wbod _ 1 000 ICO 25 1,000 5, 000 200 | "W. P. Boone . 1 369 COO 1001 150 200 N. T. Garrison _ _ __ 3’ 500 9, 500 1, 100 3, 500 J. E. Bonebright . 2, 000 1, 000 2 860 1 580 60 80 180 . 90 ! F. Lindemann . . 10’ 000 300 290 11, 161 903 $5, 000 , Florence Doibee . 1 000 70 1, 444 . $100 103 Alta Chenoweth . 1. 000 100 24 A. R. Cronce . 14, 350 614 90, 117 4, 000! 4, 225 James Shaw . 2 075 1 700 5 450 423 18, 127 1, 452 1, 503 14. 511 7, 350 957 766 20, 529 16, 408 3, 000 3, 054 F. J. Stanfenbiel . 9 362 156 23 950 771 2! 540 200 75 21 2, 372 1, 200 660 F. W. Bridges, secre- tary. 6, 250 ■ 2,000 199 250 207 475 M. Luella Denman . 16, 068 ’ 625 323 79, 562 6, 869 3, 500 4, 471 Evva, L. Moore _ 5’ 125 500 75 100 4, 800 125 J. Led air. . . l’ 900 107 | Elizabeth Moore 1. 001 30 25 S. L. Stuer, superinten¬ . dent. 2, 341 1, 728 195 7, 100 2, 500 476 500 17, 565 j 2, 500 2, 485 2, 572 Lizzie L. Powell - _ 4, 650 550 560 M. E. York . . . 3,000 70 517 35 26, 791 | 2, 453 1,700 2, 700 . Mrs. Josephine H. Resor 1, 700 1, 500 50 100 800 77 Marv F,. TTnll 13, 354 1, 442 3, 672 1, 052 Minnie Frvar . 2, 500 2, 000 1 3,000i 500 100 175 j 3, 600 133 El fie M. Neas _ 2, 385! 295 1 4, 000 2, 000 200 100 "W. "W. Troup, vice I president. 2, 154 125 25 10, 389 300 Elizabeth E. Pennock . . 3,500 278 700 700 1 . Nellie Snrles 5. 838 870 372 60 15, 171 2, 144 2, 000 2, 600 10, 000 Annie L. Le Crone . 3, 000 : 1,257 J. J. Riley . . 12, 122 996 7, 280 Mary T. Rennet t, 1,576 i . 103 942 . 664 Miss J. L. Forrester. _ 1, 300 250 50 400 R. Tonn . 1, 200 50 | Haakon Nyhuus . 2, 000 5, 000 395 606 j 8, 500 Frank C. Baker, curator 2, 000 1 .. 1, 500 300 15 20 W.B. Day... 20, 000 50, 000 7, 000 75, 000 Edward G. Mason, presi¬ j dent. 15, 500 i 5,000 1 520 500 3, 895 35, 500 Herbert, "W. Gates. 12, 000 i ! . Mary M. Wep.ver _ 3, 500 1, 100 530 200 1 Brother Abban . 2, 500 200 J. E. Armstrong, prin- 1 cipal. 6,448 6, 820 628 j 1,008 1, 500 Edward L. Burchard... 2, 300 Rebecca S. Rice . 1, 000 | 20 30 Mary A. Mineab, prin¬ | I cipal. 1 . 000 _ I - 1 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 390 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895- 9G. Public , society , and school libraries in the United Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. 2 . *.2 °.£4 h o © o ® u p= i Ilf £ 6 j o C 3 4 | 5 G I 7 8 1874 j Sch . 1 B. 1894 I Scien . 1 It. C. (F. E. 1875 Sch . 1 It. C. 1 1873 Sch . T. Fr. ! B. ^ Soc . . It. C. L 1825 ! Theo . O. C. .... B. 1889 j Soc . . C. 1 F. B. 1887 ! Gen . O. c. F. E. 1872 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1883 Gen . It. C. S. B. 1884 Gen - 0. C. F. C. Sch . C. 1870 Gen . C. F. E. Col . C. S. 1 1863 Sch . c. s. B. Theo . j c. 1868 Soc . E. c. i 1 S" 1 B- 1879 Gen . 0. c. r . . . ' E. 1891 Col . 1 0. c. s. B. 1886 Theo . |e. c. F. B. Scien _ I E a F. E. 1885 Theo . 1 | c. B. Soc _ i°:| c. S*.* C. Y.M.C.A. c. S. E. 1880 Soc ... _ ! c. s. C. 1S77 Gen . > c. s. : c. 1878! 1 Gen _ T. F. B. 1882; Gen . B. T. F. | B. Sch. . 1875 Gen . | E. T. F. B. 1865; Sch . T. F. E. 1882: Sch . C. B. 1872^ Soc . C. S. B. 1895 Gen . | T. F. B. 1879 Gen . ! T. F. B. 1896 Sch . C. Ft. B. 1865 Gen . T. F. B. 1879 Gen . C. S. B. Col . e. 1872 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1872 Gen _ _ T. B. 1885 Y.M.C.A. E. C. S. C. 1877 Col. Soc. . . C. s. B. 1857 Col . C. F. B. 1870; Gen . . 1 T. F. B. 1854 Theo . i 0. C. Fr. B. 1855 Col . 1 o. j c. F. B. Col . ! ..J c. s. i B. Isa me of library. 548 540 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 Illinois — continued. Chicago . . do . Chicago (40 Scott street) . Chicago (Station X) - Chicago (Tribune building). Chicago . Lake View High School . | 187 Loyal Legion Library . . do . . do . . . do . . Chicago (Pullman). Chicago (Station X) Chicago . . . Chicago (Station H) Chicago . Chicago (135 S. Des- plaine3 street) . Chicago..... . . McCormick Theological Semi¬ nary (Virginia Library.) Married Ladies’ Sodality Library. He wherry Library . Public Library . Pullman Public Library . . Eavenswood Historical Society.. St. Francis Xavier’s Academy ... St. Ignatius College . . Students’ Library . St. Patrick's Academy . . 564 ; Chicago (94 Dear¬ born street) . 565 Chicago . 566 . do . . 567 | . do . 568 . do . ... Theological Seminary of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Union "Catholic Library ciation. Union League Club Library. University of Chicago . . . "Western Hew Church Union Li¬ brary. Western Society of Engineers ... 5G9 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 . do . I Chicago (Eleventh j and May streets). ! Chicago (153 La Salle i street) . Chicago . ...I Cobden . Cordova Western Theological Seminary .. Voung Ladies’ Sodality Library.. V. M. C. A. Library (central department) . V. P. S. C. E. of Third Presbyte¬ rian Church. Library Association . Danville . . . - do . Decatur ... _ do . Desplaines. Dixon - do Public Library. . do . Public School Library . Free Public Library . High School . St. Mary’s Training School. Dixon Hose Company. Public Library . 582 j Dundee . . 583 ; Duquoin. 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 .do . Public School Library Earlville . j Public Library . . Ed wards ville . [ . do . Effingham . [ Austin College . Elgin . I Gail Borden Public Library . . do . Illinois Horthern Hospital for In¬ sane. . do . V. M. C. A. Library . Elmhurst . j Mensch Society of Evangelical j Proseminary. Eureka . ! Eureka College . . do . . . I Garrett Biblical Institute . _ do . I Horthwestem University . Ewing . ! Ewing College . , Col 391 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S9G — Continued. ^3 © 2 * o ^ B rS Pi ® 2 Beceipts. w o B s 'o l> cS ci © ® P-s © bJD ■72 a !■§ Ph ® •",© ® a Ill pq pi +4> ® V 03 2 cij M o.oq o ■+-< <— ' pq ci X ci . -+-> a B* o ^ pH •S © _ B o H

DO 3 ft a Ph s ff-S 3s 03 . w - co a g ■a njS o.o rp O'"'-' pq oi l! Name of librarian. 9 io 11 12 13 14 15 1G 18 3,000 1,200 1,500 100 31, 573 3, 600 Anna B. Myers . 300 $ioo| 19o! Wm. A. Millis, super¬ intendent. Jno. A. Conwell, treas¬ urer. 4, 000 2, 000 20, 000 1,365 3, 000 1,700 1, 000 2, 774 32, 500 1,000 4, 000 1, 000 100 122 3,250 . ! 3, 402 5, 000 $512 512 S. E. Hitchcock . 100 150; 150 C. W. Crawford, presi¬ dent. Frank 0. Beck . 914 308 207 1, 068 4, 347 1 I. Lillian Clark . 985 2, 274 $21, 392 H. S. Wedding . . i J. J. Allison, superin- tendent J. A. Joseph, president. A. D. Moffett, superin¬ tendent. Tamar H. Elliott . 300 300 1,347 3,000 1.500 1,200 3.500 21,743 6, 000 6, 206 1,040 160 172 2, 438 1,000 I 103 107 100 400 40 600 T.F. Eitzgibbon, super¬ intendent. Janies T. Walker . 200 600 Harry Stinson . 400| 1, 150 32 100 45, 919 3, 259 7, 095 100 200, 000 0. F. Jacobi, treasurer. . A. Crull . 1, OOOj i 10 2,485 150 38, 196 22, 007 5, 272 5, 525 Mrs. Susan C. Hoffman . 6, 326 1,500 18, 000 Mary Irwin . 300 Mrs.yD.B. Wells, prin¬ cipal. W. F. McCaughey, sec¬ retary. J. W. Burns, secretary. . John A. Wood, princi¬ pal. Miss Hubbard . 1,200 1,500 200 50 40 2, 500 1, 500 2, 000 500 . 50 75 1,600 200 11 18, 000 846 6, 000 350 385 9, 935! 1,720 450 472 270 . 649 "R. T. Thompson _ _ . 5, 486 270 W. H. Sims, superin¬ dent. Edwin Post . 23, 200 4, 000 4, 597 1, 200 1,500 375 200 923 1, 850 50 25 John Poucher . 120 200 15, 038 1,808 751 1, 251 Belle S. Hanna _ _ _ 75 100 169 W. C. Belman, superin¬ tendent. 10, 000 5, 000 300 ! . 1,354 1,200 1,390 8, 400 1,428 1,000 100 20 . ::: . 60 1, 560 43 100 50 . R. Applewhite, jr. _ _ 600 25 | 50 250 15 Hazen Kimball . . 1,400 994 335 17, 119 1,298 1,298 Maggie Daily . . 970 Wm. Killian . . 5, 000 100 2, 000 S. E. Earl, secretary _ Geo. W. Hufford . 4,600 700 1,800 500 2, 000 500 | 2, 666 1, 000 100 W. H. Glascock, su¬ perindent. 3,500 3,208 5, 000 62, 270 25, 000 26, 644 1, 000 600 1, 000 i . 1 i Richard O. Johnson, 250 84 2, 000 superintendent. | L. Blaich . . 5, 000 233, 776 53, 023 85, 000 42, 000 42, 891 8, 500 I Eliza G. Browning . 1, 600 John C. McNutt _ 127 350 50 E. L. Davidson . N. R. Ruckle, chair¬ man. 7, 000 3,057 600 76 i 600 C. W. Woods . 1, 500 223 25 500 500 Alta Williams . 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 398 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-36. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. 0 .0 r «4— 1 r* O-M Ti oaior Public School Library . 1886 Sch . C. Fr. B. 821 . do . Randolph County Law Library .. 1884 Law . c. S. R. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES, 399 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. m 9 > so © 3 pH Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Hi OB :=i M ~ u 0^.0 c - P3 Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. Total i n - come. 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 1, 100 70 1, 000 2, 000 $30 $90 ! 1 T). A . Lnmlrricrht. _ 5. 028 490 1. 230 80 22, 645 1,500 1, 500 J. C. Leach . 14, 280 800 400 200 59' 277 3, 000 3,200 Mrs. Virginia Stein _ 6, 865 2, 700 2, 300 2,700 1, 000 Elizabeth D. Swan _ _ 3, 000 10 H. J. Leggett . 6, 000 4, 000 228 300 4, 751 2, 000 397 $4, 200 J ennie B. J essup . 7,000 100 13, 676 400 Nellie G. Harper . 1 000 500 A . J ones . 3, 500 21, 000 ! "Welford D. "W eaver, su¬ perintendent schools . 3, 100 500 40 L. C. Phillips 3, 000 900 20, 000 A . TT. Currie, chaplain . 1. 240 500 30 52 400 40 90 B. J". Bogue . l' 500 500 | Jno. C. "Willis, presi¬ dent. 3 000 200 100 25 100 50 B.AV. Aldrich . 1 000 250 300 335 . 500 "Wilson Blackburn 9. 784 ::::::: 369 18, 181 1, 594 353 \ E. A . "Wilson . 1, 000 : Adelaide L. Packard, j principal. 8, 665 42, 256 480 2, 261 2, 261 Jas. H. Ashabranner. . . 12, 000 2, 400 2, 000 725 15, 000 ( 2, 400 1, 500 Arthur Dransfield, sec¬ | 1 i retary. 14, 000 3, 000 j J". F. Edwards, director . 55, 000 I 850 1 ' _ do _ _ j 5, 781 - 1 | 1 . 2, 000 100 . 200 Sister M. Patricia _ 4, 912 750 1, 700 1 4, 115 245 245 R. A. Chase . 1, 300 100 60 50 1, 000 . 50 i . "W. H. Sanders _ 6, 000 4, 000 30 407 2, 000 Harlon Lindley . j 1, 000 80 Man do Taylor _ 20, 314 1, 200 62, 389 16, 000 6, 000 1, 300 5, 000 Mrs. Sarah A. Wrigley.j 1 3,200 3, 200 32i i 300 150 i C. C. Binkley, treasurer j 2, 000 500 100 1 50 500 j Geo. Hindley, president j 1, 050 100 . John Burkhart, trustee J . | 4, 000 13, 000 200 100 Bede Maler _ _ 1, 642 35 686 1 . ! Thekla Sack . 6, 000 24, 069 4, 000 4, 000 j J. Du Shane, secretary. . 1, 020 200 _ _ 108 1 65 450 131 . ! John H. Bair, county 1 superintendent. j i,4oo: 4 1 Bertha Charles . . 1,075 70 t 1,229 | Jane B. Creighton, chair¬ man. 1, 075 1, 200 1, 200 300 Thos. N. Allen . 12, 000 400 . 35, 361 4, 684 3, 826 3, 826 Leatha M. Paddock _ ! 7, 867 202 F. Arnold Tschndy _ 10, 775 500 75 35, 057 105, 171 8, 772 Arthur Cunningham _ 1,093 370 50 36 1 Mrs. Susan G. Patter- j son, superintendent. 1, 300 200 7,000 3,000 O. P. "Kinsey, vice-pres¬ ident. 4, 227 451 22, 909 Mrs. Mary "W. Scott - 7, 000 3, 000 4,000 500 200 50 500 125 E. P. Cubberly, presi¬ dent. 1, 200 200 100 20 100 M. W. Harrison, super¬ intendent. 1, 500 190 3, 469 121 Mrs. H. B. Shively . 1 1,394 100 35 . 25 857 15 Victor Hedgepeth . j 1, 300 25 . 250 Jesse Camerley . ! 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 7S8 789 790 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800 801 802 803 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812 813 814 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 400 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 2 3 4 5 ! & 7 1 8 INDIAN TERRITORY. * * - 822 Col . C. Fr. B. 823 q (4-en _ F. R. IOWA. 824 A ft on Normal and Business Col- Sch . C. lege. 825 1874 Gen . 0. G F. R. 826 1872 Gen . c‘. C.‘ 827 High School.. \ . Sch . 828 1889 Gen . c. S. B. 829 1885 fiRTI T. F. B. 830 1883 Sch . t! R. 831 1868 Gen . T. F. B. 832 1878 fj-en _ R. T. F. B. 833 1876 j Sch . T. Fr. B. 834 1881 Col . C. Fr. B. 835 1844 1 rj-en . O. C. F. B. 836 j Sch . 837 . do . Y. M. C.^l. Library . . . Y.M.C. A. C. S. B. 838 Col . c. s. B. 839 Clierokee - . . Ladies’ Library Association . 1886 1 Gen . R. c. s. B. 840 Clinton. . . Public School Library . 1887 Sch . T s. B. 841 f] ( ) _ _ AYartbura: College . 1868 Col . C. R. 842 College Springs . Amity College . . . 1855 Col . C. R. 843 Council Bluffs _ Iowa School for the Deaf . 1878 Sch . T. B. 844 do Public Library . . . . 1882 fj-en . R. T F B. 845 Davenport, . . . . Davenport Academy of Natural 1867 Scien . O. C. F. R. Sciences. 846 . . do . Davenport Turngemeinde . 1856 Soc . c. S. B. 847 _ do . Grant Law Library . . Law . . c. s. R 848 . do . Immaculate Conception Acad¬ 1859 Gen _ C s. R. 849 . do . emy. Library A ssoeiation . . 1852 Gen . O. 1 c. ! I s. B. 850 . do . St. Ambrose College . 1885 Col 0 i c. s. R. 851 . _ do . . . Soldiers’ Orphans’ Home . 1866 Sch . V- °-| T. Fr. c. 852 Dpp.nrah . . . Norwegian Luther College . 1861 Coll . c. B. 853 Dpu i son _ _ . . Public School Library . 1874 Sch . R. T. Fr. B. 854 Dps Moines . Des Moines College . Coll . C. S. B. 855 _ _ do . Drake University . 1881 Coll . O. C. Fr. B. 856 . do . . . Highland Park College . .1 1889 Coll . c. Fr. B. 857 . do . Tnwa State T library .: _ _ _ 1 1839 State T. E. R. 858 . do . Public Library . 1866 Gen R. T. F. B. 859 . do . State Historical Library . 1892 Hist . T. F. R. 860 . do . . State Horticultural Library . 1880 Hort . T. F. B. 861 i Dnhnnne . _ German Theological Seminary of Theo . c. F. R. 1 4 the Northwest. 862 • . do . St. .Tnseph’s CVdleore _ . . Coll . c. 863 ' . do . W artburg Seminary . 1 Theo . C. 864 : . do . Young Men’s Library Associa¬ 1856 Gen . R. C. S. B. tion. S. 865 East Des Moines. . . . nifth School . . 1871 Sch . T. F. B. 866 Eldora . Public, Library . . . 1878 f4en _ T. S. B. 867 Emmetsburg . Public School Library . Sch . C. Fr. B. 868 Epworth . Epworth Seminary . 1883 Sch . C. F. B. 869 Estliervilie . Public Library and Reading Boom Gen . R. 1 -p B. 870 ! Fairfield . Jefferson County Library Asso- 1853 Gen . O. 1 c. s; B. tion. 871 do . Parsons College . 1875 Coll . c. F. B. 872 1 Fayette Upper Iowa University . 1857 Coll . .... c. B. 873 Fort Dodge _ F ree public Library . 1874 Gen . R. T. F. B. 874 ! Fort Madison . Cattermole Memorial Library. . . . 1894 Gen . O. T. F. B. 401 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. 3 p © © ft ® 22 Receipts. Pr-j © p Volumos. i o 3 ft cj pH ft Cj * £ § tc gl ft q CrS 'ft a Cj o s * 'H/C p 3 Ph a <3 a q -sj 5'S p o'5'S ffl q +» a ^ ’M S E? a 3 g ft p ^ C .© .'3 o i-i CP Cj M Cj - -P 3 ^ O §- u h al o H .3 © P q ft o II Name of librarian. • to 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 1,000 100 40 . $60 tV. A. Caldwell, presi¬ dent. John L. Adair, secre¬ tary. 1,205 608 1, 000 12, 000 3, 300 300 2, 000 100 75 1, 850! 614 Flora Wilson . J. M. Crocker, chaplain. lj 133 lj 943 3, 105 1, 500 130 111 500 25 tV. B. Martin . 308 10, 160 1, 000 44, 436 5, 860 $1, 000. 1, 198 . 1 Bertha Skliba . 2, 000 14, 928 4, 100 7,202 . 1 300 . 1 Geo. J. Miller . 2. 000 646 150 8, 666' 700 14 inn _ 300 225 1, 051 100 720 Geo. Flachenecker 1, 030 1,000 3, 000 75a . I 1, 500 H.H. Seerley, president . Marian H. Kilbourne. . . N. R. Parvin, D. G. S _ 2, 470 15, 000 1,500 100 . . 1 35 450 600 350 1, 200 2, 218 2,300 1,200 1, 300 4, 876 Prank Mathes, assist¬ ant secretary. Chas. L. tVeilemeyer, assistant. Mrs. M. "Wakefield, sec¬ 1 i 100 753 1 423 10, 180 1, 000 1,054 100 retary. 1,720 76 H. Knhlmann . 2,500 2, 500 19, 886 31, 763 I 50 600 800 50 J. M. Littlejohn, presi¬ dent. Henry tV . Rothert, su¬ perintendent. Elizabeth Peterson . | . 210 1,200 200 50C 1.200 66 62, 970 6, 444 6,444 1,245 tV. H. Barris, curator. . . 26, 168 1 . ! Adolph Petersen, secre- tary. Flora B. Haddis, custo- \ dian. Sister Mary Gonzaga. . . ! S. A. Billen . 7, 000 2, 596 5, 600 4, 000 1,717 7, 755 1, 400 3, 300 5, 169 5, 000 50, 608 19, 158 4, 694 1, 000 4. 000 | 1 5,542 3,710 200 1 H. F. Brennan . 100 100 EttaPeaslee . 365 4, 000 285 1, 100 380 . Chr. A. Xaeseth . 500 300 36 165 75 400 150 150 250 Mrs. Georgia McClellan Mrs. F. T. Stephenson, acting. Jennie Carpenter . 1 500 300 100 Minnie Dennis . 2, 563 5, 617 I . 5. 000 15, 200 | Mrs. Laura C. Creighton Ella M. McLoney _ _ _ | 98, 292 9, 228 15, 000 2,236 6, 000 2, 600 Charles Aldrich . Geo. H. Van Uouten _ 25 1 | . A. C. Kroesche . 5, 000 3,600 1 1 . | 1,000 16, 893 1, 600 2. 500 754 30, 586 . 3, 115 $6, 685 . 1 C. tVilder . ! 200 150 100 1 E. H. White . I 250 50 4,021 438 521 Clara Estabrook . • 1, 050 300 ! . Dight G. McCarty . ! 1. 325 56 1, 083 3 Helen I. Hanna . j i, ooo: . 20 2.252 9, 592 383 Inez L. Westcott . i 16, 000 1 15. 000 1.411 600 30. 091 ! 1, 265 1, 750 1 . T. L. Hoffman, assistant ; W. A. Wirtz . 2, 500 5, 00C 7, 380 2. 500 l 1, 000 i 100 125 l 1. 000 l 1, 200 ! . . . 300 100 550 17, 160 30. 000 ,1 . 200 i . L. A. Stout . i 695 100 i 1. 115 1, 700 1. 128 2, 200 J. M. Carpenter . ! 1,000 1 F. S. Kret singer, presi¬ dent. 1 1 1 822 823 824 825 826 827 828 829 830 83 L 832 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 841 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 865 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 402 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Hate of found¬ ing. Class. 2 3 ^•2 +2 0*3 g so 2 M & £3 o o m JG 5 {. *3 c.a rl . O ^ Ph -5 2 O pi i O 3 4 5 6 7 8 iowa— continued. j 1863 A. and ft . O. C. I c. 876 Sch . B. 877 184S Coll . 1 o. c. B. 878 1891 Gen . 1 T. F. B. 879 1861 Coll . o. C. S. B. 880 1873 Gen . T. F. B. 881 1894 Gen _ p. T. Fr. b! 882 1867 Coll . C. Fr. B. S83 Sch . C. Fr. B. 884 1857 Hist, _ R. T. F. Ip. 885 . . do . 1855 ! Coll . 0. C. Fr. B. 886 do . 1868 | Law C. F. p! 887 1890 i Coll . O. c! p 888 Keokuk . 1. O- O. F. Library . 1888 1 I.O.O.F.. O. c. B. 889 _ .do . 1883 i Law _ c. s. I F. 890 1863 Gen . 0. T. F. 1 B 891 892 Keosauqua . T. O. O. F. Library . . . High School _ I . . . 1848 1888 ; I. o.o. f. Sch . C. c. Fr. Fr. l B‘ ' B. 893 1885 Gen . T. F. > B. 894 1860 Gen _ _ 0. C. S. 1 B. 895 .."...do . Toung Men's Association Li¬ 1863 Gen . P. c. s. C. brary. 1 896 I Manchester . Free Pnblic Library . _ _ Gen . T. F. I 15 897 ; Maqnoketa . . Boardman Library Institute 1885 Gen . _ ! B. C. S. i B. 898 IVfarentrn.- . . Pnblie Se'nool Library _ __ 1894 Sch . C. Fr. B 899 Marshalltown _ _ Marshall County Library _ _ 1892 Gen _ c. S. I b: 900 1 . do . Public School Library . 1891 Sch . T. F. c. 901 Mason City . . Public Library . . . 1888 Gen . O. T. F. 1 B. 902 Mount Pleasant .... Iowa Hospital for the Insane . 1860 Gen ....... C. ! b! 903 | . do . Iowa Wesleyan University . . ! 1870 Col . C. ""j Fr.! B. 904 [ . do . Ladies’ Library . . 1875 Gen. _ It. C. S. B. 905 i Mount Yemon . Cornell College . 1857 Col . c F. B 906 | .Nevada . American Archaeological and 1887 Gen O. C. F. jB’| Asiatic Association. 907 . do . Pn hlie. Lihrnrv _ __ _ _ ! 1S76 Gen _ . . O. T. F. B 908 Newton . High School . . . ' Sch _ 909 Orange City . . Northwestern Classical Academy . 1890 Gen _ _ _ c Fr. B. i 910 Osage . . Cedar V alley Seminary . 1877 Sch . C 1 F. ! R. 911 . do . Sage Public Library . 1873 1 Gen . 0. T. F. 1 B. | 912 Oskaloosa . City School Library . i 1872 Sch . T. ! J B. 913 . do . . . Oskaloosa College . Col . 1 c 914 . do . Penn College . . | 1872 Col . i C. Fr. B. 915 . do . Public Library. . . 1 1895 Gen . C. S. B 916 ( ittumwa . . High School. . . 1875 Sch . C. B. 917 Pella . Central University of Town __ 1853 Col .... C. ....j F. j P. 918 Bedoak . . High School (Society Library) . . . 1886 Sch . c. B. 919 , Sigourney . Keokuk County Educational Li¬ Ped . c. S. B. brary. 1 920 I Sioux City . Mornmgside College . . . Col . c. F i P 921 . do . Pnblic Library _ - 1877 Gen 0. T. F. ! B ! 922 Soldiers’ Home . Soldiers’ Home Library . 1887 Gen ... T. Fr. B.j 923 Spencer . Public Library . 1882 Hen _ 0. T. F. | B. ! 924 Storm Lake . Public SchoorLibrary . Sell T. B. 925 Tabor . . . Tabor Colie.o'e _ _ _ _ Col c "s'" B ! 926 Toledo . W estern College . . 1857 Col . C. Fr. b! 927 Traer . . Hi gh School . . .. Sch . 928 Trenton . Henry County Instituteof Science 1869 Hen . . , o. C. S. c. 1 929 Vinton . Iowa College for the Blind . A. and P..! 930 Tilford Collegiate Academy . 1872 Sch . ' c. Fr. B. 931 W ashington . Free Public Library . j 1876 Gen _ ! T. F. B. 932 "Waterloo . . Library Association . 1 1867 Gen _ B. C. S. C. | 933 | Waverly . Public’Library . 1881 Gen . p. T. F. c. 1 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 403 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. 5C <9 O > Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Boolcs issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. 3 M -3 pj - .2 g+3 . u Total in¬ come. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 8 000 100 12, 000 1 $3, 000 i TV. C. Gunn, chaplain .. 1, 000 100 25 J. L. Laird . ?1 non 1 400 1 1 00 100 i .T AT. f’hnml'.PT'Tflin 1, 600 ’ 200 ’ 050 100 4, 000 $400 410 L. B. Raymond, presi¬ dent. 2, 500 1, 800 100 200 1 A. G. Wilson . 4 000 ' 250 284 100 10, 800 900 1, 452 ! X). S. Deering, secretary. 2! 400 3, 320 530 651 . j Hannah M. Babb ... 3 000 3. 000 . 50 584 ' 850 18 1 "P. W. Jenkins 1, 200 100 20 12 100 TV. F. Cramer, superin¬ | tendent. 10 000 5, 000 40 50 . 1, 000 H. TV. T.at.hrnp . . . 30 000 1 200 4, 950 J. W. Rich . 8, 500 220 750 1 . J. G. Marner . T 200 300 500 200 400 C. W. Lyon . 2, 000 4, 162 . John Eisenhuth . 1, 000 12 203 727 158 52, 333 2, 711 . Sarah Welch _ I, 600 8 lo W.B. Maltbie . l' 450 100 150 1,500 1 . 200 S. J. Fin lev . 3, 000 200 15, 502 i, coo 1, 040 TV. A Simkins 1, 100 . 60 '700 ... F. C. Nehlsen . . 5, 000 50 355 P. C. TValraven, presi¬ dent. 3, 025 140 9, 987 997 1, 017 .Term io .Tones _ _ 2, 976 . 111 52 4,957 1 505 j $5, 000 Ida VI. Simpson . . 1, 000 200 150 50 4, 000 C. H. Carson . . 3, 066 200 239 108 5, 523 1, 839 ! . 4, 500 256 1, 460 400 70 100 3, 546 750 915 Mary A Hurlburt- 4, 000 1,000 H. A. Gilman, superin¬ tendent. 5, 000 1, 000 Edwin Johnson, jr _ ... 5, 382 230 69 197 COO Emma L. Schwenker, 1 chairman. 13, 833 719 12, 600 505 3, 00G May L. Fairbanks _ 12, 346 2, 019 84 108 2, 180 G-. TV. Bailey . 3, 271 500 269 100 8, 507 500 400 636 Mrs. Lillian Monk _ 1. 500 3^ 000 500 200 200 . 1 500 Ph. Soulen. . 2, 000 1, 000 100 50 1, 000 . 1 75 250 Alonzo Abernethy, ! ! principal 3, 000 121 8, 235 200 845 Alonzo Abernethy, . ! . chairman. 1,794 340 200 60 200 O. C. Scott, superin- 1 tendent. 4, 000 4, 000 200 Rosa E. Lewis . . j 1, 029 300 1,426 300 572 E. TV. Hearne . 1,090 50 A. W. Stuart, superin- ! tendent. 4, OoO 75 1 Martha Firth . ! 1,000 50 ' Ira S. Condit, principal. | 1, 000 300 1 S. A. Potts . | 1, 080 21 86 21 | O A . Schotts . 9, 600 140 662 45 39, 133 8, 844 4, 026 Mrs. R. Oberholtzer .... 3’ 000 50 8 2, 000 E. L. Lunt . . . 1,500 400 300 100 300 370 Mrs. M. A. Steele . 1, 101 37 120 Edith McGee . 7, 300 400 A. E. Barry . 3, 000 D. L>. Zilrn . 1, 000 1 520 25 . 2,500 1,000 300 25 20 500 12 T F. Tobin . 4,000 250 j 13, 000 500 500 Miss N. J. Springer.... 2, 200 1, 500 50 250 3,000 85 1 Mrs. J. M. Brainard _ 1,600 187 ! M44! ::::::::: i . Anna Mills . 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 899 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 404 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. too O-i-t Class. u a o . flg ©+3 o H % <3 o 0.2- 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 .962 963 964 965 967 968 969 970 971 972 973 974 975 976 977 978 979 980 981 982 983 984 985 987 989 iowa — continued . Waverly. . Wilton Junction. . Winterset . KANSAS. Atchison . . . . . do . . do . . do . Baldwin . Blue Rapids . Burlingame. . Burlington .. Cawker City. Clay Center. . Columbus ... Emporia . - do . - do . Enterprise . Eureka . Fort Leavenworth. - do . Fort Scott Great Bend . . . Highland . Holton . Independence Irving . Junction City _ do . Lansing . Lawrence. - do - Leavenworth _ do . . do . Lindsborg . . McPherson . Manhattan . Marysville.. . do . Newton . Olathe . - do . Osage City. Oswego.... Ottawa . . _ do ... Paola Peabody . St. Marys - do ... St. Paul Salina ... - do .. Topeka . - do .. Public School Library. . . German English College. Public Library . 1875 1887 1879 1858 1858 1873 Firth I. 0 0. F. Library . Midland College . Public Library . St. Benedict’s College . Baker University . Ladies Library . High School . Free Public Library . Public Library . High School . Public School Library . College of Emporia (Anderson Library) . Free Library . State Normal School . Central College . ! Southern Kansas Academy . J 1887 Post Library . I 1883 U. S. Infantry and Cavalry 1881 School. Kansas Normal College . Central Normal College . Highland University . . High School . . . Public Library . - do . . Ladies’ Reading Club . Trott’s Select Library . Kansas State Penitentiary . 1880 1894 1891 Sch . Col . Gen R. 1894 1883 1885 1880 1885 1884 1889 City Library . University of Kansas (Spooner Library) . High School . . Public Library Association . Y. M. C. A. Library . Bethany College . McPherson College and Indus¬ trial Institute. State Agricultural College . Modern Normal College . Public School Library . Free Library . Kansas Institution for Deaf and Dumb. Library Association . School Library . Oswego College Ottawa Library . Ottawa University . Free City Library . Public Library . St. Marys College . Senior Students’ Library. St. Francis Monastery . Public School Library . Wesleyan University . College of the Sisters of Bethany. 1878 1840 1882 1877 1875 1870 1868 Gen Col . Gen Gen Col . Gen Sch. Gen Gen. Sch. Sch . Col . O. o. Gen.. Sch.. Col .. Sch.. Gar.. Govt. Col .. Sch . . Col .. Sch .. Gen. . Gen. . Gen. . Gen. . Gen. . R. R. 1868 Gen. 1865 Col . 1892 1896 Sch . Gen. Y. M. C. A. 1886 Col ... . 1890 Col ... . 1860 1892 1885 1885 1874 1889 1888 1872 1870 1880 1875 1869 1869 I Free Public Library . | 1871 Col . Col . Sch . Gen. Sch . Gen. Sch . Col . R. i Gen. . Col . . Gen . Gen . Col .. Col .. Theo Sch . . R. Col Col Gen O. F. Fr. F. F. B. 405 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. 'O © |s 2 * ® fct a S B a Ph Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Fame of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 1, 600 100 150 $50 1 . S. H. Sheakly, superin¬ tendent. 1. 500 200 900 300 100 j C. ,T TTneheke 2. 000 1,000 500 200 3. 308 $500 690 1 Mary Cassidy . 3,100 A. Rinrlewnld . 5. 000 1, 000 1 000 200 1 225 G. H. Meixell . 5, 215 215 9, 316 $10, ooo Mrs. Leontine Scofield. . 11, 054 1,389 932 :::::::: . ... | Eugene Phelan . 5, 435 309 4, 500 600 1, ooo E. M. Wood . 2. 549 60 . | Cora M. Butler _ 1, 500 150 4, 100 2, 000 7 5 175 1. 902 . - 106 400 450 1,500 700 84 120 3. 000 25 112 1, 089 120 125 1, 540 B. E. Merten . . . l' 000 300 100 50 Jno. Curran _ _ 5' 000 20 . M. R. McCabe _ 4. 000 175 18, 197 1, 100 1, 183 Mrs. A . ,T. Wieks . . . .11,274 300 1,592 50 5, 000 4, 052 . A. R. Taylor 2. 000 500 . 1,000 1 L.C. Wooster, principal. 1, 775 16 l 5, 248 75 Renj. Alvnrd _ 7. 060 420 52 2, 600 4, 000 C. AV. Penrose, secre¬ tary. 3, 000 250 D.E. Sanders, president. 2,000 1 4, 000 1, 000 75 Chas. A. Read . 1, 200 i . 1, 600 600 100 75 717 I . 229 Mrs. H. D. Grant . 1,050 36 50 1 400 12 1, 000 20 1 . 115 Annie B. White . • 1,300 40 340 | . 41 C. TT. Trott, . . . . 5,128 78 ' 12, 000 270 John Moorhead, chap¬ ! 1 lain. 5, 000' 500 450 20, 000 5, 000 1, 050 24. 280 2, 500 5, 000 Carrie At. \V atsen 1. 200 250 7, 385 240 W . A. Evans, principal . 1, 000 1. 000 2, 255 46 460 Syrena McKee, secre¬ tary. 1, 500 600 100 S. AV. Moore, secretary. . 3,490 1,500 100 80 700 . G. A. Swallander _ * _ 1, 500 50 25 16, 200 5, 300 1, 123 11, 000 2, 085 J ulia R. Pearce . 2, 000 200 100 100 60 J. G. Ellenbecker . 2, 200 3, 897 900 302 114 12, 932 917 1, 083 1, 133 Ti. AtcAlpine _ _ 2, 400 200 M. W. Games . 2, 000 500 200 300 35 . S. B. S. Wilson, presi dent. 1, 100 450 2, 000 1 200 1 Lillian Bossier, princi¬ | | pal. 4,000 ; l, ooo 210 7,011 700 1 Julia M. Walsh . 2,000 1 1, ooo 59 100 40 H. C. Merrill . 4, 400 500 150 25 10. 000 500 505 E. Heiskell . 5' 000 39, 729 Emma F. Christ . 7. 300 300 i . J. F. Kelly . 2, 500 400 50 75 Thos. F. Wallace . 2, 000 1,000 200 T. Foonan . 2, 000 i A. Ludlum, superin¬ tendent. 4. 000 500 50 200 200 A. Gridley . 1,000 Annie J. Hooley, prin¬ i cipal. 13, 500 750 135 80, 742 5, 688 4, 700 5, 180 ! 8, ooo Mrs. E. S. Lewis . 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 962 963 964 965 966 967 968 969 970 971 972 973 974 975 976 977 978 979 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 987 988 989 406 " EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. FLune of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. i 3 3 4 5 ! 6 7 § Kansas — continued. 990 1880 Scien _ F. B. 991 1857 Gen . T. F. R. 992 . do . . Masonic Library . . . ." . 1856 Masonic . . R. C. F. R. 993 1872 Agrl _ T. F. R. 994 1875 Gen . T. F. R. 995 1865 Col ... O. C, F. B. 996 1880 Sne . _ C. s B. 997 1891 Gen T. S. B. 998 High School . . . ... Sch . 999 1886 Col . C. Fr. B. . . KENTUCKY. 1000 Berea College . 1865 Col . c. S. B. 1001 1883 Col . c.- B. 1002 Potter College . . . Col . c. B. 1003 1875 Sch . R. c. Fr. B. 1004 1860 Col . O. c. F. B. 1005 High School . 1872 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1006 1819 Col . o C. F. B 1007 . do . Danville Theological Seminary . . 1855 Theo . O. c. R. 1008 . do . Kentucky School for the Deaf. . . . 1850 Sch . c. 1 B. 1009 Frankfort. . Kentucky Geological Survey _ Scien . F. R. 1010 . do . Kentucky Penitentiary Library.. A. & It - .... c. Fr. B. 1011 . _ _ do . Kentucky State Library . State . T. F. IL 1012 Georgetown ...... _ Georgetown College . . 1837 Col . 0. C. F. B. 1013 . do . Ciceronian Society . . 1839 Col. Soc . . . C. S. B. 1014 _ .do . . . . Tau Theta Kappa Society 1839 Col. Soc . . . c. F B. 1015 . do . Scott County Library and Lec¬ Soc . c. s. B. ture Association. 1016 Hopkins villo. . - Public School Library . . 1882 Sch . T. S. B. 1017 . do . . South Kentucky College . Col . c. 1018 .Tack sort _ Jackson Collegiate Institute _ Sch . c. 1019 Levingt.on _ Hamilton Female College . . Col . c. 1020 . do . Kentucky State College . 1885 Col . c. R. 1021 _ _ do _ _ Kentucky University . . 1783 Col . c. F. R. 1022 .....do . . Philatbean Society _ ....... 1868 Col. Soc c. S. B. 1023 . do . Lexington Library . . . . 1795 Gen . 0. c. s. B. 1024 Louis villo . Girls’ High School . 1873 Sch . T, R. 1025 . do . Grand Lodge of Kentucky, F. & Masonic .. R. C. ‘fV B. A.M. 1026 do Hampton College . 1878 Gen . O. c. F. R. 1027 _ . do Kentucky Institution for Educa¬ Sch . T. F, R. tion of Blind. 1028 . do . Medical Department, University 1837 Med . O. C, Fr. R. of Louisville. 1029 . do . Polytechnic Society of Kentucky. 1878 Soc . O. c. S. B. 1030 . do . Southern Baptist Theological 1859 Theo . 0. c. Fr. B. Seminary. 1031 . do . "Woman’s School of Pharmacy .... 1884 Col . R. c. F. R. 1032 Maysville . ; Maysville and Mason County 1878 Gen . O. c. F. B. Library, Historical and Scien¬ tific Association. 1033 . do . Odd Fellows’ Library . 1850 I. O.O.F.. c. Fr. B. 1034 Midway _ _ Kentucky Female Orphan School. 1848 Gen 0. c. F. R. 1035 Miller skurg . . Millersburg Female College . 1877 Col . . c. B. 1036 Nazareth ........... Nazareth Literary and Benevo¬ Sch . c. B. lent Institution. 1037 "NT p.wport, _ Bellevue School _ _ Sch _ c. F. B. 1038 Princeton Princeton Collegiate Institute. ... 1880 Col . r~ c. S. B. 1039 Richmond _ Central University and Landis 1874 Gen . 0. c. F. \ R. libraries. 1040 Russellville . Bethel College . 1892 Col . 0. c. S. | B. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 407 States of 1,000 volumes and ova' in 1S96 — Continued. © 1 • © <•? © 1 2a Receipts. © (3 o5 - o l> o3 o zi r— 3 Cj z. © EC Vf, © rf .5 3 rt § © ifl fl * .2 © fcJD | zn cc > o >J m u ® = S "2 o-° e3 M a • j a! | ° © ■si © O H ^ a a ® o S 2 o Name of librarian. 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 If IS 3. 250 38, 000 1 487 4, 500 500 4.000 500 175 1, 100 56 550 $300 4, 600 B. B. Smyth . J. L. King . 1,000 500 500 I . $5, 000 500 1 000 120 200 100 F. D. Coburn, secretary . F. G. Adams, secretary . L. D. Whittemore . . 33, 551 7, 000 50, 079 2, 268 1,462 2,500 . 7, 838 200 3, 000 677 300 300 1, 19S i, 666 1. 500 800 100 150 Chloe L. Brown . 1 3, 894 1, 100 75 1,260 . $1, 500 2, 226 ! Dula Pease . 2, 800 8 000 200 100 200 C. A. Place, president . . A.E. Todd . 2, 000 150 2. 775 880 175 130 . G. H. Schroader . 5,000 B. F. Cabell, president.. T. C. Cherrv . 1,' 000 2, COO 200 100 50 20 832 C. N. Kong . . 1, 787 8.187 5, 000 1. 650 325 20 212 30 100 C. A. Leonard, principal J. C.Fales . 820 1,000 500 430 200 C. K. Crawford . . 1 4 120 2,000 L 050 2,000 95 000 ! C. J. Norwood, curator . . 1 1 100 _ ! . 112 ! 1, 000 1 . 1,C00 420 Airs. M. B. R. Day . 10, 000 1,800 1,300 500 j coo 50 J. K.Nunnelley, assist¬ ant. N. F. Ashcraft _ _ 300 100 200 ; . ! 120 TV. T. Ford . 1, 629 1,634 12 4 ! 85 208 Rossi e Sinolflir 412 L. McCartney, superin¬ tendent. 1,000 1,250 . 1, 200 2, 662 176 153 98 Jas. G. White, business agent. Chas. Louis Loos, presi¬ dent. V. Williams . 14 672 | u.« 166 80 1 1,200 15, 000 1,600 4, 000 i . 1 . . 9, 000 Katberin B. Akers . 100 200 400 H. Bartholomew . . 1, 000 i. ooo 50 250 . 103 H. B. Grant . . 6, 000 1,000 100 50 L. D. EL Cow Lins . j 1,000 100 50 B. B. Hun toon, superin¬ tendent. J. M. Bodine, dean . 4,000 50, 000 21, 000 1,260 2, 700 706 23, 410 54, 691 18. 628 1, 000 Miss A. V. Pollard . io, ooo 3,000 1,000 2, 000 20, 000 John R. Sampey . . J. P. Burn uni . . . 300 50 20, 000 W. D. Hixson . 2,200 1, 000 1,000 5,000 1,105 ‘ 1, 500 6, 000 109 90 25 560 90 John W. Thompson - Miss Corbin, principal . Cadesman Pope, presi¬ dent. 400 . j 235 89 962 J . M. N. Downes, super¬ intendent. John M. Richmond, J president. L. H. Blanton, chancel- lor. H. L. Trimble . 1 150 150 1 1, ooo 200 150 300 800 10, 000 1 J 1, ooo 150 : 50 2, 000 200 360 1, 000 090 901 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 1000 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1038 1039 1040 408 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public , society, and school libraries in the United Location. 1 KENTUCKY — COnt’d. 1041 Russellville . 1042 St. Mary . 1043 Shelbyville . 1044 Springfield . 1045 Waddy . 1046 Winchester . . . LOUISIANA. 1047 Baldwin . 1048 Baton Rouge . 1049 Clinton . 1050 Convent . 1051 Grand Coteau . 1052 Jackson . 1053 Keatchie . 1054 Mansfield . 1055 Natchitoches . 1056 New Orleans . 1057 . do . 1058 . do . 1059 . do . 1060 . do . 1061 . do . 1062 _ rlo-- . . 1063 . do . 1064 . do . 1065 . do . 1066 . do . . 1067 . do . 1068 . do . 3069 . do . 1070 . do . 1071 . do . 1072 . do . 1073 . do . MAINE. 1074 Alfred . 1075 . do . 1076 Auburn . 1077 . do . 1078 . do . 1079 Augusta . 1080 . do . 1081 . do . 1082 . dO . . 1083 _ do . 1084 . do . 1085 Bangor . 1086 . do . 1087 . do . 1088 Bar Harbor . Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 7 8 R. S. R. R. ’s’’ B. F. R. F. R. .... B. F. C. F. R. F. R. F. B. F. B. F. R. Fr. B. Fr. B. F. B. F. R. F. R. Fr. R. F. B. S. B. S. R. .... B. S. C. s. C. .... R. F. R. Fr. B. F. R. Fr. B. S. C R. F. R. F. B. Fr. B. F. R. _ R. F. B. F. R. .... C. F. B. F. B. .... R. F. B. F. B. Name of library. Class. a § © £ g <3 © g-Sl Q, © O 0 += © 02 Logan Female College . St. Mary’s College . Science Hill School . Academy of St. Catherine of Sienna. Central Hormal College . Kentucky Wesleyan College Gilbert Academy and Industrial School. Louisiana State University . Silliman Female Collegiate Insti¬ tute. Jefferson College . . St. Charles College . Centenary College . . Keatchie College . Mansfield Female College . State Normal School . . 184G 1821 1825 1850 1886 1866 1877 Charity Hospital Medical Library College of the Immaculate Con¬ ception. Fisk Free and Public Library. . . Grand Lodge, F. & A. M. 1860 1836 1825 1856 1856 1885 1881 Howard Memorial Library . Jewish Widows and Orphans’ Home. Leland University . McDonogh High School No. 1. New Orleans Law Association New Orleans University . St. Alphonsus* Circulating Li¬ brary. St. Joseph's Convent . Soule College . Southern Academic Institute . . . State Library of Louisiana . Straight University . Tulane University . Y.M.C. A. Library . 1858 1889 1887 1870 1890 1856 1873 1860 1868 1856 1838 Alfred Heading Club . York County Bar Library . Androscoggin County Law Li¬ brary. Public Library . Y. M. C. A. Library . . Kennebec Historical Society _ Kennebec Law Library . Lithgow Library and Heading Room. Maine Board of Agriculture . Maine Insane Hospital (Black Library) . Maine State Library . Bangor Theological Seminary. . . . Penobscot Bar Library Associa¬ tion. Public Library . Bar Harbor Library . 1884 1852 1875 1815 1855 1890 1867 1891 1881 1850 1820 1814 1849 1883 1876 Sell Col Sch Sch Col Col Col Col Col Gen . Col . Col .. Col .. Col .. Sch.. Med Col . Gen .... Masonic Gen ... A, & R. Col Sch.. Law Col . Gen Gen . Col* . SchJ . State . Col . Col . Y. M. C. A. Gen . Law Law Gen . Y.M.C.A. Hist . Law . Gen . Agrl... A & E. State . . Theo... Law . . . C. Gen Gen T. C. C. C. B. T. C. T. C. C. C. C. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1, COO volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. 409 3 . % .. | © | Receipts. gd Pamphlets. Volumes ad< during yea IS |S rp/S £,5 Ph GQ O ~ fcof n cc.tf ** . o >> ! DO ~ s t s O C*H»— * Prom taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. £ 2 o > Xanio of librarian. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 IT IS 80 $82' A. G. Murpliey, presi- i dent. •John Fehrenbach, vice- president. W. T. Pny nter _ _ 2,000 150 1 450 25 20 200 200 i . 45 1,500 1,000 500 26 1 ! Robert A. Burton, jr . . . E. H. Pearce, president. A. E. P. Albert . ' 300 | . j o o CO W. H. Goodale . i . ; ^ CO Ol -1 o o o o . I P. A. \V ri°'ht . . 200 300 . C. M. W idman . Thomas Carter . 300 40 18 ■ . J. H. Thigpen . T. S. Sligh. president . . . J. L. Westbrook, secre¬ tary. Lawrence Justin . 1, 649 2. 017 100 1, 298 43 41 ! 2, 000 . . j Af. C. Culbertson _ j 130 150 8, 500 Richard Lambert, sec- i 6, 760 1. 456 1,964 23, 441 $200, 000 retary. William Beer . ■ 100 12! 4 Michel Hermann, su- j perintemlent. Edward C. Mitchell, j president. J.Y.Callhoun, principal. P. G. Labarre . . o o o tH O O 150 600 300{ 1, 000 ! 500 100! 50! L. G. Adkinson, presi¬ dent. Everline A. Waldo . J 500 40 1 25; 30 Sister M. Augustin . Geo. Soule . 1 :: . 1 21, 905 1. 325 848 ! 470 M. C. Taylor . 1 25 Emily W. Nichols . 1 2, 000 2,120 200 500 E. Villavaso, acting . 1 ::::::::: ... i . James Sherrard, secre- ! tary. 30 I. M. Akers, assistant . . j James E. Hewey . I 25 . 620 192 . 600 I. W. Hanson . ! ■ 163 32, 760 1, 345 1, 000 Annie Prescott . 1 10 300 500 C. M. Bursley, secretary Charles E. Nash . 500 50 100 I P. A. Small . 1, 000 5, 000 2, 100 20, 000 J ulia M. Clapp ......... . 100' . 725 13 1 100 3, 000 200 : o • © 1 o • Bigelow T. Sanborn, superintendent. ' C. D. Carver . . | 8,752 : 2, 000 | 5, 000 615 272 50 12, 300 C. J. H. Ropes . 120 600 , 2, 445 1.562 1 300 426 7, 801 49, 044 32, 593 500 5, 820 944 112, 000 150 ] Albert W. Paine . J Mrs. Mary H. Curran . . I , S.A.WasgattKavanagk! 1,500 2. 000 1. 500 3,000 2, 500 1, 000 500 5, 000 9, 500 5, 600 1 1, oeo 2. soo 33, 000 4. 000 952 000 1. 000 500 000 : 000! 1, 700 000 000 ,200 ,414 ,000 ,000 , 875 ,000 ,500 ,000 000 489 660 168; 200 1041 1042 1043 1044 1045 1046 1047 1048 1049 1050 1051 1052 1053 1054 1055 1053 1057 1C58 1059 1060 1061 1062 1063 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 '410 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1091 1095 109G 1097 1098 1099 1100 noi 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110 mi 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 1128 1129 1130 1131 1132 1133 1134 1135 1136 1137 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 1148 1149 1150 Location. Fame of library. Date of found¬ ing Class. 43 £ * tij c2 Supported by taxation or corporation. x 5 |£=i. if’f *5 £ 1 o 3 4 ; 5 6 7 8 MAINE — continued. Bath . Patten Free Library . 1890 Gen . ' o. T. F. B. Belfast . Free Library . j 1888 Gen ...... 0. C. F. 1 33. 1862 Gen . B. I T. F. C. ! 1794 Col . ! O. C. Fr. B. ! 1883 Gen . 1 T. E. b! 1 1807 Gen . i °- | C. S. X5* East Maine Conference'Seminary . 1 1855 , Sell--...-.1 C. F. b‘. j 1892 Gen . O. 1 T. 1 F. B. ! 1801 Gen . B. T, F. B 1891 Sch . C. j p. E*. betts Library) . 1837 Soe . B. j C. S. B. 1867 Gen . B. C. s. c. Cumberland Mills - . Cumberland Mills Library . ' 1879 Soc . O. C. E B. Gen . • C. B. brarv) . 188l' Gen . O. T. F. B. 1874; Soc . C. S. 1 B. 1879: Gen . O. T. F. I B 1870 Gen . ! O. T. F. ! B Farmington . Abbott Family School (Little 1 ; 1844 Sch . O. C. : b: Blue Library) . . i i . do . Public Library . 1891 Gen . ! E. V- S. i p>- . do . State Formal School . . ! Sch . 1 1 , Gardiner _ _ _ Public Library. _ - 1871 Gen . T. 1 F. i B 1 Gorham _ _ . _ . do . . . 1882 Gen . : b. C. s. ! B _ rl r> . . State Formal School . 1879 Sch . T. i*; Hallo well . . Hubbard Free Library . 1842 I Gen _ _ i 0. B. E. B. . do . . Maine Industrial School for Girls. A.&B _ Hebron Hebron Academy . . . Sch . C. .... Kennebunk . First Congregational Parish Li¬ i 1861 Gen . C. B. brary. . do . Free Eibrary Association . 1882 ! Gen . 0. c. s. j C. Kents Hill . Maine "Wesleyan Seminary . 1821 Col . O- c. : C. I Kitteiy . Bice Public Library . .' . 1874 Gen . 0. c. F." j B. i Lewiston . ! Bates College . . . 1863 Col . c. ! Fr. , B. . do . Cobb Divinity School . I 3840 Theo . c. B. . do . Manufacturers and Mechanics Li- ‘ 1861 Gen . c. 's'* | B. | brary Association. | | . do . . . Fichol s Latin School . . . Sch . c. Machias . Porter Memorial Library . | 1804 Gen . 1 0. 1 T. | Er. i B. ! "\Tfiw Gloucester. _ Public Library. . . . I 1889 Gen . T. I F. B. Tffiw Sharon ! Town Li brary _ 1859 Gen _ 0. F. B. Kortli Bridgton . Bridgton Academy _ _ _ Sch . C. i 1 "Norway _ _ Public Library _ _ 1891 Gen . T. i'fV B. ; Olrltnwn . . . _ do _ _ _ _ _ [ 1891 Gen . B. j T. l F. B. ■ Orono . . Maine State College . . ; 1865 Col . C. F. B. . do . W. C. T. TJ. Free Public Library. . Gen . B. i T. ! F. B. Oxford _ Freeland Holmes Library . 1876 Gen . B. T. i F. B. Phillip:; _ Free Public Library. . . . . 1894 Gen . B. T. F. B. Portland _ 1 Clark’s Circnlatin o- Library _ _ _ ! 1877 G en _ B. c. ! s. C. ; . do . Greenleaf Law Library . Law . T. ! s. B. ; . do . i High School . ^ . . 1872 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1 . do . . Maine Charitable Mechanic As¬ 1815 Soc . O. C. s. B. sociation. . do . Maino Genealogical Society 1884 Hist _ c. s. B. Maine Historical Society. 1822 Hist .... c. Er. B. 1 . do . Portland Society of Fatural His¬ 1843 Scien . O. j c. Fr. B. tory. . do . Post Library, Fort Preble . . Gar . ! T. Fr. B. . do . Public Library . 1867 Gen . j O. j T. F. B. . do . Bossini Club Library _ 1869 Soc _ B. C. C. ' _ do . State "Reform School (boys’ A. and E ! | c. B. library). Presaue Isle... . Library Association . 1870 Gen _ T. S. C. 1 Pi eh m on d _ _ do . . . 1867 fi-PTl _ j B. C. s. C. i Saco . Dy er Library . . . . 1881 O. c. F. B. . do . York Institute . . . 1866 Gen _ j O. c. F. E. Searsport . Sears Public Library . 1870 Gen _ 1 B. T. E. B. J Skowhegan . Free Public Library . 1889. Gen . O. c. 1 s. B. 411 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBEAKIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. Pamplilets. i Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Beceipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. Prom taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 7 874 409 ; 32 331 1, 239 $1, 750 $10, 000 7, 192 024 23! 951 53, 153 Annie V. Field, assistant 6, 000 . 80 9 000 280 Emma Hatch . 2,000 2, 200 400 6 090 2, 396 18, 700 Geo. T. Little . 6, 000 383 21, 000 1, 130 Mary G. Gilman . 3, 050 200 576 10, 000 Alice B. Gardner . 5’ 924 2,500 1, 335 A. F. Chase, principal . . 4, 891 591 19, 143 300 1, 394 5,000 2,' 700 75 165 P. J. Hoke . 1 ' 310 30 100 600 ! 60 1, 000 C. C. Biehardson . 1, 220 28 20 Bebecca Burnham. ..... lj 350 . 70 16 2, 600 61 Mary I. Marr . . 3, 000 200 54 9, 050 Lucy S. Anderson . 3, 000 50 25 H.S. Whitman, president 350 18, 381 $500 577 L. S. Springall . 1, 200 36 1, 200 45 Josiah Harris . 4' 977 19, 333 710 Mrs. Charlotte Wood .. 3,640 166 410 Adelaide True . 3,' 000 1, 000 5, 000 275 1, 000 15, 000 450 Mrs. Flora A. Brooks.. 1, 750 5, 610 100 8. 756 1,000 1, 100 Chas. O. Wadsworth _ 3, 000 250 101 40 3, 761 580 Sara L. Bobie . 1, 697 569 59 200 W. J.Corthell, principal 8,500 395 13, 079 1,402 O 5 O Annie F. Page . 1, 000 1,175 3,000 125 2,500 116 1, 600 F. P. Hall . 3, 000 40 4, 500 459 700 Annio M. Nason . 8, 000 5, 000 300 A. F. Caldwell . 5, 000 200 470 25 13, 952 1, 500 30, 000 Abbie A. P. Goodsoe . . . 12, 400 280 700 Caroline A. Woodman. . 3, 600 100 100 Alfred W. Anthony _ 6, 3C0 416 15, 000 1,108 1,336 3, 000 2, SCO 425 2, 127 387 7, 500 307 316 Helen A. Moseley . 2, 126 152 152 60 500 Nellie Neal . 1,000 5, 000 400 300 30 3, 000 700 500 2, 550 A . E. Monahan . . 1,267 185 2s! 000 300 334 Eupbemia Hilliard . 9, 012 3, 000 602 800 1, 393 2, 000 Harriet C. Fernald . 1, 209 100 30 2, 500 ::::::: 220 Mrs. F. L. Harvey . 1, 200 200 50 50 George Hazen . 1,458 24 582 300 330 Mrs. A. M. Greenwood. 3, 800 170 "R el eu M. S wet.t . . . 4, 257 173 725 Beuel Small . 1,900 10 600 A. E. Chase . 15, 000 225 33 14, 320 500 W. H. Averill, chairman 1, 253 769 i 120 223 290 1,000 Joseph P. Thompson .. . 9, 5S5 12, 500 375 850 . 750 10, 000 H. W. Bryant . 2, 622 1, 917 250 73o 1 650 3, 000 Joseph P. Thompson... 1, 000 382 107 120 872 245 100 Jno. H. Gifford . 41, 583 22, 000 1, 764 978 86, 269 37, 693 10, 197 20, 000 Alice C. Furbish . 1,630 37 Janie N. Thompson _ 2, 126 70 42 700 J. B. Farrington, super¬ intendent. 1, 109 6, 000 225 Fred H. Blake . 4, 027 1,323 1, 000 Wm. H. Stuart _ 10, 500 400 27, 000 2, 000 46, 000 John Haley . . 1, 200 5, 000 1, 784 W. S. Dennett . 1, 700 5 75 90 Hallie N. Boulston _ 7, 000 800 245 7, 651 1 3, 786 16, 000 Clara A. Morrison . 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1096 1097 1098 1099 1100 1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 1128 1129 1130 1131 1132 1133 1134 1135 1136 1137 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 1148 1149 1150 412 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. 1 Maine— continued. 1151 South Berwick . 1152 Thomaston . 1153 . do . 1154 Togus . 1155 Waterville . 1156 1157 . do . 1158 . do . 1159 Westbrook . 1160 Winterport . 1161 . do . 1162 Winthrop . 1163 Wiscasset . 1 1164 1165 Woodfords . 1166 York Harbor . MAKYLAXD. 1167 Annapolis . 1168 . do . . 1169 . do . 1170 Baltimore . 1171 . do . 1172 . do . 1173 . do . 1174 _ do . 1175 . do . . 1176 . do . 1177 . do . 1178 . do . 1179 . do . 1180 . do . 1181 . do . 1182 i . do . 1183 . do . 1184 1 . do . 1185 I _ fJn . . 1186 ! . do . 1187 . do . 1188 . do . 1189 1 . do . 1190 1 . do . 1191 . do . 1192 . do . 1193 Baltimore (847 North Eutaw street). 1194 Baltimore . 1195 Baltimore (Station D). 1196 Baltimore . 1197 Baltimore (Station L). 1198 Baltimore . 1199 Baltimore (310 St. Xame of library. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation dr corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 4 5 6 7 8 Gen . O. l C. F. B. Gen . R. C. S. C. A. and R.. c. C. Gen . 0. c. B. Sch . c. B. Col . c. S. B. Gen . c. s. C. Gen . R. c. s. B. Gen . O. T F. B. Gen . R. T. F. B. Gen . C. S. C. Gen . R. T. F. B Law . C. F. R. Soc . C. S. C. Gen . c. S B. Gen . O. c. S. C. Gen . T. F. R Col . C. Fr. R. Col T. Sch . C. B. Theo . C. R. Gen . O. c. Fr*. B. Sch . c. B. Sch . c. Col . c. Fr. R. Gen . T. F. R. Gen . 6. T. F. B. Sch . R. C. R Soc. and R. C. Fr. B. Hist. Sch . C. R. A. and R . . T. B. I.O.O.F.. C. C. S. C. Col . O. C. .... B. Sch . c. Gen . c. Fr. C. Law . c. S. R. Gen . c. R. Hist . c. Fr. R. Gen . c. S. B. A. and R. . T. C. Sch . C. B. Masonic . . C. C. Med . O. c. Fr* B. Col . c. B. Col . c. "si* B. Soc . R. c. S. B. Col . c. S. R. Gen . O. c. F. R. Sch . R. T. B. Berwick Academy (Fogg Memo¬ rial Library)! Ladies’ Library . Maine State Prison Library. N ational Soldiers ' Home . Coburn Classical Institute. Colby University . Library Association . Waterville Woman’s Association Memorial Library . Free Library . Ladies’ Circle Library . Public Library . Paul street). Social Library . Deering Public Library. York Library . Maryland State Library . St. John's College . United States Naval Academy Library. Academy of the Visitation . Archbishop’s Library . Baltimore and Ohio "Employee’s Library. Boys’ Home . Bryn Mawr School . Calvert Hall College . 1891 City Library . 1875 Enoch Pratt Free Library . 1882 Friends’ Elementary and High 1864 School Library. Germania Turn- Verein . i 1855 1894 1841 1869 1829 1820 1875 1887 1894 1895 1865 1890 1824 1799 1870 1881 1827 1696 1845 1838 1808 1884 1870 Girls’ Latin School. 1893 House of Refuge . ! 1855 I. O. O. F. Library . Johns Hopkins University . Knapp's (F.) Institute . Knights of Pythias . Library Company of the Balti¬ more Bar. Loyola College . Maryland Historical Society _ Maryland Institute for the Pro¬ motion of the Mechanic Arts. Maryland Penitentiary . . Maryland School for the Blind . . . Masonic Library Association Medical and Chirurgical Faculty of Maryland. Morgan College . Mount St. Joseph College . . New Mercantile Library . Notre Dame of Maryland. 1845 1876 Peabody Institute Library. Public School Library . 1878 1840 1853 1843 1848 1837 1853 1880 1799 1876 1887 1887 1896 1857 1865 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 413 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. d d © d tJ d £ £ g|§ a © *2 Receipts. a qj © q GO CD a s 'o > GO £ Ph i Ph 8g> s-g ©d t> 'Sg © W) P3 .9 Ph U a 3 Ph GO ^ ^ CO o ~?J P3 2 u o3.o O'P'W « •3* . © >> ao U * 3 g t-l o o.o 3 O fl r-H pq c3 a . a f Ph #pj © ~ a -38 o H «m| I® *. 0 ■ 500 248 1, 500 J. T. Talbot, dean . 1289 1, 575 11, 965 | 1 Horace G.Wadlin, chief. 1299 25, 000 500 1, 275 I 400 85, 000 50 ! i Hattie M. Baker . 1291 38, 417 34, 410 904 539 1, 721 15, 000 ^ William H. Cobb . 1292' 3, 000 200 100 50 Wm. E. Murdock . 1293 1, 500 1 1294 1,530 ! . i . 1295 3, 500 50 35 5 800 5 44 C. W. Brown, secretary. 1299 14, 000 5, 000 245 75 1,000 60 25, 000 Lucy F . Doggett, assist- 1297 ant. 2, 800 100 25 100 j May M. Smith, acting 1298 1 . | librarian. 6, 000 1, 500 340 150 1299 2, 441 ! 246 29 14 777 81 j Sereno D. Nickerson _ 1309 1,000 I 1301 1,000 500 1 . 1302 4,500 30 ICO 1 J. W. Baird, actuary _ 1303 40, 000 95,000 600 j 2, 000 11, 200 j ' Samuel A. Green ...... . 1304 ED 96 14 418 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United 1305 1300 1307 1308 1309 1310 1311 1312 1313 1314 Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. 3 ti p OP S’3 O Supported by taxation dr corporation. u ; p . 22 P © U += ° 3 § sj r 1 O * Z, u S ° c2 c 3 ° S £ p © 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 MASSACHUSETTS— continued. Boston (101 Tre- mont street) . Massachusetts Horticultural So¬ ciety. Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ nology. Massachusetts New Church TJnion. 1829 1870 1864 Sei . Col . .... C. C. c. c. c. c. c. c. T. s. F. Fr. Fr. S. 7 ! F. L B. B. B. R. R. R. , B. B. Boston (16 Arling ton street). Theo . ! Soc _ Boston (18 Somerset street) . Boston (36 Brom- field street, room 21). Boston (39 North Bennet street) . Boston (Fort War¬ ren). Boston (Copley square). Hew England Historical Gene- ological Society . Hew England Methodist Histor¬ ical Society’s Library. North Bennet Street Industrial School. Post Library, Fort Warren . 1845 1880 1880 1850 1852 1 | Hist . Hist . O. Gen . : Gar . Gen . O. School of Theologv . Theo _ 1315 Boston (court- 1804 Law . C. 1 s. B. house). 1316 1 Boston (room 142, State Board of Health . 1S69 Sci . T. Fr. R. State House). 1317 ! Boston (State State Library of Massachusetts.. 1826 State . S. ' Fr. R. | House). 1318 ! Boston _ _ Treadwell Library of Massachu¬ 1858 Med . c. R. setts General Hospital. 1319 ! . . do . . Wells’ Memorial Institute . 1879 Gen _ c. S. R. 1320 ! Boston 264 Boyl- Women’s Educational and Indus¬ 1880 Gen . c. Fr. B. ston street). trial Union. 1321 Boston (458 Boyl- Y. M. C. A. Library . . . 1851 Y.M.C. A. . . . . c. B ston street). 1322 Boston (48 Boylston Young Men’s Christian Union. . . 1851 Y.W.C.U. !.... c. S. B. street). 1323 Boston (40 Berkeley Y. W. C. A. Library . 1865 Y.W. C. A. _ c. Fr. B. street). 1324 B oxford ............ Public Library . . . 3873 Gen _ 0. c. F. B 1325 Boylston Center.... Boylston Public Library . 1880 Gen . T. F. B. 1326 Bradford . . . Bradford Academy . | 1803 Sch . C. R. 1327 do _ ----- - . . Public Library' . 1890 Hen . _ R. c. *F.' B. 1328 Brid newater . . . do . . . . 1 1879 Gen O. T. E. B. 1329 do _ State Normal School . . 1840 Sch .... T. R, 1330 ' Brimfield .......... . Free Public Library . . 1 1877 | Gen . T. F. B. 1331 . do . . Hitchcock Free High School . 1855 ! Sch . C. F. B. 1332 Brockton . Public Library . 1867 Gen _ T. F. B. 1333 Brookfield _ Merrick Public Library . . . 1867 i Gen _ O. T. F. | B. 1334 Brookline Public Library _ _ 185" j Gen . o. T. F. B. 1335 Buckland . . Public Church Library . . . 1890 Gen _ 0. C. F. ! B. 1336 Burlington Public, Library .... 18o8 Hen _ . . T. F. ! B. 1337 Buzzards Bay . . Bourne Free Public Library . 1891 1 Gen . T. F. C. 1338 Cnmhri d w, _ _ . Cambridge Entomological Club.. 1874 Scien .... C. Fr. B 1339 . dc . Cambridge Social Union . 1871 Soc . c. Fr. C. 1340 . dc . English High School . 1850 . Sch . T. B. 1341 . do . Episcopal Theological School- 1869 Theo _ C. Fr. B. 1342 . do . . . . Harvard University _ 1638 Col . 0. C. Fr.: B. 1343 . do . . Hew Church Theological School. . 1866 Theo . c. R. 1344 _ do . . . Peabody Museum Library _ 1866 Sri _ c. Fr. R. 1345 . do . Public Library . 1858 Gen . 0. T. F. ; B. 1346 do . Radclifi'e College . . 1879 i Col . C. B. 1347 Cambridgeport . Abbott Parker Library. _ 1878 '• Gen . R. ’s'"l C. 1348 . do . . . . East End Christian Union . . . 1892 Soe, _ O. C. F. 1 B. 1349 . do . E. F. Hunt & Co’s Circulating Li¬ 1833 Gen . R. c. S. C. . brary. 1 1350 Canton _ Ladies’ Social Library . Soc . c. C. 1351 do Public Library . i 1875 Gen . 1 T. "fV B. 1352 I Carlisle . Gleason Library . 1 1872 Gen . ! 0. 1 T. 1 F. 1 B, a Includes Central Library, thirteen branch libraries, and ten delivery stations. 419 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and ovei' in 1S96 — Continued. m 2 3 o > T. J2 § 5 . 2 3 3 © ~ I ^ © . 5-c nj - If § P-4 r-* U . ? C2 ® * g 111 rH Books issued for uso within library. Receipts. £ P 2 £ > Xame of librarian. 03 * . d s ^0 P ^ © *3 O o° H 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 IS 8, 000 7, 500 300 Rolit. 31nnoing . 39, -±32 12, 180 3, 189 Eobt. P. Bigelow . 2. 300 42 59 S Edw\l A . ^Fliiston _ _ 1 38S 9 9,29 408 42 £598 B. X. Gilman, curator _ 22 000 19! 000 962 736 ::::::: 7,746 Wm. Prescott Green low. assistant. 4, 064 17, 317 69 118 376 "Willard 8. Allen _ 2 400 200 50 7, 000 1, 200 300 S. Smith, first lieuten ant. Second V- S. Ar¬ tillery. 630, 961 3,000 30, 611 847, 321 250,000 : 8201,213 j ' Herbert Putnam . 4,000 28, 500 909 59 15, 556 20, 051 Francis W. Vaughan. . . 3,000 1, 000 Samuel W. Abbott, sec¬ retary. 90,000 67,000 4. 175 3,202 6,800 . C. B. Tilliughast . 3, 000 25 275; 5, 000 J. W. Pratt, resident | physician. 1, 200 40 2, 000 25 31. L. Durgin, general assistant. 4. 163; 100 38 6. 021 8, 7501 loal Edw. 31. Donnelly...... 13,489’ 666 20, 570 Richard Rav, ir _ ... 1 1, 600 53’ Sarah J. Buttrick. sn- I perintendent. 1. 765 76 ?>0 100; 500 3Iiss 3£arv Sawrer 3. 769 216 3, 553 90] 879’ 500 Geo. L. Wright. . 5, 375 35 Helen L. Crane . . 3.914 400 341 200 2L 664 9801 2,500 Hate E. J ohnson . . . 9, 929 134 23, 808 994 500 Eucia E. Christian _ 4. 000 2,000 200 Albert G. Boyden, prin¬ cipal. 3. 962 2, 000 105; 20* 3, 445 150 3Iiss 31. A. Tarbell . 1, 980 25' 486 5, OOO; . Geo. W. Earle . 23.533 2, 655. 1, 775 1 562 102.835 7, 567 ; 9.371 9. 936 31yra F. Sonthworth. . . 13.417 300 25. 417 650 1, 290 12,000 ’ Eliza P. Hobbs . 43. 768 2, 000 1, 873 354 88, 633 23,596 12,000; 12, 726 15.000; Cnas. K. Bolton . isoo ■ 1,740 45 1, 0001 A. C. Hodges . 2.550 456; 7! 27 2.000 „ _ _ ... 1.050 l,000j E. S. Foster, reporting. . 1. 287 50 124 2, 661 ""*"274! 291 Fred. C. Small . . 1.000 . Sam 4 XL Scudder . 4. 500 240 10, 684 L. R. Pearson . 3.000 . 90 3Iartha L. Babbitt . 9. 000 395 1, 212 1.000’ Edith D. Fuller . 460. 000 375. 000 16, 000 12, 000 105, 000 50, 000 440, COO Justin Winsor . 2. 500 500 25 10 Theo. F. Wright . 1. 497 1, 863: F. \Y . Putnam. curator. 50.128 4. 090 137. 702 18, 820| 8, 500 W" m. E. R. Gifibrd 9.300 1. 341 6. 134 Caroline 4 . Fnrlev _ 2.500 400 1, 300 200 200; 150 John F. Walker, super¬ intendent. 3,700 100 400’ 3,000. a 450 454 17, 101 1. 567' Jennie A. Hewett _ 1. 500t . ms . 1 L 431 75; 150. Thomas 4 Green . 1305 1306 1307 1308 1309 1310 1311 1312 1313 1314 1315 1316 1317 1318 1319 1320 1321 1322 1323 1324 1325 1326 1327 1328 1329 1330 1331 1332 1333 1334 1335 1336 1337 1338 1339 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 1345 1346 1347 1348 1349 1350 1351 1352 420 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. a . fci o.5 © % Class. I Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 MASSACHUSETTS— continued. 1353 1891 Gen . T. F. B. 1354 High School . 1 . 1850 Sch . t! B. 1355 . do . 1805 A. &R _ O. State. C. 1356 : Hen _ _ T. *F. C. 1357 Public Library . 1888 Gen . R. C. F. B. 1358 1893 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1359 Gen . R. C. S. C. 1360 ....do . Fitz Public Library^ . .”. _ ' 1868 : Gen _ O. T. F. B. 1361 Librarv Association . 1866. Soc . O. C. S. C. 1362 1894 Gen _ T. F. B. 1363 1872 Gen _ T. F. C. 1364 Chicopee . City Library” . j 1854| Gen . O. T. F. B. 1365 Cliftondale . Public Librarv . ! 1885 Gen _ _ R. C. F. B. 1366 18751 Gen . T. F. B. 1367 1880 Gen _ T. F. B. 1368 . do . . 185l' Gen . . O. T. & C. F. B. 1369 1884' Reform C. C. 1370 Town Library . • 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 1371 Cotuit” . Cotuit Library . ^ Gen _ O. C. F. B. 1372 1872 Hen O. T. F. B. 1373 1861 Hen _ O. C. F. B. 1374 Danvers . Danvers Hospital Library . i 1878 Med . C. B. 1375 _ _ do... . Peabody Institute . 1866 Gen . 0. c. F. B. 1376 Dedham . Dedham Historical Society . 1862 Hist . O. c. S. R. 1377 . do . . . Norfolk County Law Library _ 1815 Law . T. Ft. R. 1378 . do . Public Library . 1872 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1379 Deerfield . . Dickinson Library . 1878 Gen . O. C. F. C. 1380 . do . Pocum tuck Valley Memorial As- j 1870 Gen . O. C. F. C. sociation Library. 1381 Dorch ester . TTicli School _ _ Sch . B. 1382 Dover . . . Town Library . - 1894 Gen . T. F. B. 1383 Dudley . Con ant Library . 1870 Sch . O. S. B. 1384 . do . Nichols’ Academy . Sch . c." 1385 Dunstable . Free Public Library . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 1386 Duxbury . Free Library . 1890 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1387 1 . do . Powder Point School . 1886 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1388 East Bridgewater . . Public Library . 1884 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1389 East Cambridge _ Middlesex County Law Library . . 1814 Law . C. R. 1390 Eq^t, Dennis . . East Dennis Association _ 1870 Gen . . C. ’s.’ B. 1391 East Don a-] as _ Free Public, Library _ 1879 Gen . . F. C. 1392 East-ham . . Public Librarv . 1878 Gen . T. F. C. 1393 E as tham p ton ....... . do . . . 1881 Gen . T. S. B. 1394 __ do . "Williston Seminary _ 1841 Sch . C. B. 1395 East Northfield . Talcott Library of Northfield 1887 Sch . C. Fr.’ B. Seminary. 1396 i Eqst Orleans _ Orleans Public School Librarv _ 1896 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1397 1 East Saugus . Circulating Library . 1865 Gen . R. C. S; C. 1398 Enfield . Enfield Library . 1881 Gen . c. F. B. 1399 ! Ervin cr _ _ Town Librarv . 1893 Gen . R. T. F. C. 1400 Essex . T. O. H. P. Burnham Public Li¬ 1893 Gen . O. C. F. B. brary. 1401 i Everett . Parlin Memorial Library. . 1878 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1402 ! Fairhaven . Millie, ent Library _ _ 1893 Gen _ O. C. F. B. 1403 j Fall River . B. M. C. Dnrfee TTio-h School 1887 Sch . B. 1404 ! _ do . _ _ Pnblic, Library . . . 1861 Hen . R. T. F. B. 1405 Falmouth . Free Public, Library _ _ 1891 Gen . F. B. 1406 Fitchburg . Public Library . 1859 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1407 Florence . Lilly Librarv . 1863 Gen _ _ T. F. B. 1408 Foxboro . . Boyden Library . 1870 Hen _ O. F. B. 1409 : Framingham . State Normal School . 1839 Sch . State . B. 1410 1 . do . . Town Library . 1855 Gen . 0. T. &. C F. B. 1411 Eranlrlin . Dean Academy. _ _ _ Sch . C. B. 1412 . do . Public Library . . 1786 Gen . R. T. F.* B. 1413 Gardner . . Levi Hey wood Memorial Library. 1886 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1414 Georgetown . . . Peabody Library . . 1869 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1415 Gill . j Town Library . 1872 Gen . T. F. B. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 421 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. 3 • 2 *•» 2 cS cS 0 to ^ C fcO p/C 5 ^ Books issued during year for home rise. Books issued for uso within library. Reo eb X ■ei . 0! 1 eipts. 0 T- 0 0 H Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. 9 10 11 is 13 14 15 16 17 18 1, 000 150 92 100 ' 3 170 $115 $1, 000 Lizzie M. Temple...... 3' 375 50 J, O Norris, headmaster 6' 800 400 31 177 ! J.W.F. Barnes, chaplain 2. 098 276 3 248 ”’$266 *220 500 J. F. Rich, trustee . l! 949 50 254 6. 262 274 ] P. H. Lewis . 2, 207 10, 960 2, 020 2,500 500 700 j Henry A. Cornell. _ _ 14, 789 1, 721 427 70, 423 8, 329 4, 700 3,127 43 2, 300 75 Emma E. Martin . 1,228 40 56 2 084 75 95 1, 200 40 700 25 30 Claxton if. Rhoades .... 16’ 000 816 46 144 2 650 Geo. V. Wheeloe.k looo 1, 600 15 500 Geo. M. Amerige . 20, 600 286 45, 018 2, 000 2, 025 1 G. L. Greene . 144 27 8 692 1, 000 1 Sarah B. Collier 21, 848 1, 059 26 ’ 074 2, 500 51, 076 Ellen F. TVhitne.y 3, 500 52, 000 1 Joseph F. Scott, super- . j tendent. 2, 209 125 . 1,830 95 1, 000 Henry W. Billings . 2, 500 6, 500 800 900 50 75 75 L. H. Tower . 6, 145 700 645 70 15,833 404 731 Carlotta Bicknell . 1, 800 2, 000 25 500 Chas. W. Page, M. D., superintendent. 16, 585 500 483 24, 256 2, 455 67, 695 Emilie K. Davis . 4, 500 6,000 125 282 703 3, 000 700 125 Erastus Worthington.. 13, 500 786 27, 092 4, 072 5, 625 Miss F. M. Mann . 2, 800 3,000 250 6,000 6, 000 Eat. Hitchcock, secre¬ tary and treasurer. 2,000 1,000 406 1 5, 160 56 510 Marion B. Hodgson _ 2. 800 410 64 42 1,400 2,446 928 Alfred G. Collins . 2, 600 1,650 200 20 • 975 25 72 Lizzie H. Swallow . 2, 380 150 4, 300 450 8, 000 W. W. Wood . 1,500 F. B. Knapp, principal. 2, 480 106 9, 733 500 595 1, 500 Lucy L. Si rid all . 9,050 650 4, 000 Grace L. Rowley _ 1, 516 55 400 25 52 500 Blanche E. Hall . 2, 805 238 . 9, 163 1 . Mrs. A. L. Buffington _ 1,153 65 1, 392 47 80 Mrs. H. C. Clark 10, 135 . 113 1 . 15, 550 500 992 1, 500 C. H. Johnson, treasurer 3,500 250 Wm. Gallagher, Ph. D. . 5, 065 172 1, 500 . Margaret F. Newell _ 1, 500 i 40; 1 4 200 ! . F. E. Sanborn, principal high school. 1,300 300 30 Henry J. Mills . 3, 000 150 4, 320 100 i 100 s 3, 000 A. L. Harwood . 1,425 75 3, 000 50 801 P. L. Rankin . 1, 400 300 9, 200 796, 19, 950 Jennie H. Woodman... 10, 112 712 54, 933 2,000 3, 650! Ellen L. Johnson . 12, 000 50 1,200 25 54, 000 6, 150| 100,000 Don C. Stevens . 1,500 150 20 15 C. C. Ramsay, A. B., . 1 A. M.. principal. 49, 395 : 2, 003 65 109, 343 61, 021 7,000 11, 148] Wm. R. Ballard . 3, 040 ! 277 8, 086 3, 000 Clara L. Davis . 30, 000 i 1,335 57, 095 4, 378 5, 000 7, 269 Prescott C. Rice . 5, 800 225 . 11, 461 ’500 ’ 922 Mary A Fuller . 4, 300 200 15, 758 450 594 1, 500 M. D. Torry . 2. 985 239 . M. E. Robbins . 18, 101 1, 028 i . 42, 564 1, 850 3,846 47, 500 1, 350 r;:;; 6, 000 200 S 60 11 10, 000 700 897 2, 500 Ella G. Campbell . 6, 519 338 19, 153 500 2, 309 18, 000 Nelly S. Osgood . 8, 744 284 7, 843 1, 300 32, 763 Roger S. Howe, trustee . 1, 559 1 J 87 1 700 Mrs. H. L. Purple . 1353 1354 1355 1356 1357 1358 1359 1860 1361 1362 1363 1364 1365 1366 1367 1368 1369 1370 1371 1372 1373 1374 1375 1376 1377 1378 1379 1380 1381 1382 1383 1384 1385 1386 1387 1388 1389 1390 1391 1392 1393 1394 1395 1396 1397 1398 1399 1400 1401 1402 1403 1404 1405 1406 1407 1408 1409 1410 1411 1412 1413 1414 1415 422 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Karne of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. ® § w £ ; O ^ ! 02 I U ik r©~3 1 o ! bt- •| g ij5 ©' =3 « IS § I— t- p © 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ! 8 MASSACHUSETTS— 1 continued. 1416 1888 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1417 . do . Gloucester Lyceum, and Sawyer 1872 Gen . 0. C. F. B. Free Library. 1418 1866 Gen . T. F. B. 1419 1881 Gen . T. F. B. 1420 1878 Law ...... 1 T. F. E. 1421 1881 Gen . . . T. F. C. 1422 1855 Soc ....... 0. S. C. 1428 1884 Sch . c. B. 1424 Sch . C. 1425 _ do . 1854 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1426 Hadley . 1856 Gen . H. C. S. C. tioii. 1427 1876 Gen . . C. F. B. 1428 1891 Gen _ E. C. F. C. 1429 1887 Gen . T. F. B. 1430 1892 Gen . B. F. B. 1431 1876 Sch . C. E. 1432 . do . 1856 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1433 1887 Gen . O. F. B. 1434 1872 Gen . T. F. B. 1435 Haverhill . Morse & Son s Circulating Libra¬ 1870 Mer . E. C. S. C. 1436 . fio _ _ ry. Public Library . . . 1873 Gen _ 0. C. F. B. 1437 Hayden ville . Library Association . 1884 G en . O. T. S. C. 1438 Hingham Center. . . . Hingham Public Library . 1869 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1439 Hinsdale _ Public Library . . . . 1860 Gen . O. T. F. C. 1440 Holbrook . . . _ do . 1874 Gen _ _ T. F. B. 1441 Holden _ PJ-nle Free Library _ _ 1889 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1442 Holliston . . Public Library . . . 1879 Gen . T. F. B. 1443 Holyoke _ _ . _ . d o ]870 Gen . 1 T. F. B. 1444 . do . Teachers’ Professional Library. . . 1879 Sch . 1 C. R. 1445 Hopedale . . _ _ Public Library _ _ _ . 1886 Gen . T. F. B. 1446 Hopkinton _ _ _ _ 1890 Gen . j 0. C. F. B. 1447 Hubbardston . . . . do. . . 1872 Gen... ‘...J T. F. B. 1448 Hudson . . . _ do . . . 1868 Gen _ T. F. B. 1449 Hya.nnia _ Hyannis Library _ .. 1867 Gen . E. T. S. C. 1450 Hyde park . Public Library . . . . i 1874 Gen . E. T. F. B. 1451 Ipswich . Free Library . . . 1868 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1452 Kingston . . Library Association . . 1871 Gen ....... E. C. S. C. 1453 Lancaster _ Town Tjibrary.. _ _ _ 1862 G en ... _ O. T. F. B. 1454 Lanesboro . . . do _ _ _ 1870 Gen _ T. F. C. 1455 ! Lawrence _ F,s»ex County Truant School A. &R _ 1456 i . do . Free Public Library _ 1872 Gen _ E. T. F. B. 1457 i Lee . Public Library . 1874 Gen . T. F. B. 1458 Leicester . . . do . 1861 Gen . T. F. B. 1459 j Len or _ _ Lenox Library _ . _ _ 1855 Gen . C. F. C. 1460 ! Leominster _ _ _ Public Library. .. _ 1856 Gen . T. F. B. 1461 Lexington . Cary Library . 1868 Gen . "" T. F. B. 1462 Lincoln . . . Liueoln Library. . . 1884 Gen . O. F. B. 1463 Littleton . . Pen ben Hoar Library _ _ 1887 Gen . 0. C. F. 1 B. 1464 1 Lowell . City Library . . . 1844 Gen. _ _ _ _ T. F. B. 1465 . do . Middlesex Mechanics’ Associa¬ 1833 Gen - 0. C. s. B. 1466 . do . . . tion . Old Residents’ Historical Asso¬ 1868 Hist _ c. F. E. ciation. 1467 _ do _ Hectors’ Library of St. Anne's 1846 Theol . c. B. Church. 1468 . do . St. Patrick’s Sunday School 1864 Soc ....... c. S. i B. 1469 Lunenberg . Public Library _ 1852 Gen _ T. F. B. 1470 Lynn . Free, Public Library _ _ 1862 Gen _ _ _ T. F. ! B. 1471 . do . , . Lander Post Ko. 5. G. A. E . 1886 Soc . C. Ft. B. 1472 Lynn field Center. . . . Lynnfield Public Library . 1892 Gen _ _ T. F. ; B. 1473 Malden . . High School . . . 1857 Sch . C. R. 1474 . do . Ladies’ Exchange Circulating 1886 Gen . E. C. C. Library. 1475 _ do _ _ Public Library . 1879 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1476 Mnnclia, ng . . _ Sutton Branch Library . 1882 Gen . T. F. ! C. 1477 [ Manchester . 1 Public Library . ‘ . 18711 Gen . 6. T. f. ; B. 423 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Fame of librarian. Prom taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 IO 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 r, too 37 1, 296 21r921 $250 A . \V. Bacheler _ _ 10 000 300 23, 868 5,000 $120, 000 Edw. Dollivar, clerk _ _ 8, 790 10 33 124 1, 035 6, 300 TT S. Xichols . 6, 000 309 350 1, 500 $500 650 A. C. Collins . 7,000 250 100 1, 000 Sami T) Conant, attor¬ I ney at law. 940 36 537 1, 500 i Emma Tyler _ _ .. 11. 056 423 52 6, 000 . 750 11, 000 2,000 224 450 10,000 2,700 . 1 7, 268 7, 675 . 859 1, 113 4, 500 - Emma P Blood . 2, 517 10 99 ! Pranklin Bonney, M. D . 2, 600 68 1. 595 25 83 Tames T. Thomas . 1, 965 233 3, 163 200 Annie E. W oodbury _ 3, 356 55 548 n 7, 060 419 ' E. E. Sylvester . 1, 500 603 130 2, 000 j Hannah R. Spooner . 1, 000 300 Lilia Prost, principal - . . A, 007 95 . 4, 998 . j 374 4,000 5^ 000 . 200 5, 000 200 200 300 300 . . J. H. Sanderson . 1, 500 1, 600 50 58, 000 2. 000 2, 207 102 80, 392 10, 600 120,000 Edward Capen . 1. 500 200 25 12 1, 968 89 A. R. Thatcher . 10, COO 146 13, 155 1, 200 23, 000 Hawkes Fearing _ 3, 500 500 200 5, 000 1, 000 300 310 P. R. Birmingham . 7, 244 187 12, 979 600 892 3, 000 ; Sarah R,. Erench _ 4, 189 109 . 6, 273 343 200 200 ; A. M. Holden . 5, 336 33 184 6 14. 574 j 378 454 1, 000 J. E. Rock wood . 18, 000 622 46, 692 3, 250 1 S. E. Elv . 2, 000 5,079 215 30 8, 429 1, 194 Frank H. French . 3, 000 400 8, 300 1, 800 1 2, 500 Mary C. Holman . 5.625 125 5, 558 225 f!. E. Marean _ 8, 000 500 24! 000 2, 000 325 770 Grace H. AVhittemore. . 1,217 25 355 14, 250 600 33, 578 4, 310 1,850 2, 691 TT. A R_ Thompson 12, 300 200 16, 000 36,' 666 LydaA. Caldwell. . 1,972 40 1. 000 Emma T. Ransom. . j 26, 204 15, 503 927 764 14. 489 . 1,745 8,200 Alice G. Chandler . J 1,800 30 2, 000 90 120 Rev. C. J- Palmer . 1,000 ... | 44, 7131 1 6, 900 1 6,236 509 109, 444 1 10,381 10, 322 Fred. H. Hedge . 4, 000 200 400 431 L. S. Rowland . 8, 217 I 1, 000| 259 277 8, 954 1,380 2, 000 H. L. AV atson . 11, 000 344 7, 286 625 5. 000 R. Goodman, treasurer. . I 16, 781 2,021 40, 312 1, 200 2, 386 7, 000 J. M. Bronson . 15, 290 85 403 25, 131 2, 652 3,113 13. 000 Florenc e E . AVh itch er . . , 6, 000 . 400 4, 300 1, 095 7, 000 H. A- Howes . . 6, 476 292 40 5, 846 7, 514 S. P. White . . . 53, 825 1, 822 128, 800| 16, 554 3, 229 17 665 "Fred A Chase 20, 000 500; 100 200 5, 000; 1, 000 1, 200 A hide G. Watson. 1, 000 2,000 12 50 . i 185 Clarence W. \V hidden, 5,000 40 secretary. A . St. John Chambr6, | . rector. 1,100 30 25 3, 770 197 ■ 5. 636 233 263 500 T. Erauccs .Tones 51. 991 | 4,941 2,237 ! 400 119, 549 36, 404 8. 975 16,930 John C. Houghton _ 1. 205 75 1. 500 112 Chas. W. Coo-in . . . 1,085 5 1U0 1 1, 965 10 106 118 Elizabeth W. Green .... 1. 500 100 50 . 1 2, 500 50 Geo. E. Gay _ _ 1, 000 400 Jas F. AVebber _ 28, 000 ! 6,200 I . 2, 083 230 98 658 7 599 9, 777 5,500 L. A. Williams . . 1, 324 129 9 QOOl 112 ’ 112 John Holt trustee.. _ 8, 200 ! 200 2971 i 26 11, 115 210 1,025 2, 509! D. L. Bingham . 1416 1417 1418 1419 1420 1421 1422 1423 1424 1425 1426 1427 1428 1429 1430 1431 1432 1433 1434 1435 1438 1437 1438. 1439 1440 1441 1442 1443 1444 1445 1446 1447 1448 1449 1450 4451 1452 1453 1454 1455 3456 1457 145S 1459 1460 14G1 1462 1463 1464 1465 1466 1467 1468 1469 1470 1471 1472 1473 1474 1475 1476 1477 424 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public , society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. fl cs US © eS A Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 MASSACHUSETTS— continued. 1884 Gen . T F. B. 1878 Gen _ T. F. B. 1889 Sch . C. F. R. 1870 Gen . T. F. B. .....do . 1851 Geu . . C. Fr. B. 1888 Gen o T. F. B. 1888 Geu _ O. C. F. B Mattapan (station, Gen . T. C. Boston). 1881 Gen _ R T. F. B. 1881 Gen _ R. T. F. B. Medfield . 1872 Geu _ T. F. B. 1856 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1860 Gen _ C. S. B. 1871 Geu . . . R. T. & C. F. B. 1881 Gen _ T. F. B. 1876 Geu . '"I T. F. B. 1885 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1865 Sch . 0. c. F. B. 1874 Gen T. F. B. Flint Public Library . 1879 Gen . o C. F. B. "\f i 1 "ford . Thurber Medical Association. _ 1 1859 Med R. C. S. B. _ .do . . . Town Library . ! 1858 Gen . T. F. C. Millbury . . do . j 1864 Gen _ T. F. C. Millis . . Public Library . 1886 Gen . T. F. B. Milton . Milton Academy . . . . ' Sch . C. _ do . Public Library . 1870 Gen . R. F. B. Monson . Flynt and Packard Library of 1840 Sch . C. B. Monson Academy. . do . Free Library . . . . 1878 Gen . O. C. F. B. Montague . Town Library . . 1869 Gen . T. F. B. Mount Hermon . Mount TT firm on School . 1884 Sch . C. Fr. B. Nahant . Public Library . . . . . . 1819 Gen . O. T. F. B. N antucket . . Coffin School Library. . . 1827 Sch . O. C. Fr. B. . do . .... Nantucket Athenaeum . 1834 Gen . O. C. S. B. Natir/k . TVT orsp; Tnstitnt.o _ _ 1862 Geu . O. T. F. C. Needham . Free Public Library . . . 1888 Gen . R. T. F. B. New Bedford . . do . . . . . 1852 Gen . 0. T. F. B. . do . Fr i eu rl s ’ A oa.d em y . . 1812 Sch . C. Fr. R. ..tt .do . . Trip'll School _ _ _ S Sch . C. R. . do . Hutchinson’s Circulating Library i . 1864 Soc . R. C. S. , C. _ do . Swain Free School . . 1882 Sch . C. Fr. B. . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1867 Y. M. C. A. .... C. Fr. B. New Braintree "Free Public, Library . 1881 Gen . T. F. B. Nexyl'mrypn'rl,- _ __ Lunt’s Circulating Library 1880 Gen . R. C. S. C. . do . Public Library. . . . . . . 1854 Gen . O. F. B. New Salem . . . do . Gen . T. F. B. Newton _ _ Free Li bra ry _ _ 1869 Gen . C. F. B. Newton Center . Newton Theological Institution. . 1825 Theol . O. c. Fr. B. Norfolk . . . . Public Library . . . . 1884 Gen . T. F. C. North Abington .... . do . . . 1878 Gen . R. T. F. B. North Adams . . do . . . 1884 Gen . R. T. F. B. North Amherst. . . . . Public Library Association . 1869 Gen . 0. C. F. B. Northampton . . Burnham School 1877 Sch . B. . do . Clarke School Library 1867 Sch . T. B. . do . . Forbes Library . _ _ 1894 Gen . O. c. F. B. . do . Hampshire County Law Library. 1865 Law . T. F. R. do _ Lunatic Hospital . . . 1858 Asylum . . C. B. . do . ........ Public. Library . . 1860 Gen . O. C. fV B. do Smith College . . . Col . c. North Andover De¬ North Andover Public Library . . 1875 Gen . R. T. F. C. pot. 1 North Attleboro _ Richards Memorial Library . 1869 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1478 1479 1480 1481 1482 1483 1484 1485 1486 1487 1488 1489 1490 1491 1492 1493 1494 1495 1496 1497 1498 1499 1500 1501 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 1507 1508 1509 1510 1511 1512 1513 1514 1515 1516 1517 1518 1519 1520 1521 1522 1523 1524 1525 1526 1527 1528 1529 1530 1531 1532 1533 1534 1535 1536 1537 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 425 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Boohs issued during year for home use. Boohs issued for use within library. Receipts. 0’^ -40 ~ £ O c ? Panic of librarian. Prom taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 IO 11 IS 13 14 15 16 17 18 2, 832 120 10 296 $433 Grace M. Cobh . 12, 189 395 26j 000 $500 1, 235 $1, 500 Mary G. Brown. . 1, 100 100 ! D.M. Dustan, principal. 12, 000 428 46, 120 2, 000 2, 080 850 Sarah E. Cotting . 3^200 150 85 25 1, 253 ICO 1, 000 J. V . Jackman . 2, 477 2, 477 300 805 RosaM. Sprague . 1, 000 50 1, 300 100 M. E. Baxter . . lj 070 110 497 Wm. Noyes, M. D . 2, 622 197 6 027 150 335 L. L. B. Dexter, trustee. 4' 160 106 40. 000 100 300 300 . 4, 050 100 9 648 349 424 1, 500 LucretiaM. Johnsen... 18, 000 968 76 52 985 5, 215 Mary E. Sargent . 6, 000 200 7, 800 ' 250 2, 500 M.M. Fisher, president. 11, 209 1,751 493 94 36, 276 260 1, 600 2, 900 E. H. Goss, trustee . 3, 408 113 4, 246 175 ' 185 Sara F. Towne . 5 000 182 8 683 500 534 200 Louise C- Brackett . 12, 815 307 14, 000 . 140, 000 i, 200 G, 892 485 23, 761 1, 000 1, 085 i A. K. Thatcher . 4' 570 127 393 8 5, 225 507 15, 000 Samuel A. Fletcher .... l' 200 9 32 50 60 600 Chas. H. Cole, M. D _ 9’ 772! 565 28, 756 1, 291 P. F. Blake . 8, OOO! 150 15, 000 583 649 j Miss C. C. Waters. _ 2, 200 1 200 210 . 1 Mts ,T. C T'hnrne .. ], 500 ... 11, 000 172 13, 378 2, 202 1,864 200 18 36 311 80 2, 000 A. P. Burke, principal . 5, 793 300 10, 287 300' 1, 387 30, 000 Pellie F Squier . 4, 345 189 7, 870 275 371 1 Kate A. Armstrong. . . . 4, 665 300 235 50 1, 730 32 Mary J. Miller, B. L _ 9,800 349 8, 741 155 1,200 1, 200 Caroline M . J olinson . . . 1,700 1, 000 50 20 1,200 1, 500 200 4, 000 E. B. Fox, principal - 7, 500 250 50 12, 000 217 1, 553 23, 364 , Sarah F. Barnard . 17, 500 375 152 33, 690 833 2, 000 | 15, 494 Pellie L. Fox . 4, 100 200 13, 508 250 822 | Riella J. Dunn . 70, 000 10, 000 2,462 356 108, 128 13, 999 66, 100 R. C. Ingraham . 1,000 7, 000 | Chas. S. Moore, princi¬ 1 * l pal. 2, 454 498 26, 970 1,341 | H. S. Hutchinson . 2, 370 1 . ! . Andrew Ingraham, master. 3,506 75 625 Geo. A. Budd, general secretary . 1,608 50 62 40 1, 950 100 105 Carrie F. Bush . . . 1,500 1, 000 100 75 669 . Hannah E. Lunt . 31, 261 3, 000 708 38, 830 14, 625 50, 000 John D. Parsons . 2, 200 180 1,680 40 80 1,000 Venice M. Marshall _ 49, 775 2, 000 164, 341 16, 425 Elizabeth P. Thurston . 20, 880 915 12, 500 1,050 10 26 1,072 50 55 W alter L. Sykes . 3, 768 i . 9,094 14, 270 679 440 123 58, 170 4, 726 Miss C. Augusta Dun- ton. 1, 920 200 50 128 5, 000 225 F. P. Ainsworth, treas¬ urer. 5, 000 500 2, 061 100 1 . Caroline A. Vale, prin¬ I cipal. 35, 650 2, 763 31, 027 2, 632 8, 924 2, 115 21, 018 Chas A. Cutter . . 4, 978 376 I . 1, 000 3,274 I. M Field . 28, 347 650 56, 753 5, 200 50, 000 Caroline S. Laidley . 6, 000 50 8, 000 400 466 175 19, 000 1, 200 1, 600 M. H. Pulsifer, trustee . 5, 000 300 200 24, 984 400 1, 800 1, 945 Miss Irene W. Day . ed 9G - 14* 1478 1479 1480 1481 1482 1483 1484 1485 1486 1487 1488 1489 1490 1491 1492 1493 1494 1495 1496 1497 1498 1499 1500 1501 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 1507 1508 1509 1510 1511 1512 1513 1514 1515 1516 1517 1518 1519 1520 1521 1522 1523 1524 1525 1526 1527 1528 1529 1530 1531 1532 1533 1534 1535 1536 1537 426 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Hame of library. .0 &C c .S 0 M 1 Class. ^ a 1 In Supported by taxation or corporation. ,0 35 C _C ; u O §§ || ■3 0 3 © 1 2 s 4 5 1 6 7 8 MASSACHUSETTS — continued. 1538 2s ortli Billerica . Talbot Library Association . 1S80 1 Gen . G ! R B. 1539 1868 Gen . 1 0 T F B. 1540 1857 Theol .. ! o! q" !Fr. R. 1541 . do _ _ Tree Public Library and Reading 1880 Gen . 1 T. j C. Room. 1542 1872 -Gen _ 0. ft C. 1 g_ B. 1543 1883 Gen . c* i F B. 1544 Horthfield . . Public Library . 1813 Gen _ ! t! F. B. Branch of Orange Free Public 1895 Gen _ R. T.* F* B. Library. 1873 Gen C. F. C. 1547 1S93 Gen | 0. c. F. B. 1548 Horth Woburn . Rumford Historical Association. - 1845 Hist _ €. F. B. 1549 1886 Gen _ _ 1 0. T. p. B. 1550 . do . Wheaton Seminary . 1S35 Sch . c. R. 1551 1874 f4nr. n c. S. B. 1552 1873 Gen ; R. c. B. . do . .: . 1859 Gen _ T*. f! R. 1554 1877 Gen O. T." F. C. 1881 Gpn O. c! f! ! B 1556 Oxford . Free Public Library .. . 1870 Gen _ T F. i B. 1557 Palmer . Young Men’s Library Association . 1878 Gen . T F. 1 B. 1558 Paxton . Free Public Library . 1877 Gen ...... T. F. 1 C. 1559 Peabodv . . Eben Dale Sutton Reference Li¬ 1869 Gen . C. F. j R. brary. 1560 . do . .. . Peabody Institute Library _ _ 1854 Gen _ <3 C. F. B. 1561 Pembroke _ Free Library _ _ . 1877 Op n R.' a F. B. 1562 Pepperell . Public Library . 1878 Gen . t! f! T> 1563 Petersham . Memorial Library . . . . 1879 Gen . O. c! F b! 1564 P hill ipston . . Phillips Free Public Library _ 1862 \ G en _ c. F. B. 1565 Pittsfield . . Berkshire Athenseum . 1876 Gen O. c. F B. 1566 . do . . . Berkshire Law Library . 1S56 Law _ T F R. 1567 . do . . Miss Salisbury’s Family and Day Sch . C. \ \ School. 1568 Plymouth _ _ Pilgrim Society's Library . t . . 1820 Hist _ _ _ _ 0, c, R. 1569 . do . . . Plymouth County Law Library.. 1894 1 Law _ T f. R. 1570 . do . Public Library . 1856 : Gen . R. T.” F* B. 1571 Princeton _ _ . do . 1S84 Gen O. T. Fr. B. 1572 Proviuoetown _ __ _ do _ _ _ _ 1874 Gen O t" F. B. 1573 Quincy . Thomas Crane Public Library. . . . 1871 ! Gen O C F. B. 1574 Randolph . . Ladies' Library Association . 1855 j Soc . R. c. S.' B. 1575 . do . Turner Free Library . . . 1876 Gen 0 c. F. B. 1576 Reading . . Public Library . 1867 Op.n _ r‘. T. f' j B. 1577 Rehoboth . . Blanding Library _ . _ 1886 Gen . c. F. B. 1578 Revere . . Public Library . 1880 Gen . T. f! C. 1579 Rochester . . Free Public Library _ _ 1876 Gen . 0 T. F. B. 1580 ! Rockland _ Public Library _ _ _ 1878 Gen _ _ _ r‘. T. F. B. 1581 R.orkport . _ _ 1871 /-rPT} T. F. B 1582 Rowe . . Town Library . . . . 1797 Gen . R. T. f! B. 1583 Rowley _ _ Freo Public Library . . 1891 Gen . T. F. B. 1584 ! Roxburv _ _ High School . Sch . T. R. 15S5 . do.: . ISTotreDame Academy. . . 1854 Sch . C. Fr. B. 1586 . do . Roxbury Latin School _ 1845 Sch .. C. F. R. 1587 Royalston . . Public Library . 1875 Gen _ l T. f! B. 1588 | Rutland . Free Public Library 186." Gen _ j T F R. 1589 i Salem . American Association for the Ad¬ 1848 | Rrien R. C. . ;j R. vancement of Science. 1590 j . do . . . i Charitable Mechanic Association. 1817 Gen . C. q B. 1591 1 Classical and High School . Sch . 1 T. Fr. B. 1592 ■ . CIO _ 1 Essex Tnstifnte _ _ 1848 j Scien . O. C. Fr. B. 1593 . do . I Essex South District Massachu¬ 1804 Med . 1 R. c. Fr. 1 R. setts Medical Society. 1594 . do . . 1 Fraternity Lodge Ho. 118, I. O. 1870 I. O. O.F..1 .... c. Fr. B. O. F. 1595 _ do . . . Public Library . . 1888 Gen . 1 0. T. F. B. 1596 . do . Salem Athemeum . . 1810 Gen . i 0. 1 c. S. I C. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 427 Stales of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. Volumes. "3 a s p4 Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during yoar for homo use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. si «« 5 ® 43 S C p II Name of librarian. Prom taxa¬ tion. 6 ii 0 H 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 1 r IS 240 29 2, 564 25 $233 I Billie Enttomley _ 9, 142 228 8 922 $4, 625 Sarah E. Emery . r>' ooo 100 12 120 3, 000 Rev. A. J. Dyer . 5' 128 88 24, 364 1,379 $1, 500 1, 500 Mrs. Emma S. Eudden. . 2,999 163 5, 666 290 1, 000 Emma ,T. Gay _ 13,' 974 143 14, 216 277 1, 350 40,000 Mary \V. Eamprey 4,013 183 4, 378 234 Mrs. F. J. Stockbridge. lj 076 3. 000 Sara E. Rich . . 4, 024 20 149 7, 018 60 237 3, 000 Sarah H. "Whitcomb _ 2. 041 500 17 125 2, 430 97 139 Sarah J. Marsh . . . 1, 500 W. B. Perkins _ 4' 000 471 ...... 166 95 5, 619 600 Miss E. A. Titus. 5, 260 ' Edwin. Barrows, treas¬ urer. 2, 750 300 115 140 3,215 238 4,500 Joseph F. Merritt _ fi d70 229 16, 374 . 938 F. P. Thompson . l! 517 290 22, 267 600 1 Mrs. W M. Pomeroy _ 3, 200J . 100 5. 880 295 4, 500 Hiram Mve.a _ _ 1, 787 100 12, 000 350 ' Bertha, Lovell _ 5, 394 500 200 23 11, 439 430 2, 696 Mrs. C, A. Fuller. 4' 2S0 361 12, 273 1.000 1, 119 ! Chas. B.Fiske . . 1, 558; 1,191 79 Herbert S. Robinson . - . . ! 3,062 i 24 175 35, 000 32, 893 608 28, 715 5, 200 200, 000 J. Warren Upton . 1. 870 64 1,000 109 50 ’ 7, 000 1, 000 350 50 9, 766 500 400 400 M. F. Shattnek _ _ _ ' 8, 000 500 150 100 5, 000 245 1, 500 Mrs. Emerson Goddard. 4, 903 200 ! 160 25 4, C50 160 5, 000 Mrs. T. H. Chaffin....... 24, 000 4. 000 1. 000 500 60, 000 6, 000 65, 000 H. H. Ballard _ 6, 000 300i 1 j 1, 200 | Chas. E. Burke 1, 100 " ” . . 1, 200 1,800 15 J T. B. Drew . 2, 000 500 ! 2, 000 E. E. Hobart _ 11,300 643 29 30, 280 2, 173 9, 267 Nellie Thomas _ 1 3, 900 167 4. 314 150 380 6, 000 Susie A. Davis . I 6, 519: 298 11, 812 500 1,070 5,000 Hattie M. Dyer. . . 18. 500 ::::::: 88 70, 075 Amelia L. Bum pus _ 1, 340; . 20 582 582 55 Sarah V. Wilde . 15, 0001 358 23, 794 3, 000 1, 524 30, 000 Chas. C. Farnham . 7,704 467 21, 165 400 875 L. S. Cox . 1,556: 250 40: 990 27 Wm. H. Marvel . 4. 900 300 j 23, 490 1,000 1, 040 Hattie T. Fenno . 1 2, ooo: 75 106 j 10 1, 974 . i ’ 135 500 Sarah A. Haskell . I 9, 185 257 21, 193 1,469 1, 530 Amelia Pool . | 2. 550 151' 1. 500 400 4, 439 4, 500 1, 230 . 190: 945 25 25 Mrs. Fred. W. Newell.. 1, 743 50 111 5, 252 163 176 Catharine N. Mighill. . . 1,640 50 100 Chas. M. Clay . 4, 126 34 102 Sister Josephine Igna¬ | tius. 2,500 50 280 6, 000 Mr. O. M. Farnham _ 1, 735 115 91S 100 200 Lizzie W. Chase. ..! 1. 643 50 74 2, 389; 83 Mrs. F. R. Foster . 1 2,341 6, 493 75 50 5,747 104 2,052 110^ 704 . G. Arthur Bodwell . ■ 1, 800 A. L. Goodrich, princi¬ ; pal. 70, 000 250, 000 2,000 | 3 3 1, 100 ' 6, 881 70, OOOj W. O. Chapman, treas¬ urer. 3, 500 Hardy Tuppen, M. D _ 1, 600 . 50 | Will L. Welch . 31, 775 2,23° | . j 108,071 13, 009 35, 000 Gardner M. J ones . I 22, OOO L 1 300 1538 1539 1540 1541 1542 1543 1544 1545 1546 1547 1548 1549 1550 1551 1552 1553 1554 1555 1556 1557 1558 1559 1560 1561 1562 1563 1564 1565 1566 1567 1568 1569 1570 1571 1572 1573 1574 1575 1576 1577 1578 1579 1580 1581 1582 1583 1584 1585 '1586 1587 1588 1589 1590 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 428 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society , and school libraries in the United Location. Fame of library. 1 - i c ! . 1 fco I o-9 1 ® Class. i Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. A 2| ©3 si * Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 2 3 4 5 * 8 MASSACHUSETTS — continued. 1597 ! 1854 j Sch . ; b. 1598 1891 i Gen . T. F. , h. 1599 . do . ! 1887 1 Gen _ T. j F. ! c. 1600 | 1884 Cen 0. C. s. 1 B. 1601 1879 Gen .. T. F. ! B. 1602 Sheffield . ! 1892 Gen R. T. F. j B. 1603 1892 Cen T. ! F. b! 1604 Shelburne Falls . Arms Library _ .1 . 1854 Gen . R. C. F. B. ! 1860 Gen . T. F. B. 1606 ! 18S6 Cen . O. T. F. B. 1607 . do . 1793 Soc, . 0. C. 1.7. . ; R- 1608 ! 1872 Cen 1 0 T. F. B. 1609 ! 1873 Cen _ 1 O- T. F. B. 1610 ! 1883 Soc . T. S. B. 1611 1852 ! Cen C. F. B. 1612 St. Mark’s ^School . 1865 ! Gen . C. B. 1613 ; 1869 Gen _ R. * s'* C. 1614 . do . Perkins Institution and Massa- i 1833 ! Sch . . c. .... B. chusetts School for the Blind. j 1615 . do . Suffolk County House of Correc- 1 1850 , Reform . . . T. B. tion. ! 1616 . do . . . Tollgate Circulating Library . ! SoC. _ R C. s. C. 1617 South. Braintree . . . . Thayer Public Library . . i 1874 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1618 Southbridge . ! Public Library . 1870 Gen . T. F. B. 1619 South Deerfield . . do . . . ! 1871 | Gen . R. T. F. C. 1620 South Framingham.1 Reformatory Prison for W omen. . 1 1878 Reform C. 1621 Sont.h Gardner . South Gardner Social Association ; 1841 Soc . T. 1622 South Hadley . Mount Holyoke College . 1837 Col . O. C. Fr. R. 1623 South Uatick . Bacon Free Library . 1881 Gen . i O. C. F. B. 1624 [ South Sudbury . Goodnow Library . 1862 Gen . ! O. C. F. B. 1625 South Williamstown Public Library . i Gen . R. T. F. B. 1626 ! South Yarmouth. _ Social Library . 1869 Soc . ■ C. s. B. 1627 j Spencer . . 1 Richard Sugden Library . 1857 O. F. B. 1628 ! Springfield . Boston and Albany Railroad Li¬ 1869 1 Gen . 1 C. .... * a 1 brary. | 1629 . do . City Library Association. . 1857 Cpn . . . O. T. F. B. 1630 | . do . j Elons (The) . 1 Sch . 1 B. 1631 1 . do . French- American College . 1885 Col . 1 C. B. 1632 I . do . i Hampden County Law Library. . . 1813 Law . ! c. .... F. R. 1633 1 . do . High School . ' Sch . 1 1634 j . do . Historical Library of the Ameri¬ 1877 Y.M.C.A. c. Fr. B. can Young Men’s Christian j Associations. 1635 1 . do . ' International Y. M. C. A. Train- : 1891 j Y.M.C.A. .... c. Fr B. ing School. 1636 . do . . . I School for Christian Workers 1885 Theo . ! c. Fr. B. 1637 Sterling . Public Library . | 1871 Gen . I 0. c. F. i B. 1638 Stockbridge . Library Association . : 1864 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1639 Stoneham . 1 Free Public Library . ! 1859 Gen . I R. C. F. j I B’ 1640 Stoughton . i Pnhlio Library _ _ _ 1874 Gen _ I T. F. 1 ! B. 1641 Stow . 1 Randall Lihrarv _ _ 1893 Cen _ I O. F 1 B. 1642 Sturbridge . ' Public. Library . . . ! 18731 Gen . ! T. F. ' B. 1643 Sunderland . Sunderland Library. _ 18691 Gen . 1 C. F. ! B. 1644 Sutton . Free Library 18751 Cen _ 1 T. F. B. 1645 Swansea . Public Library . ! 1883 G en _ 1 C. S. j B. 1646 Taunton . Bristol County Law Library 1S58!1 La w . . . . 1 C. R. 1647 . do . Old Colony Historical Society. . . . 1 1853! Hist . O. C. 's'* R. 1648 . do . Public Library . j 1866 Gen _ i R. T. F. B. 1649 . do . Taunton Lunatic Hospital . ! I860 i Gen . I C. R. 1650 Templeton . . Boynton Public Library . ! 1S6S' Gen . 1 O. C. F. C. 1651 . do . Ladies’ Social Circle Library . i 1847 Gen . 1 C. S. B. 1652 Tewksbury . . Public Library . . 1878 Gen . 1 T. F. C. 1653 . do . State Almshouse Library . i 1860 State . T. Fr. B. 1654 Topsfi elrl . . . Town Library . 1 1875 Gen . C. f. ; B. 1655 Townsend . Public Library . ! 18731 Gen . 1 T. ‘ ' F. I B. 429 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pamphlets addod during voar. ^ n © CSs j- © 2 ffl o “ttg C ja rr.- r* ^ 0 = 0 C ^ 'll Books issued for uso within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Nano of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 ao 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 6 000 Dan. B. Hagar, Ph. D _ 1, 200 180 $100 $274 Alice P. Cooke, secre¬ tary. 3 958 400 100 11, 744 25 200 505 Emma C. Newhall. ..... 1 800 50 60 10 1, 350 195 Julia E. AVebb . 4 444 259 10 364 376 401 $800 Emma A. Baker . 1, 000 125 4 800 1851 1, 000 Mi -3 J. M. Dewey _ 1. 000 60 320 50 2 000 305 Mercy A. Anderson _ 104 15! 600 550 5, 000 Mrs. Flora A. Halligon. 4,’ 900 200 200 20 264 1, 091 G-. F. Gale . 2, 040 100 150 25 3, 706 300 350 100 Mary J. Hazen, trustee. 1, 400 John AVliiteley, elder and trustee. 3, 950 7 210 321 522 Mabel E. Knowlton _ 30, 981 4, 010 200 68, 231 9. 417 John S. Hayes . 3, 000 500 50 10 I 100 125 7, 049 201 5,488 189 422 1,500 Francena E. Buck . 3, 100 600 3,000 H. B. Pavne . 14,' 810 107, 000 Miss S. E. Lane . . 3, 000 1, 500 j Jno. C. AYhiton, master . 1,600 Clarence Hallett . 10, 877 450 283 20, 983 i 2, 742 I 1, 200 1, 231 15, 921 821 419 48 19,752 i 1,500 2, 262 1,000 Harriet Stanley . 1, 241 41 4, 875 | ' . 75 J. M. Billings, treasurer 1,500 1 Ellen Johnson, super¬ intendent. 1, 371 105 5 13 25 3 23 500 L. AV. Brown . 16, 000 452 | 10. 000 Miss Mary O. Nutting. . 4, 600 1, 000 35 50 4, 5001 450 13, 000 Adelaide AVilliams . 12, 000; 700 100 40 14, 0001 850 20’ 000 H. H. Browne, treasurer 1,000 8 50 1, 112 75 1, 600! . 1 ’ ! ( AV. R. Farris . 9, 735 393 1 27, 135 3,000 3, 000 2. 600 1 E. L. Janes . . 93, 374 3, 504 900 | 119,000. 27, 000 25, 735 60, 000 AVilliam Rice . 4, ioo; 600 Miss Charlotte AV. Por¬ | ter. 1, 500 1, 000 600 400 500 1 500 Z. AVillis Kemp . 8, 200 ;;;; . 2, 000 1. 898 1 Robt. O. Morris . 1,093 5, 500 213 903 311 J.T, Browne, custodian. 1,390 4, 010 92 135 4, 516 J. T. Browne, dept. superintendent. 2 375 1, 500 125 50 4, 800 97 350 M. E. Shanks . . 6, 000 134 5’, 962 336 6, 500 Mary D. Peck . 7, 000 170 7, 700 885 1, 700 Miss Carrie P. AV ells _ 8, 395 . 56 7 20. 145 i M. H. Boyce . 6, 041 229 26 835 i . 769 Mattie S. Hussey . 3, 500 36 195 15 11 250 25 508 1, 200 Mrs. S. M. Lawrence - 4, 500 150 : 5. 343 200 200 Mrs. F. A. AVhittemore . 2, 778 134 4 959 193 2, 200 Abbie T. Montague _ 3,491 1 200 130 25 8, 422 215! Sarah M. Mills . 1,733 3,035 110 48 1, 524 1781 Julia R. AVellington - 5, 000 600 3, 000 4,000 j 1, 800 25 . 500 1,000 James E. Scorer . 40, 540 1, 898 250 73, 009 6, 406 1,000 Joshua E. Crane . 2, 900 ’ 150 4, 851 218 13, 825 1 ... 612 p • 0 • 0 . H. F.Lane . 2, 724 40 1,021 33 ■ Miss Lizzie E. Hadley .. 4.617 276 6,191 Amrv F. Coggin . 3' 200 300 600 100 . i Hebert B. Howard . 6, 892 764 210 39 6, 435 560 9, 522 Dr. Justin Allen, trus¬ tee. 2, 942 152 J 20 5, 758 256 307 500 1 Frances J. AV orcester . . . 1597 1598 1599 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1005 1607 1608 1609 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 1616 1617 1618 1619 1620 1621 1622 1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 1630 1631 1632 1633 • 1634 1635 1636 1637 1638 1639 1640 1641 1642 1643 1644 1645 1646 1647 1648 1649 1650 1651 1652 1653 1654 1655 430 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public , society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. FI d . ^ dc O .d © ft Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. A d • “J U "■£ © ft © ° 8*1 Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 MASSACHUSETTS— continued. 1656 1893 Gen ...... T. F. B. 1657 Tufts College . Tufts College . 1854 Col . C. B. 1658 . do . “ . *1834 Theo . c. F. E. brary Association. • 1659 1874 Gen . !R. T. F. B. 1660 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 1661 1873 Gen . . C. F. E. 1662 1875 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1663 Wakefield . 1856 Gen . T. F B. 1664 1876 Gen . T. f! B. 1665 Waltham . . . Notre Dame Training School . 1889 Sch . C. Fr. E. 1666 1865 Gen . It. T. F. B. 1667 1873 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 1668 tiom 1S91 Gen _ _ _ E. C. F. C. 1669 1879 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1670 1870 Gen . T. F. B. 1671 1868 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1672 1834 Med . C. B. Library. 1673 1850 Gen . T. F. B. 1674 W fibster . . Public Library . . . . 1889 Gen . E. T. F. B. 1675 Wellesley . Free Library . . . 1881 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 1676 . do . Wellesley College . 1875 Col . C. Fr. E. 1677 Wfillflfip.t _ _ Public Library . 1893 Gen _ E. T. F. B. 1678 Wen ham . Public Library . 1857 Gen . T. F. C. 1679 W cat, A rt, on _ _ Citizens’ Library Association _ _ 1883 Gen T. F. c. 1680 W estboro . Free Public Library . 1857 Gen . T. F. B. 1681 . do . Lyman School for Boys . 1848 Sch . C. B. 1682 West "Rnvfnrd . Public Library . ... _ 1884 Gen _ T. F. C. 1683 West Boylston . . do . 1878 Gen ...... T. F. B. 1684 West Bridgewater. . Howard Seminary . . Sch . c. B. 1685 W est Brookfield .... Merriam Public Library. . . Gen _ O. T. F. B. 1686 Westfield.. _ _ Normal School . 1839 Sch _ ... 1 E. 1687 W estford . Public Library . . 1859 Gen . T. F. C. 1688 Westhampton . Eeunion Town Library . 1866 Gen . T. F. B. 1689 W estminster ....... Town Library . . 1868 Gen . T. F. B. 1690 West Newbury . Public Library. _ _ 1895 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1691 West, Newton . West Newton English and Clas¬ 1854 Sch . C. Fr. B. sical School. 1692 W eaton . _ _ Town Li brary _ _ _ 1857 Gen _ C. F. B. 1693 West Springfield ... Public Library . 1854 Gen . T. F. B. 1694 "West Stockbridge ., Free Library . 1891 Gen . T. F. C. 1695 West. Tishnry . Free Public Library . . 1893 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 1696 Weymouth . . Tufts Library . . . 1879 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1697 Whately _ _ Free Public Library . . 1872 Gen . T. F. B. 1698 WTiiti navi lie. . . Social Library . . . 1844 Gen . T. F. B. 1699 Whitman _ Public Li brary . _ _ _ 1880 Gen . E. T. F. B. 1700 Wilbra.hnm _ VV esleyan Academy . 1835 Sch _ C. Fr. B. 1701 Williamsburg . Williamsburg Library Associa¬ 1877 Soc . C. S. B. tion. 1702 Williamstown _ _ Public Library _ _ _ _ . 1874 Gen _ E. T. F. C 1703 . do . Williams College . . . 1793 Col . O. C. Fr. B. 1704 . do . . . Philotechnian Society . 1795 Col. Soc . . . C. S. B. 1705 Wilmington . Public Library _ _ 1872 Gen . O. T. F. C. 1706 Winchendon . 1858 Gen . E. T. F. B. 1707 Winchester. . . . do . 1859 Gen . T. F. B. 1708 Winthrop . . . do . 1885 Gen .... T. F. c. 1709 Woburn . . do . 1856 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1710 W orcester . American Antiquarian Society _ 1812 Hist . O. c. F. It. 1711 . do . City Hospital Library . 1872 Med . c. E. 1712 do Clark University . 1889 Col . c. B. 1713 Classical High School . 1880 Sch . T. Fr.’ E. 1714 _ . College of the Holy Cross . 1844 Col . C. Fr. E. 431 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. 03 1, 250 275 1 . 4, 250 48, 000 Chas. H. Burr . 4,500 1 1 200 2, 174 135 2, 925 i;;: ;;;; 150 179 Francena A. Morse _ 5, 935 270 561 22, 472 1, 112 1. 112 Theo. K. Parker, trustee 11, 198 ! . 42, 734 1,200 1, 929 1,500 Cora A. Quimby . 3,820 355 12, 250 I 800 836 David Floyd, trustee . - - 35, 092 8,350 1, 644 496 54, 704 6, 393 55, 269 Whn B. Cutter . . 100, 000 908 ,10. 260 1, 000 850 20 24 60 1, 500 Chas. A. Peabody, su¬ perintendent. 16, 000 J 1, 500 4, 000 Louis N. Wilson . 1,000 25 17 646 Frances Wheeler, prin¬ cipal assistant. 21, 800 4, 650 250 Rev. A. Dufour, S. J - 1656 1657 1658 1659 1660 1661 1662 1663 1664 1665 1666 1667 1668 1669 1670 1671 1672 1673 1674 1675 1676 1677 1678 1679 1680 1681 1682 1683 1684 1685 1688 1687 1688 1689 1690 1691 1692 1893 1694 1695 1696 1697 1693 1699 1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 1705 1706 1707 1708 1709 1710 1711 1712 1713 1714 432 1715 1716 1717 1718 1719 1720 1721 1722 1723 1724 1725 1720 1727 1728 3729 1730 1731 1732 1733 1734 1735 1736 1737 1738 1739 1740 1741 1742 1743 1744 1745 1746 1747 1748 1749 1750 1751 1752 1753 1754 1755 1756 1757 1758 1759 1760 1761 1762 1763 1764 1765 1766 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. r O 2j oft 'u © g £ _• ! o tog © 1 O g s i £ jo c 1 3 4 ! 5 6 1 7 i 8 MASSACHUSETTS - continued. 1822 Med . C. s. B. 1859 Gen _ 0. T F B. _ _ _ do . Nelson Wheeler Library of Wor- 1891 Sch . c! b’. cester Academy. . do . State Normal School . . . 1874 Sch . T. ! B. Sch . C. 1 R. Ladies and Children. 1842 Sci . n c. Fr. B. Library. . do . 1842 Law . c F. 1 R. . do . 1843 Gen . c. B. Association. 1878 Asylum . . c. Fr. C. . do . . Worcester Polytechnic Institute. 1868 * Col . c. B. ! .... do . . . 3875 1 Hist . c. F. R. 3892 Gen . R. T F. C. Yarmouth Library Association. . . 1866 Gen _ _ C. F. B. MICHIGAN. Adrian . Adrian College 1870 f!nl . C. R. . do . Public School Library. . . 3868 Sch . R. T. F. e! . do . . . State Industrial Home for Girls.. A. & R _ Agricultural College A lhion _ Michigan Agricultural College. . . Albion College . 1857 1861 Col . Col . C. c. Fr. B. B. . do . Ladies’ Library Association . 1870 Gen . c! 'sV C- . do . . Public School Library . 1876 Sch . T. F. B. Allegan . Allegan Township Library . 1878 Gen . T. F. C. A lm a. . - . Alma College . 1889 Col . . C. Fr. 1 B. .... do Public School Library . 1888 Sch . T. F. B. A lpena Public Library . . . 1876 Gen . T. F. B. Ann Arbor . Ladies’ Library Association . 1866 Gen . O. C. S. B. . do . . St. Thomas’ Catholic Library . 1873 Gen . O. c. S. B. . do . School District Library . 1856 Gen . T. F. B. . do . Tappan Presbyterian Associa¬ 1891 Theo . C. F. R. tion, McMillan Hall. . do . . University of Michigan . 1837 Col . O. c. F. B. . do . Students’ Christian Associa¬ 1891 Col. Soc... O. c. B. tion. ^Battle Creek . Battle Creek College _ _ 1875 Col . c. F. R. . do . . . C. & G. T. R. R. Library . 1886 Soc . c. B. . do . Public School Library . 1870 Gen . c. F. B. Rav Hi tv. . Public Library . . . 1877 Gen . R. T. F. B. Rel 1 evn e . . . Bellevue Township Library . 1846 Gen . R. C. F. B. Hen ton Harbor Benton Harbor College. ..... _ _ _ 1886 Col . C. R. "Re.n7.onia, Benzonia College. . . . . 1891 Col . C. Fr. B. Lip- Rapids _ _ Public School . 1881 Sch . F. R. Birmingham _ _ Ladies’ Library Association . 1886 Soc . O. c. Fr. B. Bne.banan _ _ "Rnr.li5i.Ti an Tnwnshin Tiihrarv _ Gen . R. T. F. B. Cadillac . Hio-h Sr bool _ _ .. _ 1. Sch . C. F. B. Calumet . o — — - - - - Public Library . . . . 1880 Gen _ C. F. B. Cassopolis . . Library A saoeiation . . _ 1871 See. _ C. S. C. Charlotte . Ladies’ Library A ssoeiatinn _ 1868 Snr, _ C. S. B. . do . Public Library . 1894 Gen . R. T. F. B. Coldwater . Clarke Public Library _ 1881 Gen . O. T. F. B. . do . State Public School Library 1874 A. &R _ T. Fr. B. Crystal Falls . Public School Library . 1893 Sch . T. F. R. Detroit . . Detroit Bar Library Association. . 1867 Law . C. S. B. . do . Detroit College, Students’ Library 1878 Col . C. B. . do . . Detroit Home and Day School. . . . Sch . c. ..... do Detroit. Seminary _ _ Sch . c. B. 1 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES, 433 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. n3 © . n o 2 * O e3 oa n a 23 Receipts. p»-d © a CD © a ro > to ft s cS pH -5 03 I'g on > « g o be, 3 ° ft'S s s s* pH “*! Ill M CD t> . (D >5 CD CD & g ■g|a ffl c3 M ej • ■+J C a .2 u Ph .2 c5 „ a o +3 © o H © y ■+= o 0 © 0 a © § a s Namo of librarian. • 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 7, 288 105, 000 2, 200 483 130 187 $530 31, 132 $9, 540 61, 775 4, 000 A. C. G-etchell, M. D — Samuel S. Green _ 1715 5, 203 764 178, 129 85, 816 1716 300 150 30 200 C.1L White . 1717 9. 540 Anna P. Smith . 1718 1, 750 :::::: Mary J. C. Throop . 1719 3, 000 200 40 350 250 Adin A. Hixon . 1720 12,000 500 Wm. T. Harlow, clerk .. Jeannette P. Babbitt- . . 1721 12, 150 456 12, 050 1, 200 . 1 1722 2, 900 4, 750 12, 000 2, 100 4, 40] 100 200 100 6, 500 5, 199 H. M. Jumley, superin¬ tendent. Elizabeth K. Francis. . . 1723 3, 000 20, 000 100 50 2, 057 1724 509 F. L. Hutchins, presi¬ dent. Mary A. Smith . 1725 125 12, 500 $500 540 300 1726 156 3, 975 6, 000 Rev. Wm. H. May hew, trustee. 1727 100 . 1 6, 000 12, 836 1,000 18, 000 10, 470 2, 463 87 1,515 1728 1729 52, 010 1,000 Margaret F. Jewell . 1730 1,012 489 226 2, 000 1731 4, 000 B. S. Taylor . 1732 109 5, 500 5,000 107 Juliet B. Gemberling. . . Warren C. Hull . 1733 2,000 1, 500 200 200 10, 000 75 175 1734 1, 000 115 125 E. A. Ferris . 1735 14, 233 10, 809 401 109 4. 833 7, 613 641 Eizabeth B. Case . 1736 1,481 3, 163 3, 384 5, 000 528 150 218 Ralph C. Ely . 1737 234 476 12 304 600 600 Emily E. Oliver . 1738 83 2, 175 312 1, 000 Mrs. Marie J. Root _ 1739 Rev. E. D. Kelly . 1740 5,112 6,400 98, 707 1,500 126 13, 235 400 Kellie S. Loving . 1741 300 3, 741 122, 352 Ida C. Finnev . 1742 17, 241 100 ! 6,479 904 6, 469 15, 000 400 30, 000 Raymond C. Davis . 1743 10 C. H. Winkenwerder _ 1744 2, 500 1,800 1, 000 700 100 100 A. W. Kelley, A. M., Ph.D.,M.D. F. P. Condon, secretary. Fannie A. Brewer . 1745 75 1,000 42 770 150 1746 14, 130 15, 966 1,300 1,980 709 270 321 751 10, 000 1747 779 46i 030 1,040 3, 642 124 Annie F. Parsons . 1748 100 ...... 1 Mrs. Frank Morten . 1749 500 80 25 l.... . 100 G. J. Edgcumbe,# A. 1750 5, 222 1, 800 1,029 236 138 35 M., Ph. D., principal. Edson L. Whitney . 1751 600 Esse Osgood . 1752 1, 850 100 40 15 300 1753 1,610 1, 200 ! . | 4, 000 100 100 131 W. F. Runner . 1754 200 250 100 300 Geo. R. Catton, super¬ intendent. J ames J ames . 1755 3,800 1, 275 ! 2,400 900 1756 1 30 1 500 50 Mrs. J. L. Tost, corre¬ sponding secretary. Mrs. Geo. Sherwood _ 1757 1,860 150 i 200 225 1758 1,500 13, 585 1, 200 ! . Sarah H. Williams . 1759 I 3,000 i 150 160 18, 408 500 220 1, 672 1,749 Florence M. Holmes _ 1760 1 200 1 100 A. F. Murray, superin¬ tendent. Chas. W. Mickens . 1761 1,000 8, 100 1,450 1, ooc 1, ooo 50 300 1,500 1762 i*.. i . E. A. Horton . 1763 '! 1, 050 1 | 10 950 12 Mr. F. J. Kemphries, S. J. 1764 1765 n . 1 . Hattie B. Pope, assist¬ ant principal. 1766 1 434 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. rd n 1 . r til O.S © a fi Class, Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 3 3 4 5 & § MICHIGAN— cont’d. 1767 Sch . T. B. 1768 1861 Reform . . . C. C. 1769 ... do . 1865 Gar . C. F. B. 1770 1865 Gen _ O. T. F# B. 1771 Springwells School District Li- Sch . "brary, Ho. 1. 1772 . do . Y. M C. A. Library, Railroad De- 1876 YM.C.A. .... C. S. B. 1773 Young Men’s Sodality of St. Soe . C. s. B. Joseph’s Church. 1774 Ladies’ Library Association . 1872 Gen . 0. C. s. B. 1775 1882 Hen . R. T F. B 1776 High School . Sell . C. F. B. 1777 1869 Social. . . . . C. S. B. 1778 1854 Sch . !.... c. Fr. B 1779 1855 Gen _ T. F. b’. c. 1780 1873 Gen I R. T. S. 1781 Grand Haven . Akeley Institute . Sch . 1 C. 1782 . do . Public School Library . 1874 Sch . T. F. B. 1783 Grand Rapids . Ladies’ Literary Club . 1873 Soc . C. B. 1784 _ do . Law Library . 1886 Law ...... 1 c "s. B. 1785 . do . Medical Library Association . 1894 Med . | R. C. S. It. 1786 . do . Public School Library . 1861 Sch . c. F. B. 1787 TT aneoek _ . do . 1876 ! Sch . 1.... T. F. B. 1788 Hastings _ _ _ Risrh School . . . ! Sch _ i C. 1789 Hillsdale . Hillsdale College . 1854 Col . . : _ c. S. B. 1790 . do . . . City Library . . c. 1791 _ . do . Ladies’ Library Association . 1879 Gen . ! R. c. S. B. 1792 Holland . . Graves’ Library of Hope College. 1866; Col . I c. B. 1793 . do . Holland Township Li hr ary . 1852 Gen . T. F. B. 1794 Holly . . Ladies Library _ 1871 Soc ....... R. C. S. C. 1795 Houghton . High School . Sch . c. 1796 _ do . Michigan Mining School . 1886 Sci . . T. F. B. 1797 . do . . Portage Township Library _ Sch . T. F. B. 1798 Howell . . Ladies’ Library Association 1875 Gen C. S. C. 1799 Ionia _ do . - . 18761 Gen . s. B. 1800 ... do . State House of Correction and 1873 1 Reform _ C. C. Reformatory. 1801 Iron Mountain _ _ Public School Library . 1888 Sch . T. F. B. 1802 Ironwood ........... City Library . . Gen . T. Fr. b: 1803 . _ .do . . do . . . 1888 1 Sch . T. B. 1804 Isbpeming. ...... _ City Library . . . . . 1 875 j Gen . C. s’. B. 1805 Jackson . Pree Public Library . 1885 Gen _ R. T. F. B. 1806 . do . Michigan State Prison . 1880 Sch . C. C. 1807 do Public. School Lihrarv _ Sch . C. 1808 Jonesville . . Ladies’ Library Association _ 1874 Soc . R. C. S. B. 1809 Kalamazoo _ Kalamazoo Coliego . . . 1833 Col . c. B. 1810 ... * .do . Kalamazoo County Law Library. 1870 Law . T. Fr. R. 1811 . do . Ladies’ Library Association _ 1853 Soc ...... O. C. S. B. 1812 . do . IVTic.bio-an "Female Seminary _ 1837 rien . _ C. B. .1813 . do . Public Library . . . . 1860 Gen _ O. T. F. C. 1814 Lake Linden ' . Township Library . . . 1876 Gen _ C. F. C. 1815 Lansing . . . Industrial School' for Boys . A . and R. . B. 1816 . do . Michigan School for the Blind . . . 1881 Sch _ T. Fr. B. 1817 . do . Michigan State Library . 1828 Gen . T. F. B. 1818 . do . Public School Library . 1882 Gen _ T. F. B. 1819 . . .do . State Board of Health . 1873 Med . F. B. 1820 Lowell _ _ ......... School Library, District Ho. 1 _ 1857 Sch . R. T. F. B. 1891 T.ndinnrfrm _ . Public School Library . 1876 Sch . C. F. B. 1822 1 Manistee . 1886 Sch . C. F. B. 435 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. . ® n ^3 © . 2 C3 f-4 • o C3 2 Ki P ® 3 Receipts. Volumes. CO o 3 i Ph r3 © a » fen gs rH S c'P 2, 03 © bD p P4 & £p « <>© © 5 •r- fcjc! p 2 \n t1 ^ 43 S n 0,5.0 M © p- . M © u ffl p o.o 5 0-+H.-I pq c3 Id g* & p © ~ a .S3 o EH O'M -4-3 36 Name of librarian. 9 SO 11 13 14 13 16 17 18 3.192 3, 300 1, 000 139, 360 1, 200 1, 669 1, 300 1, 652 2, 052 1, 600 1,100 4, 081 7, 000 1, 500 1,000 3, 123' 1, 255 5, 400 1, 625 41, 381 1, 430 1,650 9, 100 20 36 Eleanor S. flan filer ......... Joseph Nicholson, sup¬ erintendent. Frank McIntyre, first lieutenant and adju¬ tant Ninteenthlnfan try. H. M. Utley . 420 25 25 150 12, 033 348, 409 347, 224 $40, 526 $49, 192 1 . 983 ! J.G. Jenkins, R. R. Sec¬ retary. Rev. J. S. Mies . 3, 799 2, 623 5, 021 5, 000 i45' 52 107 Mrs. A. ReShore . 280 450 458 N. A. Strong, secretary . S. S. Beggs, superin tendent. Ella M. Williams 500 100 200 24 45 250 65 11, 287 250 F. D. Clarke 44 54 Mrs. H. E. Nye . 150 l 300 11, 758 200 276 Isabel M. Thomson 45 200 385 25 Carrie B. Jewett . . 150 1, 354 1, 144 8, 000 265 Mark Norris . 870 3, 557 2,953 Bessie S. Nitham. . j 1, 900 700 1,390 250 326 182, 515 120 17, 500 50 H. Z. Brock . 4, 000 96 75 5, 500 1 3, 000 600 $8, 000 John H. Wolfe . 1, 000 1, 930 9, 000 1, 000 1,310 2, 000 100 1 66 245 TCatfl A. Russell 1, 000 300 100 25 (1 Tloeshnrcr 120 1, 555 35 115 Albertus Van derHaar. Edith M. Allen 31 13S 11. 200 1, 000 1, 000 1,524 663 388 1, 021 .... 20 1, 000 300 200 B. Margaret. Sa.neo 100 75 Miss Mollie A. Burt _ Hattie McMullen .. . 1.700 2, 000 2, 100 3,186 1, 650 800 500 200 . | 750 Geo.Dysinger, superin¬ tendent. T. W. Baton . 300 100 100 75 25 500 50 264 6, 500 4, 500 8, 584 82, 171 600 H. Susie Bates . 200 350 350 Callie Mace . . 4, 640 16, 144 3, 000 1,200 2, 574 5, 9S6 1,400 3, 854 2, 000 22, 300 1,000 4, 000 1, 000 65, 000 8, 000 8, 000 3,000 2, 500 261 274 100 E. W. Fiske . 1 1,963 . 5, 588 350 C. F. Waldo . 426 Geo. N. Howe, superin¬ tendent. 200 44 50 1, 050 109 Sarah Sinclair . 3, 087 70 87 155 S. G. Jenks . 100 200 200 Geo. M. Buck . Laura Wilson _ 26 2 283 20 . . 12 1, 100 52, 000 1, 200 3, 000 97 3,000 1, 000 252 72 250 512 Eucharisto Brule . J. E. St. John, superin¬ tendent. Vernon J. Willey, prin¬ cipal. 500 164 80 48 # 385 1, 005 4, 000 100 27, 858 500 1, 100 Mrs. A F. Cady . 2, 000 380 100 100 25 . Henry B. Baker, secre¬ 100 230 45 14, 000 200 560 56o! tary. Mrs. L. R. Robinson _ 36 20, 000 1 5, 200 300 . 1 29 Kate S. Hutchins . 1,800 150 442 Lillian Brownriss: . 1767 17C8 1769 1770 1771 1772 1773 1774 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 436 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Eree or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 3 3 4 5 6 7 S MICHIGAN— cont'd. 1823 1892 ! ^r,l| _ R. C. F. B. 1824 1891 Gen . o'. T. E. B. 1825 Sch . C. 1826 1869 1 Gen . c. S. B. 1827 1884 i Sch . T. B. 1828 1889 Gen . R. T. *E. C. Library. 1829 1873 i Gen . R. T. F. C. 1830 Sch . C. E. c. 1831 1837 Gen _ R. T. E. B. 1832 . do . 1862 Sch . C. B. 1833 1891 Gen . T. F. B. 1834 1890 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1835 1860 Gen . T. E. C. 1836 1880 Sch . T, F. B. 1837 Gen . T. I. B. 1838 1S88 Soc . O. C. S. B. 1839 Sch . C. 1840 Olivet \ . Olivet College . 1847 Col . 0. C. s. B. 1841 . do . 1880 Gen . T. E. B. 1842 Sch . C. 1843 Orchard .Lake ... _ _ Michigan Military Academy _ 1877 Sch . C. Er. B. 1844 Oscoda, . . "Wood’s Reading Room . . 1882 Gen _ 0. C. E. R. 1845 Otsego . Ladies’ Library Association . 1873 Gen . 0. c. S. B. 1846 Owosso . Ladies’ Library and Literary As¬ 1867 Soc . R. c. S. C. sociation. 1847 . do . Public School Library . Sch . T. F. B. 1848 Pent, water . Pentwater Township Library.... 1873 Gen _ R. T. F. B. 1849 Petoskey . District Library . . . 1893 Sch . T. E. C. 1850 . do . Graves Normal School . 1888 Sch . C. R. 1851 Plainwell . Ladies’ Library Association . 1868 Gen . O. C. "s*1 B. 1852 Plymouth . TJnion School . Sch . C. F. B. 1853 Pontiac . Eastern Michigan Asylum . 1893 Asylum . . T. C. 1854 . do . High School . 1870 Sch . T. E. B. 1855 . do . Ladies’ Library Association . 1882 Gen . R. C. Fr. B. 1850 Port Huron . . do . 1865 Gen . O. C. S. B. 1857 . do . Public Library . Gen . R. T. F. B. 1858 . do . St. Clair County Bar Library . 1888 Law . R. C. S. R. 1859 Republic . Township Library _ _ _ 1876 Gen .. T. E C. 1860 Ridgeway . Hall Memorial Library . 1887 Gen . O. C. Fr. B. 1861 Saginaw East Side.. Hoyt Public Library . 1883 Gen . 0. C. F. R. 1862 . do . Public Library . 1873 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1863 Saginaw West Side. German Lutheran Seminary . Scb _ C. 1864 . do . Public and Union School District 1855 Sch _ 1 _ T. F. B. Library. 1865 . do . Teutonia Library . 1868 Soc . O. C. S. C. 1866 St. Clair . Ladies’ Library . 1869 Gen . C. S. B. 1867 St. Johns . Ladies’ Library Association . 1871 (ten . R. C. s. C. 1868 St. Joseph . City Library . 1886 Gen _ T. F. B. 1869 Sault Ste. Marie _ Public Library . 1850 Sch . r * ■ ■ C. S. B. 1870 Sturgis . Township Library _ _ _ 1882 Gen R. T. F. B. 1871 Tecumseh . Public School Library _ 1895 Sch . . R. T. F. 1872 Three Rivers . Eree Public Library . 1886 Gen . R. T. F. B." 1873 Traverse City . Ladies’ Library Association 1869 Soc . O. C. S. B. 1874 West Bay City . High School . Sch . C. 1875 Sage Public Library . 1884 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1876 Whitehall . To wnshin Library . 1874 j Gen . R. T. F. C. 1877 Wyandotte . Public Library . . . 1880 ! Gen . T. F. B. 1878 Tpsilanti . Ladies’ Library . 1868 1 Gen 0. C. S. B. 1879 . do . Public School Library . Sch . T. F. C. 1880 . do . State Normal School . 1853 ! Col . T. Fr. B. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 437 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S9G — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. | Books issued j during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Beceipts. Amount of en- 1 dowmont fund. Name of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 IO 11 13 14 15 16 17 IS 1 278 200 5. 897 $130 W. H. Hill . . 9, 699 1, 624 756 280 26, 608 11,658 $2, 887 3, 867 i Bose E. Patenaude . 1 692 , 4’ 000 100 120 371 83 6, 000 1, 000 200 j Gertrude B. Smith - 1* 962 302 7, 369 562 568 Mrs. C. A. Calkins . 3, 864 800 20,000 200 1, 000 1, 020 Jas. H. Walton . ! 1 000 24 1, 841 13' Mrs. L. H. Wood . '3, 669 400 212 150 10, 371 4, 700 518 Miss A. E. Vardley . 2 927 88 2, 868 2541 29, 735 500 540 Stella A. Widing . 21,412 700 1,004 368 GO; 817 5. 472 982 5, 189 $75, 000 J ulia S. Wood . i 2, 000 10 5, 000 25 250 250' N. J. Foley . \ 2, 165 500 100 52 2, 000 450 100 205 . J. D. Schiiler . 2, 000 100 67j Michael G. Kullman . . . 2, 000 40 100 5, 326 479: President of Ladies’ Li¬ brary Association. 1 133 25 000 1, 200 150 1, 916 UI O O O Joseph L. Daniels . 191 181 133 M. A. fiance, town clerk 2, 020 . . ! 10, 000 - 500 200 J. Sumner Borers i 1, 500 5001 1001 500 1,500 Edwin F. Holmes, sec¬ retary. 1 1, 000 200 75 12 900 900 189 Mrs. S . D. Hains . „ . 2, 800 50 92 4, 993! 217 Georgia E. Colt, secre¬ tary. 1,000 50 . ! 2, 000 1 300 125 E. X. Austin, principal . j 1,760 1 250 i 100 1401 D. J. Halstead, clerk _ 1,300 100 20 W . M. Andrus, super¬ I intendent. 1, 000 * 100 100 1 M. O. Graves . 1, 707 73 1, 707 . 1 i, 707 85 Mrs. Jennie M. Clement 1,200 . ' 31 J. A. Beddow . 1, 671 150 2, 000 1, 000 J. E. Lapharn . 2,000 200 100 1 250 F. E. Converse, super¬ intendent. 2, 400 89 Mrs. C. P. Stewart . 3, 900 125 220 2,000 Helen W. Farrand, I president. 2, 500 300 50 7 5 12, 500 400 1, 128 1, 407 Anna A. Manwaring.. . 9, 000 400 Bose Sullivan . 1, 896 265 300 300 . 1,500 12 1, 139 156 2. 500 T. H. Temple, president 24, 000 400 458 39, 032 4,000 50, 000 Harriet H. Ames . 11, 163 477 320 22 S 40, 868 361 1,000 1,555 Wm. F, Denfeid, sec¬ 1 retary. 1, 000 8, 125 125 36, 500 1,200 600 Edith A. Barnard . 1, 825 150 250 Ama Bose . 1, 700 Grace K. Jenks . 2, 662 120 1 3, 574 199 300 2, 081 100 255 50 6,’ 002 I 242 Geo. W. LGomis . 1, 500 200 6 40 3, 500 50 Joanna Kemp . 5, 500 1, 000 300 j 1, 500 1, 200 1, 200 1 . 1, 800 115 1 15, 000 443 489 1 . Gertrude J. Huey . 4, 818 2, 592 253 17, 967 1,567 1, 966 ’ ' E. B. Linsley, president 1 of board. 1, 600 100 2, 476 100 Mrs. O. P. Carver . 2, 000 . r" 25, 000 600 3, 000 130 36, 727 6. 402 ! . 4. 071 1, 124 110 9, 100 150 183 Mrs. Helen D. Hedges.. 3,156 100 80 80 300 433 F. E. Welsh, secretary.. 4, 300 165 6, 651 426 Mrs. Lucy B. Loomis. . . 2,532 208 1,221 450 100 184 M. A. Whitney, super¬ intendent. 16, 150 1 536 1,072 1 50 38, 000 96, 000 G. M. Walton . 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 438 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1895-00. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. rO 3 • * 8 n'-g o .t? u g § & Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 3 4 5 & 7 8 MINNESOTA. 1881 1885 Col . c. B. 1882 1885 Scb . C. Fr. B. 1883 1869 Gen . C. S. B. 1884 Blue Earth City . Sch . T. F. R. 1885 1857 Col C. Fr. B. 1886 Sch . T. Fr b! 1887 . do . Duluth Bar Library Association . . 1889 Law . R. C. S. B. 1888 1890 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1889 . do . 1 . 1882 Gen . R. T. F. B. I860 Sch.. C. s B. 1891 1875 Gen c. s. C. 1892 . do . 1866 Gen _ T. B. 1893 . 1858 Then . C. Fr. R. 1894 . _ do . Shattuck School . 1866 Sch . C. R. 1895 1892 Gen . . C. "s'." B. 1896 1880 Sch . C. F. B. 1897 1854 Col . c. 1898 1884 Gen . T. F. B. 1899 1891 Gen _ T. F. B. 1900 Hi eh School " Sch . .. C. 1S01 . do . Public Library and Reading Room 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1902 . do . State Normal School . . 1869 Sch . T. B. 1903 Minneapolis . Augsburg Seminary (Idun Li¬ 1876 Col. Soc... C. ‘s.‘ B. brary). 1904 . do . Guaranty Building Company 1890 Law _ c. R. Law Library. 1805 . do . Minneapolis Bar Association Li¬ 1883 Law . c. s. B. brary. 1906 . do . New York Life Law Library . 1890 Law . .... c. R. 1907 . _ _ do . Public Library . 1889 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 1908 .... .do . Stanley Hall . 1890 Sch . C. R. 1909 . do . Teachers’ Library . . . 1893 Gen . . C. C. 1910 . do . University of Minnesota . . 1869 Col . O. C. F*/ R. 1911 _ do . Medical Library . 1880 Med . c. Fr. R. 1912 Montevideo __ Public Library . Gen _ . . T. F. B. 1913 Moorhead . Public School Library . 1875 Sch . T. F. B. 1914 . do . . State Normal School.. . 1888 Sch . T. B. 1915 New Ulm . Turnveroin Library... . 1858 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1916 Northfi eld . Carleton College . 1867 Col . o. c. Fr. B. 1917 ..... do . . . Goodsell Observatory Library. . . . 1876 Kcien c. Fr. R. 1918 _ do . Public School Library . . Sch . T. F. B. 1919 _ do . St. 01 af College . 1874 Col . c. S. B. 1920 Owat.nnna, _ _ Hi eh School _ _ _ 1888 Sch _ _ _ _ T. R. 1921 do Pillsbnry Academy _ ... _ _ _ 1878 Sch . C. 1922 Red Wine- _ _ High School . . . Sch . c. B. 1923 _ do State Training School . . 1869 Sch . T. B. 1924 Redwood Falls Public School Library _ _ ...... 1890 Sch . C. F. B. 1925 R oeh ester . . German Library. . 1872 Gen . R. C. S. C. 1926 _ do . High School . . . Sch . T. Fr. B. 1927 _ do _ Public Library . . . . . 1866 Gen . T. F. B. 1928 _ do _ Rochester State Hospital . 1880 Asylum . . T. Fr. C. 1929 St. Cloud . . . High School . 1876 Sell . T. B. 1930 do ... Minnesota State Reformatory. . . . A. &R _ 1931 . do . Public Library and Reading Room 1872 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1932 _ . do . . State N firm nl Seh ool . _ 1869 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1933 fit, .Tnmfts _ Public School Library . . 1878 Sch . C. B. 1934 Kt, Joseph _ _ _ St. Joseph’s Library . 1865 Gen . C. Fr. C. 1935 St. Paul . . Baldwin Seminary . . 1853 Sch . R. c. R. 1936 do Cleveland High School . 1886 Sch . T. Fr.' R. 1937 .... .do Edward Neill Library of Mac- 1885 Col . C. F. B. alester College. 1938 do High School. ..................... 1875 Sch . . C. B. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES, 439 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S9G — Continued. Volumes. CQ •43 © § Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Kame of librarian. Prom taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 IO 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 1 nOO 500 12 180 $100 $100 1 900 150 25 400 . J. E. Phillips . 2 900 178 2, 596 206 Mrs. H. H. Kent . 1, 050 200 100 12 1, 125 20 42 i V. R. Wasson, superin¬ i tendent. n ooo 2, 000 350 100 1,500 1 Alexius Hoffmann i son 125 700 $400 g’ 000 14 125 Myrtil M. Hicks . 90 842 4, 610 354 122, 845 i 12,459 j 12, 899 Angie Keff . 1 400 50 125 12 350 360 Miss Minnie Bird . • 1 000 8 725 15 G. M. Wilcox, principal. s’, 000 13 62 2, 820 62 Mrs. T. A. Davis . 1 1 563 Louis C. Tuck R 000 150 ! 125 | 1, 200 Alford A . "Rutler . .. n ooo 200 Miss f!. E. Dndley lj ooo 500 150 1, 500 270 C. A. Ballard, superin- tendent. 2, 600 100 600 40 5, 000 1, 000 400 E. E. Mclntire . 6, 000 4 900 2, 000 200 4,200 250 1, 612 600 147 56 6, 538 300 315 Mrs. W. H. Davidson . . . 1 1 000 2 808 808 32, 354 2, 000 2, 080 Minnie McGraw . . 5, 000 1 F. L. Searin°\ clerk _ 1, 500 23 ;;;;;; 73 10, 000 300 ! Geo. K. Belden . 9, 500 282 2, 850 Ed w. S. W aters . 12, 000 ! ' Jessie T. Morvan _ . 84* 000 1, 000 11,197 67 1 450,588 250, 000 49, 492 57, 236 ; 200, 000 James K. Hosmer . 1, 800 100 ! 600 6, 000 300 20 . I Blanche Grimshaw . j 39, 909 . 3, 050 300 . j i Win. W. Folwell . ! l’ 035 11 ! 2, 470| Mary Edith Brovn l! 525 1 200 420 25 6, 409 303 378 Margaret E. Webb . 3, 500' 200 300 300 John F. Giles . 2. 000 500 L. C. Lord . ! 2, 000! i, 666 47 200 Edward Petry . ' 12, 500 1 400 1 ^ | 9, 750 © © o C. H. Cooper . ' 1, 300 500 100 Wm.W. Payne, director 1, 500 ! 200 3, 500 500 E. G. Adams . 1, 410 400 108 101 740 1 193 123 O. G. Felland . 1,600 75 996 50 50 L. H. Ford, superintend-] | 1 ent. 2, 000 . ! 1, 000 . i ;;;;;;; 200! “Miss Henrietta Richter. 2, 000 200 | 1, 000 40 100 1, 000 l’ 500 200 1. ooo 100 1, 425 600 110 J. L. Torrens . l] ooo 30 10 25 100 Robt. Riebe, trustee _ 1, 469 98 4,476 i Mabel E. Peck . 3,469 151 16, 542 700 10, 909 Mrs. S. P. Edgar, secre¬ tary. 1,000 100 1, 000 Arthur F. Kilbourne _ 1. 000 40 50 10 800 200 250 S. S. Parr . . 1, 681 3. 639 347 10 16, 202 1, 585 Mrs. M. E. Brick . 3,980 300 300 50 j j 1, 200 Geo. R. Kleeberger, { | [ president. 1, 350 120 100 M. H. Manuel, superin- I 1 1 tendent. 1 500 150 50 ! 15 400 | 1, ooo 90; . ■ C.J. Backus . ! 1, 122 66 35 16 860 i 400 . S. A. Farnsworth, prin¬ | . . 1 cipal. G, 000 200 600 75 1 i j auies IV allace, profes- ] sor of Greek. 2, 800 200 60 15 M. J. Xewson, teacher ] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 English literature. 1 1S81 1832 1883 1884 1885 1886 1837 1838 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1893 1399 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1928 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 440 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. MINNESOTA— COnt- d . 1939 St. Paul . 1940 . do . 1941 1942 1943 1944 . do . 1945 . do . 1946 . do . 3947 St. Peter . 1948 Sauk Center . 1949 Stillwater . 1950 . do . 1951 Wabasha . 1952 Waseca . 1953 Willmar . 1954 Winona . 1955 . do . MISSISSIPPI. 1956 Agricultural College 1957 Bay St. Louis . 1958 Blue Mountain . 1959 By h alia . 1960 Clinton . 1961 . do . 1962 . do . 1963 . do . 1964 Columbus . 1965 . do . . 1966 Crystal Springs . 1967 Daleville . 1968 Edwards . 1969 Harpersville . 1970 Hebron . 1971 Holly Springs . 1972 . do . 1973 Houston . 1974 Jackson . 1975 . do . 1976 . do . 1977 Lexington . 1978 Natchez . 1979 . do . 1980 Oxford . 1981 Pontotoc . 1982 Port Gibson . 1983 Tougaloo . 1984 University . 1985 Westside . 1986 Vale _ _ MISSOURI. 1987 Arcadia . 1988 Ashley . 1989 Bonneterre . 1990 Boonville . 1991 Brunswick . 1992 Caledonia . • _ Minnesota Historical Society _ Minnesota State Board of Health a 3 «H • „ fcc 0.5 [Public Library . St. Paul Seminary.. State Law Library. . Stryker Seminary . . Visitation Convent. Y. M. C. A. Library. Gustavus Adolphus College. Bryant Library Association. Library Association . Public School Library . Ladies-' Library Association. Public School Library . Willmar Seminary.... Free Public Library.. State Normal School . Mississippi Agricultural and Me¬ chanical College. St. Stanislaus College . . Blue Mountain Female College. . . "W averly Institute. . . . Lesbian Society of Hillman Col lege. Mississippi College . Hermenian Society . Philomathean Society . Mississippi Industrial Institute and College. Public Library . Graded School Library . Cooper Huddleston College . Southern Christian Institute . Harpersville College . High School . Rust University . State Normal School . Mississippi Normal College . Millsaps College . Mississippi Institution for the Blind. Mississippi State Library . . Lexington Normal College - - Cathedral Commercial School - Fisk Memorial Library . Union Female College . Chickasaw Female College... Chamberlain Hunt Academy. Tougaloo University . University of Mississippi . Alcorn Agricultural and Mechan¬ ical College. Oakland Normal Institute . Ursuline Academy . Watson Historical Library . St. Joseph Lead Company Free Library. Kemper Family School Library.. Library Association . Bellevue Collegiate Institute . 1849 1872 1881 1849 1873 1856 1876 1879 1868 1891 1871 1858 1880 1854 1873 1880 1853 1862 1853 1852 1886 1873 1894 1884 1873 1889 1868 1871 1892 1838 1883 1869 1849 1877 1855 1883 1871 Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. gd o o.a u Ph 7 Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 4 5 6 8 Hist . T. F. R. State . R. C. R. Gen . T. F. B. Theo . C. Law _ State. F. R. Sch . . C. Sch . C. R. Y.M.C.A. .... C. Fr.’ B. Col . c. Fr. B. Gen . T. F C. Gen . R. C. Fr. B. Sch . T. B. Gen . R. C. 's.' Sch . T. F. B. Col . C. F. R. i Gen _ T. F. B. Sch . C. B. Col . State. R. Col . C. S. B. Col . C. s. R. Sch . s. C. Col. Soc. . . C. Fr. B. Col . C. Fr. R. Col. Soc... C. Fr. B. Col. Soc. . . c. S. B. Col . T. Fr. R. Gen . C. S. B. Sch . C. S. B. Col . c. Sch . c. F. B. Sch . c. Fr. R. Sch . c. F. C. Col . c. Sch . Fr. B. Col . Col . c. S. B. Sch . F. State . T. F. R. Col . Sch . Soc . R. c. S. C. Col . c. S. C. Sch . c. B. Gen . c. Fr. B. Col . c. F. B. Col . O. c. F. B. Col . c. Fr. B. Sch . Sch . c. S. C. Hist . c. F. B. Gen . c. F. C. Sch . Gen . R. c. Fr. B. Sch . 441 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Stales of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Volumes. <0 C3 © > o ho 5-5 s © P w >5© a O g-©<2 * fe tc ..H © >5 a s* S ej O .O ... Eeceipts. a a © 3 S § I !■§ 10 ii 12 13 14 15 16 17 2, 800 . 1, 000 . 2,200 1, 039 . 2, 000 7, 050 2, 970 3,000 2, 500 3, 500 5, 680 2,500 1.200 2,200 2, 862 1, 000 2,000 11, 800 2, 825 32, 255 1,200 32, 000 1, 851, 3, 088 5, 200 2, 000 1,085 3,000 9.000 3,000 1, 400 300 392 20 250 50 18, 022 $1, 000 $1, 000 3, 889; 1, 272; 1, 000 1, 000 500; 368 100 176 80 300 40 500 461 100 150 60 200 250 350 150 50 3,224 17, 597 6, 000 1,000 250 49 65 45 100 170 365 202 $1, 100 1. 000 87 400 700 7, 400! 273 2,800 1,863 100! . . 1 2,821 233 350 12, 881 "’2 66 ’i9*666 50 50 500 1001 81. 155 1.S821 . 200 . 50| 700 1, 340 . 125 . 12, 20' 12, 807 117 200 700! 500 . 700 22 2, 197 127 52' 2, 187; 507 125 354 560 381 4, 000 4, 458 1,500 5, 200 9,660 300 112 50 1,909 861 . 51,420 . . 4,211 7,000 600 200 1, 009 500 1,333 500 1,000 . 1, 652 . .... 235,378' 44,635 1 3,500 15,000 179 6,000* . 1,020 100: 500 . 240 25, 000 8, 050 360 515 2, 700 . 1, 215: . 1, 000' 1, 300 . 500 128 400, 476 100 213 1 2, 160 1. 200 1,378 100’ 2, ooo:. 30, 000 4, 000 ! 2, 000 1, 200 i 240 10, 587 . 2, 202 : . 1,824 . 1, 024: 60 1, 375! 250 2,500 . 1, 403 . 2. 441 . 1,000 545 48; 276 10, 945 1,250 4, 500 1, 500 423 300 181 225 . 251 23 200 24 200 197 121 35 206 5,000 5, 232 ...j 1,271 ... 4,618 10 . 1 50, 12, 258 3,289 350 350 260 1,233 1, 000 240 1 1, 040 25 1.37 323 101 .... 162 248 ,| 140; 151; Name of librarian. 18 Mrs. if, E. Abell . 2104 O. H. Brainerd, principal 2105 David R. Kerr, president 2106 Clara L. Kenny . 2107 C. C. Lewis . 2108 Prof. 'NVm. E. Jillson. . . . 2109 Aline T. Sherrill . 2110 Mayme Tavlor . 2111 D. ii. McEacbron . j 2112 W. II. Clemmons . . 2113 Mary E. Irvine . ! 2114 W. N. Filson . | 2115 Mary M. Michael . 2116 * E. W. Elwell, secretary. 2117 Mrs. H. J. Seaman . i 2118 Mrs. -J. C. Hull . 2119 C. F. Hammond . 2120 Carrie C. Dennis . i 2121 J. A. Barrett . : 2122 D. A. Campbell . 2123 J. F. Saylor . 2124 Mary E.'Jones . 2125 A. H. Bigelow, snperin- 2126 tendent. . 2127 M. Belle Chellis . 2128 ’ E. C. Bishop . 2129 H. B. Hollingsworth, 2130 secretary. Bobert Doherty, rector. 2131 ! Creighton College sec- 2132 retary. Bessio Hammond . 2133 . 2134 ! . 1 2135 B. H. Barrows . 2136 A. 'W. Norton, presi- j 2137 j dent. 1 Olive Jones . 2138 ; Fred. B. Biggs, assist- 2139 l ant principal. ! A. A.Munro . 2140 : Mrs. J. S. Johnston, 2141 president. j C. L. Crook, Ph. D . 2142 i Geo. W. Haan, superin- 2143 tendent. ! J. M. Pile . 2144 I Grace Hurlbut . . . 2145 TV, A. King . Eugene Howell, secre¬ tary of state. H. K. Clapp . C. L. McLane, princi¬ pal. J. F. Me Don ell, record¬ ing secretary. Miss Gertrude Dunlope . 2146 2147 •2148 2149 2150 2151 H.Y. Havward, trustee. ! C. A. Builock,.-.. . Geo. H. Demerit! . Elisa J. Stearns . Mrs. C. E. Morton . | B. R. D. Dearborn . 2152 2153 2154 2155 2156 2157 448 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96, Public, society, and school libraries in the United 2158 2159 2160 2161 2162 2163 2164 2165 2166 2167 2168 2169 2170 2171 2172 2173 2174 2175 2176 2177 2178 2179 Location, Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 new Hampshire— con¬ tinued. Atkinson . 1879 1893 1893 1877 1885 1878 1883 1894 1894 1873 1891 1843 1823 1823 1855 1856 1883 1860 1881 1881 1883 1884 Sch . C. T. T. C. T. T. C. T. T. T. T. 'f.' F. S. F. F. S. F. F. F. F. Fr. F. F. F. S. F. F. F. F. F. B. B. B. C. B. B. C. C. B. B. B. C. R. R. B. B. R. B. B. B. B. B. Gen . O. R. Gen _ Gen . Gen .... 0. Gen . Center Sandwich . . . Sandwich Library Association. . . Soc . Gen . R. O. O. Gen . Gen . Gen _ R. Hew Hampshire Asylum for the Insane. Hew Hampshire Historical Li¬ brary. Hew Hampshire State Library .. Asylum. . . . do . . do . . do . Hist . State . Gen . O. O. O. C. T. C. C. State. T. . do . Sch . . do . Med . Gen . R. Deerfield Center. . . . Derry . Philbrick- James Library . Gen . Pinkerton Academy . Sch . C. T. T. Dover . Public Library . Gen . Dublin . Gen . 2180 Durham . College of Agriculture and Me¬ 1868 Col . C. B. chanic Arts. 2181 _ rlo . . Public Library . 1892 Gen C. F. B. 2182 East Canterbury _ Shaker Community Library . 1840 Soc . . . C. Fr. B. 2183 East Derry . Taylor Library . . . 1876 Gen . T. F. C. 2184 East J affrey . Jaffrey Public Library . . 1883 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2185 East Rindge . East Rindge Library. ............ 1870 Gen . _ C. Fr. B. 2186 East Rochester . East Rochester Library . 1885 Gen . C. F. B. 2187 Exeter . Phillips- Exeter Academy. . 1781 Sch . C. Fr. R. 2188 . do . Public Library . 1853 Gen _ O. T. F. B. 2189 Farmington . . do . 1890 Gen _ T. F. B. 2190 Fitzwilliam . Town Library . 1871 Gen . T. F. B. 2191 Fran coat, own _ _ do . 1873 Gen . O. T. F. C. 2192 Franklin . Franklin Library . 1861 Gen . C. S. B. 2193 Franklin Falls _ Smith Library of the Unitarian 1880 Social . R. C. S. B. Society. 2194 Gilsum . . . Public Library . 1891 G en _ T. F. C. 2195 Greenville . . Chamberlin Free Public Li¬ 1879 Gen . T. F. B. brary. 2196 Hampstead . Helson Ordway Public Library . . 1889 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2197 Hampton . Public Library . . . 1865 G en . T. F. B. 2198 TTa.mptnn Falla _ _ Ladies’ Social Library . 1845 Social _ _ T. S. C. 2199 TT an cock . . Town Lihrary . . . 1860 Gen . O. C. F. B. 2200 Hanover _ _ Dartmouth College . 1770 Col . 0. C. S. B. 2201 Harrisville . . Town Library . 1878 Gen . O. T. F B. 2202 Haverhill . Ladies’ Library Association . 1880 Gen . R. C. S.' C. 2203 Honniker _ Free Library . . Gen . R. T. F. B. 2204 Hillsboro ....... . Fuller Public Library . . . 1877 Gen . F. B. 2205 Hinsdale _ _ H i gb Sell ool . . . Sch . T. Fr. R. 2206 _ _ do . Public Library _ _ 1864 Gen _ T. F. B. 2207 Hollis . Social Library . 1799 Gen . T. F. B. 2208 Hopkinton . Public Library . . . . 1892 Gen . T. F. C. 2209 Hudson . Greeley Public Library . 1893 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2210 Jackson . Public Library . 1879 Gen . T. F. 2211 H een e do _ _ _ , _ , , _ 1875 Gen . C. F. B. 2212 Hen sin y ton . Social Library . 1895 Social .... O. C. F. B. 2213 T^in orfcf.OTl Sanborn Seminary __ . _ . Sch . 2214 Laconia Public Library . . . 1878 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2215 TifilrPHori-. Hubbard’s Circulating Library . . . 1883 Gen . S. C. 2216 do Pnblie. Library _ ...... 1891 Gen . T. F. C. 2217 Lancaster .do . . . . 1882 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2218 TiP.hnDOTi Leavitt’51 Library . . ... 1872 Gen . F. R. 2219 Public Library . 1889 Gen . O. T. , F. B. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 449 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during year for homo use. Books issued lor use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. 1 Name of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 IO 11 1» 13 14 15 16 17 ts 1, 500 IT. TV Dunham . 1, 000 81 . 3, 083 3 $150 $150 1 ' 944 18 1 172 25 6. 132 500 581 Haiti e L. Johnson 1 400 70 75 Benjamin Tnekftr 3,’ 243 200 190 14 5, 776 331 456 $2, 500 Emma Pratt Berry . 1 1, 600 O. D. Fessen Hen 1, 121 1,800 j . 39 E. Q. M a, rat, on 3, 826 ° . 259 259 Frank AV. Hamlin, trus¬ tee. 1 , 250 906 4, 000 100 I Tsa hello IT. Ei+,7; _ 7 000 250 450 5, 000 A hhift Field ‘A 5nr> 400 300 J. H. Darby cbaimiaii- 1 95fi! 30 3, 900 1 100 Dr. C. JB. Bancroft su- j perintendent. 13, 000 50, 000 380 1, 000 1, 730 11, 000 Rev. 14, F Farter 50 000 25, 000 3 000 2, 500 5, 550 j Arthur F Fhase isi 157 500 87, 122 89, 122 6, 458 2, 500 1 Grace Blanchard 10 800 1,700 1, 609 77 780 1, 000 1, 000 50 Irving A. Watson 2, 000 400 200 30 860 150 406 500 1 Frank J. Morrill, trus- | tee. 2, 276 500 2, 159 271 2, 500 J. H. H. Burbank _ 3. 700 100 25 1, 765 500 1 Mary IJ. Bingham 20, 500 742! 1,003 75 67, 183 3, 500 3, 711 750 Caroline H. Garland _ 2, 953 138 2, 785 173 4, 000 595 329 745 4, 767 200 417 10, 000 586 1, 200 j C. W. Scott . Miss M. H. Smith _ 2. 000 3 150 200 7, 559 75 195 3, 000 Ada Reynolds . 1, 900 50 72 8 5, 844 200 420 Mrs. S. G. Slason . 1, 500 15 1 Cynthia S. Converse 1, 700 100 165 6, 321 600 j J. H. Whittier. . . 1,600 25 200 J. A. Tufts, secretary. . 9, 000 444 17, 111 2, 000 2, 272 . 7, 000 Frances E. Moulton. . . . 2, 038 380 153 25 9, 116 187 212 Henry S. Davis . 4, 293 65 75 75 Grace C. Richardson. . . . 2, 511 158 176 3, 476 83 136 Geo. TC. W nod _ 2, 883 71 3, 000 75 Mary A. Rowell . . . 2, 500 2, 840 3, 000 Mary E. Daniel . 1, 054 42 2, 807 79 J. A. Loveland . 2, 517 452 90 452 300 314 G. Ernest Merriam . 1, 387 61 1, 595 379 Dr. Geo. R. Bennetts _ , 2, 020 125 70 6 2, 192 25 100 107 S. Albert Shaw . j l’ 090 12 . Helen M. Sanborn . H9i 172 450 12, 000 John P. Hills, trustee ..j 82' 000 ! 20,000 1, 458 1,270 6, 000 3, 500 Marvin D. Bisbee . i 1, 563 75 1, 725 50 50 . . 1 Laura M. Tuttle . ! 1, 000 80 108 132 l’ 800 300 100 200 215 . Mrs. J. C. Cogswell . 3, 365 173 180 3, oool Mary C. Bixhy _ _ _ 1, 154 379 4, 500 500 200 100 12, 000 Mrs. Martha L. Stearns. 4’, 036 91 5,000 161 Rev. S. L. Geroulel, sec¬ | retary. 1,474 40 150 150 Sarah W\ Rim ball _ 2, 172 60 2, 512 100 124 Mary FT. Webster . 1, 900 600 25 25 l 9nn 30 57 F F. Afeserve _ _ 10, 000 335 29. 1371 _ 500 Mary F. Sheldon . 1, 000 1, 378 Mrs. A. M. Hilliard _ 1,450 6, 488 32, 038 700 1, 505 1, 000 Julia S. Busiel . 1, 000 John M. Hubbard . 1, 678 46 9 12 9, 631 230 Oliu S. Davis . 7, 500 100 9, 000 400 1 900 sen Geo. A. L. Leavitt . 5, OOOl 500 200 19, 307 600 10, 000 E, H. Thompson . . . ED 96 - 15 2158 2159 2160 2161 2162 2163 2164 2165 2166 2167 2168 2169 2170 2171 2172 2173 2174 2175 2176 2177 2178 2179 2180 2181 2182 2183 2184 2185 2186 2187 2188 2189 2190 2191 2192 2193 2194 2195 2196 2197 2198 2199 2200 2201- 2202 2203 2204 2205 2206 2207 2208 2209 2210 2211 2212 2213 2214 2215 2216 2217 2218 2219 450 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. G S .O ^5 .2 © ts A Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 NEW HAMPSHIRE— continued. 2220 1864 ften . O. C. S. C. 2^21 1889 Gen . ' T. F. B. 2222 1879 Gen . C. F. B. 2223 1797 Soc R. T. s. B. 2224 ! 1844 Gen . O. T. F. i B. 2225 A. and R . . 1 2226 | 1867 Gen . i °‘ C. F. B. 2227 1 1877 Gen _ _ T. F. ! C. 2228 | 1882 G en . I R. T. F. B. 2229 Sell . ! 2230 1 1893 Gen . j T. F. c. 2231 Milford . 1 1869 Gen _ _ L_. T. F. B. 2232 1889 Gen . C. F. B. 2233 Sch . C. F. R. Institute. i 2234 1867 Gen _ R. T. F B. 2235 1895 Gen . O. C. F. B. 2236 . do . Sch . tion. 2237 1827 Soc _ C. F. B. 2238 . do . Social Fraternity . 1831 Soc _ _ I ,.... C. F. B. 2239 Newington _ Langdon Free Public Library. . . . 1892 Gen _ C. F. B. 2240 New London . Colby Academy . 1887 Sch . .... C. s. B. 2241 N e wmarket . . Town Library . 1845 Gen . T. F. B. 2242 Newport . . Richards’s Free Library . 1888 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 2243 Pelham . ] Public Library . . . 1892 Gen _ 0. T. F. c. 2244 ! Pembroke . . 1 Pembroke Academy . . 1837 Sch . C. B. 2245 1 Peter boro _ _ Town Library . 1833 Gen . .’. 0. T. "f. B. 2246 Plymouth _ Holderuess School for Boys _ Sch . 2247 i . do . New Hampshire State Normal Sch . T. i;;;; 1 K* School. 2248 . do . Young Ladies’ Circulating Li¬ 1878 Gen . 0. C. s. j B.. brary. 2249 Portsmouth . . Free Public Library . . . 1881 Gen R. T. F. ! B. 2250 . do . . . Portsmouth Athenteum . 1817 Soc . 0. C. s. ! B. 2251 Itindge . ! Ingalls Memorial Library . 1893 Gen . 1 o. T. F. ! B. 2252 Rochester . j Public Library . 1893 1 : Gen . i u R. F. B. 2253 1 Salem _ _ Free Public Library . 1894 ! Gen _ 1 T. F. B. 2254 Sea brook _ _. . _ . Brown Memorial Library . 1893 Gen _ 1 0. C. F. B. 2255 Somersworth . Manufacturers’ and Tillage Li¬ 1840 Gen . s. B. brary. 2256 Suncook . . . Pentagon Circulating Library _ 1875 ' Gen . C. 2257 Surry . . Reed Free Library . 1881 ; Gen . F. i B. 2258 | Swanzey _ Mount Csesar Union Library . 1880 1 Gen _ 0. C. S. B. 2259 Temple . Town Library . . 1890 Gen 0. T. F. C. 2260 Tilton . New Hampshire Conference Sem¬ 1845 j Sch . C. ' B. inary. 2261 . do . Tilton and Northfield Public Li¬ 1887 Gen . 0. T. F. B. brary. 2262 ~W akefielrl . Public Library . . 1880 Gent 0. C. F. B. 2263 Walpole . Bridge Memorial Library . 1840 ' Gen . 0. T. F. B. 2264 Warner . Pillslmry Free Library 1891 Lon . . _ 0. T. F. B. 2265 W asliington . Sliedd Free Li bra ry 1869 Gen 0. C. F. B. 2266 West Lebanon . Library Association. . 1869 ! Gen T. S. C. 2267 . do . Tilden Seminary . 1865 1 Sch . C. Fr. B. 2268 W estmoreland . Free Library . 1887 ! Gen . T. F. C. 2269 West Swanzev . Stratton Free Library . . 1885 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 2270 Wh i tefi eld.. . . Public Library . 1893 Gen . T. F. C. 2271 W ilton . . . do . 1890 Gen . T. F. B. 2272 Winchester . . . do. . . 1813 Gen . 0. T. F b! 2273 Windham . Nesmith Library . 1871 Gen . C. f. : B. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 451 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pam p h 1 ets added during year. Books i s s u 0 d during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. Prom taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 17 IS 3 991 $178 2220 200 1 3! 716 . 500 1 Miss EL F. Merrill . 2221 310 55 20 1,955 $100 136 $1. 000 ■ films (4 Pillshnry 2222 . 48 500 Henry H. Holt . 2223 1,098 325 59, 495 10, 934 5, 170 10, 000 P ate E. Sanborn . 2224 1 ’ oon 2225 5' 000 125 5. 200 . 300 5,000 | S. H. McAllister, D.D.. ! 2226 40 2! 600 _ 61 84 ! E. A. Jones, secretary.. j 2227 2 359 90 4! 571 250 266 ' Georgia M. Blaisdell . . . ! 2228 2 onn . 2229 10 161 5 2, 992 . | Emma A. Cross ........ 1 2 >30 1 000 264 20! 594 _ 1,353 . 5,100 T?AbAP.ea, E Tina n a i 2231 25 3, 500- 135 Frank Halej 1 2232 l’ 050 | G. W. Cox, A. B., prin¬ 2233 cipal. 1J. 000 38, 000 4,125 H. Crombie _ _ 2234 fi' 000 ' L. P. Bickford . 2235 1 1 000 . . ! . 2236 1 400 15 I TT. M. James . 2237 1, 717 C. H. Ha wkins . 2238 2, 100 36 4,418 78 1, 000 2239 3’ 583 1,000 105 300 1, 707 6 Alary E. BnrpeA 2240 3, 000 200 350 350 Geo. L. Dearborn, sec¬ 2241 retary. 4 812 100 250 20 9, 962 778 1, 025 20, 000 Mary L. Tandy . . 2242 1,000 100 200 F. M. Woodbury, trus¬ 2243 | tee. 1 600 700 fsaae. AValker i 2244 1, 890 571 12, 260 800 850' Eva E. Coffin . 2245 l’ 200 i 2246 l’ 500 C. C. Rounds, principal. 2247 2, 753 141 . | 6, 100 M. H. Loverett . ! 2248 13, 000 | 600 26, 000 1, 500 1, 580 Robt. E. Rich .. ! 2249 is’, 000 200 2, 000 Alfred Gooding, presi¬ 2250 dent. 1,350 50 1,100 20 2,118 10 25 4, 070 2, 600 Miss Emma E. Leigh¬ 2251 1 ton. 4. 135! 400 756 100 2,000 Lillian E. Parshley _ 2252 1. 006 216 5, 500 50 130 Susan A. Cluff . 2253 2,000 300 1, 158 105 1, 570 I Mrs. J. M. S. Tucker, 2254 | president. 9 000 5, 000 2,000 1 Jared P. Hubbard 1 2255 1, 200 300 1 ! J. AVilkins . . ; 2256 2! 624 82 145 57 187 4, 000 Mrs. Mary E. Field _ 1 2257 1, G 12 100 1, 872 128 2, 200 Mrs. Flora E. Xewell.. 2258 l’ 500 500 70 15 2, 700 Agnes M. Holt . [ 2259 3, 000 800 50 200 Geo. L. Plimpton . 1 2260 5, 000 25 200 g G G s X u III From taxa¬ tion. w o eipts. 6 1 ^ H Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. 9 1 IO 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 14 000 875 50, 302 3, 593 I I $4, 474 I . Cornelia A. See 33 559 5, 000 1 894 1 $21, 000 Irving S. Upson . . . 43, 017 7, 676 48 2, 800 50, 000 John C. A"an Dyke . 7 280 130 564 10, 000 Sara M. Moore . l' 350 1 . 7 989 509 34, 871 15. 474 ! Laura E. Babcock . 5 43° 380 99 9“>6 2 430 $2, 100 2 984 24. 939 .... 2, 248 111,236 1, 626 12,989 13, 493 G. F. Winchester . 1. 100 20 13 735 1, 650 850 30, 473 3, 013 4,293 23, 000 1. 000 E. E. Kenyon, principal. 1. 150 2, 000 500 3. 080 2, 000 1, 0°0 800 90 Mrs. Thomas Swann, | president. 5S, 000 24, 500 830 6, 176 64, 000 Kev. .J. H Dulles . 102, 000 25, 000 4, 000 2, 000 27,180 1 E. C. Richardson . io’ 000 . 10, 000 John Porter Hall . 4, 000 8, 000 80 400 AVilliam Libbey, direc¬ tor. 13. 500 1. 000 25, 000 Carol vn AV ells . 1, 650 153 4, 4S'1 . 650 Miss E. T. Peed . 1. 530 273 7. 656 1 375 Dorothy E. Burrows _ 10. 600 200 10, 265 644 5, 000 M. £L StrattoD . 1,000 125 21 1, 290 526 j Geo. It. Nicholl, presi¬ dent board of trustees. 1, 500 4, 000 100 385 4, 000 40 50 35 422 4, S83 ! Elizabeth. Van Hoeven- berg. 4, 000 1, 000 800 200 J. J. Synnott . . 1 5, 000 1,950 350 220 70 . 1, 800 381 1 Augustus F. Libbv, president board of trustees. 1, 236 300 1.236 300 5,217 125 George AV arrington Eccles. rector. 1,000 200 20 ’ F. A. North, principal . . 1,000 4, 000 250 . 250 5, 000 John AV. AVard, medical 1 director. 45, 500 2 322 3, 000 Morris R. Hamilton, . . State librarian. 9. 000 8, 000 2,500 305 9, 469 8, 639 J. M. Greene, principal . 6, 000 ! 1 13, 000 750 Margaret C. Barber 2, 750 2, 000 500 400 50 Frank D. Andrew, sec¬ retary and librarian. 1,250 1 2, 547 226 2, 000 100 100 350 TT C. Ravnolds, secre¬ ! | tary. 3, 960 1 2,673 15, 067 354 6, 000 Lewis St hit, SBcrctstry" board of trustees. 1,748 33 1, 031 72 »Tps7 WMS 700 7 869 12, 187 280, 000 46, 534 i ' 300 ’ ' 250 50] 000 1, 000 150 500 1, 356] 10 1, 200 150 25 1 90 6 280 120 :::::::: 3, 000 350 15, 593 750 1 434 4, 287 5, 125 718 $200 102 2, 750 80 500 8 9,411 500 5 150 20 20 10 20 300 390, 3, 800 4, 000 693 5, 000 510 40 10' 2001 ! 50 25 3,400 40 34, 000 600 2, 348 3, 000 200, 000 280 11, 061 j " * " * 500 13 60 1,362 60 1 1 1 . 500 | 5, 000 1,238 200 1, 747 18, 316 ! 345 8, 660 . 1, 968 29. 050 447 692 60 . 730 1 60 200 1,394 100 200 150 100 225 175 38 12 872 25 50 2UU 250 3, 600 j 1, 000 170 320 49 200 150 1, 000 500 425 1 . 241 21, 407 986 4, 000 200 • 9, 802 . 1, 000 10, 497 1, 198 i . 150 5, 000 1 . | 125 175 j 420 13, 086 j . 761 300 100 100 300 1 1 . 350 1 . 350 5, 000 400 i, 500 366 100 44, 669 3, 000 3, 081 l 100 2, 000 40 2, 670 2 100 1 . 150 6001 1 . 321 5, 634 210 862! 18, 000 Name of librarian. 18 Salem G. Pattison . M. Hoey, secretary George Rogers Howell. . W. R. Davidson, secre¬ tary. E. I." Flood, superin¬ tendent. Brother L* on tine . A. S. Brolley . John A. Howe, presi¬ dent. Melvil Dewey . S. B. Griswold . Mrs. Alois Donhauser.. A.P. Gillette, secretary F. M. Gray . . Brother Thomas . Nellie B. Lovejoy A . A . Clarke . Alice Newman . . Lillian A. Achiiles - J Howerth . Edward M. Tomlinson . Alexander M. Hickey, secretary. Mother M. Teresa . Belle Huntley. R. B. Fairbairn . Laura E. Leland . A. M. Preston, principal Horatio Yates, chaplain Arthur S. Hoyt . Martha A. Bullard . Vasa E. Stolbrand, su¬ perintendent. A. A. Wood . Reuben J. Wallace, principal. William H. cipal. F. W. Crumb, A. M - Disk, prin- H. L. Grose . Gardner Fuller, super¬ intendent. P. P. Bradish, clerk board of education. H. L. Underhill . Sarah P. Sherwood, president. William A. Cuzner _ Mrs. F. N. Doubleday. Edward I. H. Howell, secretary and treas¬ urer. Charles J. Galpin, prin¬ cipal. Mrs. M. E. Davis . Mrs. J osephine W. Clonney. J. K. Noyes . E. C. Harris . L. W. Fiske . 2374 2375 2376 2377 2378 2379 2380 2381 2282 2383 2384 2385 2386 2 '-87 2388 2389 2390 2391 2392 2393 2394 2395 2396 2397 2398 2399 2400 2401 2402 2403 2404 2405 2406 2407 2408 2409 2410 2411 2412 2413 2414 2415 2416 2417 2418 2419 2420 2421 2422 2423 2424 2425 2426 2427 ED 96 - 15 * 458 EDUCATION REPORT, 1893-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Kame of library. r3 a d ro r o.5 © "cS Q Class. 1 Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Jz d . 60 C .© p if o.g- © 5 © CQ Sh Eh Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 2 3 4 ‘5 & 7 & NEW YOEK— cont’d. 2428 1876 Gen . O. C. S. B. 2429 1852 Gen . R. C. F. B. 2430 . do . 1868 Sch . T. Fr. B. Training School. 2431 1873 Gen ... _ T. F. B. 2432 1869 Sch . C.’ B. 2433 1877 Gen . R. S. C. 2434 1886 Sch . C. Fr. B. 2435 do 1895 Sch . T R. 2436 1824 Gen _ C.‘ F. B. ton street). Sciences. 2437 1857 Gen ...... O. C. S. B. tague street). 2438 Brooklyn ( Station 17) Fort Hamilton Free Library . 1893 State . 0. F. B. 2439 Brooklyn (67 Seller- Free Lending Library of Union 1882 Gen . 0. — cV” F. B. merhorn street). for Christian Workers. 2440 1834 Sch . T. R. 2441 1850 Law ...... C. S. R. the Second Judicial District. 2442 . do . Long Island Historical Society. . . 1863 Hist . 0. C. s. R. 2443 Brooklyn (356 Bridge Medical Society of the County of 1845 Med . 0. c. Fr. R. street) . Kings. 2444 Brooklyn . . Packer Collegiate Institute . 1846 Sch . c. R. 2445 . do . . . Pratt Institute Free Library.. 1888 Gen _ 0. c. F*' B. 2446 Brooklyn (Flatlands) Public School Library . sch . T. F. B. 2447 Brooklyn (Driggs Public School Library, eastern 1866 Sch . T. Fr. B. avenue, corner district. South Third street). 2448 Brooklyn _ Rounds’s (Miss) School for Girls . Sch . 2449 . do . St. Francis College . 1883 Col . C. Fr. B. 2450 . do . St. James School . 1870 Sch . C. C. 2451 . . do _ St. John’s College _ _ Col . C. 5452 . do . St. John’s Orphan Home . 1870 Asylum . . c. B. 2453 Brooklyn (626 Carl¬ Spicer Memorial Library of Poly¬ 1891 Col . c. B. ton avenue). technic Institute of Brooklyn. 2454 Brooklyn . . Training School for Teachers .... 1885 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2455 Brooklyn (502 Ful¬ T. M. C. A. Library . 1854 Y.M.C.A. .... C. S. B. ton street). 2456 Brooklyn (Scher- T. W. C. A. Library . 1888 Y.W.C.A. . . . . C. S. B. merkorn street and Flatbush ave¬ nue). 2457 i Buffalo _ Academy of the Sacred Heart. . . . Sch . c. 2458 Buffalo (597 Main The Buffalo Catholic Institute . . . 1866 G ftii _ c. S. B. street). 2459 Buffalo . Buffalo High School . Sch . T. F. R. 2460 . do . . . Buffalo Historical Society . 1862 • Hist . C. Fr. R. 2461 . do . Bnffalo Library _ _ 1836 Gen _ 0. C. S. B. 2462 . do . Buffalo Seminary. _ 1851 Sch . c. R. 2403 . do . Buffalo Society of Katural Sciences 1863 Scien c. Fr. 11. 2464 Buffalo (Ellicott Buffalo Turn v erein . 1876 Gen . . . . . . c. F. C. street) . 2405 Buffalo . Canisius College _ 1860 Col c. B. 2466 . do . Eighth Judicial District, Hew 1 .aw . _ T. Fr. R. York Law. 2467 . do . Erie Railroad Library . 1874 Gen _ C. S. B. 2468 Buffalo (154 Maple German Martin Lutheran Semi¬ 1854 Theo . C. Fr. R. street) . nary. 2469 Buffalo (26 Chip¬ German Young Men’s Association 1841 Gen . C. S. B. pewa street). 2470 Buffalo . Grosvenor Library . 1859 Gen . 0. C. F. R. 459 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. go E CD O 5 Ph |s n © |c Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Iteceipts. 5 2 5 ® Name of librarian \ From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 IS 4, 971 229 65 24 976 60 $673 $15, 000 John F. Youngs, secre¬ 2428 I tary. 2, 000 P. H. Carver, assistant 1 2429 . . librarian. i 3, 000 S. J anette Reynolds, as¬ 2430 sistant librarian. 1 560 391 4 Rebecca E. Young . i 2431 5! 929 200 244 20 7, 465 60 Mabel A. Farr . 2432 4 500 ! 2433 9 150 60 20 70 Julian TV. Abemethy.. 2434 3 4 09 400 10 50 15, 000 D vr E. Burke . 2435 14, 000 4, 000 300 200 218, 000 Franklin W. Hooper, 2436 . director. 193 00° 13, 005 3 898 1, 704 99 116 60, 000 21, 238 93, 000 1 TV illis A. Bagwell _ 2437 3, 400 1, 200 9, 000 3, 000 700 H. S. Thorne, president. 2438 33 S09 400 3 510 172, 812 2, 734 7, 108 kliss F anny Hull _ . 2439 2, 700 80 30, 000 5, 000 Calvin Patterson, prin¬ 2440 cipal. 18, 68S 1, 157 6, 700 James D. Bell . i 2441 56 902 20, 000 3 108 9,977 133, 962 Emma Toedteberg _ _ - 1 2442 8, 000 3, 000 502 628 William Brownin", 2443 1 M.D. 6. 573 272 669 1 Hannah J. G-arahan .... 2444 59, 788 3, 594 j 207, 899 24, 058 1,471 i Mary TV. Plummet' . 2445 1, 055 50 23 5 400 100 $10 20 j Moses Becker, jr., prin- 2446 cipal. 20, 000 24 800 4,500 1 Arthur D. Stettson . 2447 2, 500 I 2448 4, 000 1 2449 1,500 100 15 1 300 2150 8, 000 1 1 2451 1, 100 550 40 100 2,500 j Mother M. de Chantal, 2452 superintenden t. 7, 500 80 700 500 10, 000 Mary H. Chadwick _ _ 2453 3, 000 100 50 1, 000 I 2, 500 TV m. Gallegher . . 2454 17, 445 2, 500 560 200 19, 249 21, 595 3, 500 5,500 Silas H. Berry . j 2455 7, 060 645 ! 23, 262 ! Fannv D. Fish _ j 2456 1, 000 | 12, 500 1 i 2457 6, 626 350 200 25 3, 310 1, 145 El eanor E. Davie _ _ _ 2458 2, 958 520 j | j Ada M. Eenyon, pre¬ i 2459 | . . ceptress. 8, 895 6, 860 321 635 400 E. D. Strickland, cor¬ 2460 ! 342, 856 responding secretary. 80, 084 9,800 : 4, 378 550 140,651 44, 585 17, 470 . J. N. Earned, superin¬ 2461 | ! | tendent. 1, 773 65 51 6 100 ■ Eucy L. Hartt. . . 2462 3. 581 585 174 2, 810 24, 278 Miss Jennie E. Lekron . ! 2463 1, 760 245 103 52 570 490 150 i Frank Reuter . 2464 18, 500 2, 000 200 1 • 600 . 1 Hubert A. Hartmann .. ' 2465 9, 500 300 4, 000 Irvin" Browne ......... 2466 4. 000 50 150 75 | 1 Sue Dana W oollev _ 2467 1, 620 194 9 5 1 12 Wm. Graban . . . 2468 6, 625 491 222 16 3,365 656 2, 000 Theodore Ackerman - . 2469 39, 000 900 5, 821 2470 460 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1895-96. Public, society , and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Date of found- ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. | Free or sub- 1 seription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. t 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 NEW YORK— COnt’d. 2471 1868 Sec _ C. S. B. 2472 Sch . 2473 1882 Sch . C. s. B. avenue). 2474 1873 Soc . c. s. B. tion. 1 2475 Merchants’ Exchange Library ... 1883 TVTer R. F. R. 2476 1886 Gen . c. s. B. wanda street). ! Col . 2477 B. 2478 Buffalo (2 4 High 1845 Med . c. F. R. street) . Department. 2479 Buffalo . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1853 Y.M.C.A. .... c. S. B. 2480 1891 Sch T. F. B. 2481 1891 Gen . C. B. 2482 Sch . T. F B. 2483 1795 (Ten _ C. Fr. R. 2484 . do _ . Granger Place School . 1876 Sch . B. 2485 . do . Union School . 1888 Sch . T. F. B. 2486 _ _ do . Wood Library . 1863 Gen . C. S. B. 2487 Canastota . Canastota Union School . Sch . T. Fr. B. 2488 Canisteo . . Canisteo Academy . 1871 Sch . C. R. 2489 j Canton . . St. Lawrence University, Her¬ 1868 Col . C. Fr. B. ring Library. 2490 | Carmel . . Carmel Literary Union . 1881 Soc . R. C. s.. B. 2491 . do . Drew Seminary and Female Col¬ 1866 Sch . c. Fr. R. lege. 2492 Carthage . . High School . Sch _ _ T. F. B. 2493 Catskill . Public Library . 1893 Gen.. . R. T. F B. 2494 Cattaraugus . Union Free School and Academy. 1887 Gen. _ T. F. B. 2495 Cazenovia . Cazenovia Seminary . Sch . 2496 . do . Public Library Association . 1886 Gen _ C. F. B. 2497 Chateaugay . Union School Library . 1881 Gen _ T F. B. 2498 Chatham . Union Free School . 1884 Gen _ T. F. B. 2499 Chester . Union School Library . Sch . 2500 Chittenango . Yates Union School . 1871 Sell . T. Fr. R. 2501 Claverack . Hudson River Institute . 1854 Sch . C. Fr. B. 2502 Clifton Springs . Clifton Springs Sanitarium . Gen C. 2503 . do . Peirce Library . 1880 Y.M.C.A. C. 1 S. B. 2504 Clinton . Hamilton College . . . 1812 Col . '67 c. F. B. 2505 _ do . . . Houghton Seminary . Sch . 2506 . do . Union School . . . . 1894 Sch ... T. F. B. 2507 Clyde . HipR School . . . Gen . T. F. R. 2508 Cohoes . City Library . 1851 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2509 Cold Spring _ ... TTa.1dn.ne Union School _ _ .... _ 1890 Gen . T. F. B. 2510 College Point . Poppenhusen Institute. ..... 1868 Gen . C. F. B. 2511 Cooperstown . Union School . . . . 1870 Sch . C. F. B. 2512 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1887 Y.M.C.A. C. S. B. 2513 Corning . Free Academy . 1860 Sch . T. Fr. R. 2514 . do . Library Association . 1873 Gen . C. S. B. 2515 Corn wall-on-the- Hew York Military Academy .... 1889 Sch . C. Fr. B. Hudson. 2516 do . Bard Hall . 1895 Sch . C. Fr. B. 2517 Cortland . Franklin Hatch Library Associa¬ 1886 Gen . O. C. S. B. tion. 2518 do State Normal School . 1868 Sch . C. Fr. R. 2519 (Trnwn Point. Chapel Library . . 1884 Gen . T. F B. 2520 Cuba . . Circulating Library . 1872 Gen . R. S. B. Volumes. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 461 States of ljOOO volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. “ cS 5? 0'S 10 11 1,200 2. 438 tp 'E. 12 d © ~ n P ® P O JZ.O O w-l n 13 © 75 EC P • © >J o p ' o'*-'' W Receipts. 14 15 - a e5 = O— * ® s a 5 s © r; a s Name of librarian. 16 17 18 $1, 600 Fred. E. Williams, sec¬ retary house commit¬ tee. 2471 2472 2, 101 3, 500 2, 000 1. 628 2. 500 4,813 6. 750j 3. 609 1. 157 1,301 1.697 1, 800 3, 251 5 . OuO 1, 218 1, 377 10, 825 1,744 2, 500 1,200 2, 600 2, 177 3, 405 3, 200 1, 020 ' 2, 713; 1,342! l,445i 1,600 2, 500 1,470 33, 758 2, 248 1,550 1, 689 3,717 2. 000 2, 671 3,317 1, 382 1, 164 7, 000 3,220 2, 200 3, 660 5,386 1,081 1, 600 200 : 300* 200; 25, 000! 50 220 800 380 . 55! 50: 1, 800j 500: 80 200 100 13, 290 100 700 400 300 120 72 52 48 200 100 693 1,000 1, 067 2, 300 $11 Sister St. Mary . 2473 Julius R. Braeunlich. . . ^ 2474 . j 1-282. 50 . 4, 000 . 415 12 10, 878 150 247 184 6,0001. 9.572. 4 l,000l- 24 25l $150 704| 520 l, oco: 325 452, 1,200 Wm, Thurstone, secre¬ tary. Jacob Kieutz, secretary Rev. Brother Aelred . . . EmmaL. Chappell . AVm. F. Hirsch, educa¬ tional director. .... 100 162 . 146 10 I3] 33, 601. loj . ! i 8 '1, 000 78J . j I 225 125, 1,482 Mrs. E. C. Case, secre¬ tary and librarian. 200, . E.P. Abell . - j . I J. F. Coar, principal _ - j . ! Harriet Hasbrouck, sec- j ret ary. . j J. C. Norris . . ! Miss I. P. Granger, president. . . Geo. H. Ottaway, prin¬ cipal. . ! AV. D. Hood, B. A., prin¬ cipal. 1, 100! H. F. Forbes. D. D . 350. . 119. . 150 510 100 300) . 225| 1,600 15. 260 15 1, 861 100 208 8, 696 . I ! ! 130! 50 1. 254 - 263 j . 12,000. 60! 100 58! 898 2, 499 1,306 3, 207 312 57 150 72 475 80 21 150 50 132 816 51 70 200 50 12 7. 505 4, 250 15, 534 2,000 932 3,000 1, 000 1,500 8, 315 25! . 56! 2, 299 500, 25 150 200 530 1 25 500 75 000 600 10 255 50 25 1, 000 200 469 202 400 50 200 1, 455 300 193 . 198 61 1, 025 10 200 100 715 1, 189 15 90 400 1, 000 E. J. Foster, assistant i librarian. James M. Yeager, D. D., president. M. F. Perry . Emily F Becker . J.L.AYalthart, principal J. H. Ten Eyck Burr, secretary. AY. J. Deans, principal. . Miss Ella E. AY agar _ { ■William Marvin Fort . . j A Lincoln Travis . i John Q. Adams . i T. B. Tit us . Mel vine G. Dodge _ Lizzie Anderson . M. E. Ackerman . R. A Ross . Otis Montrose, principal F. Martens . A. Abrams . Leigh R. Hunt . Harry C. Heermans, president. S. Jones, superintendent 2475 2476 2477 2478 2479 j 2480 j 2481 | 2482 ! 2483 2484 2485 2486 2487 2488 2489 2490 2491 2492 2493 2494 2495 2496 2197 2498 2499 2500 2501 2502 2503 2504 2505 2506 2507 2508 2509 2510 2511 2512 2513 2514 2515 C. J. AY right, president.! 2516 Miss Mary E. Hubbard. 2517 J.Edw. Banta . ; 2518 Herminie Hammond. ...! 2519 Mrs. Robt. S.Armstrong I 2520 462 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. 1 2 Class, fcc P 02 '3 p £ o a o ^j°’5 ©£ 2 £ c3 © O M A 5- Q, os o 3+3 O cc -p 03 P ® © © 32 F-l ci *3 © o P £ g 5 © 8 NEW YORK— COnt’d. 2521 Dansville . 2522 Delhi . 2523 Deposit - . 2524 Dobbs Ferry . 2525 Dolgeville . 2526 2527 Dunkirk . 2528 . do . 2529 East Aurora . 2530 East Syracuse . 2531 Eddy town . 2532 Elbridge . 2533 Elizabethtown - 2534 Ellen viUe . 2535 Elmira . 2536 2537 2538 . do . 2539 . do . . 2540 . do . 2541 Fayetteville . 2542 Fishkill-on-Hudson. 2543 Flushing . 2544 - .do . 2545 . do . 9546 Fonda . . 2547 Forestville. . 2548 Fort Edward . 2549 .do _ _ ... _ 2550 Fort Hamilton . 2551 Fort Plain . 2552 j . do . 1 2553 Frankfort . . 2554 Franklin. . . ... 2555 Fredonia . 2556 . do . . 2557 Friendship . 2558 Fulton . 2559 Fultonville _ 2560 Garden City . 2561 . do . . . 2562 Geneva . 2563 . do . 2564 . do . 2565 . do . 2566 Gilberts ville . 2567 Glencoe . 2568 Glens Falls......... 2569 . do . 2570 Gloversville . 2571 Goshen . 2572 Gouverneur . . Public Library . Delaware Academy . Deposit Academy . Misses Master’s School Free Library . Southworth Library ... Library Association ... School District Library Union School. - do . 1820 Starkey Seminary . Munroe Collegiate Institute. Circulating Library . Public Library . Elmira College . Elmira Farmers’ Club . Free Academy . 1886 1883 1872 1850 1884 1887 1843 Gen .. Sch ... Gen .. Sch ... Social. Gen .. Gen .. Gen .. 1884 1893 1855 1870 Sch. Sch . Sch. Sch . Gen Gen Col . Soc . Sch. Hew York State Reformatory . Steele Memorial Library . Y. M. C. A. Library . . Union School Library De Garmo Institute . . Flushing Institute . . 1876 1883 1858 A. & R, Gen . . Y. M.C.A Sch . . Sch . . Sch . . Free Library . High School .. Union School. 1859 Forestville Free Academy . Fort Edward Collegiate Institute Union School . . 1887 1867 1854 1893 1832 1885 Gen Sch. Sch. Sch. Sch. Sch. Gen . Sch. Gen. Sch. R. Delaware Literary Institute _ Darwin R. Barker Library . State FTormal School . High School . Public Library . Starin Library . Cathedral of the Incarnation of St. Paul’s School. St. Mary’s Cathedral School . Classical and Union School. De Lancey Divinity School. 1883 1869 1890 1896 1888 1884 Sch. Gen Sch . Sch . Gen Gen Sch . Sch. Hobart College . Y. M. C. A. Library. Free Library . . Hopkins (Miss) School Crandall Free Library. 1861 1822 1890 1889 1852 Sch . . Theo Col . Y. M.C.A. Gen Sch. Gen Glens Falls Academy . Free Library . Library and Historical Society. High School . 1880 1894 1828 Sch. Gen Gen Sch . R. C. T. T. C. c. T. C. C. C. C. T. T. C. T. T. T. F. F. S. S. F. Fr. F. F. F. Fr. 463 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Stales of 1, GOO volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. 5 . © 2 C3 S ^ a © Receipts. CJ rg « P oJ | J3 00 & > * P-t pq « £ H 9 i o 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 2, 750 200 18, 799 $500 $709' IV. G. Carmer, trustee . . TV. D. G raves . . 1 2, 200 1,707 2, 500 840 15 60 417 42 1,200 150 300’ Geo. W. pye . 1 776 7 762 1, 180 200 Rudolf Ruedemann . 5 708 $30, 000 Cora Bower Holden .... 1,788 1, 102 2 248 138 . 45 1. 580 71 J. TV. Babcock, superin¬ tendent. 303 11, 278 150 300 1, 600 3,000 1,206 1,500 1,618 5,000 1,400 2, 248 4, 177 5, 000 2, 500 1,662 3, 000 100 100 10 50 100 Edwin H. Chase, super¬ intendent. C. C. Wilcox, principal. . 200 200 50 1,000 .. 1 350 Elizabeth V. Hale _ _ 93 15, 125 1 400 400 Retta L. Russell . 300 120 ""1 437 Emma K. Clark _ C. Compton, vice-presi¬ dent/ Charles TV. Evans, prin¬ cipal. Z. R. Brockway, general superintendent. Mrs. Mary C. Norton . . . 1,000 96 100 75 125 450 300 500 705 i Frank J. House . 1 . i 1,335 6, 000 2,175 1, 280 . 1 j Elias A. Fairchild, prin¬ cipal. Walter L. Bogert, secre- t-arv. J. Ely . 250 12, 500 726 175 700 110 104 208 Charles A. Coons, prin¬ cipal. Virginia Hillehert . 1,000 1,000 1, 550 1,480 3, 000 100 25 10 1, 200 . 1 400 50 100 Jos. E. King . . . 12 150 . ! 69 126 W. C. Coleman, prin¬ cipal. . | 1 325 50] 90 525 1 Kittie Clover . LOBS 1,000 2, 000 4. 227 43 120 Annie L. Green, presi¬ dent. T. P. Farrell, president board of education ; board of trustees. 150 . 150 250 128 387 5, 078 350 633 1,375 Isabelle B. Greene . 2, 000 100 435 Franklin N. Jewett _ 1,000 3, 000 1, 300 5, 000 100 L.40 100 800 40 90 1 1, 200 126 B. G. Clapp, principal. . . j Henrietta Y. Cross . 30 . 2,400 200 200 1, 000 | D. C. Sayers, secretary. . 5, 000 4, 154 | Elizabeth L. Koues, i | principal. 1,000 32, 053 1, 776 1,095 2, 000 6, 239 6. 000 70 900 ! Charles Wells Hayes, | D.D. Ch ns T). Vail _ 5, 796 1, 075 772 3,503 |- 51, 895 55, 000 140 Ernest L. Mogge, gen¬ eral secretary. 42 3,445 250 4, 800 (Mrs.) Mary H. Hopkins Sherman Williams, su- 295 34, 278 500 1, 700 i . perintendent of schools. 13, 668 1,125 1,205 125 62, 368 5, 391 2,000 14, 534 6, 300 A. L. Peck . 1,755 150 1, 289 350 Robert B. Clark, presi¬ dent. John C. Bliss . 1,043 244 . 1 110 220 ] 2521 2522 2523 2524 2525 2526 2527 2528 2529 2530 2531 2532 2533 2534 2535 2536 2537 2538 2539 2540 2541 2542 2543 2544 2.545 2546 2547 2548 2549 2550 2551 2552 2553 2554 2555 2556 2557 2558 2559 2560 2561 2562 2563 2564 2565 2566 2567 2568 2569 2570 2571 2572 464 2573 2574 2575 2576 2577 2578 2579 2580 2581 2582 2583 2584 2585 2586 2587 2588 2589 2590 2591 2592 2593 2594 2595 2596 2597 259S 2599 2600 2601 2602 2603 2604 I 2605 ! 2606 2607 2608 | 2609 2610 2611 2612 2613 2614 2615 2616 : 2617 i 2618 2619 2620 2621 2622 2623 2624 2625 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society , and school libraries in the United 1 Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. ® 5 5-5 w ‘E u Circulating, ref erence, nr both. 1 a ! 3 4 5 6 7 8 NEW YORK — cont’d. i 1885 Gen . C. Fr. ! B. i 1882 j Sch . T. Fr. B. ! Sch .... C. j Gen _ .. C. S. i B. . do . i Sch . c. 1847 i Sch _ T. F. .... B 1873 Sch C. B. . do . 1820 Col . O. c. Fr. B. . do . Beta Theta Society . 1880 Col.Soc... E. c. R. Sch . T. F B. i . Sch . T. Fr. B. i 1815 Gen . C. Fr. B. 1 | 1896 Gen _ R. c. F. B. 1 Hempstead Institute . Sch . c. ....| . do . Sch _ _ T. B. j 1896 Gen . O. T. F. B. ! 1884 Gen O. F. B. 1855 (4pn O. C. Fr. R. I 1886 Sch . 0. C. Fr. R. Holland Patent . Union Free School . 1802 Sch . T. F. B. Homer . Homer Academy . [ 1819 Sch . C. F. B. Hoosick Palls . Union Free School . Sch . . R. T. F. C. Hornellsville . Hornell Free Academy . 1882 Sch . - T. F. R. . do . Horn ell Free Library . 1868 Gen . O. T. F. B. Hndson . ' Public School Library . | Sch . j T. F. B. . do . : T. M. C. Association . . 1866 Y.M.C.A. .... C. S. B-! Huntington . _ . Library Association . 1875 . Gen _ C. S. B. j . do . Union School . . .... 1858 Sch. . .... T. F. B. Ilion . Free Public Library . 1893 Gen . jo. T. F. B. i . do . Ilion District Library . 1893 Gen . T. F. B. i Irvington . School Library, District No. 2. . . . 1885 ! Sch . T. F. c. 1 Islip . Library Association . 1884 i Gen E i C. S. I B. ! Itliaca . Cornell Library Association . 1864 Gen . O. c. F. B. 1 . do . Cornell University . 1868 (jol . O. c. Fr 1 B. Jamaica _ ........ Public Library. . . 1 Gen _ _ T. F. B.l Jamestown . High School . 1867 | Sch . T. F. : B. 1 Jamestown . James Prendergast Free Library . /l 880 \1890 }Gen . | O. j C. F. B. . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . Y.M.C.A. R. j c. F. j B. Johnstown . School Library . . Sch . 1 R. T. F. B. Jordan . . . Free Academy Library . Sch . ! 1 T. F. B. Katonah. . . Village Tniprove.Tnp.Tit Associa¬ 1880 1 Gen . j R. ' 1 Fr B. tion Library. Keeseville . Union School Library .. . Sch . T. IFr. B. Keuka College . Kenba, College _ Gen . c. F. B. Kings Park . Society of St Johnsbind _ 1890j Social . ' B. Kingston . Golden Hill School Gen . j c. Fr. R. . do . 1 Kingston Free Academy . 1774! Sch . 1 T. .... B. . do . Kingston School District Library . 1838 Sch . T. .... B. . do . Third Judicial District Law Li¬ 1874 Law . ‘ T. F. : R. brary. 1 Lansing burg . Public School Library . Sch . j K. . F. ! C. Leroy . . Ladies Library Association . 1875 Gen _ _ _ j S. i C. . do . . Union School Library . . 1891 Sch . T. Fr. B. Liberty . Public Library . 1894 Gen . T. F. B. Lima . i Genesee Wesleyan Seminary . Sch . ." j C. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. 465 1,382 1,200 1, 076 1, 1, 600 1, 350, 2, 000 24, 221 1, ooo 1 300 4. 300 4,495 1, 000 1,000 1, 300; 4,309 1,300 1, 800 L 879 1,050 1 560 2, 300 2, 704 10, ooo’ 5 OOO' 1,370, 3. 500 1, 200 8, 733 1, 008 2, 195 1,000 20. 000 180. 600 3 Oi'O 3, 128 12,440 1,455 7,412 1,239 1,500, 1.500 1, 380 2, 000 2. 300 1.365 Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. rs _£ 5 g t£ >5 % hJD H/C E 3 £ w Books issued : during y ear i for home use. i Books issued ’ for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en- j dowment fund. 1 Fame of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. >o 11 ia 13 14 15 16 17 1 8 63 25 2,727 600 1, 872 50 $726 Jessie E. Paul . : M. S. Parker, secretary 1 50 5 $25 ; . 1 George E. Dorr . 200 30 524 20 75 1,200 180 360 50 2, 450| . ioo Bryant and Heath, prin¬ cipals. E.P.Sissan, acting prin¬ cipal. Ralph W. Thomas, act¬ ing librarian. G. W. Strobel . i $25, 000 . 1 3, 035 | "’1*266 ""’50 C. H. Van Tuyl . 260 19 350 16 500 3, 583 2 10 1,061 200 J. L. Eastler . ; . 1 . "43 300 400 80 4, 309 25 950 50 35,750 1,000 W. S. Newton . 4.971 15, 600 Mary Louise Avery .... Gertrude P. Parry . 50 3 75 15 301 Louis A. Cheney . j 376 39 1,037 359 67 105 170 400 1, 590 “I Sr. M. Stanislaus Me- ] Garr. principal. H. A. Pride, secretary . . E L. Stone . . 1 E. G. Merrett . 1 15 10 110 350 500 20 148 100 1. 000 4. 000 4. 382 50 130 200 100 10 1, 000 200 50 W. R. Prentice, super¬ intendent. R. M. Tuttle, chairman of managers. J. Mace Smith . 1 30, 000 4,390 | 29 | 11 160 Herbert W. Rice, gen¬ eral secretary. Mrs. A. S. Conklin . . 395 973; 315 226 40. 915 5, 079 1.090 750 219 50 5, OOOi 5. 000 30, 400 1.500 12, 115 200 41 2, 440 83 343 300 1, 200 15, 000 12, 437 10, 000 7, 936 52, 190 7, 000 81, 070 . 3, 700 31, 892 85. 000 ; 301, 000 Alonzo B Cornell . 1 Geo. W. Harris . 137 1, 000 74 2, 875 60 75 i 17 800 8, 961 5, 000 646 670 5, 900 237 520 100,000 Calista S. Jones . /Mary Emogene Hazel-1 tine. j j Chas. N. Ramsey, gen- eral secretary. , Wm. S. Snyder . Adelbert E. Brace, president hoard of education. ! . 7, 000 5, 000 260 • 4 i . i . 258 40 SO | . Leland L. Landers, principal. Mrs. Annette M. Myers, secretary. 23 - . I j . 1 . 2, 000 665 581 John IV. Cross . 25 186 200 183 96 150 106 185 600 M. J. Michael . 783 • . Charles M. Ryon, super¬ intendent of schools. T. B. Westbrook . 2, 400 3,000 400 2, 299 W. J. Shelliday, clerk hoard of education. Catharine Cameron . 80 115 153 1 . 240 119 155 . 1 . I 50 100 I . Emma Henderson . ! Miss N. A. Ward, sec¬ retary. 50 2,179 419 75 ,000 Anna H. Perkins. Alice S. Cavarly. . 2573 2574 2775 2576 2577 2578 2579 2580 2581 2582 2583 2584 2585 2586 2587 2588 2589 2 '90 2591 2592 2593 2594 2595 2596 2597 2598 2599 2600 2601 2602 2003 2604 2605 2606 2607 2608 2609 2610 2611 2612 2613 2614 2615 2616 2617 2618 2619 2620 2621 2622 2623 2624 2625 466 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. ! | Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. A « 4 'u I o £ I ©A y c ttA a a * «r a ° o 5 ® 1 a 3 i I * ! 5 | 6 1 § NEW YORK— COnt’d. 2626 t Sch . It. T F. B. 2697 1 1866 Sch . ' c. 1 Fr. E. 2628 (lo . 1S93 Gen . T. Fr. B. 2629 1 i Sch . C. 2630 • Long Island City . . . Public Library..”. . 1896 Gen . ! E. T. IF' B. 2631 Sch....... C. 1 F B. 2032 Sch . C. I !. .. ?R33 Sch . T. f’ ’ 1 F. 2634- Sch . .... 0. T. F. B. 2635 1 1877 Sch . . . T. ! F. B. 2636 j 1896 Gen . 6. c. j F. B. 2637 1 Sch . T. Fr. E. 2638 1872 Gen _ o. ! s. B. 2639 1857 Gen _ T. F. B. 2640 Hi ok School . 1854 ! Gen . T. F. B. 2641 1826 Sch . T. F. B. 964 9 1 885 ! Sch . T. F. B. 2643 Middletown . Leonora Bolles Memorial Library . 1891 1 Asylum .. 0. T. B. 2644 . do . 1879 Geu . It. T. ’ F." B. 2645 1872 Sch . C. : F. B. 2646 Moravia _ - Powers Library . 1880 ; Gen . 0. S. B. 2647 Morris . . . High School. . .” . '■ Sch . C. F. c. 2648 Monnt Morris _ - Hnion School . 1857 ■ Sch . T F. B. 2649 , Mount Vernon . ; Public Library . 1896 Gen . ' it . T. F. B. 2650 1 Naples. _ _ _ Naples Academy . Sch . T. Fr. • B. 2651 1 V e wark . ! Union School and Academy . Sch . T. B. 2652 Now Brighton . ! Sailors’ Snug Harbor . " 1833 Social . C. B. 2653 . do . . I Trinity English and Classical Sch . c. School . i 2654 | Eree Library . . . i 1852 Gen . * o. T. F. B. 2655 . do. . . ! Maclde’s (Miss) Seminary . Sch . ! 1 C. B. 2656 ' . do . Newburg Theological Seminary. . | 1805 Theo . i c. Fr.' B. 2657 . do . 1 Second Judicial District Law . Law . it. T. F. E. Library. 2658 Vfiwpal f v. 1886 Sch T. I Fr. B. 2659 New Eochelle . _. 1 Post Library . . . Gar _ 1 B. 2660 . do . Public Library . ! ■ 1893 ! Gen . ! R. T. F- i 2661 New Tork City . Academy of Mount St. Vincent. . . ' 1846 ' Sch . C. S. i B. 2662 New Vork City (197 Aguilar Free Library _ _ 1886 Gen . 1 B. T. F. : B. East Broadway). | 1 2663 New Vork City . American Bible Society . . 1816 Theo . C. Fr. E. 2664 . do . . . . American Chemical Society . 3876 Soc . : it- c. F. | E. 2665 New Vork City(77th American Ethnological Society . . 1842 ' Scien . c. F. E. street and 8th avenue). 2666 New York City (11 ! American Geographical Society.. 1852 Soc . ; o. c. S. E. V. 29th street). 2667 New V ork City (111- American Institute _ _ 1829 Soc _ it. c. s. B. 115 TT. 3Sth street) . 1 2668 New V ork City (77th American Museum of Natural 1870 1 Scien _ c. Fr. : E. street and 8th History. avenue) . 2669 New York City (17 American Numismatic and Ar¬ 1858 Scien . c. s. 1 E. ! "West 43d street). chaeological Society. * I 2670 New Y ork City (127 American Society of Civil Engi¬ 1 1S52 Scien . c. Fr. E. East 23d street). neers. ! | 2671 Ne w Y ork City ( Sta¬ Aschenbroedel V erein . 1S98 Social . c. F. B. tion K). 2672 New York City (7 Association of the Bar of the 1870 Law . 1 o. . S. E. "West 29th street). City of New York. 2673 New York City (20 Berkeley School . 3894 Sch . 1 c. B. VT est 44th street) . 2674 New York City . Blackwells Island Penitentiary . . ■ . ! Beform . . . c. C. 467 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. GO £ Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during year for homo use. Book issued for use within library. . Rec< c3 H a ■ a .2 5^ u N 3ipts. © - a c3 O o w H Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Xame of librarian. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 ir ! 18 100 l non | 20 4,587 100 $500 $1, 500 T. TT. Caswell . . 1 100 ’ 20 400 326 50 15, 844 5,000 600 832 ! Emmet Belknap . 1 ' 000 1 5,' 000 3, 260 (Miss) Miriam S. Draper, 1 acting librarian. 3 934 492 100 25 619 75 Lincoln E. Rowley _ l| 200 9 200 158 1 669 89 178 E. TT. Gardner. . . 5, 900 50 12, 200 1,525 1, 000 1, 229 D. 11. Stanton, district . clerk. 1 000 50 110 600 9 100 A . Meeley, principal. ... ■ l’ 000 1, 000 1,150 C. A. Brooks . 3,000 200 ' 100 20 800 25 50 1 Arthur C. Mitchell, principal. 158 1, 000, $13, 000 Mrs. Joseph N. Badeau. 1, 100 40 120 10 1,276 2, 742 127 190 T. E. Lockhart, A.M... 1 386 210 1, 870 176 250 450 Henrv Pease _ _ 1, 600 600 200 100 . 25 210 C. TV. Skinner . . ■ 1 100 6 000 | TV m . M . M a row _ 2 144 30 5 810 Selden TT. Taleoft _ _ g' 900 200, 135 25 26 378 1,400 1,494 Mary K. V ankemen .... 2, 174 500 20 100 364 500 29, 026 78, 658 R. TV. Swetland, princi¬ pal. 3, 845 160 8 12 380 €2 Mrs. Tsaae, Butler . _ Looo 400 75 1,000 1 500 150 . George R. Greene, act¬ ing principal. 1, 000 13 55 o 75 245 Tdn TCelsnll . si 300 2,000 2, 950 . Henry E. Rhoades, sec¬ retary. 1, 000 80 y . 95 . TVm. C. Noll, principal. 1, 500 30 1, 000 50 200 . Della M. Vounc . 4, 000 50 12, 775 1 I Geo. D. J. Trask, gov¬ ernor. 1, 800 20 663 639 67, 700 3, 500 5, 577 Chas. Estabrook . 1, 2501 3, 500 | 225 . J. G. D. Findlev . 4, GOO 500 4, 600 2, 600 Howard S. Thornton, treasurer. 2, 800 100 120 K. A. Gage . 3, 057 1 . H. M. Andrews . . 3,121 750 15, 658 3, 500 3, 774 Albert O. Owen, secre¬ tary and treasurer. 5, 000 2, 666 40 300 3, 500 1, 365 1 106 Mary W. Brennan _ _ 3l’ 166 4, 045 256, 963 13, 852 Pauline Leipziger . . j 5, 486 j 186 | Edward TV. Gilman J 2, 000 20 80 j F. E. Dod^e . - 2, 000 . 1 Anthony Woodward, ph. d: 18, 000 | 26,000 | 538 2,215 115, 169 ! Geo. G. Hnrlbnt _ _ 13, 848 48 18 2, 500 Gen. W hitefield, jr _ 34, 000 30, 000 - 600 400 12, 000 Anthony TV ood ward, Ph. D. 1,800 6, 000 89 491 913 1 Herbert Valentine . 7, 982 9, 282 467 345 Charles TV arren Hunt. . ! 2, 400 50 Moritz TV erner ...... 50, 039 3, 826 - TV. J. C. Berry . 1 1,000 1 Franklin H. Fowler .... 1, 500 300 Louis D. Pilsbury . 1 2626 2627 2628 2629 2630 2631 2632 2633 2634 2635 2636 2637 2638 2639 2610 2641 2642 2643 2644 2645 2646 2647 2648 2649 2650 2851 2652 2353 2654 2655 2656 2857 2658 2659 2660 2661 2662 2663 2664 2665 2666 2667 2668 2669 2670 2671 2672 2673 2674 468 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United 2675 2676 2677 2678 2679 2680 2681 2682 2683 2684 2685 2686 2687 2688 2689 2690 2691 2692 2693 2694 2695 2696 2697 2698 2699 2700 2701 2702 2703 2704 2705 2706 2707 2708 2709 Location. Name of library. 1 2 NEW YORK— cont’d. New York City (395 Broome street). New York City . New York City (126 West 25th street). New York City . New York City (120 W est 59th street) . New York City . New Y ork City (City Hall). New York City (17 Lexington avenue) . New York City (668 East 134th street). New York City (115- 119 West 68 th street) New York City (30 West 16th street). New York City (95 Rivington street). New York City . New York City (32 W est 40th street) . New York City . Broome Street Eree Library . Bryson Library (Teachers' Col¬ lege). Cabinet de Lecture . Cathedral Free Circulating Li¬ brary. Catholic Club Library . .• . Century Association . City Library . College of the City of New York.. Clionian Society . College of Pharmacy of the City of New York. College of St. Francis Xavier . College Settlement Library . Columbia University . Comstock School . Cooper Union . New York City (108 Central Park). New York City (280 Rivington street). New York City (340 West 86t,h street) . New Yen k City (120 Broadway). New York City ( Manhattan ville) . New York City (63 Park street). New York City . New York City (226 West 42d street). New York City (7 East 15th street). New York City (18 East 16th street) . New York City (226 East 16th street). New York City . New York City (137 2d avenue). New York City (Ma¬ sonic Hall). New York City (29 East 32d street) . New York City (Sta¬ tion J, 32 West 23d street) . New York City (45 West 42d street). New York City (27 West 44th street.) New York City . - do . De La Salle Institute . De Witt Memorial Free Library. . Ely’s (Misses) School for Girls... Equitable Life Assurance Law Library. Female Academy of the Sacred Heart. Five Points Mission Free Read¬ ing Room. Foreign Mission Library (Pres¬ byterian Church). Free Circulating Library . Free Circulating Library of Y. W. C. A. Free Library of the General So¬ ciety of Mechanics and Trades¬ men. Friends’ Literary and Library Association. General Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church. German Hospital and Dispensary. Grand Lodge F. & A. M . Grolier Club . Harlem Library . Harmonic Club Library. Harvard Club . Health Department . Hebrew Orphan Asylum Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. ■| o si £ U Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 3 4 5 6 7 8 1885 Gen . O C. F. B 1887 Col . c. Fr. B 1884 Gen . R. c. S. C. 1888 Gen . . . O c. F. B. 1871 Gen . c. Fr. B. 1847 Soc . c. S. R. 1847 Gen . F. R. 1852 Col . T. B. 1852 Col. Soc. .. C. B. 1829 Sci . C. F. B. 1847 Col . C. Fr. B. 1889 Gen . c. F. G. 1754 Col . O. c. Fr. B. Gen . R B. 1857 Gen . O. c. F. R. Col . c. R. 1882 Gen . O. c. F. B. 1886 Sch . B. 1876 Law . c. R. Sch . c. 1868 Soc . c. F. R. 1837 Soc . c. Fr. B. 1879 Gen . O. T. F. B. 1870 Y.W.C. A. c. F. B. 1820 Gen . c. F. B. 1880 Gen . c. S. B. 1817 Theo . O. c. Fr. B. 1857 Med . c. F. B. 1868 Masonic c. Fr. R. 1884 Soc . c. Fr. R. 1825 Gen . O. c. S. B. 1852 Social . c. B. 1887 ^ Social .... c. Fr. R. 1866 * Med . T. Fr. R. 1876 A. and R. . c. B. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES 469 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. C D £ o t> Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. 2 t- « © x >> 2 tL a ~ ® ~ » S3 * 3 « l">© x -r — 1 1 C Books issued for use within library. Itee i . +2 O I1 £ •0UIOO ■2 ur jbjox Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. 9 io 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 2. 250 8 42 851 ! . H. E. "Waste . 2675 6, 489 $2, 000 | 1 Margaret Grey, assist¬ 2676 . . . ant librarian. 4 000 900 L. Dermigny _ _ 2677 20, 762 308 1, 504 68 59, 169 6, 013 1, 590 ! Agnes Wallace . . 2678 20 000 2, 500 250 100 269 125 ' James F. Martin . 2679 12. 900 340 98 3. 500 J. Herbert Senter . i 2680 6. 300 90 . 7, 000 i Philip Baer . 2G81 29, 800 350 937 110 5, 618 1, 468 $37, 000 Chas. G. Hubermann _ j 2682 1,243 62 21 67 ! F. W. Hottenroth . 2683 4, 603 1, 467 26 700 O. J. Griffin, assistant i 2684 secretary. 39. 000 4, 800 1, 800 800 James P. Fagan, S. J. . . ! 2685 2. 500 150 15, 000 60 Miss A. Hall . ! 2686 220, 000 24. 839 53, 471 67, 882 112, 000 Geo. H. Baker _ j 2687 1, 100 340 20 Lydia Cay . . . 2688 33, 569 1,297 | . 435, 000 1 3 7 L. C- L. Jordan, assist¬ ! 2689 ant secretary. 5, 000 1, 000 50 60 Brother Paul, F. S. C _ ! 2690 2, 350 8, 10° . ■ Malcolm It. Birnie . 2691 5, 000 400 150 . 1 Elizabeth L. Ely . 2692 14. 726* | 380 ! Thomas Campbell . 2693 c c c id . 2694 2, 050 A. K. Sanford, superin¬ 2695 tendent. 7, 000 400 677 W. Henry Grant . 2696 81, 785 : 4. 925 654, 451 27, 665 ! 43, 191 46, 775 Art bur E . Bostwick, 2697 1 . Ph, D 24, 910 i 1.300 64, 529 4, 480 3, 965 Sarah W. Cattell _ : 2698 108, 000 247, 906 4, 205 25, 000 Jacob Schwartz... . 2699 1, 225 j 4, 000 107 218 137 152 John Cox, jr . . ! 2700 26, 367 767 3,635 6, 000 E. A. Hoffman, dean. . . . j 2701 5, 600 135 80 705 Hermann G. Klotz, M. C i 2702 10,000 ’ 1, 000 350 100 - 1, 000 E. Laewenstein . 1 2703 4, 178 336 976 Richard Hoe Lawrence. 1 2704 19, 000 935 250 . | Genrcft 1ST . Perry _ 1 2705 13, 692 1 482 8.264 1, 660 Hugo Hoffman . 2706 1, 160 1 1, 500 90 300 75 C. Alex. Nelson . 2707 1, 559 400 500 58 - 150 2708 3,000 D. Hermann Baar, su¬ 2709 ...... 1 1 . 1 perintendent. 470 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public , society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. 1 2 NEW TOEK— COnt’d. 2710 2711 2712 2713 2714 2715 2716 2717 New York City (343 West 42d street). New Y ork City (Sta¬ tion O). New York City (111— 119 East 58th street) . New York City (3477 3d avenue) . New York City (558 5th avenue) . New York City (203 East 57th street) . New York City (Grand Boulevard and W sst 131st street). New York City . Holy Cross Academy . Home for Young Women . Liederkranz Library . . “ Literarische Gesellschaft von Morrisaria." Lotos Club . Maimonides Library — . . Manhattan College - Maritime Exchange . . . 2718 2719 2720 2721 2722 2723 2724 2725 2726 2727 2728. 2729 2730 2731 2732 2733 2734 2735 2736 2737 2738 2739 2740 2741 2742 New York City (12 West 31st street). New York City . _ do . New York City (150 5th avenue). New York City . . . . , .do . . New York City (Governors Is¬ land). New York City (26 Delancey street) New York City (44 2d avenue). New York City (17- 19-21 West 43d street). New York City (Co¬ lumbia TJniver- sity). New York City (105 East 22d street) . New York City (222 2d avenue). New York City (226 West58th street). New York City (170 2d avenue). New York City (63d street and Ave¬ nue A). New York City (6 West 16th street). New York City (Sta¬ tion L, Hariem). New York City (412 9th avenue). New York City (Sta¬ tion M). New York City (176tli street and Amsterdam ave¬ nue). New York City . New York City (46 Catharine street). New York City (34 W est 26th street) . New York City . Mechanical Engineers . . . Medico-Legal Society . Mercantile Library Association.. Methodist Library . Metropolis Law School . Metropolitan Museum of Art . Military Service Institution . Neighborhood Guild Library . Nativity Church Library . New York Academy of Medicine. New York Academy of Sciences. . New York Association for Im¬ proving the Condition of the Poor. New York Eye and Ear Infirmary. New York Genealogical and Bio¬ graphical Society. New York Historical Society . New York Homeopathic Medical College. New York Hospital . New York House of Refuge _ New York Institution for the Blind. New York Institution for the Instruction of the Leaf and Dumb. New York Juvenile Asylum . New York Law Institute . New York Port Society . New York Press Club . New York Produce Exchange. . . . n pi .o ^ bS o.5 o 7s P Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 3 4 5 O 7 S 1870 Sch . c. S. B. 1857 Gen . R. c R. 1868 Soc _ c. Fr. R. 1883 Soc . R. c. S. B. 1870 1 Gen _ c. S. R 1851 Gen . R. T. Fr. B. 1863 Col ... _ T. S. R. 1874 Mer _ C. R. 1890 Sci . O. c. F. R. 1872 Law . c. R. 1820 Gen . O. c. 's.' B. Gen. _ c. Fr. R. Law _ c. 1880 Sci . c. Fr. R. 1879 Gar . c. B. 1887 Soc . R. c. Fr. B. 1893 1847 Gen . . . c. F. C. Mpfi c. F. B. 1818 Sci . c. Fr. R. Soc _ _ _ F. R. 1894 Med . c R. 1869 Soc . c. S. R. 1804 Hist _ _ _ c. S. R. 1880 Med . c. F. R. 1771 Med . c. F. B. 1825 Reform . . . c. R. 1831 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1829 Sch . c. B. 1852 A. and R. . B. 1828 Law _ Fr. B. 1818 Gen . c. F. B. 1874 Gen - * . . R. c. S. R. 1872 Mer . c. .... R. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 471 Slates of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. a: P« g 3 P4 Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Boohs issued during year for home use. Boohs issued for use within library. Beceipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. 1 . 1 Names of librarian. a H c3 - -** P g O 5- u p ~ a a o 42 « o H 9 io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 2, 000 84 500 9 500 Sister M. Helena . 2710 1,200 | I. F. Marsh, superin¬ 1 2711 . l . [ tendent i 6, 010 247 5,964 $550 G. Otto Molkwitz . ’ 2712 1, 277 2S1 146 19 581 276 P. J. Moog . 2713 1, 500 1 000 Curtis Bell cashier . ’ 2714 45, 131 68 107 748 106 94, 828 35, 537 2, 319 Josephine Bacharach. . . 2715 8, 485 2, 299 460 Brother John Chrysos¬ | 2716 tom, secretary. 1, 500 2, 000 130 250 1, 000 j F. M. Houghton, su¬ | 2717 perintendent. 3, 200 400 100 100 . 7, 575 ! ' F. B. Hutton, board of 2718 trustees. 1, 500 2, 000 3, 000 ! Clark Bell, secretary . . 1 2719 252, 954 6,113 524 142, 175 37, 389 26, 970 1 M. T. Peoples . | 2720 10, 000 3, 000 150, 750 Bev. Joseph Conable ; 2721 1 Thomas, A. M, 1.380 345 1 . < 2722 4 230 1, 058 265 88 1, 023 j $7, 200 Mm. L. Andrews _ ; 2723 10, 000 , 1, 000 500 150 N. Bush, treasurer . > 2724 2, 714 420 1 28, 290 520 Helen Moore . 1 ■ 2725 1, 200 40 2, 500 ; . ; 10 ! B. J. Beilly (Rev.) _ _ _ ! 2726 45, 000 2, 039 ! 4, 500 20, 000 John S. Browne, presi¬ 2727 : . dent. 8, 000 | Arthur Hallick . 2728 1, 200 Mm. H. Tolman, gen ! 2729 I oral agent. i 1, 000 3, 000 700 2,000 [ Mm. L. Dennett . J 2730 3,703 3, 896 293 862 . Pick'd E. Greene . 1 2731 85, 000 j 2732 3, 000 ! 2, 000 20 George -Janson . .. | 2733 22, 846 798 . Frank P. Foster, M. D. j 2734 4, 162 12, 039 ! George B. Dixon, clerk. 2735 5, 000 39 | 1 Mm. B. Mart, superin¬ 2736 j tendent. 7, 386 12,974 328 814 2, 393 378 4, 200 Thomas Francis Fox. . . 2737 1, 2C0 500 300 i 100 A. P. Garrabrant, first i 2738 - assistant superin¬ tendent. 44, 447 37 ! Mm. H. TV inters . 2739 1,000 300 . i C. B. Magar, financial 2740 agent. 3, 800 2, 600 146 82 100 Arthur LoringMackaye 2741 2, 000. I 3, 000 | . ! James K. Patrick . ! 2742 472 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United 2743 2744 2745 2746 2747 2748 2749 2750 2751 2752 2753 2754 2755 2756 2757 2758 2759 2760 2761 2762 2763 2764 2765 2766 2767 2768 2769 2770 2771 2772 2773 2774 2775 Location. Name of library. 1 3 NEW YORK— cont’d. New York City (66- 68 East 4tk street). I New York City (Uni¬ versity Heights). New York City (67 Madison avenue.) j New York City . New York Tumverein . New York University . New York Yacht Club . Normal College Alumnae Library. | New York City (Sta- ! tion D). New York City | (Gramercy Park). ! New York City (21 ! Coenties Slip). New York City (40 Lafayette Place). New York City (233 5th avenue). New York City . New York City (City Hospital, Blackwells Is¬ land). New York City (5th j street, near Ave¬ nue B). New York City (207 East 16th street). New York City (Sta- i tion T). New York City (6-8 East 46th street). New York City (137-139 Henry | street). New York City (29 East 29th street). New York City (406 j West 20th street), j New York City (K9 [ University place). I New York City . j New York City (34 ! West 60th street). , New York City (155 East 58th ! street). New York City . New York City (106 | Fulton street). New York City (1 East 39th street). ! New York City (32 : East 26th street). I New York City (26 | Delancey street). New York City (280 | West 71st street). New York City (Amsterdam ave¬ nue and 156th street). Ne w Y ork City (foot East 76tli street). New York City (109-1 11 West77th j street). New York City (19 Clinton place). New York City . j Olivet Memorial Church Library. Players’ Library . . Protestant Episcopal Seamen's Society (Out door Station) Public Library . Reform Club . St. Agnes Free Public Library . . St. Elizabeth's Guild . St. Francis Hospital Library. . . . . j St. George's Free Circulating j Library. St. John's College . ! St. Mary's School . ; St. Teresa s Ursuline Academy. .! School Libraries . | Society Home Study of Holy i Scriptures. Society Library . | Society for the Relief of the Rup¬ tured and Crippled. Spalding Literary Union . Technical Society of New York.. Theological Seminary . . . . T^pothetae of the City of New Union League Club . University Club . University Settlement . Yan Norman Institute . Washington Heights Free Li¬ brary. Webster Free Library Weil’s School for Girls Woman’s Library... Workhouse Library Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. X z ? QQ 1 1- 1*2 o 3 o ~ o £ 3 O © 3 4 5 6 7 8 1850 Gen . C. C. 1831 Col . C. | | F. B. Sci. . c. R. 1886 Col . c. R. 1876 Gen . c. F. c. Soc _ _ _ _ _ c. B. 1876 Soc . R. c. F. R. Gen . 0. | F. R. 1889 Scien .... 1 c. Li.. R. 1894 Gen . .... c. F. B. 1877 ; Social . c. F. B. 1865 ' Gen ....... c. C. 1893 Social .... c. C. 1845 Col . j.... S. B. 1890 Scb . r*’ c. R. 1874 Col . T. s. B. Sch . c. C. 1889 Theo . ! R. c. Fr. B. 1700 Soc . O c. S. B. 1872 Sch....... c. C. 1885 Soc . c. S. R. 1874 Scien . R. c. F. B. 1837 Theo . O. c. Fr. B. 1883 Soc . R. c. F. R. 1863 Social .... c. S. R. 1879 Social _ _ R. R. Sch . c. B. 1857 Sch . R. R. 1868 Gen . R. c. F. B. 1894 Gen . c. F. B. 1867 Sch . c. Fr. B. 1864 Social _ c. ! F. B. 1876 , Reform . . . c. 1 C.I PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES, 473 States of lyCOO volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. Volumes. 1 Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during year lor homo use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. <3 -2 a a 2 o u Ek . i £ ■ © - S ; -gg O i H 9 io 11 12 13 14 13 16 17 IS 3.500 350 65 36 2, 200 1 . $125 $100 Henry TV ewer k a . 30, 985 605 3,321 * 4,990 L. J. Tompkins 3.000 F. Morris 5, 000 . i Fdilli M Rice, secre¬ . tary. 2, 475 305 6, 019 1 . 3, 000 107 1,500 j | Isaac Maguire, presi¬ . dent. 397. 850 14, 000 12. 417 262, 264 150,000 * John S. Billings di¬ . rector. 7. 500 760 495 230 J. B. Ritchie . 2,617 537 200 1.000 4, 000 Emil Borck . 1,030 Sisters of the Poor . 4, 100 3, 000 40 Emma A. Bavs . 33. 600 300 6. 000 1,500 150 . i 3, 100 100 50 . Sister Superior . ..J 1,000 500 50 ioo| 800 100 60 M. Irene . . . . 2,373 125 2, 373 100 Mrs. Lois B. Ely, prin¬ cipal. 3,500 200 200 800 200 100, 000 1, 500 ! 390 27, 174 5,000 9, 725 75, 000 F. B. Bigelow . 1,300 90 650 1, 000 200 1 . . George F. Dalton . 3, 000 1,000 . 110 110 J. S. Chirurg, corre¬ ... sponding secretary. 70, 000 25, 000 1, 000 500 4, 500 80, 000 2, 000 5, 000 12 150 2, 000 1, 800 TV. TV. Pasko _ ...... 10, 602 859 . TVm. B. Child . 13, 008 1, 024 i . 2, 034 Lnnan H. Bagg _ 2, 500 110 . . 1,200 10, 000 4,440 29, 219 1, 102 AJma Rogers Van Hoe- venberg, assistant librarian. 5, 775 1, 107 229, 988 200 2, 200 TVm. Stone Booth . 2, 000 200 1, 500 j 30 75 M. J. Kemp, superin¬ | . tendent. 8 1.363 1, 310 300 500 1, 000 E. F. Mead . 2743 2744 2745 2746 2747 2748 2749 2750 2751 2752 2753 2754 2755 2756 2757 2753 2759 2760 2761 2762 2763 2764 2765 2766 2767 2768 2769 2770 2771 2772 2773 2774 2775 474 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. 3 • ® § r, 73 o.& u © O w Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 Z 3 4 5 6 7 S NEW YOKK— cont’d. 2776 New York City (52 Y.M.C. A. Library . 1852 Y.M.C.A. C. S. R. East 23cl street) . * 1 2777 New York City (5 Y. M. C. A. (Harlem Branch) Li- 1868 Y.M.C.A. .... C. s. B. W est 125th street) . brary. 2778 New York City (361 Y. M. C. A. (Railroad Branch) Li- 18S7 Y.M.C. A. c. s. B. Madison avenue). brary- 2779 New York City (222 Young Men’s Institute Library. . 1885 Y.M.C. A. .... c. s. ; b. Bowery). 1 1 2780 1 1857 Gen _ R. c. ! c. (Station O). I 2781 1 1853 Col . c. R. 2782 ! 1840 Gen _ R. T. F. B. 2783 1 1857 Gen . C. s.' b! 2784 North Chili . | 1869 1 Sch . C. Fr. B. 2785 Gen . T. E. C." 2786 1880 Gen _ ! R. T. F. B. 2787 | Sch . T. F. B. 2788 1893 Gen . 1 o. T. F 15 2789 1871 j Gen _ 0. C. S.‘ B. 2790 . do . School Library (High) . Sch . C. 2791 1880 I Sch . T. F. B. 2792 1892 Gen . r T. F B. 2793 . do . . State Normal School . . . 1 1SS9 Sch . C. Fr. R. 2794 Onondaga Yalley... Alexandria Library _ _ _ 1 18U : Sch . I T. F. B. 2795 Oswego . City Library . 1853 1 Gen . 6. C. F. R. 2796 . do . Public School Library _ 1 j Gen . 1 C. F. B. 2797 . do . State Normal and Training School. Sch _ C. F. B. 2798 Ovid . 1 Union School . . . ! Sch . .... T. E. B. 2799 Owftcro _ _ _ Erfift Library _ _ 1868 Gen _ ... L C. F B. 2800 Oxford _ Oxford Academy ... _ .......... 1794 Sch _ c. Fr. 1 B. 2801 Palmyra, Classical Union School .. _ 1849 1 Sch . T. E. B. 2802 PfifiValrill _ _ _ - . Eiftld Library _ _ 1887 Gen _ 0. C. F. j B. 2803 . do . The Institute . . . Sch . c. 2804 Penn Yan . . . Public Library . . . 1895 Gen . E. : B. 2805 Pin p. Plains _ Ere e, Li hrary _ 1874' Gen _ T. E. 1 B. 2806 Plattsburg . Hi°h School . 1S90 1 Sch . T. t B. 2807 . do . Public Library . 1894 Gen . T. F. 1 c. 2808 _ do _ _ _ State Normal School . . . 1891 ! Sch . — T Fr i R. 2809 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . | Y.M.C. A R. C. S. B. 2810 Poplar Ridge _ _ _ 1 Hazard Library . . . 1884 1 Gen . O. C. F. B. 2811 Port, Byron _ _ Eree, School and Academy _ 1860 Sch . T. F. B. 2812 Port Chester . Library and Reading Room ...... 1876 1 Gen . O. C. F. B. 2813 . do . . ! Pemberwick Library. _ ... 1880 | Gen _ O. C. F. B. 2814 . do . ■ School District Library . 1845 | Sch . c. Fr. R. 2815 Port Henry . ! Sherman Eree Library . . . 1886 i Gen . 0. T. F. B. 2816 Port J erv is . Free Library . . . . . | Gen . R. T. F. B. 2817 Port Richmond . Union Free School . . . Sch . T. F. B. 2818 Potsdam . . State N ormal and Training School . Sch . C. 2819 Poughkeepsie . City Library . 1843 T. F. ! B. 2820 Classical and Home Tnst.it.nte ! Sch . C. 2821 . do . i Ya.ssar Brothers Tnstit.nte 1881 Scien C. S. R. 2822 . do . Yassar College . 1865 I Col . ! O. C. Fr. ! R. 2823 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1862 1 Y.M.C.A. C. F. B. 2824 Prattsburg . Franklin Academy and Union 1823 1 Sch . C. F. B. School. 2825 Randolph _ Culver (Helen) Library of Cham¬ 1894 ! Sch . c. F. 1 B. berlain Institute. 2826 Rhinfthftftk _ Starr Institute 1S57 Hen _ 0. c. F. : B. 2827 Rochester . . A cndemy of the Sacred Heart Sell _ _ c. B. 2828 . do . Central Library . 1863 Gen . T. F. B. 2829 . do . Court of Appeals Law Library. . . 1846 Law . R. T. Fr. R. 2830 . do . Nazareth Convent and Academy. 1873 Gen . 1 c. 1 s. I B. 475 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES, States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S95 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Prom taxa- tion. W O O eipts. 6 ^ a o H Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Kame of librarian. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 44, 839 9, 000 1,182 692 52, 414 $9, 000 $107, 500 Werner Jongliaus, act¬ ing librarian. 2, 670 100 2, 505 1, 100 475 Prank G. Banister, sec¬ retary. 7,550 500 434 12, 337 2,000 W. P. Stevens . 1, 800 100 2,746 ' 300 1, 000 500 | V. P. Marsh, superin¬ . tendent. 1 000 300 70 100 75 1 3,912 16 857 15, 996 $1, 285 1, 685 1ST. L. Benkam . 7,000 300 300 50 ’ 400 600 15 Rev. Luke A. Grace _ 1,’ 961 B. H. Roberts _ 2, 820 246 400 1,000 200 400 Clinton S. Marsh, super¬ intendent. 3, 850 200 400 21, 600 1, 250 1, 450 Miss H. L. Powell . 1,327 29 9 850 Ira H. Lamton . 5, 981 1, 933 14, 081 1 38, 000 Pred V an Dusen, Ph. D . 2, 432 25 6, 923 680 8, 000 E. P. Hazlett . 3, 000 2, 500 400 8. 000 2, 000 250 550 Mrs. Joseph C. Ayres.. 4, GOO 300 400 22’ GOO 825 1, 040 Alva Seybolt . 2, 000 500 150 1 25 James M. Milne . 1, 000 35 300 30 750 250 100 200 J). H. Cook . 13, 000 135 10, 000 1, 615 10, 000 Robert Seeley Kelsey.. 6,000 19, 000 : Robert Seeley Kelsey 5, 510 604 50 6, 500 5,’66o r ’"719 S. Augusta Smith . 1,705 53 12 18 36 L. H. Clark, jr., princi¬ pal. 7, 000 100 17, 000 : Mrs. J. B. Worthington. 1, 123 67 18 114 W. C. Joslin, principal. . 3,500 25 400 5 9, 000 400 S. Dwight Arms, prin | cipal. 6, 167 187 22, 000 725 14, 000 D. C. Hasbrcuch, secre¬ tary. 1, 200 1, 524! 225 119 2, 092 200 325! Henrietta, Ricks _ 2, 400 180 187 374! Prank Eno, superin¬ ! | tendent. 3,442 21 50 125 James G. Riggs, super¬ | I intendent. 1, 000 13 433 3 8, 920 400 807 E. S. Hall . 2, 000 200 i j 1, 000( E. 11. J ones - _ _ _ 2. 000 200 10 379 979 R000 1 . 300 2, 500 Dexter Wheeler, secre¬ ! j [ ! tary. 1, 000 150 60 | 75 8 W. T,. TTnrris _ 2, 369 322 2 4, 668 800 John W. Diehl . 1, 566 24 2, 000 50 j . 2, 100 L. M. Horton, president - I . board of education, i 4, 945 500 9, 347 306 1, 121 10, 000 7, 201 1, 077 101 18, 862 850 1, 606 Mary K. Kewman _ 1 1,000 140 400 ioo 50 ’lOO . 5, 000 1 1 18.963 701 575 30 40, 485 8, 014 3, 676 3, 676 John C. Sickle, y _ 1,000 Miss Sarah V.H. Butler. 1, 362 500 100 C. K Arnold 25, 000 3,000 1, 500; Frances A. \V ood 1,000 i . Alfred R. Wardle _ 1,000 ! . 25 . S51 1, 750 1, 500 160 50 800 | 208 . 1, 500 E. A. Bishop, president. 2, 500 138 5, 382 900 20, 000 Samuel Drury . 1,450 300 40 30, 000 2, 646 1 . 10, 873 3, 079 30, 000 Mrs. Katherine J. Dow- ling. 16, 500 100 2, 600' R. D. Jones . ... . 2, 350 450 159 | 2, 000 ’223! Sister Berchmans . ! 2776 2777 2778 2779 2780 2781 2782 2783 2784 2785 2786 2787 2788 2789 2790 2791 2792 2793 2794 2795 2796 2797 2798 2799 2800 2801 2802 2803 2804 2805 2806 2807 2808 2809 2810 2811 2812 2813 2814 2815 2816 2817 2818 2819 2820 2821 2822 2823 2824 2825 2826 2827 2828 2829 2830 476 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. 1 NEW YORK — cont’d. 2831 Rochester . 2832 2833 . do . 2834 _ do . 2835 . do . 2836 . do . 2837 . do . 2838 2839 Rockville Center. . . . 2840 Rome . 2841 . do . 2842 Rondout . . . 2843 . do . . 2844 Roslyn . 2845 Round Lake . 2846 Salamanca . 2847 Salem . | 2848 Sandy Creek . 2849 Sandy Hill . 2850 Saratoga Springs . . . | 2851 ' . do . 2852 . do . 2853 . do . . 2854 Saugerties . 2855 ..... do . 2856 Schenectady . 2857 . do . 2858 . do . 2859 Schoharie . 2860 Seneca Falls . 2861 . do . 2862 Sherburne . 2863 Sherman . 2864 Shortsville . 2865 Sidney . 2866 Silver Creek . 2867 Sinclairville . 2868 Sing Sing . 2869 . do . 2870 . do . 2871 . do . 2872 . do . 2873 Skaneateles . 2874 . do . 2875 Sol vay . 2876 Somers . 2877 Southampton . 2878 Springville . 2879 Stamford . 2880 Stanfordville . 2881 Stapleton . 2882 Stein wav . 2883 Syracuse . 2884 . do . Name of library. 3 Powers Law Library . Reynolds Library . . Rochester Free Academy . Rochester Historical Society Li¬ brary. Rochester Orphan Asylum . Theological Seminary Library. University of Rochester . Western New York Institution for Deaf Mutes. Public Library . Jervis Library . Y. M. C. A, Library . . Penekherkin Public Library - Ulster Academy . . Rryant Circulating Library . . Round Lake Institute . . Union School . Bancroft Public Library . High School . ' . Union School . . Fourth Judicial District Law Library. Public Library . St. Faith’s School . . Saratoga Athenaeum . Public Library . Union School . Free Public Library . Union College . Y. M. C. A. Library . Schoharie Academy . Library Association . Mynderse A cademy . . Public Library . Union Scho l . Buck Free Library . Public Library . . Academic Department Union School. Free Library . . Holbrook Military Academy. . . . Mount Pleasant Academy . Prison Library . Public Library . St.John’s School . Library Association . . Union School . . . do . . . . Somers Library . Rogers Memorial Library . . Public Library . Judson Library . . Christian Biblical Institute Staten Island Academy - Free Circulating Library - Central Library . . Court of Appeals Library.. r3 4-9 P JO r© 'S.R R 3 £ - P tl P fl§ j rs 2 3 1 3 • *!! IS C Class. ©£ g 1 tr : •43 o o.S © -p cS 3 JS ft P - O 1 8 | °v] © « £ I * ®' - © eg ft O m ^ S o ® 3 4 5 & 7 S 1889 Law _ C. R. 1884 Gen . O. C. *f7 B. 1857 Sch . T. F. R. 1888 Hist . C. Fr. C. 1840 Asylum .. C. B. 1853 Theo _ 0. C. 1850, Col . 0. C. Fr. B. A. and R. . 1895 Gen . T. F. B. 1804 Gen ...... 0. C. F. B. 1871 Y.M.C.A. .... C. S. B. 1895 Gen . T. F. C. T. F. B.- 1878 Gen . 0. C. S. C. Sch . C. ! Gen . T. F. B. 1891 frOTI . . - C. F. B. 1872 Sch . T. F. B. 1894 Sch . T. F. B. 1 Law . .... . F. R. 1867 Gen . T. F. B. 1890 Sch . . - _ C. Fr. B. 1885 . Gen . R. C. S. B. 1894 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1894 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1894 ! Gen . R. T. F. B. 1798 Col . O. C. Fr. R. 1871 Y M.C.A. .... C. S. B. 1835 Sch . T F. B. 1891 I Gen . R. C. S. B. 1867 Sch . T. Fr. B. 1895 Gen _ C. F. C. Sch . . T. F. B. 1890 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1886 Gen . R. T. F. B. 1840 Gen . C. F. B. 1894 Gen . R. C. F. B. 1884 Sch . C. : Fr. B. Sch . O. c. B. 1842 Gen . O. .... B. 1889 Gen T. F. B. 1876 Sch _ _ _ _ c. B. 1877 Soc . O. C. S. B. 1866 1 Sch . T. B. 1894 Sch . T. *f.' B. 1875 Soc . R. c. 1 s. B. 1896 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 1893 Gen _ T. F. B. 1876 Gen . T. F. B. 1868 Gen . C. R. Sch _ c. 1889 Gen . C. F. B. 1855 Gen . T. F. B. 1849 Law . C. F. R. 477 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pam plilets added during year. Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 4. 321 926 46 185 • Charles P. Lee . i 2831 32 896 2, 429 15, 107 9, 743 $14, 000 Alfred S. Collins . 28.12 2, 333 50 $300 450 John G. Allen, prin¬ 2833 cipal. 1, 367 1, 238 47 53 Jane E. Rochester . 2834 1,186 Mrs.Wm.H. Sage, man¬ j 2835 ager and registrar. 28. 713 625 Howard Osgood . 2836 30, 386 3, 050 800 50 1,875 $50, 000 H. K. Phinney, assist¬ : 2837 ant librarian . 5, 000 2838 2, 000 6,646 115 Elmer S. Redman . 2839 623 100 1, 149 34, 651 1, 890 17, 158 M. Elizabeth Beach _ 2840 2, 800 25 ' 900 35 H. E. Huie, general sec- 2841 retary. 1, 000 200 106 50 100 D B. Abbey . ' 2842 1, 450 408 150 300 TV. E. Bunten . 2843 1, 025 340 251 Joseph H. Bogart . 2844 2. 025 :::::: 2845 1, 500 100 150 300 2846 3,316 318 256 5, 548 1, 450 Frances F. Leighton _ 2847 R000 100 180 20 500 350 R. EL. Snyder, principal. 2848 1,422 174 2, 493 100 250 Emily M. Storer . 2849 2, 500 1 600 Corliss Sheldon . . 2850 2, 256 300 75 30 6, 175 175 175 Thomas R. Kueil . - 2851 1, 570 70 96 Eleanor A. Shackelford, 2852 principal. 4, 000 500 150 200 9, 000 900 Charles C. Lester, pres¬ 2853 | ident. 1, 794 469 8, 174 443 686 Fred H. Moulton 2854 1,100 200 100, 20 300 1, 000 225 450 Fred. 3SI. Moulton, prin¬ 2855 | cipal. 2, 700 900 12, 537 279 1,500 2, 550 Henry Glen . . 2856 30. 985 | 250 400 2857 1, 100 . 200 30 100 1,200 1, 800 2858 1, 000 200 90 300 55 iio Solomon Sias, principal. 2859 2,798 157 3, 876 . 675 Liliias Rumnsey San¬ 2860 1 ford, secretary. 1,524 90 21 450 108 104 F. L. Porter 2861 1, 000 900 . 800 . Miss Anna Merrihew . . 2862 1,027 200 20 1,200 50 170 Lura A. Sheldon . 2863 2, 000 100 10, 000 A. C. Buck . 2864 1, 650 350 4, 492 225 500 Wm. Thorp . 2865 1, 857 95 381 5 2, 900 218 J. M. McKee . 2866 1, 450 7 100 3, 000 . 10 Mrs. Lizzie Fife . 2867 1, 078 30 | 40 40 Rev. 33. A. Holbrook. . . . 2868 12, 000 C. F. Brasie, principal. . 2869 5, 000 600 . 41, 095 John C. S. Weills, chap¬ 2870 lain. 35, 961 254 13, 716 3, 000 275 400 J. Irving Gorton _ 2871 1,000 150 20 80 30 Henry Lyall . 2872 8,538 264 92 5, 943 1 . 1, 113 2, 000 Lydia, A . Cohane 2873 1, 500 1, 500 . H. F Miner 2874 1, 000 300 112 224 C. O. Richards, principal 2875 1, 539 22 , 20 601 38 Ruth Tompkins, treas¬ 2876 ! urer. 1, 000 1,000 10, 000 8, 500! Edward H. Foster, ! 2877 1 . treasurer. 2, 000 300 8, 000 275 500 John S. Vedder . 2878 2, 425 457 65 30 272 25 55 . W. H. McAlpine, secre¬ 2879 tary board of educa¬ tion. 2, 200 350 1 . 90 J. B. Weston, D. D . 2880 4, 300 2881 . 2,950 45 185 2, 832 2, 400 Mrs. Marie von Poser.. 2882 30, 000 3, 000 3, 941 200 78, 503 11, 234 Ezekiel W. Mundy . 2883 22, 500 250 ; 500 ; 250 3, 700 . T. L. R. Morgan . 2884 478 ' EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public , society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 3 4 5 O 7 8- NEW YORK— cont’d. 2885 1885 Asylum c. B. lum, White Library. 288G . do . St. J ohn’s Catholic Academy . 1886 Sch . c. Fr. B. 2887 1872 Col O. c F B. 2888 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . Y. M. C. A. c! Fr. R. 2889 1891 Sch . c. B. 2890 Sch F B. 2891 . do . Young Men’s Lyceum Free Li- 1895 Social _ O. c. f! B. brary. 2892 Tompkinsville . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1884 Y. M. C. A. R. c. s. C. 2893 Public Library . . . . . 1893 Gen _ _ _ T. F. B. 2894 1877 Gen .... O. c. S. B. 2895 1821 Sch . . . c. R. 2896 Sch T. F. B. 2897 . do . 1878 Sch . C. B. 2898 . do . Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. 1824 Col . c. Fr. B. 2899 . do . Rensselaer Society of Engineers. . 1866 Scien .... R. c. S. B. 2900 . do . Troy Academy . 1834 Sch .. c. R 2901 . do . Young Men's Association . 1835 Gen . c. F. B. 2902 . do . Young Women's Association _ 1895 Gen . c. F. B. 2903 Unadilla, _ _ . . Union School and Academy . 1852 Sch . . T. B. 2904 Union Springs . Friends’ Academy Library (Oak- 1796 Sch . C. R. wood Seminary) . 2905 Utica . . Deutscher Leseverein . 1847 Soc . R. C. S. C. 2906 . do . . Faxton Hall Library . 1893 Soc . O. C. s. C. 2907 . do . Oneida Historical Society . 1878 Hist _ R. c. s. B. 2908 _ On . . Piatt’s (Mrs.) School Library _ Sch . 2909 . do . Public Library . 1893 Gen . T. F. B. 2910 . do . Utica Law Library . 1876 Law . c. s. R. 2911 . do . .. Utica State Hospital Medical Li¬ 1843 Med . T. R. brary. 2912 . do _ _ _ _ Y. M. C. A. Library . . . 1889 Y.M.C.A . C. C. 2913 Valatie _ _ Union Free School _ _ _ _ _ 1887 Gen . C. F. B. 2914 V ictor _ _ Clark Library _ _ 1872 Sch . T. Fr. B. 2915 Walden _ Union School . 1890 Sch . 1 C. F. B. 2916 Walton . . do _ _ _ _ 1868 Sell . T. Fr. B. 2917 Wappi ngers- Falls .. Grinnell Library . 1867 Gen _ O. C. Fr. B. 2918 Warrensburg. - Union School and Academy Li¬ 1859 Sch . C. F. R. brary, 2919 Warsaw _ _ Union School _ _ 1853 Gen . T. F. B. 2920 Warwick _ Warwick Institute _ 1848 Sch . . T. F. B. 2921 Waterford _ _ High School . . . . . 1895 Sch . T. F. B. 2922 W aterloo . Library and Historical Society. . . 1875 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 2923 Watertown . High School _ _ 1865 Sch _ R. T. F. B. 2924 . do . . . Y. M. O. A. T,i lira, ry _ _ 1869 Y. M.C.A. C. Fr. B. 2925 Water vi lie . Public Library . 1895 tten _ T. F. C. 2926 W atkins _ _ _ do . . 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. 2927 W averly . High School . Sch . 2928 Wellsville _ _ _ Public Library . . 1894 Gen . C. F. B. 2929 West Albany _ Railroad Y. M. C. A. Library . 1879 Y.M.C.A. c. B. 2930 Westchester - Grammar School, No. 99, New Sch . R. York City. 2931 . do . . New York Catholic Protectory. . . 1863 Sch . c. B. 479 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. Volumes. QQ © § Ph Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. e3 ■+J 3 g.2 3^ rrH a 6 73 o -3 « o H 9 10 i i 12 13 14 15 16 17 4, 000 25 $50 621 25 100 2. 160 45, 000 12, 521 640 680 $100,000 1, 500 1, 100 109 | . 2,’ 453 . 83 4. 000 3, 000 300 5 000 . 300 1,650 500 75 150 365 155 1,600 200 5 000 500 i $300 1 500 : . 3, 479 - 500 43 350 127 1 2, 000 2, 333 115 246 1, 200 25 400 1, 000 75 150 1, 900 700 50 750 800 21 6, 400 2, 500 150 150 386 2, 000j 800 80 350 420 1, 100 200 . 33. 400 1 1, 592 . 53, 192 18, 500 1 . . ' 8, 417 48, 381 1, 300 200 2, 364 103 1,000 75 170 100 1,931 100 1 200 2, 160 250 60 75 3, 500 180 800 300 150 1, 112 6, 420j 6, 880 110 80’ 430 7, 000 . ; ;;; . | . 20, 506] 1, 389 2,759 1, 3891 108, 258 8, 500 9, 109 5, 436^ 1, 463 6, 000 1, 200 1, 158 | 1,000 15 40 60 75 150 1, 261 600 80 100 1,200 25 62 1, 600 400 135 50 450 ! . 100 250 5, 770 192 136 4 8, 000 4C0 643 1, 060 73 400 25 52 3,625 200 5, 945 175 360 ! ’ 1,500 100 25 10 3, 000 50 I 2, 450 | 125 12, 080 J 100 325 G, 000 200 200 768 1 ■ 10, 000 I . 4, 000 4 100 2 500 134 1 268 1, 150 ! 20 ! I 312 13 i | - 1, 820 647 5, 070 75; 1, 000 3, 500 350 1, 566 200 1,500 1,600 i . H 2, 056 150 G31 20 15, 000 445 135i . ! 1, 509 200 40 6 1,124 1,495 50 ! 400 . 8, 000 2,000 500 200 2,500 j 500 . 1 Name of librarian. IS Mrs. Florence Hills 2885 Sister M. Alexandrine, assistant principal. Henry O. Sibley . Frank R. Harris, acting general secretary. J. M. Fnrraan, principal Edith Carpenter . Oscar J. Cox . . 2886 2887 2888 2889 2890 2891 Win. McKenzie, gen¬ eral secretary. F. J. Diamond presi¬ dent board of library trustees. Miss Mildred French . . . Mary Alice Knox, prin¬ cipal. H. L. Taylor . Brother " Arnold, vice principal. John M. Peck . H. G. Thompson . Maxcy A Barnes, prin¬ cipals. D W. M. Clinton . Miss Kate A. Farnham. M. J. Fletcher, principal Elijah Cook, principal. . 2892 2893 2894 2895 2896 2897 2898 2899 2900 2901 2902 2903 2904 J. C. Schreiber . . Mary A. Thomas M.M.Bagg . . C. M. Underhill Eugene Stearns It. P. Puglie - 2905 2906 2907 2908 2909 2910 2911 W. H. Charles, assist¬ ant secretary. Sara M. Harrington - D. C. Dominick . J. R. Fairyrieve . Mrs. E. A. Howarth - M. Y. Dickinson . 2912 2913 2914 2915 2916 2917 2918 Irving B. Smith, A. M., 2919 principal. L. W. Hoffman . 2920 Alexander Falconer, superintendent. William Smith Outer, secretary. Wm. G. Williams, su¬ perintendent. H. J. Bremmer, chair¬ man library commit¬ tee. W. G. Mayer, president. F. Daria . 2921 2922 2923 2924 2925 2926 2927 Mrs. Ida EL Church, ' 2928 secretary. S. F. Fraser, secretary . . 2929 Hannah M. Findlay - 2930 Brother Eusebius . 2931 480 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United 2932 2933 2934 2935 2936 2937 2938 2939 2940 2941 2942 2943 2944 2945 Location. NEW YORK— cont’d. Westfield . "West New Brighton Westpoint . West Troy . West Winfield . Whitehall . White Plains . - do . Willard . Willets Point. . Wyoming . - do . Tonkers . - do ... NORTH CAROLINA. 2946 2947 2948 Asheville . . do . . do . 2949 Belmont . 2950 2951 2952 2953 Cliapelhill . Charlotte . Como . Concord . 2954 Davidson . 2955 2956 2957 2958 Durham . . do _ _ _ Elon College . Fayetteville . 2959 Franklinton . 2960 2961 Greensboro . . do . 2962 Guilford College. . . . 2963 2964 Highlands . Ledger . 2965 1 Lenoir.. . 296P 296r 2968 Mount Pleasant Murfreesboro . Newbern . 2969 2970 2971 Newton . Oakridge . Raleigh . 2972 2973 2974 2975 2976 2977 2978 . do . do . do . _ do . . . do . . Rutherford College. Salem . . 2979 Salisbury . . Name of library. TJnion School and Academy . District No. 2 School Library (Castleton). United States Military Academy . School District Library . Public Library . . . Union School . . do . . . Westchester County Law Library Willard State Hospital . Engineer School of Application, USA. Eree Library . Middlebury Academy and Union School. Public Library . Woman’s Institute Free Circu¬ lating Library. Asheville Female College Asheville Library . Bishop Atkinson Library St. Mary’s College . . University of North Carolina Biddle University Library .... Buck horn Academy Library . Scotia Seminary . . Union Library of Davidson Col¬ lege. Public School Library . Trinity College . Elon College . Cross Creek Lodge, No. 4, I. O. O. F. Franklin Christian College . Greensboro Female College . State Normal and Industrial School. Guilford College . Shortia School . Good-Will Free Library. Pioneer Library . and Catawba College . . Oakridge Institute . . College of Agriculture Mechanic Arts. Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind (Kelly Library). North Carolina State Library. .. St. Mary’s School . Shaw University . Supreme Court Library . . Rutherford College . Salem Female Academy . Livingstone College. a s £ . . &0 o.2 Class. 1868' Sch. Sch 1802 1894 1884 1855 1892 1886 1865 1881 1880 Govt ... Sch . Gen .... Sch . Sch . Law - Asylum Sci . Gen Sch. Gen Gen 1879 1881 j 1877 j 1800 Col .. Gen . Theo. Col .. 1870 1887 1884 1846 1845 1882 1895 1837 1888 1875 1859 1852 1890 1877 1841 1865 Col . Col . Sch . Sch. Col . Sch . Col . Sch . I. O.O. F. Gen . Col Sch Col Sch. Gen Gen Col . Col . Sch. Col . Sch. Gen Sch. 1853 1S02 State Sch . . Col .. Law . Col.. Col.. Col -8 . !- flo j c '43 © R. T. T. C. T. C. T. T. T. C. T. C. T. T. C. C. 33 — t- — bi-o O © 8 B. B. B. B. B. B. B. li: B. B. B. B. B. S. B. Fr. 1 R. S. Fr. S. Fr. F. F. Fr. Fr. F. Fr. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 481 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year, j Pamphlets added during year, j Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 0 io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 2, 500 1,000 150 50 3,000 | $60 $60 . A. X. Taylor, superin¬ 2932 . tendent". ! 1, 150 56 50 1 000 20 Frances E. Moore . ! 2933 39, 157 6, 016 1, 197 180 5 600 3, 400 • P. S. Merline . 2934 2, 000 25 i’ ono 100 200 ! Albert J. Dan ah er . 2935 I’ 490 150 12$ 10 1 2 942 370 250 ■ A. J. Merrell . 2935 1, 500 751 2 509 500 ! V7". W. Howe . ! 2037 1, 946 300 1, 224 25$ 2. 912 500 535 Emma L. Huestis . 2938 2, 050 Frederick F. Miller _ 2939 1, 850 104 60 235( William Mabon . ! 2940 1,' 500 270 Wm.E. Craighill . : 2941 1, 050 50 20 20 2, 560 75' Geo.H. Smith, president 1 2942 1, 206 100 100 8 50 ion _ S. H. Mcllroy, principal 2943 11, 021 239 31, 192 250 479 1 Helen Blodgett . 2944 2, 545 678 373 6, 194 200 400 E. R. Houghton, acting 2945 librarian. 1, 000 2946 2. 386 75 6, 175 675 Miss H. A. Champion. . . ! 2947 2, 025; 332 730 Rev. Alfred H. Stubbs, 2948 warden. 7, 500 300 250 F. Bernard, vice-presi¬ 2949 dent. 30. 0001 5, 000 1,150 100 11, 072’ . Benjamin Wyche . 2950 8, 000 400 2951 2, 000 ; 2952 1, oooi 75 550 1 D. J Satterfield, presi¬ i 2953 dent. 12. 000 2, 000 150 500 | 2954 1 2, 000’ 100 I 220* 40 C. W. Toms . I 2955 13, 000 400 1,300 260 1 S. S. Dent . ! 2956 1 000, :::::: I 2957 2, 500| 700 i W.D. Gasten . I 2958 1, 400' 900 50 200 j N. Del. McReynolds, ! 2959 | president. i 2, 600 1, 000 700 600 | 2960 3, 000 i 2961 4, 000 10 40 250 ; Miss Mary E. Menden¬ 2962 hall. 1,500 j 2963 6, 000 1,000 1,634 Charles H. Wing, di- 2964 1 rector. 1, 500 I. W. F. Harper, presi¬ 2965 1,650 1, 000 1 dent. H. T. J. Ludwig . 2966 1,000 1 . 2967 1. 000 i ! . 2968 2, ooo ; 500 l j 2969 2. 200 1. 000 200 150 200 J. Allen Holt, . . 1 2970 2, 000 100 391 . Alex Q. Holladav, pres- ! 2971 ident. i 1, 016 i 2972 50, 000 500 •T C! "RlHTioptnn 2973 3, 000 2974 1,500 150 2975 11, 000 T? TT TtrarllfiY 2976 4. 000 2, 000 150 200 500 W. E. Abernethv . 2977 6, 000 200 Rev. John H. Clewell, 2978 principal. 3, 000 2979 ED 96 - 16 482 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United 2980 2981 2982 2983 2984 2985 238G 29S7 2988 2989 2990 2991 2992 2993 2994 2995 2996 2997 2998 2999 3000 3001 3002 3003 3004 3005 3006 3007 3008 3009 3010 3011 3012 3013 3014 3015 3010 3017 3018 3019 3020 3021 3022 3023 Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. . 1 6 ! ® s ’ .2 1 u *■£ ! ° .&i u rH ■ © js. -u fcij f-i U ■£ © is © 2 « © c © © O © 1 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 NORTH CAROLINA— continued. 1840 frP.n -- 0. C. S. B. 1891 1 Gen . C. Er. B y . 1886 | Sch . c. Er. B. - 1 Sch . 1855 ! Soc _ c. S. B. 1886 Sch . | c. S. B. NORTH DAKOTA. 1 I 1889 Gen . c. F. ! B. 1890 Gen . . T. F. Ellendale High School . Sch . 1 "C* Col . | C. 1890 Col . c. Fr. B. lege. 1883 Col . T. F. B OHIO. A On. _ _ Ohio Normal University . . 1871 Col . o. C. B. . do . . . Philomathean Society . . ! 1871 Col. Soc. . . C. "s. B. A kron . Bierce Library of Buchtel College . 1871 Col . c. S- B. . do . Eva Hill Parish Librarv. ...... _ 1888 j Gen . c. B. . do . Public Library . . . 1865 Gen . 0. T. "f". B. Alliance . Mount Union College . 1858 1 Col . C. s. B. _ tio . Public School Library . . . 1888 ! Sch . F. C A slilnnrl _ _ _ _ do . Sch . c. F. B. Ashtahnla _ _ Public Library ................... 1895 Gen . T. F. B. Athena _ Ohio University. ................. 1804 Col . 0. C. B Anst.inhnrg Grand Biver Institute. ..... _ ... 1832 ! Sch _ c F. B. Barnesville . . Public School Library . Sch . C. S. C. Beren. . . Baldwin University. _ ...... 1856 Col . . 0. C. S. B. _ rlo . . German Wallace College......... 1864 | Col _ C. B. Bryan t ... _ ....... Library Association. _ .......... 1883 Gen . B. C. ’s’’ B. Bucyrus . . Memorial Library . . . 1894 Gen . B. c. F. B. _ do . Public School Library.. . . 1890 Gen _ T. F. B. Cadiz . Pnblie. Library _ _ _ 1880 Gen . B. T. S. B. tin mhrid crp. Public School Library ........ _ 1888 Sch . B. Canfield . . Northeastern Ohio Normal School 1881 Col . C. F. B. Canton _ Canton Public Library Associa¬ 1884 Gen . B. T. F. B. tion. Clard in otnn Ladies’ Public Library _ ........ 1878 I Gen . C. s. C. Cla.rt.haorft Longview Hospital _ _ 1861 Asylum . . C. C. St. Charles Borromeo Theological Theo . C. j Carthagftnfl. __ Seminary. | Cliilli cotlie . Public Library ... _ ............. Gen . T. F. B. ! Clinr.innat.i _ Bartholomew English and Classi¬ Sch . B. cal School. ; Cincinnati (Central Cincinnati Central Turngemeinde 1854 Soc . C. s. c. Turnhall). ! Pineinnati _ Cincinnati Hospital Library _ _ _ 1874 ! Med . C. F. B. do Cincinnati Law Library . . 1847 1 Law . C. s. B. .... .do Cincinnati Museum Association . 1881 I Scien _ _ _ C. Fr. B. Cincinnati (Station Cincinnati Observatory . 1843 Scien . C. Fr. B. C). Cincinnati (312 Cincinnati Society of Natural 1870 I Scien . c. F. B. Broadway). History. 1 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 483 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. O • o *-< • © a g 'C a Beceipts. H Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes adc during yea Is © « >> © be 3.5 s 3 Books issu during yc for home u Books is sii for use wit: library. From taxa¬ tion. Total i n - come. ** +> p p © g a 1 * a o Kame of librarian. 9 io 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 11 656 250 4 274 $485 62 Prof. TV. L. Poteat . 1,064 2, 500 1,226 Lucy Biddle Lewis, sec¬ retary. T. G. Harbison, head 500 105 i 2 000 master. 5 000 249 Tlios. C. Diggs . 2, 760 350 - 40 1, 860 150 290 John J. Blair, superin¬ tendent of schools. 10, 500 2, 000 1, 232 500 1, 000 300 C. M. Dahl, secretary of ’ state. Emma F. Bates, super¬ intendent. of public instruction. . • 1, 168 2. 782 590 . ! COO 688 200 400 1,257 . 1 Mrs. P. A. Evans . 6, 000 2,000 300 1,000 TV. Merrifield, president ! H. S. Lehr, president . . . B. C. Jackson . . . 5, 450 1, 650 360 50 24 100 10 500 5C0 525 $2,000 10, 000 7, 000 3, 750 . 1, 000 207 C. B. Olin . 149 100 Mrs. W. B. Baymond. . Mary Pauline Edgerton TVilliam Soule, Ph. D.. . J. E. Morris, superin¬ tendent. Baleigh Scott _ 15, 433 10, 000 1, 600 . 68, 000 2,537 $4, 200 4, 700 ’* 2,000 160 200 8, 000 227 - 100 105 1, 205 2, 539 14, 000 1, 500 1,000 92 300 200 . J 150 1, 005 750 75 13, 073 5, 000 300 300 1, 566 Miss Kellie E. TVarm- 2,000 200 2, 000 ington. Eli Dunklo . 50 w r-l => 6< B. G. McClelland . 200 .... E. M. Van Cleve, super¬ intendent. James Hervey Smith.. . Victor TVilker.. . 3. 650 4. C00 ! 1,400 i 1.000 110 400 1,300 260 2. 3°8’ . 2, 292 10, 000 3,065 Alice M.TValt . 1,074 71 471 71 1,400 100 Augusta M. McCracken J. J. Bliss, superintend- i ent. Ella M. TVard . i 1,300 5. 000 100 300 30 75 500 610 2, 000 . A, B. Hall . l.BOOi 800 85 130 200 500 60 J. A. Cummings, A. M., president. Charles B. Frazer, sec- i retary and treasurer. 4 763 631 21, 195 1, 172 1, 745 1.170 _ 24 167 o o o F. TV. Harmon, super¬ intendent. 4, 000 14, 000 1, 000 2,800 10, 000 18. 500 | 589 17, 305 j 524 738 ,T. M. Barrows _ ! 38 400 | T.nnis Boebnt _ _ ! 4, 000 1 684 327 3, 520 1, 407 P. Alfred Marchand, custodian. TV. TV Myers ..... ---I . 1. 620 2. 650 80 68 1,034 J. H. Gest, assistant di- j rector. J. G. Porter, director JosuaLindably, director j 2, 200 4, 500 500 200 | 1, 000 © O O O 2980 2981 2982 2983 2984 2985 2987 2988 2989 2990 2991 2992 2993 2994 2995 2996 2997 29y8 2999 3000 3001 3002 3003 3004 3005 3006 3007 3008 3009 3010 3011 3012 3013 3014 3015 3016 3017 3018 3019 3020 3021 3022 3023 3024 3025 3026 3027 3028 3029 3030 3031 3032 3033 3034 3035 3036 3037 3038 3039 3040 3041 3042 3043 3044 3045 3046 3047 3048 3049 3050 3051 3052 3053 3054 3055 3056 3057 3058 3059 3060 3061 3062 3063 3064 3065 3066 3067 3068 3069 3070 3071 3072 3073 3074 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public , society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. 1 2 ohio — continued. Cincinnati . . . .do . Cincinnati (post- office box 4) . Cincinnati . _ do . do do _ do . . _ do . Cincinnati (Fourth and John streets). Cincinnati . Cincinnati (College Hill). Cincinnati . - do . _ do . - do . - do . do . do . .do . - . - do - Circleville Cuvier Club Library . Hebrew Union College . Historical and Philosophical So¬ ciety of Ohio. House of Refuge . Hughes High School . Lane Theological Seminary . Law School of the Cincinnati Col¬ lege. Lupton’s (Miss) School for Girls. Mount Auburn Institute - .... Hew Church Library . Ohio Mechanics Institute . Ohio Military Institute . Public Library . St. Francis Seraph Gymnasium. . St. Joseph’s College.! . St. Xavier College . Students’ Library of St. Xa¬ vier College. University of Cincinnati . "Woodward High School . Young Men’s Christian Associa¬ tion. Young Men’s Mercantile Library Association. Public Library . Cleveland . . . . do . . - do . . - do . . Cleveland (62 Huron street). Cleveland (770 Eu¬ clid avenue). Cleveland . Calvin College Library . Case Library . Case School of Applied Science. .. Central High School . Cleveland University of Medicine and Surgery. Hathaway-Brown School for Girls Jewish Orphan Asylum . do do do Law Library Association . Mittleberger’s (Miss) English and Classical School. Public Library . . . - do . - do . _ do . _ do . - do . - do . - do . _ do . - do . Columbus . --UU . ..do . ..do . . .do . ..do . ..do . ..do . . .do . . -do . St. Ignatius College . St. Mary’s Seminary . University School . Ursuline College . W estem Reserve Historical Soci¬ ety. Western Reserve University . College for Women . Law School, Franklin T. Backus Library. Medical College . Capital University and Theolog¬ ical Seminary. Columbus Latin School . Girls’ English and Classical School. Law Library Association . Ohio Institution for Feeble-mind¬ ed Youth. Ohio Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. Ohio Institutution for the Educa¬ tion of the Blind. Ohio Penitentiary . . . Ohio State Board of Agriculture. . Ohio State Library . Date of found¬ ing. j Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. A a x p .2 c el £ & A . 3 br-a 2 n 3 o •73 e - a o 5 3 4 5 6 r 8 Seien . n ; F R. 1875 Theo . C Fr R. 1831 Hist . O. c! | F. R. 3852 Reform . . . Fr. 1 1852 Sch . c. B. 1833 ' Theo . O. c. . . . . R. 1833 Law . c. R. ■ Sch . c. ;;; 1 B. 1856 Gen . c. B. 1865 Theo . c. F. B. 1828 Gen . . : _ c. S. R. 1890 bch . c. Fr. B. 1853 Gen . 0. T. i f. B. 1892 Col . c. Fr. B. 1873 Col . c. B. 1842 Col . c. Fr B. 1870 Col . 0. T. S. B. | Col . C. 1835 Sch . c. Ft. R. 1860 Y.M.C.A. .... c. S. B. 1835 ■ Gen . R. c. .... B. 1869 Gen . T. F. B. Col . C. 1846 Gen . O. C. S. B. 1881 Col . C. R. 1877 Sch . B. 1849 Med . c. R. 1886 Sch . ' R. c. R. 1868 Sch . B. 1870 Law . c. s. R. Sch . Gen . T. F. B. 1886 Col . c. B. 1849 Gen . c. Fr. B. 1890 Sch . c. B. Sob _ 1 c. 1867 Hist . O. c. Fr. R. 1826 Col . O. c. Fr. B. 1888 Col . c. B. 1892 T,a,w . c. B. 1850 Med . c. Fr. R. 1830 Theo. . 0. c. S. R. Sch . R. c. Fr. R. 1884 OftTI _ R. 1885 Law . . c. S. R. Sch . 1851 Sch . c. .... B. Sch . . i 1867 Reform _ T. C. 1858 Sci . c. F. R. 1817 Gen . T. F. R. 485 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. . O t-t © ^ £ 6 © ~ CO 'd H ®3 Receipts. O'd © fl Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes adc during yej Pamphlets ad during yeai Books issu during yc for home r Books i s s n for use wit library. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. Si til o ^ •*= n 1 8 2 * Bo Name of librarian. 9 io 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1, 200 13,000 13, 860 2, 000 30 Chas. Drury, custodian. 56? 56, 900 1, 480 $2, 071 $3, 850 Julius Dexter, record¬ ing secretary. 'T'homas M. Dill . : 1, 056 2 500 60 800 40 . 150 E. \V. Coy . I 17, 000 6 000 100 :::::: 900 19,000 H. W. Hulhert . 500 200 100 ! Alfred K. Nippert 3, 000 2, 000 1 460 900 200 50 75 90 ! . - _ 5, 000 225 300 Miss H.W.Cano _ 5, 000 3, 000 188, 409 1,200 1, 500 17, 000 2, 900 3, 000 2, 500 9,441 100 R. E. Champion . 250 50 25 25, 959 96 312, 810 220, 256 $18, 000 65, 791 17, 300 A. W. Whelpley . 48 15 Rev. Bernard Nurre. . . . | 1,000 2, 000 35 100 100 J ames Rogers, C. S. C . . . i ! ,Inlm M . Poland 150 200 100 10 1, 600 103 Thomas Nolan, S. J _ | 600 / 125 500 120 10, 275 1, 304 A . M. Van Dyke 1,000 61, 394 7, 375 2, 000 40, 000 1,125 1, 650 1,000 1, 200 50 50 ! Edgar R. Mathers, sec ! ret ary. John M Newton 1 1 1, 155 59, 310 16, 374 653 1 12, 000 2, 000 622 100 24, 123 1,271 May Low, associate librarian. 1, 000 2, 000 250 , 50, 000 14, 600 425 Charles 0?r . 500 250 i . . Arthur S Wright 300 171 25 6, 000 400 Dudley Smith, M. D., assistant registrar. Miss Mary E. Spencer. . . . 1, 385 13, 000 48 S. Wolfenstien, super¬ intendent. A. A. Bemis, secretary . ! i 800 2, 300 4, 000 106, 418 7, 000 3, 033 7,385 178 595, 000 78, 923 47, 898 127, 898 C. Lee Harbaugh, assist¬ ant librarian. A Bachler 300 200 8, 200 1, 200 5, 000 1,300 210 30 A B. Stuber 100 25 1 . Charles A. Mitchell _ 14, 000 30, 000 1,300 10, 000 800 850 1 Peter NefF 1,010 206 1, 155 5, 000 570 3, 500 28, 000 E C . \V il liams 2, 073 3,200 175 9 600 TTenrv E Bonrne 500 1,000 200 E. EL. Hopkins, dean _ CL C. Ashwum, M. D - jt' \y Stellkorn 2,500 5, 000 200 1, 125 50 . FrsiikT. Cole, principal 1,000 200 25 7 Lucretia M. Phelps, principal. T' 3, 000 1, 876 475 1, 448 4, 650 3, 000 Mr« E A Zell 3,357 4, 000 2, 000 350 400 500 500 C. T,. \V enaet. 4, 000 i . 70, 000 2, 391 885 7, 975 1 Joseph P. Smith . 3024 3025 3026 3027 3028 3029 3030 3031 3032 3033 3034 3035 3036 3037 3038 3039 3040 3041 3042 3043 3044 3045 3046 3047 3048 3049 3050 3051 3052 3053 3054 3055 3056 3057 3058 3059 3060 3061 3062 3063 3064 3065 3066 3067 3068 3069 3070 3071 3072 3073 3074 486 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96.. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. ,o r fee 'w a o.S Class. Ohio — continued. 3075 Columbus . 3076 . do . 3077 . do . . . 3078 3079 . do . 3080 3081 . do . 3082 . do . 3083 Dayton . 3084 _ do . . 3085 . do , . 3086 . do . 3087 . do . 3088 Defiance . 3089 3090 3091 Delaware . 3092 . do . . 3093 . do . 3094 East Liverpool . 3095 Eaton . 3096 Elyria . 3097 Findlay . 3098 Franklin . 3099 Fremont . 3100 Galion . 3101 Gambier . 3102 . do . 3103 Garrettsville . 3104 Geneva . 3105 Germantown . 3106 . do . 3107 Glendale . 3108 . do . 3109 Granville . 3110 . do . . . 3111 Greenville . 3112 Hamilton . 3113 . do . 3114 Hillsboro . 3115 Hiram . 3116 Jefferson . 3117 Kenton . 3118 Lancaster . 3119 . do . 3120 Lebanon . 3121 _ do . 3122 Lee _ _ _ 3123 Lockland . 3124 Mansfield . 3125 Marietta . 3126 Medina . 3127 Mentor . 3128 Mt. V ernon . 3129 National Military Home. 3130 . do . 3131 New- ark . Obio State University . Phelps (Miss) English and Clas¬ sical School for Young Ladies and Children. Public Library and Leading Loom Public School Library . 1870 1872 Gen. 1875 Gen. Railway Young Men’s Christian Association. St. Joseph’s Academy . Starling Medical College . Supreme Court Law Library . Law Library . Public Library . St. Mary’s Institute Library . Union Biblical Seminary. . . Young Men’s Christian Associa¬ tion. Free Library . High School . . Public School Library . Girl's Industrial Home Library.. Ohio Wesleyan University, Stur- ges Library Monnett Library . Public School Library . - do . . 1876 1870 1869 1847 1875 Y.M. C. A. Sch . Med .... Law .... Law .... Gen . Sch . Theo _ Y.M. C. A.1 1895 Gen. Sch. 1885 1854 Sch . A. and R. Col . 1854 Col 1893 1886 Sch Sch Elyria Library . Findlay College . Free School Library . . Birchard Library . . High School . . Kenyon College . . Theological Library', Bexley Hall. Free Public Library . Spencer Memorial Library . Miami Military Institute . . Public Library. 1870 Gen.. .... Col .. 1874| Gen.. 1875 Gen.. 1880 Sch.. 1828 Gen.. 1839 Theo. Glendale Female College . Glendale Lyceum . Denison University . . Granville Female College . Me Wliinney Free Sch ool Library- High School . . Lane Free Library . . Public Library . Hiram College . Citizens Library Association Public Library . Boys’ Industrial School . Free Library and Reading Room Mechanics’ institute . National Normal University Gen. Gen. Sch . Gen. Col . Gen. Col . Col . 1879 1892 1886 1888 1879 1883 1832 1836 1889| Sch 1880 1866 1877 1854 1883 1886 1854 1878 1893 1858 O. Wells Library . Public Library and Free Reading Room. Memorial Library Association . . . Marietta College Library . Medina Circulating Library _ High School . Public Library . Putnam Library . 1858 1887 1887 1835 1881 Thomas (George H.) Library. Ladies Circulating Library . . 1888 1868 1869 1876 Sch . Gen . Gen . Col . Gen . Gen . A. and R . Gen ..... Gen . Col . Gen Gen Gen .. Col ... Gen .. Sch . . . Gen .. Social . Social. Gen .. T. T. C. c. c. T. C. T. S. Fr. Fr. F. Fr. S. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES, 487 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S9G — Continued. 00 > 00 Volumes added during year. r3 © . 53 CO Jo if Ph ~ 3 © 2©§ ® © oc £ — fcl § rli Z U o Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Name of librarian. Prom taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 io ii 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS IS 550 3, 025 $4, 000! Olive Jones . l! 500 24, 500 2, 866 77, 254 7, 9881 $9, 100 9, 483: $6, 250 Jolm J. Pugh . 29, 814 370 4, 272 59 88, 055 6, 147 6, 100 6,380 Hattie Toler, first as- j sistant librarian. ! 1, 000 33 E. D. Bancroft, general | secretary. j 3, 000 200 Sisters of INhtre Dame .. j 3 000 Thos. C. Hoover . i i 17, 000 8, 000 "Frank N. Beehe _ _ _ _ _ > 5. 889 139 10^ 31 ! C. TV.Lenz . 36, 903 1, 304 1,702 89 106, 00L 45, 364 | 9, 957 9,957 Miss Minta I. Dryden . . j 3 600 3 000 500 50 A . TV. Drurv _ _ _ -1 l' 100 O. fir. Rontzahn . . 1 200 245 2,500 500 500 Miss Jewel Fonke. _ I 2, 500 2 200 56 . 42 i J. Mclnnis _ _ . 1, 584 16, 886 250 100 Jos. R. Dickinson, as¬ sistant li brarian . 9 510 1.000 _ 600 1 138 ■ S. D. Tanor . j 2, 000 2, 000 100 300 3, 000 ■ .... 165 | J. P. Sharkey, snperin- j 1 [ 1 tendent of schools. 12. 000 402 16, 193 2, 172 10, 000 j Charlotte D. Leavitt... 1,500 500 2. 100 150 300 4, 150 Rachel Hartley _ _ _ _ _ _ ! 12, 500 13, 000 3,000 Harriet A. Gast . 1 2, 000 200 4, 677 1,205 200 250 A TV Lewis . . . 20, 000 343 267 400 5, 500 E. E. TVright . 8, GOO 1, 000 35 10 60 1, 000 H. TV. Jones, D. D . 2, 400 100 75 1, 700 85 ' C. T. Northrop . 1,400 400 145 100 10. 367 250 H. B. McCullom . 1, 000 250 . Orvon Graff Brown, ! 1 president. 3 359 _ •45 4, 257 500 1, 004 ' F. H. Schaeffer, clerk | board of education. 1, 500 . 100 100 j L. D. Potter, president . 3, 208 . 76 2, 272 7o5 ; Robert Clarke, sec'y _ J 16, 782 552 336 500 Rev. H. H. Tuttle . 1,000; . | Clara Sheldon, principal 4,000 . 350 14,410 250 325 1, 000 . 150 j -r _ 76 ! TV. P. Cope . 6, 550 i 150 150 50 20, 568 i 1, 600 1,750 ! T\ m.C. Miller, secretary 6,947 60 925 975 1 Mrs. M. L. Gregg . 5, 000’ . 100 250 , Geo. H. Colton . 1, 670 . 200 7.148 j 225 305 : A. C. TVhite, president. . 2, 301 . 260 15, 083 452 694 2, 070 . 100 450 D. TV. Barrett . 2, 700. 1, 000 150 100 1, 397 ! 1,000 1,000 . 1 Lavina Busby . 2, 515 500 146 3, 000 Mary L. Frost . 10. 000- . Alfred Holbrook, presi¬ dent. 1, 800 . 78 3, 536 1,000 2, i64 12 137 2 5,847 200 700 755 . 1 E. Irene Patterson . 6, 675 . 350 29, 760 20, 000 1, 301 2, 344 Martha Mercer. . . . 52, 0001 15, 000 1, 200 1, 000 3,000 ! "F. M AT rml’nrf 1,500 . 100 150 1, 250 . 4. 650 . 150 18, 953 1, 000 1, 000 : Miss Ermina J. Day _ 10. 288 . 480 19, 836 J .B. Thomas, gov’emor. 9, 366 . 331 21, 465 . do . 2, 596. 400 200 100 | 260 Mrs. Martha TVright _ 3075 3076 3077 3078 3079 3080 3081 3082 3083 3084 3085 3086 30S7 3088 3089 3090 3091 3092 3093 3094 3095 3096 3097 3098 3099 3100 3101 3102 3103 3104 3105 3106 3107 3108 3109 3110 3111 3112 3113 3114 3115 3116 3117 3118 3119 3120 3121 3122 3123 3124 3125 3126 3127 3128 3129 3130 3131 488 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. 5 ,o . bb c.2 © +j ce O Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. rO 3_; o.zr Si © g © x Sh Ph Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 2 3 4 | 5 ! « 7 8 OHIO — continued. 3132 1867 Hist _ c. F. R. ical, and Antiquarian Society. | 3133 Col _ c. 3134 Col . | c. 3135 1889 Sch . I T Fr. B. 3136 1866 1 1 c. S. B. 3137 1833 Col . 0. c. Fr. B. 3138 do . Union Library Association. . . 1874 Col. Soc. .. R. c. S. B. 3139 1824 Col . T. . Fr. R. 3140 . do . Oxford College . 1856 Col . C. S. R. 3141 _ .do . 1853 Col . O. C. R. 3142 1857 Col . C. B. 3143 . do . 1795 Sch . R. 3144 . do . Public Library, Women's Chris- 1877 Gen . R. C. S. j B. tian Temperance Union. 3145 1881 Gen . O. F. B. 3146 1890 Sch . O. T. F. ! B. 3147 1879 Gen . R. c. S. ! B. 3148 Poland . 1856 Sch . c! F. R. 3149 Portsmouth . Public Library . 1879 Gen . O. T. F. ! B. 3150 -Ravenna . Hi|vh School . Sch _ C. 3151 Reading . Mount Notre Dame Academy . . . . 1860 Sch . C. Fr. R. 3152 Richmond . Richmond College . . . Col . c. B. 3153 Rio Grande . Rio Grande College . . . 1876 Col . c. B. 3154 St. Martins _ _ Ursuline Academy . . . Sch . c. R. 3155 St. Marys . Public School . . . 1886 Sch . c. Fr. B. 3156 Sei o _ Sein College _ _ _ 1866 Col . c. Fr. B. 3157 Sidney . . Public Library . . ... 1884 Gen . T. F. B. 3158 Smith Salem . Salem Academy . . . Sch _ c. F. C. 3159 | Springfield . . W ard r Public Library . 1872 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 3160 ! . .do . ' Wittenberg College . 1845 Col . 0. B. 3161 Steubenville . I. O. O. F. Public Library . 1880 I.O. O. F. . c. S. B. 3162 . do . Public School Library _ _ _ 1881 Sch . R. T. F. B. 3163 Tiffin "FTeidelberg University _ I860 Col . C. S. R. 3164 _ do . j Public School Library . Sch . c. F. B. 3165 ! _ do . Tiffin Public Library . 1880 Gen . c. S. B. 3166 ; Toledo . . ! Public Library . . . . 1873 Gen . O. T. F. B. 3167 ‘ _ . do . Toledo Medical College . 1886 Med . c. Fr. R. 3168 do Ursuline Convent . Sch . c. B. 3169 | Troy . . Public School Library . 1852 Gen . T. F. B. 3170 Urbana . Public Library . . . 1890 Gen . C. S. B. 3171 . do . Urbana University . 1852 Col . Fr. B. 3172 Warren _ Library Association . . . 1890 Gen _ R. C. S. B. 3173 j Wauseon . Public Library . 1875 Gen . 1 C. s. C. 3174 1 YV ell in yt on . . . . do . Gen . O. T. Fr. B. 3175 W ellaville . . Cleveland and Pittsburg Railroad 1865 Gen . C. s. B. Reading Room Association. 3176 'Westerville . Otterbein I Diversity . 1847 Col . c Fr. 1 B. 3177 1 . do . Philomathean Literary So¬ 1875 Col. Soc . . . C. S. B. ciety. 3178 . do . Philophronean Society . Col. Soc... c. s. . J B. 3179 | ~W est Mentor . ' High School Sch . ...J 3180 ! do Mentor Village Library 1890 Gen _ T. F. B. 3181 Wilberforce . Wilberforce University 1856 Col . C. Fr. B. 3182 do . Payne Theological Seminary. 1892 Theo . C. Fr. B. 3183 i VV i 1 m i n rd 51 .9 % £ cT . 3 o 2 § bs 1 a 3 4 5 6 l ^ 8 OHIO — con tin ued . 3190 i Col . Fr. B 3191 1 1880 ! Gen . B. T. F. B. 3192 1 1841 ! Sch . C. Fr. B. Seminary. 3193 1827 Gen . C. B. OKLAHOMA. 3194 1892 Col . T. F B. 3195 A. &. M. College . . . „ 1892 Col . C. F. ! B. OREGON. 319G State Agricultural College . 1888 Col . c. Fr i B. 3197 1876 Col _ _ O. c. V ! B. 3198 Lawrence and Eutaxian So- 1876 Col. Soc... c. B. cieties. 3199 1848 Col . c. s. I B. University. 1 3900 1889 Col . c. F B. 3201 1887 Sch . c. Fr. B. 3202 A. O. VTW. Library . 1895 Soc _ B. c. S. C. 3203 1870 Sch . c. s B. 3204 . do . I. O. O- F. Library . 1 1875 I. O.O.F.. c. Fr. B. 3205 ! . do . Library Association . 1864 Soc _ _ 6. c. S. B. 3206 ! ..... do .............. Multnomah Law Library . . 1890 T.aw _ c. s B. 3207 Salem . I. O. O.F. Library . 1872 I. O. O.F.. B. c. s. B. 3208 ' . do . Masonic Library . 1879 Masonic .. B. c. s. B. 3209 ! . do . Oregon State Library . 1850: State . O. T. F. B. 3210 ! _ do . . Willamette University . 1 1844 Col . c. Fr. B. 3211 ! University Park. . . . Portland University . 1892 Gen . O. B. PENNSYLVANIA. 3212 Allegheny ....... _ Allegheny Observatory . 1859 Sei . c. B. 3213 . do . Allegheny Theological Semin ary . 1830 Theo . c. Fr. B. 3214 ! . do . Carnegie Free Library . 1890 Gen . O. T. F. B. 3215 1 . do . Public School and Citizens’ Free 1871 Gen . B. T. F. B. Library. 3216 . do . Theological Seminary of the Re¬ 1856 Theo . C. B. 1 formed Presbyterian Church. 3217 . do . Western State Penitentiary Li¬ Gen . B. brary. 3218 J . do . Western Theological Seminary. . . 1859 Theo . O. c. B. 3219 . do . Western University of Pennsyl Col . c. .... vania. 3220 i A 11 en town _ _ Muhlenberg College _ 1867 Col . C. Fr. 1 B. 3221 ! . do . . Euterpean Society . . Col. Soc. . . c. Fr. B. 3222 i . do . . . Sophronian Literary Society . i 1871 Col. Soc. c. Fr. B. 3223 i Altoona . . . Mechanics’ Library and Beading 1860 Gen . c. S. B. Boom. 1 3224 Annville . . . Lebanon Valley College . 1867 Col . T. S. B. 3225 ! Ashland . High School . Sch . F. C. 3226 Beatty . St. Vincent Library _ _ Col . C. 3227 . do . St. Xavier’s Library . 1845 Col . c. Fr. B. 3228 Beaver . Beaver College and Musical .In¬ 1853 Col . C. F. B. stitute. 3229 Beaver Palls . Geneva. Cnllece _ 1860 Col . C. Fr. B. 3230 Bellefonte . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1869 Y.M. C.A. B. F. B. 3231 Berwick . . do . 1879 Y.M. C.A. C. Fr. B. 3232 Bethlehem _ Mai in Library of Moravian Lit¬ 1882 TTisr, _ Fr. E. erature. 3233 . do . Moravian Archives Library. 1742 Hist _ C. Fr. B. 3234 ..... do . Moravian College and Theologi- ! Theo _ c. B. cal Seminary. 3285 . do . Moravian Parochial School . 1 Sch _ c. B. 1 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 491 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. *3 j! ^ >» © fcJO s. i a P«'C cl ^ P4 a © H/ cc -S.S5 O -H— I n Heceipts. -+3 1 S jg Kame of librarian. JO 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 6, 000 10, 870' 3, 700 | 10, 000* 2, 8G0 2,297 1, 950 6, 545 2, 500 7.500 2, 006 2. 060 2, 000 1, 500 4, 980 23, 000 6, 000 2.500 1, 863 20, 500 4,286 000 1,600 6, 000 29, 316 15, 000 3,400 7,432 25, 000 15, 000 5,000 2, 500 1,950 22, 787 3, 390 1,448 40, 000 1. 200 1, 203 2.500 1.500 4,063 1,416 3, 270 6, 500’ 1. 382! 100 361 39, 800; $2, 651 1,200 300 274 1,200 300 10 .... 683 $50; . E. C. Lewis . 3, 056| $300| Julia A. Hitchcock. J, Buckingham . 17, 400 400 1,500; 400 1,450 233 700 95 200 10 102 400 400 44 . 1,752 500 500 2, 000 107 26 83 2, 400 1, 000 ’2' 666 50 300 334 2, 000 100 5, 000 50 102 1, 136 455 1, 000 2,670 1,500 100 100 3, 365 600 100 120 462 125 1, 700 26 180 40 40 40 109 1, 252 750 3, 890 200 *150 400 250 438 60 800 37 820 200 200 8 6, 422! 24, 935l 5, 000! 3, 152 32 250 400 15 3, 000 122, 784 46, 000 30 700 8, 026 1,620 450 90 2,500 S. R.'Boyd, president J. T. Be Bois . 3190 3191 3192 3193 3194 3195 850 Otis Taylor . 3196 Dora L. Scott . 3197 Chas.H. Eastland, pres- 3198 ident. Jos. W. Marsh . 3199 75, 250 20, 000 3, 000 67, 235 40, 783 39, 275 800 3, 000 1 50 142 200 . 200, 300 50 800 200 20, 000 3,900 300 1,800 T. G. Brownson . ; Sister M. Rose, O. S. B. . S. G. Richardson . j J. W. Hill . | Carolyn C. Diliey . j Daniel F.W. Bursch...1 Frank J. Raley _ €. M. Parm6nter . Henry Schomaker . J. B. Putnam . W. C. Hawley . B. J. Hondley . James E. Keeler, d i T»p ptnr John A. "Wilson, D. D.. J Win. Marshall Steven- j son. James W. Benney . D. B. Willson . : . j J. L. Milligan, chaplain . 30, 0001 James A. Kelso . 3200 3201 3202 3203 3204 3205 3206 3207 3208 3209 3210 3211 3212 3213 3214 3215 3216 3217 6, 403 42 125 50 100! 5, 293 . 56 250 75 5, 000 103 125 200 2, 500 Davis Garber . Geo. W. Genszler. Miss L. L. Snyder , J. A. McDermad . S. H. Clair, principal. Prof. J. R. TJhler. Geo. Kennedy . F. H. Cota, general sec¬ retary. Horace Breece, general secretary. Bishop J. M. Levering.. .do. A. Schultze, president. . Albert G. Rau, superin¬ tendent. 3218 3219 3220 3221 3222 3223 3224 3225 3226 3227 3228 3229 3230 3231 3232 3233 3234 3235 492 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. 'P Pi .c r to o,2 Son _ _ _ 1 C. ciety. .... 3348 Millersville ..... _ _ First Pennsylvania State Formal Sch . School. 3349 . do . Formal Library . > 1856 Col. Soc... ...J c. S. B. 3350 Milton _ TTio-b School . . . . : 1880 Sch _ ■ c. s. B. 3351 1 i Morganza . Pennsylvania Reform School . | A. andR.. 495 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during year for homo use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 io 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 2 GOO 107 $500 1 "Warren O. Foster . 1 000 A. Gertrude Miller . 2 000 1, 125 40 24 50 120 320 Henry C. Hemming . 5 200 100 1, 500 1 . 1 $60, 000 L. O. Foose . 118, 000 ) 7, 500 i Wm. H. Egle . 8 000 25 3 000 1, 000 4,000 Homer Black . 1 1 068 1 660 220 4,310 i . 1 373 2, 500 J as. V an Horn . 32, 255 2. 500 1 TOO 250 ! 1,800 37, 000 Allen C. Thomas . 1. 000 10 E. It. Jack . 1, ooo 50 1, 100 100 35 40 35 H. Winston Fegley, I . M. A. 150 16, 378 1 . C. L. Bradshaw . 3, 000 l' 352 100 208 6, 420 164 | 3,000 Rev. I. Kirkpatrick _ l| 700 34 65 1 Wm. W. Lee . 3, 617 1,432 45*> 346 663 8, 000 83 1 Jos. E. Saylor . . 2, 757 31 258 j H. J. "W alter, jr . 8, 190 1, 021 63, 067 1 "W. H. Turner, superin¬ 1 | tendent. 3,893 60 800 1 Bertha Santee . . . 1, 500 70 1, 923 122 | 1,200 400 120 . . i ! Rev. Chas. C. Boyer, Ph.D. 1. 750 30 2,000 102 i Frank L. Kaufman . 1,850 25 50 20 50 50 i . ' M. A. Bitting . 10, 000 ; 2, 610 698 168 1 . 1 .TnTm B. Kieffer . . 7. 000 43 100 Chas. B. Rebert . 8. 030 1 295 325 i Clin <5 "P Rt.alir C, 000 130 630 i Edward Penrose Bunton 1, oool 2, OOO1 ■ . | S. M. Seuer, secretary . . 6,000 50 3,600 280 4, 200 Percy Carpenter . __ 12,000 150 575 5,500 E. O. Keen. . . 8, 000 500 100 300 6.000 1, 000 125 400 H.W. Gibson. secretary. 2, 731 235 2, 812 52 8 4, 400 i I Elizabeth S. Allen, sec¬ retary . 1,500 2, 500 1 C. B. Cross . . 4, 048 500 446 3, 700. 350 1G, 000 1, 892 450 Wm. K. Martin _ 1.050 200 100 500 100 2, 000 30 30 60 Miss Mary McCord 12, 000 200 200 Geo. B. Carr _ - 3,000 7,000 200 2. 000 : 360 Serin ore T). Ball _ _ _ 4 000 200 250 Jas. Eldon, principal... 5, 000 3, 000 100 2, 688 616 Theo.Tormele, president 1,185 10 1, 025 20 I. S. Geist, secretary | and librarian. 18, 000 1. 000 400 100 15, 000 . 1, 835 40, 000 PmiH.ns Craig __ 15, GOO 1.000 25. 000 13, 000 3. 300 . Mrs Sara B. Maxwell. . . 7, 000 1 ’ 578 6, 266! 241 Miss Susan McCracken. 3, 058 845 120 140 3, 277 i 126 T). R. TTast, _ 3,276 : 1,000 | 100 j 120 2. 500 40 [ Chas W Rtiiart . _ 2, 000 **500 50 50 N AT, Trr-ine 2,000 > | . ! S . Rnht. B Keyerreis _ 7, 500 I | 5, 000 400 1, 5001 1, ooo 250 TT .Tnstin Reddy . 1, 700 300 85 25 50 35 38 L. A. Beardsley, super¬ intendent. 2, 182 3294 3295 | 3296 3297 3298 3299 3300 3301 3302 3303 j 3304 ' 3305 3306 3307 i 3308 3309 3310 3311 | 3312 3313 1 3314 ■ 3315 ! 3316 3317 3318 ! 3319 3320 ! 3321 ! 3322 3323 3324 3325 ! 3326 j 3327 1 3323 i 3329 ] 3330 3331 3332 3333 3334 3335 3336 3337 3338 3339 3340 3341 3342 3343 3344 3345 3346 3347 I 3348 | 3349 I 3350 I 3351 496 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public , society, and school libraries in the United 3352 3353 3354 3355 3356 3357 3358 3359 3360 3361 3362 3363 3364 3365 3366 3367 3368 3369 3370 3371 3372 3373 3374 3375 3376 Location . PENNSYLVANIA— con M ount Holly Springs Mount Pleasant .... Myerstown . . . Nazareth . New Berlin . . . - do . _ do . New Brighton _ do . 1. Name of librarv New Castle. Newtown . - do . New Wilmington. Norristown . _ do . - do . - do . . Northeast . Ogontz . - do . 01 ey . Orwell . Overbrook (Phila¬ delphia). Philadelphia . . - do . . 3377 . do .. 3378 . do .. 3379 . do .. 3380 . do .. 3381 . do .. 3382 . do .. 3383 Philadelphia (320 Chestnut street). 3384 Philadelphia . 3385 Philadelphia (Chest- | nut Hill, Station H). 3386 1 Philadelphia . 3387 ! . do . 3388 3389 3390 3391 3392 3393 3394 ! 3395 3398 3397 j 3398 ! 3399 . 3400 3401 3402 3403 Philadelphia (Sta¬ tion L). Philadelphia . - do . Philadelphia (21st and Fairmount avenue). Philadelphia (Sta¬ tion M). Philadelphia (Mount Airy). Philadelphia . - do . Philadelphia (4315 Walnut street). Philadelphia (Ger¬ mantown). Philadelphia . Philadelphia (140 North 16th street). Philadelphia (Sta¬ tion TV). Philadelphia . . do . . do . Givin Free Library . Western Pennsylvania Classical and Scientific Institute. Albright Collegiate Institute - Moravian Historical Society . Central Pennsylvania College .. ... Excelsior Library . Neocosmian Literary Society. High School . ... Y. M. G A. Library . . . .do. George School . Newtown Library . W estmiuster College . Montgomery County Law Library Norristown Library . State Hospital for the Insane .... William McCann Library . St. Mary's College . Cheltenham Academy . Ogontz School . Oiey Academy . Library Association . Seminary of St. Charles Borro- meo. Academy of Natural Sciences. . . . Academy of Pr otestant Episcopal Church. Agnes Irwin’s School . American Entomological Society. American Philosophical Society . . American Sunday School Union. . Apprentices’ Library . Athenmum of Philadelphia . Carpenters Company ot Ciiyand County of Philadelphia Library. Central High School . Christian Hall Library . . Class. 1889 1873 Gen Sch. 1881, Col . , 1857 Hist 1858 1858 1852 1886 1893 1789 1852 1869 1796 1885 1886 1881 1871 1883 1876 1832 1812 1859 1743 1824 1820 1814 1736 College of Physicians . Day School for Girls l&isses Hayward). Disston Library . (the Drexel Institute . Eastburn Academy . Eastern State Penitentiary Edwin Forrest Home Evangelical Lutheran Theolog¬ ical Seminary. Franklin Institute . Free Library ot Philadelphia .... French and English Home School. Friend’s Free Library and Bead ing Room. Friend's Library . . Friend’s Select School . George Institute . . German Society of Pennsylvania. Girard College . Hahnemann Medical College _ Col . Col. Soc. . . Col. Soc. .. Sch . Y M.C.A. Y.M.C.A. Sch. Gen . Col . Law Gen Gen Gen Col . Sch. Gen . Sch. Gen H ^2 £ 3 O. R. Theo Scien Sch.. Gen . Scien Scien . Sch.. Gen .. Gen .. Gen . Col . 1871 Gen 1788| Med _ | Sch . ±884! Gen 1892 Col . . _ Sch . . 1845 State 1874; 1864 ! 1824 18911 Gen . Theo 1874 1742 Gen Gen Sch. 1872 Gen 1817 1847 Gen Col . Med O. O. R. O. O. Scien . Gen . Sch . R. C. R. tii p ® C. T. AC. C. I c. c. I c. I . o !| o i « o 1 e 9 s. s. | B. Fr. It. F. ! R F. S. E.|B. c. Fr. F. B. F. i B. S. | B. S. B. Fr. 1 ! ! . PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 497 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. ! Volumes. | Pamphlets. Volumes added | during year. Pamphlets added during year, j Boohs i as ued j during year j for home use. j Books issued ! for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 IO 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 3, 000 500 100 100 7, 000 $700 $10, 000 . J as. A. Steese, secretary 3352 2, 500 1, 000 ’ 400 70 Emma C. W alter . 3353 2. 000 500 . J. B. Esenwein . 1 3354 1, 182 2,400 Frank Kunkel . 3355 4. 217 300 . 1 3356 2, 000 52 651 FT. J. Duhs . 3357 1 780 100 30 1 31 75 Wm. Bruner . 3358 1 000 3359 2, 000 . ; J. ^t. Miner, recording 3360 secretary. 2, 000 500 7 75 3,500 5, 000 Phil, J. McLean, secre¬ 3361 tary. 1, 700 80 102 Anna Jackson . 3362 3. 700 211 370 3 563 6, 000 150 208 150 Margaret McLaughey . . 3364 3,000 . 71 71 682 John S. Jones . 3365 8, 000 100 . 275 3366 1.700 200 .... Dr. F. H. "W at son . 3367 5. 729 150 200 25 375 7, 500 A. D. Eisenhower . 3368 6. 000 Aug. Dooper, rector _ 3369 2, 000 200 . J. C. Rice . 3370 9, 800 200 100 20 100 3371 L 600 3372 1,250 1, 500 40 100 ... 1,100 25' J. P. Coburn, secretary 3373 1 | and librarian. 22, 500 John E. Fitz Maurice, 3374 | ! . 1 . president. 40, 000 600 4. 110 13, 665 160,000 Edw. J. Rolan i 3375 2, 000 !■ 3376 2. 000 300 30 Sophy Dallas Irwin. . . . 3377 3. 0001 200 "Wm. J. F<>x... 3378 50, 000 98 2, 730 1, 000 Geo. H. Horn . 3379 8. 0001 3, 500 50 200 . 550 Edwin IV Rice . 3380 17, 3:i3' 1, 250 71, 212 . . | Jennie Y. Middleton . . . | 3381 30. 000 500 5, 000 6, 000 . 32, 000 Louis K. Lewis ... 1 3382 6, 500 1, 000 43 50 150 100 Thos. H. Marshall, 1 3383 | | . treasurer. 4. 000 900 | 3384 6, 28-7 106 10, 512 1, 494 11, 000 Laura A . Wennpr 3385 50, 396 25, 723 ( 1,730 6. 098 1. 986 I 8, 815 4, 082 Chas. Perry Fisher . ... 1 3386 1, 000 3387 3 000 100 55 25 5, 394 1. 000 I 667 J. T.nfFberry _ _ 3388 18, 433 | 3, 000 2, 832 307 7, 400 1 Alii’fi 8. Ernl a >> §■= > ~ Pamphlets added during year. r-J U . ® § - 0 s « >5© :|l Books issued for use within library. Prom taxa¬ tion. £ O 2ipts. ■4-3 V I Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Xame of librarian. 9 IO 1 1 12 13 14 ■ 15 ; 16 17 18 1iO 000 95 000 Gregory B. Keen . 8 500 20 000 7°6 $1, 000 Thomas L. Montgomery d 000 3,000 50 200 400 225 Mrs. J. R. Danforth _ ; 1,100 Henrietta Kutz, prin¬ .. cipal. 73 non 4 500 7, 590 2 900 250, 000 11,750 W. C. Wilson . . 1 1, 800 1,500 500 250 Dr. Hannah T. Croas- dale. 4 000 260 7, 752 78 L. Voute . ' 5 110 530 9*>9 200 3,414 2, 500 309 J. H. Bosworth . 2, 000 30 1,000 300 | 1 Henry T. Leister, su¬ perintendent. 30 000 500 18, 326 9 000 21 ' 374 800 21. 374 41, 992 38, 499 40, 000 Edwin H. Anderson. _ 9 OOi) j 2,750 . 100 2, 500 1 ! Daniel Carhart, secre¬ j tary. 2 639 2l‘ 000 50 131 10, 023 2, 347 $6, 000 R. A. Lee . „ . 2, 500 100 250 50 220 ! R. J. De Yore . 1, 001' l! 800 200 100 30 secretary. 3 500 2, 520 115 25. 000 100 2,000 j Mrs. Sallie R Custer 3i 393 900 91 250 3,374 1, 180 541 | B. X Hyde . ’’ 1 815* 4, 000 100 Edward Yeager . . 6, 000 200 900 1, 535 Albert. R. Denham 1, 030 i . 1.500 1 Henry H. Keeler . 2, 000 . 1. 000 100 2, 000 100 E L Stoner 1 587 132 12, 483 1 Emma F. Thompson 1. 083 1,064 645 743 2, 100 1 Chas. Leitoy AV h©6lcr - 3, 500 300 1:000 Herman Osthans, secre- tary. 26, 239 4, 510 2, 548 1,750 149, 769 3,448 1 . 10, 634 Henry J. Carr . 1, 200 1 2, 500 1 . j . Tlios. M. Cann. 3, 500 400 300 488 ! D. C. Powell 2, 750 500 50 I 2, 150 1. 900 750 | 5. 000 ! . Thos. C- Honfz 2, 290 300 7,698 510 $500 700 Miss Elizabeth Knapp. . 2 000 1. 763 100! _ 75 ,T. \V . Mason 1, 020 110 F. F. O borne, snperiii- I I tendent. 3, 100 3, 700 235, . 15, 000 609 i Win. T Trezise 1,800 300 40 100 1 ,Tns. E. Rartoo 1. 400 100 I 1 AlhertE Jfaltby 1,200 ! . 73, 851 24, 092 326 I 867 789 27, 500 5, 590 1 469, 436 AY. H. Chandler, director 4,000 i . ! . 250 5, 000 Rev. Rohr Cam hi* 10, 651 1.939; . 2, 928 fi-eo W A therton 2, 200 350 18 28 1,690 986 150 . I,. E. McCinnes _ 1,400 150 50 50 25 G. W Jude 4.000 140 5, 475 241 Mrs. M. H. Baynton 11, 650 2,000 510 200 625 10, 000 Sarah AT Xnwpll 1, 133 15 3 33 ! ,1 nsepli A W i 1 (is 2, 188 1, 000 1461 50 1 125 1 Arthur Beardsley . 3451 3452 3453 3454 3455 3456 3457 3458 3459 3460 3461 3462 3463 3464 3465 3466 3467 3468 3469 3470 3471 3472 3473 3474 3475 3476 3477 3478 3479 3480 3481 3482 3483 3484 3485 3486 3487 3488 3489 3490 3491 3492 3493 3494 3495 3496 3497 3498 3499 3500 3501 3502 3503 3504 3505 502 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Eree or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 3 3 4 5 O 7 8 PENNSYLVANIA — C0U. S50f* 1S70 I. o. O. E.. E. c. S. B. 3507 Gen . E. B. 3508 1846 Col . c. B. 3509 i 1853 Sch . c. B. 3510 1878 Gen . It. c. s'." C. 3511 Troy . 1870 Sell _ _ c. E. B. 3512 1850 Soc . S. B. 3513 1875 Social .... c. B. 3514 Col . .... c. 1871 Gen _ O. c. E. B. 3516 Washington . Citizens' Library . 1870 Gen . It. c. S. B. 3517 Sch . c. R. 3518 . do . Sch . Er. B. 3519 1800 Col . .... c. B. 3520 1860 Col . T. Er. R. 3521 1795 Gen . . B. 3522 1862 1 ,a w 1 R. laneous Library. 3523 . do . Darlington Seminary for Young Sch . Ladies. 3524 . do . Eriends’ Library Association .... 1880 Gen . c. S. B. 1872 Gen ....... 0. c. S. B. 3526 _ _ do . Public School Library. . . . 1854 Sch . B. 3527 . do . State Formal School . . . 1871 Sch . s. B. 3528 West Sun bury . West Sun bury Academy . . Sch . 3529 Westtown . - . . W esttown School _ _ 1825 Sch _ .... c. 1 B. 3530 Wilkesbarre _ ..... Law and Library Association .... 1850 Law c. 's’* i R. 3531 . do . . Osterhout Eree Library . . 3887 Gen _ 0. c. E. B. 3532 . do . Wyoming Historical and Geolog¬ 1858 Scien . E. R. ical Society. 3533 . do _ _ Y. M. C. A. Library _ _ 1871 Y.M.C.A. .... c. E. B. 3534 Williamsport _ Dickinson Seminary _ Sch . ... _ do . Public School Library _ 1880 Gen _ _ F. B. 3536 J . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . . . Y.M.C.A. L c. E. B. 3537 i*-. Wyncote . Chclten Hills School . Sch . L. B. 3538 Tardley . . Yard vi lie Library . 1845 Gen . 0. c. S. B. 3539 Y ork . . Cassat Library of York Collegiate 1873 Sch . 1 c. B. Institute. .... 3540 | . do . United Library Association . 1879 I.O.O.E.. c. s. C. 3541 ' _ _ do . York County Law Library . 1S68 Fr. R. RHODE ISLAND. 1 Law _ 3542 Anthony . . Eree Librarv . . 1872 Gen _ E. Ib. w. O d y 1 3543 Apponaug ......... . 1 j . do . 1886 Gen . T. E. B. 3544 ! Arlington . . Arlington Public Library _ 1895 Gen. _ c. E. B. 3545 I Ashaway . . Free Library . . . 1870 Gen _ It. T. E. 1 B. 3546 1 Ashton _ Library Association . . . 1871 Gen _ C. S- ! B. 3547 i Auburn ....... _ Public Library . . 1888 Gen _ _ R. T. • E. B. 3548 Harrington Center.. . do . 1880 G en . T. E. B. 3549 Block Island . . Island Eree Library _ _ 1875 Gen. _ T. F. ! B 3550 Bristol ... . . Ropers Eree Library _ 1877 Gen _ O. T. F. B. 3551 Carolina . . Public Library . 1883 Gen . C. E. B. 3552 Central Balls . Eree Public Library _ 1882 Gen _ T. E. i B. 3553 Centerdale _ ..... TJnion Eree Library . 1869 Gen _ 0. E. B. 3554 Cli epoch fit, . _ _ Manton Library Association . Gen _ T. S. B. 3555 Crompton . _ Eree Library. . . . 1876 Gen . 0. C. E. B. 3558 East Greenwich . do . 1867 Gen _ 0. C. E. B. 3557 East Providence. . . . Hatchemoket Eree Library. _ _ _ _ Gen _ T. F. B. 3558 East Providence East Providence Eree Library. . . 1819 Gen _ T. E. B. Center. 3559 Exeter . . . Manton Eree Library . . . . . . . . 1882 Gen . T. E. , c. Volumes. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES.' Stales of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S06 — Continued. 503 3,< 3, OGOl 3,000: 1.000 2. 200 1, 900 2. 000 5, 000 s 7, 500 8, 374 5, 000 500 700 000 000 908 000 1, 000 057 400 100 000 000 000 000 632 000; 2, 000 2, 771 2, 700 1. 000 3, 000 2, 057 2, 138 8, 250 2. 400; 12. 254 2, 378 6, 700 3, 300 1, 100 4,616 4, 300 4,021 3, 658 2, 800 4, 000 . 4, 000 3, 500 . 1,250. 3, 254 1 2,500!. 2, 50o! . I 3, 000! . 1 u 'S Boohs issued during year for home use. ■w a Receipts. G-d o pi 00 Id Cu § Volumes ad< during yea Pamphlets ad during yea Books issu for use wit! library. Prom taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. ®-P -p Pi § I ° £ £ O Kame of librarian. io 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 IS 200 15 1, 000 $51 Jno.F. Humes, secretary ioo1 . ! 200 50 M. J\ Keller, . 100 50 .... ! 40 P. E. Quinlan . . . 115 . . . TTlilla Hoyt Tracy _ _ 100 . 175 . . ! . 200 Alex. D. Ewing . . 200 . 150 150' | 1, 000 ...... i 524 48, 144 1, 826 $7, 000 10,000 Mary Charlotte “Weiss. . Miss Antoinette Cra- . 25 2, 000 . craft. Wm. W. Smith . 100 150 M. C. Dampraan . . 900 . ! W. C. McClelland . $100 100 A. B. Miller, president. . Julia A. Cooper . i 100 60 .... .... A. M. Holding . ■ i 37 53 ! Julia A. Cooper . 179 9, 725 673 1, 100 Rachel L. Price . 200 800 160 900 455 Addison Jones, super¬ intendent. G-. M. Philips . ' 248 20 6,117 465 133 . W. W. Dewees . 350 . 1,000 16, 000 1, 700 Jos. D. Coons, secretary : and treasurer. Hannah P. James . 2,137 . 71, 569 .... ...J 375, 000 10, 000 585 4, boot H. E. Hayden, corre- | | sponding secretary. ^ | E.B.Buckalew, general 6, 260 22 secretary. 1, 000 200 50 90 W. W. Kelchmer, prin¬ cipal. A. J. Harder, general ; secretary. ' ; 1 288 182 96 10, 680 300 287 3, 250 Miss Harriet W. Comly . ! E. T. Jeffers _ _ 10 D. Philip Heekert, treas¬ urer. M. A. Miilis . . ! 1 200 • Edgar B. Peck, secre- 200 | 4. 300 225 tuny. Kellie A. Williams . 25 500 550 245 J, Ernest Hammond, secretary. H. P. T.nrkin _ 1,200 335 500 6, 214 1 . 47 2 270 1 D . W . A d am a _ 100 387 1 14 7, 658 6, 593 600 929 Flora M. Kendall . ! 220 512 Mrs. Emma S. Bradford . 250 85 50 1,062 18, 921 1, 162 15, 632 3, 028 36 100 200 Edward P. Chomplin. . . j (Jen 17 Arnold 272 800 1, 600 213 Imogens A. Crandall. . . ! J. AY Preeman 62S 1, 200 1, 346 253 152 228 60 125 Prank C Angell .. 200 10 10 180 710 Chas. Potter” 173 7,317 4, 500 A Tinie ]\f. T.ivse.y _ _ 300 634 8, 500 Francis A. Loomis 50 227 6 11, 452 2, 882 1,000 700 219 387 H. H. Defter . 200 100 20 125 P, H, Edwards . 3506 3507 3508 3509 3510 3511 3512 3513 3514 3515 3516 3517 3518 3519 3520 3521 3522 3523 3524 3525 3526 3527 3528 3529 3530 3531 3532 3533 3534 3535 3536 3537 3538 3539 3540 3541 3542 3543 3544 3545 3546 3547 3548 3549 3550 3551 3552 3553 3554 3555 3556 3557 3558 504 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public , society, and school libraries in the United Location. kame of library. a 1 . «m a ® Is r 1 Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 8 RHODE ISLAND — COn. 3560 Hope Librarv _ _ _ _ ....... 1877 (Ten . c 1 F B. 3561 Hope Talley . Langwortliy'Public Library . 1888 Gen - R. c! F. B. 3562 Sockanosset School . A & B 3563 State Prison Library . A. & B- T. B. 3564 Philomenian Library . 1849 Gen . * F. B. 3565 Olneyville Free Library . 1875 (Ten o. c. F. B. 3566 College of Agriculture and Me- 1890 Col . 1 c. F. R. chanic Arts. 1 3567 . do . Free Library . Gen _ : F B. 3568 Lakewood . Old W arwick and Lakewood Free j 1881 Gen _ 1 . f! B. Library. 1 3569 Little Compton . Free Public Library . 1878 Gen . T. F. B. 3570 | 1849 Soc . C. S. B. 3571 Manville . 1872 Gen . : R. ! F. B. 3572 1887 Gen . t F. B. 3573 Newport . Middletown Free Library . 1876 ; Gen . ! T. F. B. 3574 . do . Newport Historical Society . 1853 Hist . C. F. R. 3575 1870 Gen . 0. C. F. B. 3576 j Gar . T. F. B. 3577 Redwood Library . . . 1747 i Soc . ... _ o. C. S. B. 3578 . do . T. M. C. A Library . Y. M.C.A. R. c. S. B. 3579 Pase.na ri George Hale Free Library . 1871 Gen . 0. 1 c. F. B. 3611 W arwick . League Library . 1885 Gen . ! o. c. F. B. 3612 \V esterly TTign Selinnl _ 1 Sch . 3613 . do _ _ ........ Public Library . 1894 Gen . °- c. i F. B. 3614 \V i ole ford Free T.ibrarv _ _ _ 1890 Gen _ F. B. 3615 "Woonsocket . Harris Institute . 1866 Gen . 1 c. L B. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 505 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1.896 — Continued. © . rrj (h . © C$ ® a Receipts. © Volumes. . Pamphlets. Volumes ad< (luring yea Pamphlets ad during yea Books issu during ye for home u Books issu for use wit library. From taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. Amount of dowment fui Name of librarian. 9 ,0 i. 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1. 201 3, 780 2. 000 2, 000 3. 805 7, 000 4. 530 5. 000 3,155 1.600 3. 537 2, 334 2,153 1. 518 1,702 29. 200 2,500 41, 778 1, 400 140 140 1 i Joseph MacDonald . 362 5, 178 26 $575 I . j Laura S. Yeaw.. . . 500 1 Nelson Viall, warden _ 190 4. 378 20, 000 . 121 Mrs, L. C. Hammond .. 300 950 Mrs. Harriet H. Rich¬ 13, 500 . . ardson. E. J. Watson . . 128 100 3, 199 4, 481 . . E. W. Coe . 225 George Fisher . 72 750 65 ! 121 3, 535 1,521 4 118 401 Annie Toner . . 121 125 W m . Deane Aldrich _ _ 158 $100 - 250 Webster Knight . 57 506 71 D. M. Chase . 3. 710 203 627 82 1 189 R. Hammett Tilley _ _ 3, 263 386 . 34, 407 600 1,413 400 4, 424 David Stevens . 5 Geo F. E Harrison. .. 442 106 13, 291 3. 039 . $52, 040 Richard Bliss, first lieu¬ tenant and regimental quartermaster, Sec j ond Artillery. ! Samuel Jessup, general secretary . Mrs. Fred. A. Gory, secretary. Mrs. Minerva A. San ders. Herbert "W. Fison . i 1, 398 14, 765 1 1 . . ( 948 47, 000 11, 640 10, 271 7, 240 777 1, 000 6, 239 4, 600 2, 000 300 461 35 398 10, 700 250 513 Geo. E. Sheldon... 200 50 20 1 50 1 . 1: 10 100 Richard Russell _ 3, 040 90, 000 1, 123 78 A. E. Sinnott 20, 000 3, 812 1,000 . 5, 500 ! . ! 7, 197 | 56, 699 I . H. L Koopman Joseph H. Swift . 2, 000 100 20 100 60 W. A Ginton superin tendent Albert F. Davis 6, 750 500 300 50! 1. 200 Golf t Rutland Library . . Gen . R. T. f. ; C. 3838 William stown Social Library 1801: 1 Social . C. 3839 Windsor Library Association . 1882 Gen _ C. F. B. 3840 Woodstock Norman Williams Public Library. 1883 Gen . 0. C. F. B. VIRGINIA. 3841 A rvnnia. Seven Islands School . Sch . 3842 A shland . . Randolph-Macon College . 1832 Col . o. C. Fr. B. 3843 Bellevue . . . Bellevue High School . Sch . C. B. 3844 Blacksburg . . ! Virginia Polytechnic Institute. . . . 1 Col . .... c. Fr.' [ B. 513 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. Stales of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S96 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Kec< CTJ x ce • Sh ft jipts. pi H a 2 8 0 H Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 2 00 15ft 4,479 50 191 Gen. L. Stow _ i inn Iftft Alice Durant Dole . a’ inn! 262 15 348 600 600 2 Iftft 43 2,560 100 Miss Laura A. Phelps 1 ’ non 7 Mrs. F. L. TV oilman _ 3 non _ 200 4, 400 100 266 4, 024 Chas. N. Cone, treasurer 1' *nn Iftft 1 500 100 1,000 F. L. Bugbee, principal . 1 790 144 5, 645 273 D. F. Col ed ge 1 ’ non . 15 10 125 F. Herbert, Bosford . a non Iftft 2, 000 210 Emrna T,. Highy _ i7'7?n 450 C. B. Wright 4 000 3, 500 500 175 100 Henry S. Sheldon . 5 800 15, 000 Mary E, Macomber. . . fi’ 070 400 439 13, 969 1, 294 Evelyn S. Lease. 32 000 1 Iftft . 1, 750 T. L. Wood . 9] 000 50 J. H. Lucia _ _ 1, 513 200 200 150 7, 328 . 25 301 600 F. Gleed Fleetwood _ 1, 400 50 52 200 Frances M. Atkinson . . 1 ’ 200 25 1, 000 500 It. C. Moodie, principal . l! 290 50 50 200 Win. L. Hazen . 10! 000 2, 000 200 75 250 250 H. lv. Itoberts _ 2, 014 Sarah J. Burton . l’ 018 90 364 1,000 Anna E. Itenfrew . 1, 800 1 . 3 500 _ 655 6, 192 91 1, 819 900 j Bertha M. Shaw 5, 000 500 75 300 100 2, 000 Harvey Dodge _ 1 119 20 1, 119 9, 622 . 915 1, 030 Addie Kilborn . 2, 904 I ’l32 Chas. TV. Dunton, prin¬ cipal. 4 non! 2ftft 79 12 4, 070 210 Janies T1 Glasson 2. 055! _ 270 2, 000 S. E. Emery 1 5nn: 80 50 James Hutch in son 3 ooo1 . 100 200 Edward Con nut 9n non _ 20 Mts. XV fl.1t.ftr fT. Pomeroy 9^ 724 804 56, 391 3, 175 1, 992 Mary L. Tit^omb 1, 426 112 30 20 A f C. Tkonrpson, prin- cipal. 1, 000 2, 600 50 1, 000 A Coote. president ’ . | 14, 296 586 . 27, 513 Louise L. Bartlett 3, 850 35 205 Charlotte Harrington 6’ 900 425 2, 584 Mrs. F. E. Damon . 1 4, 000 200 200 20 1, 300 75 800 Marian C. Ha tch 3’ 000 68 127 2, 000 Margaret Fletcher _ | 3, 000 . 2, 950 300 50 30 2, 000 100 300 . Ttev. H. K. Titus 2! 100 200 75 50 10, 000 352 380 Win. C. Mason 1, 500 100 2,271 79 Miss Jasmine -A.. Straw . 1, 175 100 50 50 1,400 119 Mrs TRTft'i'.o E J,ag 1. 160 200 4, 270 350 350 Geo. M Hascall 2,640 40 700 47 George Beclrett 7, 800 2,000 302 100 7, 924 953 Itev .Edward N. Goddard 9,766 459 15, 424 2, 686 Mrs. O B, Jaquitb 1, 000 9, 000 200 336 1, 600 Eichard Irby . 3, 000 N. It. Abbot, principal - . 2, 000 75 W. A. Perry . 3783 3784 3785 3786 3787 3788 3789 3790 3791 3792 3793 3794 3795 3796 3797 3798 3799 3800 3801 3802 3803 3804 3805 3806 3807 3808 3809 3810 3811 3812 3813 3814 3815 3816 3817 3818 3819 3820 3821 3822 3823 3824 3825 3826 3827 3828 3829 3830 3831 3832 3833 3834 3835 3836 3837 3838 3839 3840 3841 3842 3843 3844 ED 96 - 17 514 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by t a x a t i o n or corporation. Ji SB P o o o o « u rR Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 3 4 5 6 7 S vibginia — continued. 3845 1884 Col C. B. 3846 Burkfeville . 1890 Col . .... F 3847 1819 Col . O. c. Fr. B. (University Sta- tion) . 3848 1885 ! Scien 0. c. Fr. R. atorv. 3849 Loan oke Female College . Col . c. B. 3850 | Sob 3851 1840 Col . .. T. j S. B. 3852 1884 ! Sch . . C. B. 3853 Floyd . i Sell B.’ 3854 1 Sch . 3855 1868 ! Ga-r C. F. B. 3856 1S24 Gov C. F. B. 3857 1783 Col . C. B. 3858 1824 1 Tbeo _ 0. C. R. 3859 1880 | Seb _ C. F. B. 3860 1880 Gen . Fr. B. stitute. 3861 1839 Col _ S. B. 3862 . do . "Washington and" Lee University. 1800 Col . 0. c. B. 3863 Lynchburg . 1 Randolph-Macon Woman’s Col¬ 1893 Col . c. B. lege. 3864 Miller school. _ Miller School . 1S78 ' Sch . B. 3865 National Soldiers’ National Soldiers’ Home . Gen . 0. ! F. B. Home. 3866 Norfolk . Law Library . 1886 Law - . R. T. s. B. 3867 _ _ .do . N orfolk Mission College . Sch . B. 38C8 . do . Public Library . j 1870 Gen . R. C. s. B. 3869 On ancoek Margaret Academv ....... _ .... 1880! Sch . O. c. Fr. It. 3870 Petersburg . Benevolent Mechanics’ Associa¬ 1868 Gen . c. Fr. B. tion. 3871 do . Southern Female College . . Col . . c. 3872 ...do . ! j University School . 1 1 Sch . .... 3873 . do . Y. M. C. A. Library . 1 1875 Y. M. C. A ! R. 6. j s. 1 C. 3874 Richmond . - _ Grand Lodge A. F. & A. M . 1778 Masonic. -1 c. R. 3875 _ do . 1 Richmond College . 1832 Col . | O. c. 3876 . do . Richmond Theological Seminary . 1867 Then _ ! c. B. 3877 . do . 1 Rosemary Public Library . 1 i G en . ! R. c. Fr. B. 3878 . do . j Southern Historical Society. _ _ Hist . ! c. S. R. 3879 do _ i State Law Library . . Law . [ B. 3880 .....do . Virginia Historical Society . 1831 Gen . 1 O. s. B. 3881 Virginia Statu Library 1820 Gov _ T." " F. | R. 3882 . do _ _ 1 Wbrnan’s College . . . Col . j c. 3883 do . 1 V. At. A . Library _ T. M. C. A j ... S. ! B. 3884 Salem . . . 1 Roanoke College . 1853 Col . 6. s. B. 3885 Stnnnt.nn _ Augusta County Law Library \ 1850 v i Law _ R. ! F. R. Association. 3886 . do . Virginia Female Institute . 1 Sch . C. B. 3887 . do . ; Y. M. C. A. Library . 1876 Y.M. C.A c. ’s7 B. 3888 Theological Semi- | Theological Seminary . . 1828 Theo . '67 c. Fr. B. nary. 3889 "Williamsburg . j College of William and Mary . i 1693 Col _ ' c. F. B. 3890 "Winchester . - _ | Episcopal Female Institute _ 1 Col _ _ c. WASHINGTON. 1 3891 Colfax . Cnlfnv College . . Go! . J | c. 3892 1 Coupe ville _ P ncet, Sonnd Academy _ 18S6 Sch . : _ c. Fr. B. 3893 Ellensburg . State Normal School . Sch . 1 _ 1 3894 Olympia . . Olympia Lodge I. O. O. F. Library . 1890 Gen _ _ . . c. B. 3895 _ do . Tacoma Free Library . . 1872 Soc . j 0. c. E. B. 3896 do . Washington State Library . 1 1854 Gen _ ' Fr. B. 3897 Fnllmnn Agricultural College . . . 1892! Col . ' _ 1 T. B. 3898 Seattle Academy of the Holy Names . ' S.r-b _ 3899 . do . Public Library . i 1891 Gen . R. | T. F. B. 3900 . do . University of "Washington . Col . T. F. R. 3901 Spokane . . Academy of the Holy Karnes . i Sch . 1 PUBLIC. SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 515 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S9G — Continued. O . « 'O • rj U . OC3® ^.2 Receipts. Volumes. 4) 3 1 Ph Volumes add during year Pamphlets ad during year Books i s s u during ye for home ui Books i s s 11 for use witl library. Prom taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. Amount of < dowment fun Name of librarian. ° 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 IS 3, 000 2, 000 21 330 600 $50 10 ! Sam’ID. Jones, president: R. W. Cridlin 1,500 600 20 4, 136 100 . 99 6, 472 . 1,450 $450 F. W. Page. . . 1, 000 1, 000 1, 000 8, 300 2, 500 1,000 1, 200 1,900 11, 251 10. 000 Ormond Stone . Eev. C. F. James, presi¬ dent. . 800 100 $160 160 C. G. Hounshell . . 200 283 300 Miss N. Morton _ 1 ! . John K. Harris . . 200 237 12 80 811 95 iis 1 John W. Pullman 233 37 400 1,000 Louis V. Caziarc . . 5, 000 4, 000 1, 200 300 H. It. Mcllwain . 15; 000 7, 934 1,500 9. 412 25, 000 1,000 3, 000 10, 273 2, 000 1, 200 100 h 500 450 8, 000 Chas. F. Rankin . 500 500 L. E. Herron . _ 153 ' Miss Mattie L. Cocke. . . 4, 913 405 100 410 Col. R. A.Marr . 1, 000 500 850 10, coo Annie R. White . 500 Wm. W. Truitt . 80 685 Mrs. Margaret S. Gor¬ 1 61 48, 300 268 don. Julius Breescn . 250 500 J. Sydney Smith . J. B". Work, principal . . . 1 Wm. Henry Sargeant. . . ; Frank P. Brent _ 8. 000 618 10, 320 2, 124 75 1, 575 400 75 100 150 4, 500 2, 500 | 358 40 2,855 1, 500 Mrs. Ida L. Gray 2, 000 5. non 9 ooo' _ 450 1,200; 500 300 T,. AV. Hud pins 2, ooo; 12, 370 500 50 300 Geo. W. Carrington _ C. H. Ryland . 1 300 203 30 2, 000 400 800 1, 139 202 20, 700 3, 220 5, 000 5, 660 500 150 50 200 George Rice Hoyey .... 660 1, 000 500 100 B. A . Brock _ _ 13, 000 300 Chas. W. Turner . . 8, 000 1 5, 000 250 250 60, 000 1, 000 5, 000 563 78 3, 000 W: w. Scott. . 3, 000 20, 000 1,500 S. K. McKee . 380 220 380 W. F. Morehead . J oh n M. Ki n n ey 1.200' . Mrs. J. E. B. Stuart . 1 2, 500 16, 000 8, 020 50 4, 556 100 Geo. A. Overdorf . i C. Walker, dean 300 425 56 1,488 600 1, 100 1, 000 1, 030 . 500 350 60 20 68 . C. E. Newberry . 1, 812 ... 1,019 1, 500 100 119 325 V-L O O O O. B. Frisch . 500 250 J. T. Otis . . . 17, 874 4,926 1, 300 1,296 504 ! 1, 471 3, 550 Geo. A. Kennedy . 3, 832 1,000 12, 635 5. 500 80 E A . Bryan . . . ! 1, ooo! 3. 000' 495 200 77, 240 5, 765 7, 864 8, 556 C. W. Smith . F. E. B. Smith . 2, 000! . j 3845 3846 3847 3848 3849 3850 3851 3852 3853 3854 3855 3856 3857 3858 3859 3860 3861 3862 3863 3864 3865 38C6 3867 3868 3869 3370 3871 3372 3873 3874 3875 3876 3877 3878 3879 3880 3881 3882 3883 3884 3885 3886 3887 3858 3859 3890 3891 3892 3893 3894 3895 3896 3897 3898 3899 3900 3901 516 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society , and school libraries in the United 3902 3903 3904 3905 3906 3907 3908 3909 3910 3911 3912 3913 3914 3915 3916 3917 3918 3919 3920 3921 3922 3923 3924 3925 3926 3927 3928 3929 3930 3931 3932 3933 3934 3935 3936 3937 3938 3939 3940 3941 3942 3943 3944 3945 3946 3947 3948 3949 3950 3951 3952 3953 3954 3955 Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. A * a Si fH U PH 'Vo CfcrO B ^ •43 0 25 * - 0 5 a p 0 •r- Si 0 © 1 3 4 5 © 7 s WASHINGTON — COnt’d. Gen . T. S. B. Col . 1884 Sch . Fr. R. . do . 1888 Gen . T. F. B. . do . 1892 Gen . O. C. F. B. 1890 Col . R. C. F. B. 1890 Gen . R. T. F. B. . do . 1889 Sch . C. F. B. Walla Walla . 1859 Col . c. B. WEST VIRGINIA. Bethany . 1841 Col . B. 1891 Sch ....... c. Fr. B. nary. 1890 Hist . F. R. Antiquarian Society. 1884 Sch . T. Fr. I R. Harpers Ferry . Roger Williams Library of Storer 1868 Col . C. Fr. ! B. College. i 1893 ! Col _■ _ C. Fr. 1 R. 1 1868 Gen . c. S. 1 R- 1 Romney ............ West V irffiniii Schools for tho A and R Deaf and Blind. .... i Salem . ! Salem College Col . Wheeling . . ! Public Library _ - _ 1882 Gen . K. T. F. B. WISCONSIN. ; Appleton . j Appleton Library of Lawrence 1854 Col . C. F. B. University. _ _ do . ! "Ryan High School Library _ Sch . . do . 1 Third AV ard High School 1885 Sch .... T. F. B. 1 Ashland . 1 "V" aughn Public Library 1887 Gen 0. c F. B. Bayfield . Public Library Gen . R. T. F. B. Beaverdam . YV illimna TPree Library .. _ 1884 Gen . 0. T. F. B. Belleville . . Free Library . _ _ _ 1893 Gen . I T. F. B. Beloit . Beloit, (College . . 1847 Col . . 0. C. Fr. B. . do . Public. Library _ _ _ _ _ 1895 Gen . R. T. F. B. ! Berlin . 1890 Sch . . T. Fr. B. Black River Falls . . City Library _ _ . . 1870 Gen . 0. T. F. B. i Boscobel . High Sehool _ _ 1877 Sch . T. F. B. Chippewa Falls . Pnhlie Library _ _ 1894 Gen . R. T. F. B. . do . Public School Library 1890 Sch . T. B. Columbus . Library A ssoeiation 1876 Soc . R. C. S. B. Darlington . Bnhlir. Sebnn] Lihrary 1880 Sch . T. : B. "Delfl.fi eld . 1 §■£. John’s Military Academy Seb Delavan . Wisconsin School for the Deaf 1852 Sch . T. B. Depere . Pnhlie Li hr ary . 1881 Gen . T. F. B. Eau Claire . 1870 Gen . T. ! F. B. ! Florence . High School Sell Fond du Lac . Free Pnhlie Library 1877 Gen . R. T. | F. B. Fort Atkinson . High School Sch . . do . Public Library 1892 Gen _ R. C. F. B. Franklin . Mission House Library 1860 Hen _ c, F. B. Galesville . Gale College Gen . _ c. F. B. Grand Rapids . T. B. Scott Free Public Library. . 1890 Gen _ c. F. B. Greenbay . Public Library _ _ _ Gen . R. T. F. B. Hayward . Free Lihrary _ _ _ 1887 Hen _ T. F. B. Hillside . . Hillside Home Sehool _ 1887 Seb _ _ 1 . C. Fr. B. Janesville . Fublie Library 1882 Hen _ 1 R. T. F. B. "Kenosha _ Kemper Hall _ _ Sch. . . do . Public Library . 1895 Geu . R. C. F. B. La Crosse . . do . 1888 Gen . 0. ! F. B. Madison . . Department of Public Instruction Gen _ T ' Fr. R. Library. 1 517 PI’RLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES. States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1896 — Continued. Volumes. CO 43 0 g« Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. IN CO ^ 0 •si j'l'S c -.0 Books issued for use within library. From taxa¬ tion. w © jipts. d © p Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. 9 ao 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 3 500 . 650 10,000 10, 000 $1, 000 $1, 600 Emma Briscoll . 4’ 000 . i ' nnm _ 30 I Mrs. Sarah K. White _ 1 4, 558 2,500 982 1,431 35. 986 i . 2, 578 1 Herbert Bashford . I n 186: 354 5 308 3,194 342 342 I Allen C. Mason . 1 1! oool 300 200 35 230 $800 Prof. C. TV. Barrow . 1, 500 200 100 20 5,900 400 400 G. E. Beeson . 1, 500( 350 250 100 115 C. "W. Shumway. super- 1 intendent. 5 200'- 4, 000 78 TV. A, Bratton . 1 3, 000 2, 000 A. C. Pendleton . ! 2, 092 . 80 80 5, 360 486 337 125 1, 200 i . ! M. L. Bowntain . 1 . 000 300 5! 000 _ . H. C. Brackett . . 1, 025 1,200 38 ll' 289 3; 862 274 704 271 21 Clara Hough . . . 1 . 524! . 1, 500! . ! j 14. 347 . 938 58, 345 12, 908 6, 980 6,980 i 14, 487 . 460 | 4, 751 510 10, 298 Zfilia A. Smith . . ! 1 510 _ ■ 2, 000 12 1, 437 500 300 300 TV. F. TVinsey . : 3. 800L 15, 333 5, 000 60, 000 Janet M. Green . 1 1 200l _ 3, 800 600 600 > J. Andreas . j 6, 038 1 744 289 30 23, 967 1, 027 1, 669 10, 000 Mary Boolittle . 1, 400! 100 116 4, 000 125 133 143 i TVm. S harm an . 1 90 960 . 1,246 466 4. 200 Chas. A Baffin 1 2, 000 . 3, 400 3,400 Mrs. Hina Horthrop. • - • I 1,200 . 100 Horace Miner . 1 . 598 . 78 4,000 150 200 . Mrs. M. J. Gunn 1. 200, 200 100 25 75 F. TV. Meisnest, princ-i-j pal. ! 3. 055i - 631 i . 19, 400 1, 675 Af:m dp, A Earley ! 2.100; _ 1, 000 500 . B L Barton i 2, 500 i 500 80 1, COO 100 AT Adams, secretary ! 1, 500! 4, 000 100 100 James Madison Ste¬ vens. principal High School. 2.000!. i . ! 2. 450 _ 110 130 John TV. S iv Her, super¬ ! ! . intendent. 1, 800; 200 100 1 350 1 E. F. Parker . 6. 300 . ] 2,446 38, 287 ! 3, 000 1.000' _ 13. 868! 1, 087 711 100 31, 232 2, 600 i . Emma E. Bose . . 1, 200 . 1,500 70 100 9. 052 j 330 Sue C. "Nichols. . . . 5, 360, 350 300 1, 000 225 TV alter Jarvis. . . . 2, 500 500 8 J. George, president. _ 2, 910 340 276 125 9.401 519 6, 103 Mrs. H. B. Baymond _ 4. 800:. 555 38, 714 517 1,900 15, 000 2, 000 . 6, 700 368 380 Miss Christine Helson 2, 000 . 200 150 Ellen C. Lloyd- Jones . 10, 0001 . . 30. 000 3, 000 3, 000 Mrs. Louise L. Best. _ _ 5, 000| . 1,750: . 1, 693 2, 400 Clara P. Barnes . ' 14. 000 . 800 44, 000 2, 483 33, 000 Annie E. Hanscome. . . . 1 6, OOOj 500 1 200 150 J. Q. Emery . . ! 3902 3903 3904 3905 3906 3907 3908 3909 3910 3911 3912 3913 3914 3915 3916 3917 3918 3919 3920 3921 3922 3923 3924 3925 3926 3927 3928 3929 3930 3931 3932 3933 3934 3935 3936 3937 3938 3939 3940 3941 3942 3943 3944 3945 3946 3947 3948 3949 3950 3951 3952 3953 3954 3955 518 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library. Date of found¬ ing. Class. Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. Free or sub¬ scription. Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Wisconsin— cont’d. 3956 Gen . T. F. 33. 3957 1 1853 Hist i T. F. R. 3953 1850 Col . C. F. B. 3959 3836 Law . T. F. R. 3960 1884 j Scien . C. F. R. 3961 1868 Gen . O. c. Fr. C. 3962 High School . Sell . I 3963 ! 1860 A. and R. . j T. c. 3964 1889 Sell . C. R. 3965 1891 Gen . O. c. I F. ! B. 3966 1891 Gen . c. 1 F- ! B. 3967 Milton . , . Milton College . 1867 Col . c. F. 1 B. 3968 1881 Col . c. Fr. ! B. 3969 1870 Sell . T. B. 3970 1851 Sch . C. Fr" B, 3971 . do . Grand Lodge F. & A. M..1 . 1843 Masonic .. R. C. Fr. R. 3972 1860 Law . R. c. B. 3973 1864 Col . c. Fr. 11. 3974 1855 Col . c. It. 3975 . do . Milwaukee Turn Therein . 1852 Social . B. 3976 ! . do . ! Rational German-Ameri c an 1851 ! Sch . c. B. i Teachers’ Seminary. 1 3977 . do . Public Library . . . . . . 1878 Gen . R. T. ! F. B. 3978 . do . _ _ Pnhlio Mnsfinm _ 1 1883 i Scien . R. T. |;Fr. R. 3979 do Public School Library . I Sch . 3980 Milwaukee (Station Theological Seminary of the 1868 Theo . c. F f- 1 B- B). Evangelical-Lutheran Synod of | "Wisconsin. ! 1894 3981 ' Mineral Point _ Free Public Library ..... _ ..... 1 Gen . C. i F. B. 3982 1 Monroe . Public Library . . . 1 1876 1 Sch’ _ c. F. B. 3983 i Mount Calvary _ _ _ §■£ Xj a tv reu ce Co 1 1 e go _ _ 1856 ! Col . C. 3984 "N" aid on nl TT nyo o ‘N’ortliwestern Branch. JST. H. T) . 1868 1 fiar c. B. V. s. 3985 Heenah . „ . Public Library . . 1884 Gen . T. F. B. 3986 ( Icon onio woe _ do _ _ _ _ _ 1893 Gen . R. C. F. B. 3987 Oshkosh _ _ High. School. . .... _ _ _ ....... 1869 Sch . T. Fr. B. 3988 _ do . . Public Library. _ _ .............. Gen . T. F. B. 3889 _ do . . . State Formal School ..... _ ... 1873 Sch . T. S. B. 3990 Platteville. . . _ do . . 1866 Sch . .... T. R. 3991 Plymouth _ TTnh Llnh Library. _ .. 1876 Gen . . C. 3992 Prairie du Cliien .... Sacred Heart College _ 1880 Col . C. R. 3993 Pacino . _ Home School . . Gen . I R, 3994 . dc . Racine College _ _ 1 1853 Col . C. B. 3995 . do . T. M. C. A. Library . ; 1878 T.M.C.A. I’s/ B. 3996 Ripon . . Public Library . . . ...... 1885 Gen . c. Fr. B. 3997 _ do . Ripon College . . . ... ' 1854 Col . c. Fr. B. 3998 River Falls . 1 Hi "h School . . . Sch . T. .... R. 3999 _ do . State Formal School . . . 1875 Sch . . . T. ...J R. 4000 St. Francis _ Catholic Formal School and Pio 1871 Col . | c. Fr. B. Fono College. 4001 . do . Seminary of St. Francis . _ .. 1860 Theo . C. S. B. 4002 Sheboygan . Pnhlio Libra, ry _ . 1890 Gen _ - _ 0. T. F. B. 4003 Sinsinawa . i St Thomas A nninas Colleoro ... 1852 Col . R. 4004 Sparta _ ! Free Library 1860 Gen _ R. T. F. B. 4005 Stevens Point . High School. _ _ _ _ _ 1885 Sell . .... Fr. B. 4006 .State Formal School _ _ 1894 Sch . T. Fr. B. 4007 Tomah . City Library _ _ Gen _ C. S. C. 4003 Two Rivers . Joseph Mann Public Library . 1891 Gen . O. T. F. B. 4009 W asliburn . Public Library and Reading Room 1890 Gen . 0. T. F. B. 4010 _ do . Public School Library .... Sch . C. Fr. B. 4011 TV atertown . Forthwestern University _ _ _ 1865 Col . C. Fr. B. 1012 ; _ ..do _ 1 Sacred Heart College . . . 1872 Col . ! 0. C. S. B. 4013 ! TVankesha. _ _ I High School . Sch . ! T. F. B. 4014 TVanpnn _ Hilleyer Id brary . . 1858 Gen . j R. S. C. 4015 1 - do . 1 State Prison Library . 1 1871 A. and R. . T. C. PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES, 519 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S9G — Continued. Volumes. CD O 3 Pc a ci Ph Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added j during year. Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. Amount of en¬ dowment fund. Name of librarian. Prom taxa¬ tion. Total in¬ come. 9 IO 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 IS 14 561 55, 509 $2, 500 $2, 500 Georgia R. Hough . qn' nnn 87 OOO 4 534 2,441 40, 666 14, 278 \ . Isaac S. Bradley . 96 8(10 10! 000 3’ non Walter M. Smith . ?s’ 776 L 130 2, 500 John 11. Berryman . 9. 400 2, 500 210 $7, 500 2, 000 Henry Mulholland, sec- J J retary. 1, 000 . 9 771 105 P. H. O’Malley . 1 l| 000 150 . J. E. IJoyt, superin¬ tendent. 5 349 102 246 3 21, 308 Stella Lucas . . 3’ S13 50 250 14, 351 500 420 944 7, 000 Janet P. Russell _ _ _ 4, 681 116 1, 683 300 60 600 150 Otto Hallstaldt . 3, 700 700 700 2, 000 175 A. J. Rogers, principal . 1, 450 250 500 ' 300 365 ! . Emil Happrich . 1, 518 5, 000 50 600 John W. Laflin, secre¬ tary. 6, 500 500 5, 610 Wm/W. Wight . 9, 150 1, 020 50 100 1 . 50 A. Laur . 4, 041 57 108 I . 115 i . L. M. Prescott . 4, 264 1, 400 1 Phil. W. Schaefer . 1, 450 250 500 300 . 365 85, 094 8, 000 6 620 583 324, 463 35,519 35, 519 Miss Thresa West . 5, 953 87 133 H. Nehrling . . 2, 050 . i 1, 800 2, 000 100 150 300 50 E. A.Notz . 1, 817 20 416 20 315 Mary R. Gundry . 3, 558 500 220 75 16, 112 970 722 TV A. Smock . 1, 000 20 ! I . 50 P. Alphonsus, rector ... 7, 529i 629 804 177 30, 054 ! . . 1, 271 Moses Harris . 5, 7S7 1 C07 20,495 865 COO Robt. Shiells . 1, 840 1 88 2 1, 050 670 Miss Clara Weber .... 590 275 50 964 256 II. H. Halsey, superin¬ 1, 505j tendent. 2, 514’ 2, COO 2, 000 M. A. Olcott 7, 600 500 900 3, 582 Adelio Hamilton . 4, 800 800 1, 175 1, 000 1, 465 Hugo Sattler . 10,000 100 200 4, 000 . 10, 000 1, 000 25 50 Arthur Piper . 1, 207 109 1 , 897 176 2,482 454 Mrs. H. P. Cody . 8, 000 600 C. Dwight Maub . 1, 000 i . H. L. AVIlson, principal.! 2. 700 576 1 . 616 Lillian Currier . 1 1, 582 270 132 28 764 J. M. Hasel . i 12,000 F. Schulze . 6,210 1, 219 7, 142 625 Frances Gorend _ _ _ 3, 500 200 100 3, 342 I . 7, 196 310 310 Jennie Srnnten 1, 118 248 114 128 876 146 H. A. Sim on rle 3, 000 200 1, 500 100 8,000 3, 000 T. B. Pray . 1, 200 25 160 156 Mrs. Rockwood . 1,780 300 105 3, 784 560 John N. Davidson 1, 200 300 1, 100 1, 000 L. N. Clausen . 1,115 150 100 100 250 Miss Florence V. Will¬ iams. 2,698 500 110 500 300 Dr J H. Ott . 5, 000 800 300 I 400 600 50 J O Keeffe . 1, 700 250 170 H T,. Terry _ 5, 300 2, 500 100 5, 500 432 T, D. Hinkley . _ 1,200 500 23, 400 450! AY. G. Bancroft . 3956 3957 3958 3959 3960 3961 3962 3963 396-1 3965 3966 3967 3968 3969 3970 3971 3972 3973 3974 3975 3976 3977 3979 3980 3981 3982 3983 3984 3985 3986 3987 3988 3989 3990 3991 3992 3993 3994 3995 3996 3997 3998 3999 4000 4001 4002 4003 4004 4005 4006 4007 400S 4009 4010 4011 4012 4013 4014 4015 520 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Public, society, and school libraries in the United Location. Name of library, Date of found¬ ing. Class. ! Own or rent building. Supported by taxation or corporation. rO % g §[ — 1 Circulating, ref¬ erence, or both. 1 2 3 4 5 6 ■7 ; 8 WISCONSIN — cont’d. 4016 W auwatosa . . Harwood Public Library . . 1886 Gen . O. F. i B. 4017 W pst.hfvn fl Public School Library . . . 1886 Sch . T. P. B. 4018 VV est Depere School District Library . . Sch _ T. F. B. 4019 AWpfsf. pnpfirinr Snpp.rior Public Library . . 1888 (4ct> _ E. T. F. B. 4020 \Y’ iiitewater _ .... Public Library . . 1884 Gen . E. C. S. C. 4021 do . State Normal School _ ....... 1868 Sch . C. B. 4022 W imiehago _ _ _ Northern Hospital for the Insane. Gen . T. B. WYOMING. 4023 flhoyonno _ High School _ _ _ Sch . T. :B- 4024 . do . Wyoming State Law Library . .... 1 Law . ....j 4025 TiflTflTTllfi . . Public Library . . . 1887 , Gen . E. T. F. B. 4026 _ do . Hniversity of Wyoming . . 1891 Col . ! F. B. 1 PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES, 521 States of 1,000 volumes and over in 1S06 — Continued. Volumes. Pamphlets. Volumes added during year. Pamphlets added during year. : Books issued during year for home use. Books issued for use within library. Receipts. From taxa¬ tion. ' Total in¬ come. 9 10 " 1 13 13 14 15 16 2, 394 i 163 7, 500 $756 1, 000 100 3, 000 $65 68 l’ ooo 10 6, 000 50 10,’ 253 753 1, 736 430 45, 923 7, 000 7, 124 1 1. 400 125 235 3. 700 400 817 50 1, 150 2. 100 35 1, 200 20 . 100 100 15 000 3, 500 200 40 9, 980 1,200 100 100 4, 085 3, 000 810 350 1,000 900j 17 Name of librarian. 18 Mrs. Agnes B. Roddis . . L. E. Amidon . Mrs. Delia L. Freestone. Albert Salisbury . W. A. Gordon, superin¬ tendent. 4016 4017 4018 4019 4020 4021 4022 J.O. Churchill .. . 4023 . . 4024 EttaM. Roach . 4025 Grace Raymond Hebard; 4026 ED 96- 17* CHAPTER IX. LIBEAEY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES.1 I. — Legislation for tlie incorporation of library associations, societies, etc, II. — a) School district libraries ; (b) Township libraries ; (c) Free pnblic libraries supported by the State; ( d ) Recent State library laws. Ill — Resume of library legislation. IV. — State .library laws. Ie LEGISLATION FOR THE INCORPORATION OF LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS, SOCIETIES, ETC. The library, like every other institution of organized society, is dependent upon legislation for its existence and development. The progress of library development at lirst was very slow. It has grown from very small beginnings. It is an outgrowth of a demand of the jieople. In the beginning, the existence of the library was recog¬ nized by legislation. In the next place, the preservation of the library was a special object of legislation. As an example, the library of the Rev. Thomas Bray, D. D., founder of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, may be mentioned. The legislative assembly of South Carolina, on November 16, 1700, passed an act in behalf of this library. In 1715 North Carolina passed a similar law for the preservation of a library sent over by Dr. Thomas Bray to the town of Bath, for the use of the inhabitants of the parish of St. Thomas in Pamlico. In 1731 a movement began which resulted in the formation of the Philadelphia Library Company, called ••'the mother of all North American subscription libraries. ” This company was incorporated in 1712, some ten years after its organization. In 1741 the Charleston, S. C., Library Company was organized, but did not receive its charter of incorporation until 1755. From 1776 to 1826 many libraries were established which, though city institutions or otherwise limited, were in a general way important factors in the library move¬ ment, and were necessary and logical steps toward the free public library. The earliest legislation regarding libraries took the form of general laws which provided for the incorporation of cooperative library associations, generally known as 2iroprie- tary, social, subscription, or even public libraries. There is now in a number of the States a general law providing for the incorporation of such libraries, namely: Col¬ orado, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, New Jersey, New York, Massa¬ chusetts, Mississippi, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and there may be some others in which similar provisions prevail. These libraries were intended to be free, and in fact many of them were substan¬ tially free public libraries. They were not supported by public taxation. As another evidence of the interest that the people manifested in this movement, libraries of a certain size were exempted from taxation. This is an indirect though often an effi¬ cient way of legislating for libraries. The libraries of associations, societies, or coruorations, together with the buildings owned by such associations, are exempt from taxation in the following States : Arizona, California, Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Vermont, Washington, West Virginia, and Wyoming — in all twenty-two. The increased interest in the subject is still further shown by legislative enactment in the following States: District of Columbia, Illinois, Kansas, Massachusetts, New Jersey, West Virginia, Wisconsin, by which private libraries of a certain value are exempt from attachment as well as from tax¬ ation. Many libraries began under such encouragement. Compiled by Henderson Presnell, A. M. 523 524 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. XI. (а) DISTRICT LIBRARIES. In this chapter it is proposed to discuss mainly the development of legislation regarding school district libraries. Governor DeWitt Clinton, of New York, in his message to the legislature in 1826, made a recommendation for the establishment of district libraries. In 1835 a law was passed by the legislature of that State estab¬ lishing school district libraries. These are not to be understood as libraries for the schools, but for the people in the districts corresponding generally in areas with the school districts. In each district the voters were authorized to levy a tax amount¬ ing to the sum of $20 with which to start a library, and $10 annually thereafter for the support of the same. In 1838 a law was passed appropriating the sum of $55,000 annually from the income of the United States deposit fund. This fund at the expiration of three years might be used for the purchase of books, or for the payment of teachers’ sala¬ ries, if the district so decided. In 1843 a special library fund was granted by law to the school districts for the purchase of school apparatus and the payment of teachers under certain conditions These school-district libraries increased in number until 1853, when they con¬ tained an aggregate of 1,604,210 volumes. This, says one writer, “was the high- water mark,” for, according to the report of the State superintendent of public instruction for 1895, there was a general decrease until 1884, when the number of volumes reported in these libraries was only 701,437. From 1885 to 1891 there appears to have been a gradual improvement. From 1853 to 1894 the State expended on district libraries alone the sum of $1,706,144.36. The example of New York was followed by a number of other States, which also passed laws for the establishment of school-district libraries. Among these States were Massachusetts and Michigan in 1837, Connecticut in 1839, Iowa and Rhode Island in 1840, Indiana in 1841, Maine in 1844, Ohio in 1847, Wisconsin in 1848, Oregon in 1854, Kansas and Virginia in 1870, New Jersey in 1871, Minnesota and Kentucky in 1873, Colorado in 1876. This system did not prove a success in all of these States; in fact it did not prove an entire success in any of them, for the concurrent testi¬ mony from all is that the scheme was a failure. The want of success is attributed to various reasons. First, because the unit (the district) was too small; second, the amountof money annually raised in eacii district was insufficient; third, the number of volumes in each was too small to secure anything like j3ublic interest in the care, preservation, or circulation of the books. Out of the failure of this system the States which enacted laws for the encourage¬ ment of the school district libraries learned from experience that additional legis¬ lation was necessary. Hence many of the States subsequently passed statutes providing for township libraries. That is, the town was made the unit, and local taxation became the means of support, in whole or m part, for these libraries. (б) TOWNSHIP LIBRARIES. The Massachusetts general court in 1848 passed an act authorizing the city of Bos¬ ton to levy a tax of $5,000 for the establishment of a free public library. This was a special act affecting only Boston, but it was the initial step. In 1851 this act was made to apply to all the towns and cities in the State. The act of 1848 for Boston is really the germ out of which has grown much of the library legislation in this as well as other countries. Mr. Fletcher, in his “Public libraries in America,” says : “The tirst step in the movement for establishing public libraries * ~ * seems to have been taken by the Hon. Josiah Quincy, jr., mayor of Boston, in October, 1847. He proposed to the city council, and they passed, a request to the legislature that Boston be allowed to iay a tax to establish a free library. The legislature assented the same winter, and "this was probably the beginning of such legislation in any part of the world. In 1851, other cities and towns claiming the same permis¬ sion, thelaw was made general. The interest in libraries excited throughout England by the parliamentary investigation1 already referred to (of which I shall say more presently), was perhaps the immediate cause of similar legislation in that country, but the leaders of the movement there confessed that the idea came to them from America.” New Hampshire, on July 7, 1849, passed a general law for free public libraries in all the towns of the State. It was the first law of its kind known in the history of library legislation. There is an interesting feature connected with library legislation in this State which it is well enough to mention. The town of Peterboro, in 1833, 1 In 1847 a parliamentary commission was appointed ; in 1850 commission made a report. LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 525 established a free public library which is still in existence. This library was main¬ tained for many years in whole or in part by municipal authority, and is entitled to the credit of being one of the first, if not the first, public library in the United States supported by public taxation. Under date of August 7, 1875, the Commissioner of Education at Washington, D. C., wrote in a letter to the late Prof. Albert Smith, of this town : ‘‘The first free public library supported or aided by taxation of which this Bureau has any account was established at Wayland, Mass., and was opened to the public in August, 1850. The second, at New Bedford, Mass., was opened in March, 1853. If the Peterboro town library was free to the inhabitants of the town prior to August, 1850, whether supported by municipal taxation or by the income of invested bonds, it furnishes the first example of a free library, and we shall be glad to give it the credit/’ In another letter, of August 12, 187o: “So far as any data are at present known to us, your library is the earliest of its kind. Should we obtain information of an earlier enterprise of the same kind, you will be duly informed.” (c) FREE PUBLIC LIBRARIES SUPPORTED BY THE STATE. The legislation in New Hampshire and Massachusetts had the effect of stimulating the movement in other States, and general library laws were passed as follows r Maine adopted a general library law in 1854; Vermont in 1865; Ohio in 1867; Colorado, Il-inois, New York, and Wisconsin in 1872; Indiana and Iowa in 1873; Texas in 1874; Connecticut and Rhode Island in 1875; Michigan in 1876; Nebraska in 1877; California, Minnesota, and New Jersey in 1879; Montana in 1883: New Mexico in 1884; Missouri in 1885; Kansas and Wyoming in 1886; North and South Dakota and Pennsylvania in 1887; Washington in 1890, and Mississippi (embodied in a municipal law) in 1892. In the District of Columbia,1 Delaware, Kentucky, Nevada, North and South Caro¬ lina, and Oregon there has been no general library legislation. Provision is made by the Government for State libraries in the Territories. These libraries are for the use of the legislatures and the courts. In Kentucky general library legislation is now pending. It may not be out of place here to call attention to the subject of school libraries. Two States are selected, and the legislation from these may be taken as typical of legislation with regard to this subject in other States. The provision invariably takes one of two forms, namely: 1. Permission is given to the school district (almost always our local educational unit) to tax itself for the purpose of securing a school library, or 2. The fund which is created by the State may be distributed to districts that have secured a certain number of books, or have taxed themselves to procure such books. It will be observed that there are some general principles upon which the States have encouraged the formation of school libraries, but there have been different methods of operating them to secure the object for which they were founded. For instance, the two adjoining States of Michigan and Wisconsin deal with the subject in a somewhat different way. In Michigan a “township library shall be maintained in each organized township, which shall b6 the property of the township, but be in charge of the township board of school inspectors.” But then it is added that “any school district by a two- thirds vote at any annual meeting may establish a district library, which shall be entitled to its just proportion of books from the library of any township in which it is situ¬ ated, and also to its equitable share of any library moneys remaining unexpended in such township at the time of the establishment of such district library, or shall afterwards be raised by tax or apportionment.” In Wisconsin “the treasurer of each town (not township) may withhold annually from the money secured from the State school fund for the several school districts an amount equal to 10 cents for each person of school age residing in the town for the purchase of books for a school library.” Under this law more than one-half of the districts in Wisconsin have been supplied with helpful libraries. “Year by year,” quoting the State superintendent, “as teachers and pupils learn to use these libraries to better advantage, they are becoming of greater value as educational agencies.” The States which passed these laws evidently recognized the principle that lies at the foundation of all legislation for free public libraries, that the library is and should be an essential part of the system of public education of the State, and, as such, should be maintained by public taxation; that it is the duty of the State to educate its citizens, and for that purpose public schools should be maintained. The public laws of many of the States had already recognized this principle. Here we see clearly set forth that the public library should complement the public school and be maintained in the same way as the public school. 1 Since the above was written Congress has passed a general library law. 526 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. An efficient school system is liardly possible without the public library. From what has been said we see the tendency in library legislation. Encouragement and help on the part of the State has become more and more prominent. From 1849 to 1889 the laws enacted in many of the States granted to the cities, towns, and com¬ munities nothing more than the right to establish and maintain public libraries. Permissive laws were unsatisfactory, and mandatory ones began to take their place. About the year 1890 a new era began to dawn. The State becomes more than a passive agent; it takes action; it begins to manifest interest in the establishment of these libraries; it appropriates money for their support by appointing library commissions and providing, in some cases, for instruction iu library economy, man¬ agement, etc. Henceforth the establishment and maintenance of the public library is declared to he a proper object of municipal expenditure. Massachusetts, on May 28, 1890, passed such a law; New York, April 27, 1892; New Hampshire, March 22, 1893; Maine, March 31, 1893; Connecticut, June, 1893; Wisconsin, April 19, 1895, and the District of Columbia March 18, 1&96. Kentucky and New Jersey have such laws pending, so that most of the States now recognize fully the importance of making the library free, and are already carrying out the idea, so beautifully set forth by Mr. George Ticknor in his letter to Edward Everett in 1851, which is as follows: “ I would establish a library which differs from all free libraries yet attempted — I mean one in which any popular book tending to moral and intellectual improve¬ ment shall be furnished in such number of copies that many persons can be reading the same book at the same time; in short, that not only the best books of all sorts, hut the present literature of the day. shall be made accessible to the whole people when they most care for it, that is, when it is fresh and new. I would therefore continue to buy additional books of this class almost as long as they are asked for, and thus, by following the popular taste — unless it should demand something inju¬ rious — create a real appetite for healthy reading. The appetite once formed will take care of itself. It will, in a great majority of cases, demand better and better books,” (d) RECENT STATE LIBRARY LAWS. The following observations and suggestions on this subject have been contributed by Mr. Frank C. Patten, librarian of the Helena public library, Helena, Mont.: The new educational movement for public libraries is everywhere a very rapidly growing one. These libraries are fast increasing in size and usefulness as well as in number. For the promotion of the best interests of this great movement experience shows that a good State library law is a very important factor. Such a law, by laying out apian, encourages the establishment and promotes the growth of public libraries. It is easier in any community to awaken interest in a library project if there is set forth in the State law a way of organizing, the library that has proved successful elsewhere. The West is not behind in other educational good works, and it need not be in the matter of library legislation. Every year several of the States either make new library laws or make amendments to existing laws. The advance in library legislation in the last few years is as marked as is the growth of libraries. The following are believed to be the BEST RECENT STATE LIBRARY LAWS. Massachusetts , 1890. — To be obtained from State librarian, Boston, who is chairman of Massachusetts library commission. Illinois, act amended 1S91. — To be obtained from librarian Public Library, Chicago. New York, 1892 . — To bo obtained from State libarian, Albany. Connecticut, 1S93. — To bo obtained from Miss Carolina M. Hewins, librarian Public Library, Hartford, who is secretary of Connecticut public library committee. New Hampshire, act amended 1895. — To be obtained from State librarian, Concord, who is a member of State board of library commissioners. Wisconsin , 1895. — To be obtained from secretary State Historical Society, Madison, who is a member of the State library commission. Michigan, 1895. — To bo obtained from State librarian, Lansing. In attempting the enactment of any new library legislation or of any amend¬ ments to existing laws a clear idea should be had of the essentials of a good State library law. The following provisions are in line with the dictates of experience in those States where most attention is given to public libraries : (1) A SURE AND STEADY REVENUE. The law should provide that, on the petition of, say, twenty-five taxpayers, the rate of taxation for public library support in any city, town, or other political unit shall be submitted to vote at general or special election. The rate should not be changed without another vote. This plan provides for what is of the utmost importance, a sure and steady library revenue, not subject to changes of city council LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 527 action. Under sncli a plan there need he no limit of rate placed in the State law, as no city will voto to tax itself too high for library support. A small place will, in fact, often fail to realizo that in order to raise money enough to accomplish the object the tax must bo at a much higher rate than in a large place. In Illinois the tax is in some places as high as 3 mills on the dollar. (2) CAREFUL AND CONSECUTIVE MANAGEMENT. In order to remove public library management from the influence of party politics the library and its property should be wholly left to the control of trustees selected from citizens of recognized fitness for such duties. Experience seems to show that in cities the proper board of trustees can best be secured by appointment of the mayor and confirmation by the council. Probably the best way is to provide for seven trustees, two to be appointed each year (one the fourth year) fora term of four years. This number is large enough to be representative and small enough to avoid the great difficulty in securing a quorum if the number is large. The length of term in connection with yearly appointment secures the much-needed continuity of man¬ agement, and yet there is sufficient change of officers so that the board will not be too far removed from the public will. (3) A STATE CENTER FOR LIBRARY INTERESTS. Within a very few years each of several States has provided for a State, library commission, to be in some sense the head of public library interests for the State. By having small traveling libraries of fifty or one hundred volumes each to lend for a few months to localities that have no libraries, and by having a little State aid to distribute wisely, the commission is able to encourage communities to do more for themselves in the matter of a library than they otherwise would. The commission gives advice concerning organization and administration Avhenevei it is asked, and a yearly report is made of their work and of library progress in the State. The State library commission has proved to be a useful agency wherever tried, and the plan seems likely to spread throughout the country. The most complete State sys¬ tem has been provided in New York, where all center in the State library at Albany as headquarters. The library system of New York seems to be working very success¬ fully. New Hampshire was the first State to pass a compulsory law (1895) obliging each town to provide a public library. The following outline gives the IMPORTANT PROVISIONS FOR A STATE LIBRARY LAW. General. — Purpose of public library broadly stated, perhaps in the form of a definition. It may include loan, reference, reading room, museum, lecture, art, and allied educational features. It may have branches. Mode prescribed for changing form of organization of a library to conform to new law.1 Establishment of public libraries. — Any political body authorized to levy and collect taxes may establish the library itself alone, or conjointly with other such bodies, by vote at any election. Vote of electors given for special tax or bonds to provide rooms or grounds and buildings. Maintenance. — By annual rate of taxation voted by electors to continue until changed by vote. Management. — Wholly in hands of trustees constituting a board so formed as to be independent of party political control. Appointment by mayor and confirmation by council a good plan in cities. Membership to change gradually — one or two changes each year. Term of trustees not less than three years. Number of trustees not less than five. All property to be acquired, held, managed, or transferred by trus¬ tees. Requests and donations to the library to be held and managed for the public good by the trustees. Protection. — Penalties for theft, mutilation, overdetention, and disturbance. State publications. — All publications of the State to be distributed free to public libraries. State library commission. — A body to be at the head of public library interests of the State, preferably to have the management of the State library and to center its work in that institution. The State university library might be a good center for the work. Members might be appointed by governor and confirmed’by senate for a term of five years — one appointment each year. 1 Libraries for schoolrooms to be composed of reference books, books for supplementary reading, class duplicates, and books for teachers should be provided for in the public school law. School funds should be used and school authorities should manage these libraries. The business of lending books for home use is better and more economically managed by a public library organization. 528 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1895-96. What may he done hy the commission. — Give advice and instruction in organization and administration. Receive reports from all public libraries of the State and ren¬ der report. Manage tbe distribution of State aid. Manage system of traveling libraries. Counties or school districts may wish to establish and maintain libraries, and a law should be worded as to allow it. It is probably most convenient to have the library year correspond with the calendar year. It is well to have the trustees appointed and the report of the library made at a different time of the year from either the spring or fall elections. The library is thus more likely to be freed from the influ¬ ences of party politics. To have a library treasurer is probably the better plan, but library money may be kept in the hands of the city or town treasurer as a separate fund, and be paid out by order of the board of trustees only. Special conditions peculiar to each State often dictate modifications of any general plan for a State law. Anyone interested in the matter fo? his own State could read the general articles upon the subject and the various State laws, and then, with the assistance of the best legal talent to be obtained, frame an act appropriate to con¬ ditions of his State. III. RESUME OF LIBRARY LEGISLATION. Alabama and Arkansas have no legislation on libraries. Arizona, in its school laws passed in 1885, permits school trustees in townships where there are*a hundred school children to use $50 of the school fund and any donations they may receive for the purchase of books for the school libraries, which are to be free to the teachers and pupils and to residents on the payment of such sums as may be prescribed by the trustees. California, in 1854, adopted a district library law similar to that of the State of New York. In 1878 a law was passed modeled after the Illinois statutes (see statutes of California). In 1880 an act was passed authorizing towns and cities to levy and collect taxes as in all other cases for the maintenance and establishment of public libraries and reading rooms. See page 533 of this Report. Colorado. — In 1872 Colorado enacted a law modeled after the Illinois plan, but the towns and cities did not take advantage of this law. In 1893 an act was passed authorizing the school board in any district to levy a tax not to exceed one-tenth of 1 mill, the proceeds of which shall be used exclusively for the purchase of books for a library, to be open to the public under such rules as the district board may pre¬ scribe. The laws now in force are given on page 536 of this Report. Connecticut. — In 1839 Connecticut passed a school library law, and a town library law in 1869. The public library laws of 1875 and 1876 permit towns and cities to establish libraries, but make no provision for their support by taxation. In 1881 a law was passed permitting towns to levy a tax of 2 mills on the dollar of valuation, the funds thus raised to be used for the support of public libraries; the fines for penal offenses may also be applied for the same purpose. In 1893 a law was passed making the State board of education a State library committee. This committee has the entire control of the public libraries of the State. (See p. 321 of the Public Acts of tbe General Assembly of Connecticut, 1893.) A full text of the law is given on page 538 of this Report. Delaware. — The only library legislation in Delaware is an act to establish a State library. District of Columbia — A bill authorizing a municipal appropriation for the support of a public free library was passed by the House of Representatives on March 9, 1896. This bill carried an amendment assessing the cost of maintenance on the Districtand exempting Government property. On March 11 the Senate refused to concur in the amendment and the bill was laid over for conference of the two Houses. The bill, a copy of which may be found on page 539 of this Report, became a law June 3, 1896. Florida. — In 1893 the legislature of Florida provided for the division of any county or counties into convenient school districts, and that any incorporated town or city might constitute a school district, and that money might be raised by taxation for the purenase of school libraries and text-books, lor the salaries of teachers, and for other educational purposes. This act also provides that the school commissioners may perform all acts reasonable and necessary for the promotion of the educational interests of the county or district and for the general diffusion of knowledge among its citizens. Georgia. — This State has no general legislation on the subject of public libraries. The law requires that “ money derived from fines for nonattendance at the county institutes shall be used in purchasing teachers7 libraries for the counties in which the fines are collected.” In this way an attempt has been made to gather under the LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 529 county superintendent of education a library in each county in the State, but as the law has but recently been put in operation, very little has been done as yet toward a collec tion of boohs. Idaho. — Idaho has no direct mandatory legislation as to public libraries; still there is a permissive act which gives the school districts the right to make purchases of library material to an amount not exceeding 25 per cent of the school fund for any one year. Illinois. — In 1872 Illinois enacted a law with minute details for the establishment, government, and management of public libraries, and this law has been substantially copied by many of the Western States. It provides for a board of nine directors, an independent body nominated by the mayor and approved by the city council. This board has exclusive control of the library, with power to erect or lease build¬ ings, etc. Towus and villages may levy a tax for the support of public libraries, the tax not to exceed 2 mills on the dollar. Cities of less than 100,000 inhabitants, 1 mill; cities over 100,000 inhabitants, one-fifth of a mill. The full text of this law may be found on page 540 of this Report. Indiana. — In 1871 Indiana passed a law making provision for public libraries. This law is claimed to be one of the simplest and most concise of any legislation up to that date. In 1873 the library association law was extended so that the towns and cities were authorized to have libraries. In 1883 the old library legislation was so extended that the trustees of the town where a library was desired might levy a tax of not less than one-fourth nor more than three-fourths of a mill on the dollar of assessed valuation for the support of the same. The money thus raised was to be paid over to the officers of the library for the purchase of books and library equip¬ ment. See page 541 of this Report. Iowa. — In 1840 Iowa enacted a district library law. In 1873 a town library law, embodying a single section, was enacted authorizing any city or town to levy a tax of 1 mill on the dollar of valuation for the support of a free public library. Kansas. — On February 28, 1870, Kansas passed an act for the establishment of dis¬ trict school libraries. This proved unsatisfactory, as usual, and a free public library law was passed in 1886. Kentucky.— In 1875 Kentucky adopted a general library law, but little progress was made under that law. A bill prepared by the alumn* of the Louisville high school providing for the establishment of a State library commission is now pending in the Kentucky legislature. It provides for the appointment by the governor of five com¬ missioners who shall serve during 1896, without salaries, and shall make a careful study of libraries in other States, extending their inquiries into organization, main¬ tenance, legislation, State systems, educational results of the Avork of libraries, and any other matters pertaining to the modern library movement. Not later than Jan¬ uary 15, 1897, the commission shall make a report in writing to the governor, embody¬ ing the results of their inquiry and recommending such plans and legislation as in their judgment will best promote the educational interests of the people of the State through libraries. (A copy of this bill could not be obtained.) ^ Louisiana. — There is no library legislation in Louisiana, except that which per¬ tains to the State library and to library associations. See library laws, page 546 of this Report. Maine. — In 1854 Maine passed an act that provides that any town or city may raise by taxation $1 on each ratable poll for the establishment of a free public library, and 25 cents annually thereafter for its maintenance. Under this law nothing was done, from the fact that the allowance was so meager that without aid from private individuals nothing could be done. By an act approved March 21, 1893, it was pro¬ vided that any town may establish a free public library therein for the use of its inhabitants, and provided suitable rooms therefor, under such regulations for its government as the inhabitants from time to time may prescribe. See library laws, page 548 of this Report. Maryland. — The Maryland Code, article 77, section 87, provides as follows: “For further encouragement of education, district school libraries should be established in each schoolhonse district, under the care of the teacher as librarian. For this purpose the sum of $10 per annum is ordered to be paid by the board of county school com¬ missioners, out of the city school funds, to any schoolhouse district as library money as soon as the people of the district raise an equal amount annually.” See library laws, page 549 of this Report. Massachusetts. — Massachusetts began in 1851 with a law similar to that of Maine. In 1859 a larger tax was allowed, and in 1866 a law was enacted similar to that of New Hampshire, allowing any city or town to raise any sum which it deemed nec¬ essary. An act in 1870 “for the establishment of districts for maintaining street lamps,” granting power to “maintain street lamps, establish and maintain libraries, and maintain sidewalks.” The law of 1890 provides for a library commission. Mas¬ sachusetts seems to be the only State that has made and published a compilation of its library laws. The historical value of this compilation justifies its republica- 530 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. tion. On page 549 of this Report 'will be found tbe library legislation of Massachu¬ setts from 1798 to 1890. Michigan. — Michigan stands alone in having in the first constitution of the State the following clause : “The legislature shall also provide for the establishment of at least one library in every township.” A school-district library law was enacted in 1859. This plan proved a failure, as it had done in all tbe other States which adopted it. In 1877 a free public library law, similar to that of Illinois, was passed. In 1881 an act rvas passed authorizing the qualified voters of any school district in which a district library “ may hereafter be established, to vote a district tax for the support of said library,” the tax to be levied and collected in the same manner as other township and school-district taxes* See library laws, page 566. Minnesota. — Minnesota passed a district library law in 1867. In the same year a law was passed exempting libraries and their buildings from taxation, and in 1875 an act was passed for their protection. See library laws, page 568. Missouri. — In 1885 Missouri passed a public library law very similar in character to that of Illinois. This law was prepared by Mr. Crunden, of the St. Louis Public Library, and follows the Illinois law, with slight variations. The law regarding district libraries is given on page 538. Mississippi . — In 1892 Mississippi enacted a general library law (embodied in the municipal laws). Montana. — In 1883 Montana passed a general library law, modeled after the Illinois plan. It provided that the municipal authorities <5f any incorporated town or city may establish a free public library, and may levy a tax for its support not exceeding 1 mill on the dollar of assessed valuation. The law provides that the question of establishing a library must first be submitted to the voters of the district for accept¬ ance or rejection. Nebraska. t — In 1877 Nebraska enacted a general library law, also modeled after the Illinois plan, but going more minutely into details. See library laws, page 568. Neiv Hampshire. — As has been noted elsewhere the first free public library (sup¬ ported by municipal authority) was established in New Hampshire in 1833. This State enacted the first general free public library law in 1849. This law is very simple in form, and its main features remain unchanged. Any town may raise and appro¬ priate money for establishing and maintaining a library without limitation as to amount and as to management (the money to be raised by ordinary taxation). In 1877 an act was passed for the protection of public libraries, and in 1891 the public statutes of New Hampshire, chapter 8, sections 21 to 26, provides a law for the sup¬ port of free public libraries by the State. See page 571. New Jersey. — New Jersey, following the example of many other States, has modeled her library laws after Illinois. An act was passed in 1884 which provides that upon the approval of a majority of voters at a special election it shall be the duty of the authorities to levy a tax of one-third of a mill on the dollar of assessed valuation for a public library fund. The board of trustees, composed of the mayor, superin¬ tendent of public instruction, and five others appointed by the mayor is made a corporate body to serve without pay. The act further empowers three or more per¬ sons to organize a corporation for the purpose -of establishing a free public library. See school library laws, page 572. New Mexico.— New Mexico, under an act of 1884 with regard to municipal corpora¬ tions, allows the council or trustees of any city or incorporated town to appropriate money for a public library, provided the annual appropriation shall not exceed 1 mill on the dollar of assessed valuation, and the law further provides that no appropria¬ tion shall be made until the proposition has been submitted to a popular vote. Nevada. — So far as can be learned, Nevada has no library legislation of any kind. New York. — As has been noted fully elsewhere, New York passed a district public library law in 1835. In 1838 the general assembly appropriated $55,600 annually for the support of these libraries. As elsewhere, however, these district libraries proved a failure. Under a provision of the school law in 1847, there were a number of free libraries supported indirectly by taxation. In 1872 a public library law was passed providing that upon the written petition of the majority of all the taxable inhabitants of any village, town, or city, its common council, board of trustees, or town auditors, may establish and maintain a free public library, each qualified voter being required to pay $1 for the foundation, and 50 cents annually thereafter for its maintenance. In 1885 the law was amended so as to include public reading rooms with or without libraries. It is not known that a single library was estab¬ lished under this law. In 1886 a law was passed to encourage the growth of free circulating libraries in the cities. On May 13, 1887, an act was passed providing for libraries in towns and cities of less than 30,000 inhabitants. In 1892, an act for the encouragement of common school and public libraries was passed and approved by the governor on May 14. See library laws, page 572. North Carolina. — This State has no recent legislation other than that pertaining to LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 531 the Stato library. On page 576 will bo found the laws in full, beginning in 1715, and including all legislation in regard to libraries. Forth Dakota. — In 1890 the legislature of North Dakota passed a law for the estab¬ lishment and maintenance of a law library for tho State University. In 1891 a law was passed for the purchase of reference and pedagogical books for a State educa¬ tional library in the office of the superintendent of public instruction. In the same year a law was passed for the establishment of district school board libraries. For library laws, see page 581. Ohio. — Tho first public library laws in Ohio were passed in 1867. Other laws were enacted in 1873 and 1875. Under the school library law of 1853 the State had an experience similar to that of New York, and in 1868 it was a question what to do with tho books of the school libraries of the State. Tho present free public library law authorizes towns and cities to raise money by taxation for the establishment and maintenance of libraries. The law further provides that in cities of 20,000 inhabi¬ tants and over, the board of education may appoint a library commission of three who shall have entire control of the library, its administration, appointment of officers, etc., and even the levying of taxes for the support and increase of the library, but this commission is amenable to the board of education. See library laws, pago 585. Oregon. — The only information obtained from this State is the following regarding school libraries, taken from the school laws of 1893: “ Section 37a. Tho directors of school districts are hereby allowed to purchase from time to time, with the common school fund for their districts, such books of reference and apparatus as the interests of the school demand; and the books of reference and apparatus shall be kept at the schoolhouse during each term of school, for the use of the teachers and pupils: Provided, That the yearly expenditures therefor shall not exceed $50 in districts receiving $500 or over from the common school fund, and 10 per centum thereof in districts receiving less than $500 there from.'7 Pennsylvania . — Pennsylvania has a district library law passed in 1864, and a gen¬ eral library law for the incorporation of library associations was passed in 1874. A law has been passed by the legislature appropriating all taxes on dogs for the sup¬ port and maintenance of public libraries now organized, provided the library com¬ pany shall provide and maintain a free reading room for the town, city, or borough where established. See library laws, page 587. Bliodc Island. — In 1867 Rhode Island gave the towns power to establish public libraries, and in 1869 a law was jjassed empowering two towns to combine and form a library jointly. In 1875 a free public library law was passed. Any town or city may levy a tax of mills on the dollar of valuation for the establishment of a library, and two-tenths of a mill annually thereafter for the maintenance of the same. South Carolina. — On November 16, 1700, the legislative assembly passed an act look¬ ing to the preservation of tho library of the Rev. Thomas Bray, D. D., founder of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. There has been no other legislation, except for the State library. Tennessee. — There is no legislation in this State regarding public libraries. There are in Tennessee, as in a number of other States, general acts for the incorporation and protection of libraries. Texas. — Texas enacted a law in 1874 which provides that any incorporated town or city may establish a free public library and may make such regulations and grant such parts of its revenues for the maintenance and increase thereof as the municipal government of the town may determine. Utah. — On March 9, 1896, tho legislature of Utah passed a bill which provides that the common council of a city or town may levy a tax for the establishment and maintenance of free public libraries. See page 590 for legislation in full. Vermont. — In 1865 Vermont established a law similar to that of New Hampshire, and in 1867 modeled a law after that of Maine. It provides 50 cents per poll annually for the maintenance of the library. In 1869 a library association law was passed. In 1884 the general library law was amended by raising the legal limit of expenditure from $1 to $3 per poll for the establishment of a library, leaving the tax per poll at 50 cents thereafter for the maintenance of the same. On November 9, 1894, a law was passed creating a library commission. Section 1 of that act reads as follows: “The governor shall appoint five persons, residents of the State, who shall consti¬ tute a board of library commissioners. The governor shall designate the chairman thereof. One member of said board shall be appointed for the term of five years, one for four years, one for three years, one for two years, and one for one year, and thereafter the term of office of the commissioners shall be five years. All vacancies of said hoard, whether occurring by expiration of term or otherwise, shall be filled by the governor,'7 Washington. — So far as learned, there has been no general library legislation in Washington. 532 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. West Virginia. — Nothing reported from this State. Wisconsin. — In 1868 Wisconsin passed a law permitting towns and cities to raise by taxation annually $150 for the purchase of books. In 1872 a law was enacted similar to that of Illinois, by which towns and cities were authorized to levy a tax of 1 mill on the dollar for the establishment and support of free public libraries. In 1S76 an excellent law, prepared by the American Library Association, was passed for the establishment and maintenance of libraries in towns and villages. The substance of the law is as follows: “The common council of every city not exceeding in population 50,000 inhabi¬ tants, and the village board, or board of trustees, of every village, and the town board of every town containing over 2,000 inhabitants, shall have power to estab¬ lish and maintain a public library and reading room, and for such purposes may annually levy, and cause to be collected as other general taxes are collected, a tax not exceeding 1 mill on each dollar of taxable property of such city, town, or vil¬ lage, or may set aside and appropriate a sum not to exceed 10 per cent of the money received in any year for license issued for vending or dealing in spirituous, vinous, or fermented liquors, to constitute a library fund, which fund shall be kept by the treasurer separate and apart from other money of the city, town, or village, and to be used exclusively for such purposes : Provided , That no tax shall be levied with¬ out the same first be submitted to a vote and be approved by a majority of the votes cast at such election in such city, town, or village on such question. ” For the government of such free public libraries the law provides for a board of nine directors who shall be appointed by the mayor, president of the town council, or chairman of village trustees, and approved by the general council of the city or town, the said directors to serve without compensation. The law of 1895, appointing a library commission, will be found on page 596. Wyoming. — The public library law of Wyoming, as it appears in the revised stat- utes of 1887, reads as follows: “ Section 68L When the county commissioners of any county have received proper and sufficient guarantees, whether in the form of conveyances or bonds of citizens, or associations or corporations, that a suitable place shall be permanently furnished for the protection and use of a public library, as a condition precedent to their own action, under the provisions of this section it shall be their duty to levy annually a tax of not less than one-eighth of a mill nor more thau one-half of a mill on the dol¬ lar on all taxable property in the county for the establishment and maintenance of a public library to be located at the county seat of such county.” The law also provides that the county commissioners may appoint three trustees to constitute a library board, the same to have entire charge of the organization and management of the library. The law further provides that no part of the library fund shall be expended for sectarian or professional books, and that not more than 25 per cent of said fund shall be expended for works of fiction, but that the books purchased “shall be of a kind best suited to inform the mind and improve the char¬ acter of the reader.” For library laws of the State, see page 597. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Best Library Legislation. W. I. Fletcher. Library Journal, vol, 16 (1891), supple¬ ment 31. Legislation for Public Libraries. H. A. Homes. Library Journal, vol. 4 (1879), page 262. Library Laws: How libraries have been established. W. I Fletcher. In Public Libraries in America, page 20. Library Legislation. Annual Cyclopedia, 1887, vol, 12, page 418. Library Legislation. In Public Libraries, Bureau of Education, 1876. pages 41-58. Report on Library Legislation. H, M. Utley. Library Journal, vol. 14 (1889), page 190, Report on Library Legislation. Thorvald Solberg. Library Journal, vol. 15 (1890), supplement 50, State Legislation in the Matter of Libraries. W. F. Poole. Library Journal, vol. 2 (1877), page 7. Library Legislation, Yearly Report on. By C. C. Soule. Library Journal, vol. 10 (1885), pages 276-278. TV. STATE LIBRARY LAWS. An effort has been made to collect the library laws of the various States and Territories. The success of this effort may be judged from what appears in the pages which follow. This effort, it is hoped, may be the means of stimulating States which heretofore have taken no action with regard to library legislation. The LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES, 533 information from many of the States is fragmentary and not altogether satisfactory, but it is given for what it is worth. In other States it appears that the library laws have never been compiled, so that it would require an extensive search to ascertain what laws regarding public libraries have been enacted. Massachusetts seems to be the only State that has published a compilation of her library laws. This compilation is of great historical value, and is given in full as a sample for other States desiring to make a compilation of their library laws. The laws of North Carolina are given at great length, as much on account of their quaintness as on account of the light which they throw upon the early history of the State. The more recent public library laws of several of the States are given as samples for other States that may be contemplating the establishment of public libraries. It may also be seen from this compilation what progress has been made in the several States regarding the establishment and maintenance of public libraries. The courtesy of the various State officials who have so kindly and promptly replied to letters of inquiry is hereby acknowledged. ARIZONA. [Sections 95 and 96 of the school laws of the Territory of Arizona, as approved March 10, 1887, and amended by the sixteenth legislative assembly .] Section 95. Boards of school trustees in cities and in districts containing one hundred or more census children may use the school fund, together with such moneys as may be added thereto by donation, in the purchase of books for school libraries: Provided , That the amount so expended from the school fund m one year shall not exceed fifty dollars : And, provided f urther, That no warrant shall be drawn by the county school superintendent on the order of any board of trustees in payment for any books unless such order is accompanied by an itemized bill showing the books and the price of each in payment for which the order is drawn. Sec. 96. Libraries are under the control of the board of trustees, and must be kept, when practicable, in the schoolhouses. The libraries shall be free to all pupils of a suitable age belonging to the school, and any resident of a district may become entitled to its privileges by the payment of such annual or monthly fee as may be prescribed by the trustees. The trustees shall be held accountable for the proper care and preservation of the library, and they shall report to the county school superintendent, when required, all library statistics on blanks furnished by the superintendent of public instruction for that purpose. CALIFORNIA. STATE LIBRARY. Section 2292. The State library is under the control of a board of trustees, con¬ sisting of five members, elected by the legislature in joint convention assembled, and holding their office for the term of four years. Sec. 2293. The powers and duties of the board are as follows : 1. To make rules and regulations, not inconsistent with law, for their government and for the government of the library. 2. To appoint a librarian. 3. Whenever necessary, to authorize the librarian to appoint an additional deputy. 4. To sell or exchange duplicate copies of books. 5. To keep in order and repair the books and property in the library. 6. To draw from the State treasury at any time all moneys therein belonging to the library fund. 7. To report to the governor biennially a, statement of their transactions. Sec. 2294. The librarian holds his office lor the term of four years, unless sooner removed by a unanimous vote of all the trustees. Sec. 2295. It is the duty of the librarian : 1. To be in attendance at the library during office hours. 2. To act as secretary of the board of trustees, and to keep a record of their pro¬ ceedings. 3. To purchase books, maps, engravings, paintings, and furniture for the library. 4. To number and stamp all books and maps belonging to the library, and to keep a catalogue thereof. 5. To have bound all books and papers that require binding. 6. To keep a register of all books and property added to library, and of the cost thereof. 7. To keep a register of all books taken from the library. 8. To establish and maintain a system of domestic and foreign exchange of books, and to obtain from the secretary of state such numbers of all State publications as 534 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. may be sufficient to meet the demands of the system established. [Approved March 30; in effect July 6, 1874.] Sec. 2298. Books may be taken from the library by the members of the legislature during the sessions thereof, and by other State officers at any time. Sec. 2297. Books taken by members of the legislature must be returned at the close of the session; and before the controller draws his warrant in favor of any member of the legislature for his last week’s salary he must be satisfied that such member has returned all books taken by him and paid for any injuries thereto. Sec. 2298. The controller, if notified by the librarian that any officer has failed to return books taken by him within the time prescribed by the rules, and after demand made, must not draw his warrant for the salary of such officer until the return is made or three times the value of the books, or of any injury thereto, has been paid to the librarian. Sec. 2299. Every person who injures or fails to return any book taken is liablo to the librarian in three times the value thereof Sec. 2300. The State library fund consists of the fees collected and paid into the State treasury by the secretary of state and surveyor-general. [Approved March 30; in effect July 6, 1874.] Sec. 2301. During the session of the legislature and of the supremo court the library must be kept open every day from nine o’clock a. m. until nine o’clock p. m., and at other times, during such hours as the trustees may direct. Sec. 2302. The annual salary of the librarian is three thousand dollars. Sec. 2303. The annual salary of each deputy is eighteen hundred dollars. Sec. 2304. The librarian must execute an official bond in the sum of three thou¬ sand dollars. Sec. 2305. This chapter shall be in force and effect from and after the first day of May, eighteen hundred and seventy-two. FREE TUBLIC LIBRARIES. Chapter CXXVI. AX ACT to establish free libraries and reading rooms. (Approved April 26, 1S80.) The people of the State of California , represented in senate and assembly , do enact as follows : Section 1. For the purposes of this act cities of this State are classified as follows : 1 Cities of less than one hundred thousand population. 2. Cities of more than one hundred thousand population. Sec. 2. The municipal authorities of any incorporated city of this State are author¬ ized and empowered, by a resolution duly passed for that purpose, to levy and collect as in other cases annually, a tax not to exceed one mill on the dollar, for the purpose of establishing and maintaining in such city free public libraries and reading rooms and purchasing such books, journals, and other publications, purchasing and leasing such real and personal property, and erecting such buildings as may be necessary therefor. Sec. 3. All money and revenue paid, collected, or received by authority of anything herein contained, whether by taxation, gift, devise, bequest, or otherwise, shall belong to and be known and designated as the “ Library fund,” and shall be paid into the proper city treasury, and there kept separate and apart from other funds, and be drawn therefrom as hereinafter provided, but only to be used and applied to the purposes herein authorized. Sec. 4. All property, real and personal, acquired by purchase, gift, devise, bequest, or otherwise, under the provisions of or for any purpose authorized by this act, shall vest, be, and remain in the proper city, and may be protected, defended, and sued for by action at law, or otherwise, in the name of such city as in other cases. Sec. 5. In a, city of less than one hundred thousand population five trustees shall bo elected at the same time and in the same manner as the other town officers are elected. They shall hold office the same length of time to carry into effect the pro¬ visions of this act. Sec. 6. In a city of more than one hundred thousand population the mayor or chief executive officer, during his continuance in office, and eleven citizens thereof, to be appointed by the governor of this State, shall constitute the first board of trustees of any library or reading room established or acquired in such city under this act. Sec. 7. The office of trustee shall be honorary, without salary or other compensa¬ tion, and shall continue during good behavior ; but for good cause a trustee may be removed from office by proceedings in the supreme court in behalf of the proper city in manner provided for the removal from office of other city officers. Sec. 8. The trustees of any library or reading room established or acquired by LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 535 authority of this act shall take charge of the same and of all real and personal property thereunto belonging, or that may be acquired by loan, purchase, gift, devise, or otherwise. They shall meet for business purposes on the lirst Tuesday of each month, and at such other times as they may appoint, at a place to be provided for the purpose, and a majority of all their number shall constitute a quorum for busi¬ ness. They may appoint ono of their number to act as president of the board, and may elect a librarian. They shall also elect a secretary, who shall keep a full state¬ ment and account of all property, money, receipts, and expenditures, and a record and full minutes in writing of all their proceedings. The secretary may certify to such proceedings or any part or portion thereof, under his hand, verified by an official seal adopted and provided by the trustees for that purpose. Sec. 9. Such trustees by a majority vote of all their members, to be recorded in the minutes with the ayes and noes at length, shall have power: 1. To make and enforce all rules, regulations, and by-laws necessary for the admin¬ istration, government, and protection of such library and reading room, and all property belonging thereto, or that may be loaned, devised, bequeathed, or donated to the same. 2. To exercise and administer any trust declared or created for such library or reading room, and to provide memorial tablets and niches to perpetuate the memories of those persons who may make valuable donations thereto. 3. To remove any trustee who may neglect to attend the meetings of the board of trustees, or who may absent himself from such meetings, or without the consent of the board, from the State for three consecutive months; and to fill all vacancies that may from any cause occur in the board. 4. To define the powers and describe the duties of any and all officers, determine the number ancl elect all necessary subordinate officers and assistants, and at their pleasure remove any officer or assistant. 5. To purchase necessary books, journals, publications, and other personal property. 6. To order the drawing and payment, upon properly authenticated vouchers, duly certified by the president and secretary, of money from out of the library fund for any liability or expenditure herein authorized; and generally to do all that may be necessary to fully carry into effect the provisions of this act. 7. To fix the salaries of the librarian, secretary, and other subordinate officers and assistants, and by and with the consent and ajiproval of the legislative or other prox^er authority of the x>rox)er city, expressed by resolution duly x>assed, to purchase said real estate, erect and equip such buildings as may be necessary for such library and reading room. Sec. 10. The orders and demands of the trustees of any such library or reading room of any city, when duly made and authenticated as above provided, shall be verified and audited by the auditing officer, and paid by the treasurer of such city out of the library fund x>roperly belonging thereto, of which full entry and record shall be kept as in other cases. Sec. 11. The trustees of such library or reading room on or before the first Monday of July of each year shall make an annual rep rt to the municipal authorities of their city, giving the condition of their trust, with full statements of all j>roperty and money received, whence derived, how used and exx>ended; the number of books, journals, and other publications on hand, the number added by purchase, gift, or otherwise during each year, the number lost or missing, the number and character of those loaned, and such other statistics, information, and suggestions as may be of general interest. A financial report showing all receipts and disbursements of money shall also be made by the secretary of the board of trustees, duly verified by his oath. Sec. 12. The proper municipal authorities of any city wherein a public library or reading room may be established shall have power to x>ass ordinances for the pro¬ tection of the same and all property thereto belonging, and for imposing penalties for the punishment of x>ersons committing injury to such library or reading room, or the x>roi3erty or books thereof, or for failure to return any book or other x>roperfcy belonging thereto. They shall also have x>ower, by a resolution duly passed for such purpose, to grant, donate, or authorize the use of, either in whole" or in part, any land, square, or real estate belonging to such city or town, or dedicated to public use therein, for the x>urpose of erecting and maintaining a building to be used only for a public library and reading room, as herein authorized. Sec. 13. The words “city or cities” wherever used in this act are intended to and shall include all incoiq^orated cities and towns, and cities and counties with consoli¬ dated government, and shall be construed accordingly. Sec. 14. An act entitled “An act to establish and maintain free public libraries and reading rooms,” approved March the eighteenth, eighteen hundred and seventy- eight, is hereby repealed. All libraries and reading rooms heretofore established by authority of the last-mentioned act in any city or town, or city and county, and all 536 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. property, real and personal, thereto belonging, shall be turned over to the charge, custody, and administration of such trustees as may be continued or appointed therein respectively under the provisions of this act, with like powers and liabilities as if such library had been established under this act. Sec. 15. This act shall take effect on the first day of May, A. D. eighteen hundred and eighty. [Code of California, p. 126.] COLORADO. [From Public Library Handbook, Denver, Colo.] Colorado’s library law is not in a very satisfactory condition. Statutes and parts of statutes passed at different times seem in part to contradict and in part to dupli¬ cate one another. Just what may and may not be done under the existing laws it would probably be impossible to determine except through judicial interpretation. The following digest may serve a good purpose in making it plain that our present library la w is very obscure. The establishment and maintenance of free public libraries is declared to be a proper object of municipal expenditure. The trustees of any city or incorporated town may appropriate money for a public library if at a previous election a majority of the people have voted in favor of such action : Provided, No such appropriation shall exceed one mill upon the dollar. Every city or incorporated town in which such a library shall be maintained shall be entitled to receive a copy of the laws, journals, and all other works published by the authority of the State after the establishment of such a library, for the use of such library, and the secretary of state is authorized to furnish the same from year to year to such city or incorporated town. (Mills’s Annotated Statutes, sec. 4403, par. 76.) The clear proceeds of certain fines and penalties may be applied to the establish¬ ment and support of a public library. (Mills, 2815.) The council or trustees of any city or town may, if they see fit, apply any part of the clear proceeds of certain fines in aid of any library association for the benefit of the public* Provided, Such library association give the council or trustees such rep¬ resentation in its board of management as the latter may ask. (Mills, 2821.) The city council of any incorporated city may establish and maintain a public library and reading room, and may levy a tax for such purpose of not to exceed one mill on the dollar annually ; in cities of over one hundred thousand inhabitants this tax is not to exceed one-half of one mill on a dollar annually. (Sess. Laws, 1893, Chap. CXV, sec. 1.) When any city has established a library under the foregoing section, the mayor shall appoint six persons, who, together with the mayor, shall constitute the library board. The appointments must be approved by the citv council. (Sess. Laws, 1893, Chap. CXV, sec. 2.) One-half of these directors h dd office for one year and one-half for two years from the first of July following their appointment. The mayor shall annually there¬ after appoiut three directors, and shall fill all vacancies. Any director may be removed by the mayor and council for cause. (Sess. Laws, 1893, Chap. CXV, secs. 3 and 4.) No directors shall receive compensation. (Sess. Laws, 1893, Chap. CXV, sec. 4.) Each director shall give a bond of five hundred dollars. (Mills, 2819.) The mayir is president of the board. The board elects other officers, and makes rules and by-laws, has exclusive control of the expenditure of all money, and the management of all grounds, buildings, rooms, etc., owned, leased, or set apart for library purposes. The library fund must be deposited in the city treasury. The board has power to nppoint a suitable librarian and assistants and to fix their com¬ pensation. (Sess. Laws, 1893, Chap. CXV, sec. 5.) All libraries established under this act shall be forever free. The board may exclude any person who wilfully violates the library rules. The use of the library may be extended to persons residing outside of the city, but within the State. (Sess. Laws, 1893, Chap. CXV, sec. 6.) The boarcl of directors must make an annual report to the city council. (Sess. Laws, 1893, Chap. CXV, sec. 7.) The city counoil of any city has power to pass ordinances imposing suitable penal¬ ties for the punishment of persons injuring any book or other property of the library, or for the failure to return books borrowed. (Sess. Laws, 1893, Chap. CXV, sec. 8. ) Any person may make any gift, donation, etc., to the library, by vesting the title of the same in the library board, as special trustees. (Sess. Laws, 1893, Chap. CXV, sec. 9.) If fifty legal voters of any incorporated town present a petition asking that an annual tax be levied to establish and maintain a free public library, and a majority of the legal voters vote in favor of such action at the next annual election tb° LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 537 mentioned in the petitiou shall be collected and known as the “library fund.” Such tax shall cease whenever the majority of legal voters so determine. (Sess. Laws, 1893, Chap. CXV, sec. 10.) At the next regular election after any town shall have voted to establish a free public library, a board of six directors shall be elected, one-half to serve one year and one-half to serve two years. The board shall have the same powers as are con¬ ferred on the library board in a city. (Sess. Laws, 1893, Chap. CXV, sec. 11- ) The board of any school district may order a levy of not to exceed one-tenth of one mill, the proceeds of which shall be used exclusively for the purchase of books for a library which shall be open to the public. (Mills, 4032.) Any library association can sell or lease its property in any manner it may desire to the board of directors of any public library upon the vote of the majority of its subscribers or stockholders. (Sess. Laws, 1893, Chap. CXV, secs 12 and 13.) Public libraries are exempt from taxation. (Mills, 3766; constitution of Colorado, Art. X, sec. 4.) The State librarian is directed to turn over to the librarian of any free public library in this State, if desired for public use therein, and to take the receipt of such librarian therefor, one copy of each and every such book, pamphlet, or periodical published by the State as can be spared, now on hand, or which shall be published by the State from time to time hereafter. (Mills, 2822.) THE STATE LIBRARY. The State superintendent of public instruction is ex officio librarian for the State. The State library is open to the public from ten a. m. to twelve m., and from two p. m. to four p. m. each day, except Sundays and holidays. (Mills, 2802.) The librarian has charge of all books, etc., and keeps a regular file of all such State newspapers as may be donated. (Mills, 2803.) He may employ an assistant librarian who shall have charge of the State library, under such regulations as may be prescribed by the State librarian or by law. The salary of the assistant librarian is one thousand dollars per annum. (Mills, 3979.) All books sent by other States are received and properly labeled and arranged by the librarian. (Mills, 2804. ) Receipt of each book, etc., is acknowledged and a record kept. (Mills, 2805.) The librarian makes rules and regulations. (Mills, 2806.) Statutes, journals, legislative documents, and other books are to be exchanged with other legislative bodies and State libraries as the librarian deems proper. (Mills, 2807. ) All persons are permitted to visit the library, examine and read the books therein, and may take out any book and retain the same three weeks on depositing with the librarian, to insure its safe return, a sum of money equal to double the value of the book. State and county officers have free access to the library, but they may not obtain books for persons not engaged in public work. (Mills, 2808.) The State librarian makes a full and complete report to the general assembly. (Mills, 2809.) The librarian must file a bond. (Mills, 2814.) SCHOOL LIBRARIES. The qualified electors of any district of the third class, when assembled at any regular or special meeting, may order a sufficient levy on all the taxable property of the district to procure libraries for the schools. (Mills, 4027. See also p. 159, Mills, 4032.) [Section 67 of the school laws of the State of Colorado as amended to date, 1893.] Section 67. On or before the day designated by law for the commissioners of each county to levy the requisite taxes for the then ensuing year, the school board in each district shall certify to the county commissioners the number of mills per dollar which it is necessary to levy on the taxable property of the district to raise a special fund for any of the purposes specified in section fifty-one of this chapter, and the county commissioners shall cause the same to be levied at the same time that other taxes are levied, and the amount of such special tax which shall be assessed to each taxpayer of such district shall be placed in a separate column of the tax book, which shall be headed “Special school tax:” Provided, That a school board of a district of the third class shall not certify, as above, to a higher rate than fifteen mills per dollar. There shall also be a column in said tax book in which shall be designated the number of the school district in which the property is listed. This tax shall be collected in cash only, and placed to the credit of the proper district as fast as col¬ lected, and the amount placed to the credit of each district shall bo reported to the secretary of such district at the end of every month, and shall be subject to the order 538 EDUCATION REPORT, 1S93-96. of tlio district board. It is hereby made the duty of the county assessor and county treasurer to so arrange their tax schedules and books as to conform to the above provisions: Provided, That the county assessor shall list all property, both real and personal, in the school district in which the same may be on the lirst day of May: And provided further, That the boaid of any district may order the levy of not "to exceed one-tenth of one mill, the proceeds of which shall be used exclusively in the purchase of books for a library, to be open to the public, under such rules as the district board may deem needful for the proper care of the said library. CONNECTICUT. Below will be found the law relating to libraries passed by the general assembly of 1893, and found oil page 321 of the Public Acts : Sectiox 1. Any town, borough, or city may establish a public library, the use of which, under proper regulations, shali be free to its inhabitants. Any town, borough, or city may expend such sum of money as may be necessary to provide and furnish suitable rooms or a suitable building for the library so established, or for a previously existing public library, the use of which is free to its inhabitants. Sec. 2. Any town, borough, or city may annually expend such sum of money as shall be necessary for the proper maintenance and increase of a public library within its limits whose use is free to its inhabitants. Any town shall have power at any meeting, duly called for the purpose, to fix by a proper by-law the amount which shall be annually expended for the public library therein. The treasurer of such town shall thereafter annually pay upon the order of the officer designated by the directors or trustees managing its public library the bills incurred for the main¬ tenance and increase of said library, not exceeding in the aggregate the sum speci¬ fied in said by-law. The town clerk may deposit in a public library within his town any books other than records placed by law or otherwise in his custody. Sec. 3. Any town, borough, or city may receive, hold, and manage any devise, bequest, or donation for the establishment, increase or maintenance of a public library within its limits. Sec. 4. In the absence of any other lawful provision for the management of a public library in any town or borough, the said town or borough shall elect a board of directors who shall manage said public library. Said board may, from time to time, make by-laws not inconsistent with the laws of this State for its own government and may adopt rules controlling the use of the library and the administration of its affairs. Said board shall have the exclusive right to expend, according to its best judgment, all money appropriated by the town or borough for the library, and shall have control of the grounds, buildings, and rooms used for the purposes of the library. Sec. 5. The first election of directors may take place at any meeting of the town or borough called for that purpose. It shall first be determined by a by-law of the town to be adopted at this meeting what the number of directors constituting said 1oard shall be, such number to be in all cases one divisible by three. One-third of this number shall then be elected to hold office until the next annual meeting, one-third until the second annual meeting, and the remaining one-third until the third annual meeting thereafter, At each annual meeting of said town or borough, one-third of the directors shall be elected by ballot to hold office for three years. Sec. G. No director of a public library elected as above provided shall receive compensation for any services rendered as director. Sec. 7. The State board of education shall annually appoint five persons who shall be known as the Connecticut Public Library Committee. Sec. 8. No member of said library committee shall receive any compensation for his services as such member, but the board may expend a sum not exceeding five hundred dollars annually for clerical assistance and incidental and necessary expenses incurred in the discharge of its duties. Sec. 9. The librarian or director of any public library and the teachers of any public school may ask said committee for advice and assistance in regard to the selec¬ tion and purchase of books, the cataloguing of books and any other matters pertain¬ ing to the maintenance or administration of the library, and the committee shall give advice and assistance in regard to said matters so far as it shall find it practica¬ ble to do so. The committee shall biennially make a report of its doings to the gen¬ eral assembly. Sec. 10. If any town having no free public library shall establish a free public library and shall pmovide for the care, custody, and distribution of books and for the future maintenance and increase of such library in a manner satisfactory to said library committee, said committee is hereby authorized to expend for books to be selected by the said committee a sum not to exceed the amount expended by the said town for the establishment of such library and not to exceed two hundred dollars. Sec, 11, The treasurer of the State shall pay the bills incurred under this act upon LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 533 the order of the secretary of the State hoard of education. Said hoard shall keep an account of all money expended under this act, and the comptroller shall annually audit said account. The provisions of sections 405 and 407 of the General Statutes shall not apply to the payment of money expended under this act. Sec. 12. No person shall be ineligible by reason of sex to servo on the board of directors of any public library or oil the Connecticut public library committee. Sec. 13. Sections 143, 144, and 153 of the General Statutes are hereby repealed. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. AN ACT to establish and provide for the maintenance of a free public library and reading room in the District of Columbia. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Pepresentatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That a free public library and reading room is hereby estab¬ lished and shall be maintained in the District of Columbia, which shall be the property of the said District and a supplement of the public educational system of said District. All actions relating to such library, or for the recovery of anjT penal¬ ties lawfully established in relation thereto, shall be brought in the name of the District of Columbia, and the Commissioners of said District are authorized on behalf of said District to accept and take title to all gifts, bequests, and devises for the purpose of aiding in the maintenance or endowment of said library; and the Commissioners of said District are further authorized to receive as component parts of said library collections of books and other publications that may be transferred to them. Sec. 2. That all persons who are permanent or temporary residents of the District of Columbia shall be entitled to the privileges of said library, including the use of the books contained therein, as a lending or circulating library, subject to such rules and regulations as may be lawfully established in relation thereto. Sec. 3. That the said library shall be in charge of a board of library trustees, who shall purchase the books, magazines, and newspapers, and procure the necessary appendages for such library. The said board of trustees shall be composed of nine members, each of whom shall be a taxpayer in the District of Columbia, and shall serve without compensation. They shall be appointed by the Commissioners of the District of Columbia and shall hold office for six years : Provided, That at the lirst meeting of the said board the members shall be divided by lot into three classes. The first class, composed of three members, shall hold office for two years; the second class, composed of three members, shall hold office for four years; the third class, composed of three members, shall hold office for six years. Any vacancy occurring in said board shall be filled by the District Commissioners. Said board shall have power to provide such regulations for its own organization and government as it may deem necessary. Sec. 4. That the said board shall have power to provide for the proper care and preservation of said library, to prescribe rules for taking and returning books, to fix, assess, and collect fines and penalties for the loss of or injury to books, and to estab¬ lish all other needful rules and regulations for the management of the library as the said board shall deem proper. The said board of trustees shall appoint a librarian to have the care and superintendence of said library, who shall be responsible to the board of trustees for the impartial enforcement of all rules and regulations lawfully established in relation to said library. The said librarian shall appoint such assist¬ ants as the board shall deem necessary to the proper conduct of the library. The said board of library trustees shall make an annual report to the Commissioners of the District of Columbia relative to the management of the said library. Sec. 5. That said library shall be located in some convenient place in the city of Washington to be designated by the Commissioners of the District of Columbia upon the recommendation of the trustees of said library: Provided , That in any municipal building to be hereafter erected in said District suitable provision shall be made for said library and reading room sufficient to accommodate not less than one hundred thousand volumes. Approved, June 3, 1896. FLORIDA. [Digest and compilation of the school laws of Florida, etc., 1893, page 4, sections 10 and 11. page 14, clause XII. Constitution of Florida, Article XII, Education, sections 10 and 11. School Laws of the State of Florida, 1893; clause XII of section 28. J Section 10. The legislature may provide for the division of any county or counties into convenient school districts; and for the election biennially of three school trustees, who shall hold their office for two years, and who shall have the super¬ vision of all the schools within the district; and for the levying and collection of a district school tax, for the exclusive use of public free schools within the district, 540 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-96. whenever a majority of the qualified electors thereof that pay a tax on real or per¬ sonal property shall vote in favor of such levy. Provided, That any tax authorized by this section shall not exceed three mills on the dollar in any one year on the tax¬ able property of the district. Sec. 11. Any incorporated town or city may constitute a school district. The fund raised by section ten may be expended ‘in the district where levied for building or repairing schoolhouses, for the purchase of school libraries and text-books, for salaries of teachers, or for other educational purposes, so that the distribution among all the schools of the district be equitable. School Laws, etc., section 28, clause XII: Each county board of public instruction is directed * * * to perform all acts reasonable and necessary for the promotion of the educational interests of the county and the general diffusion of knowledge among the citizens. IDAHO. There is no direct or mandatory legislation as to libraries for the schools of the State, still there is a permissive one, giving the districts authority to make pur¬ chases not to exceed 25 per cent of the school fund for any one year. Section 45. (Chapter VI of the school laws of 1893.) The trustees of the respective districts must furnish all things, not herein otherwise provided for, necessary for the use and comfort of the schools in their district, such as fuel, improvements, maps, apparatus, and library, and for such purpose may audit and allow accounts against the school fund of their district, not to exceed twenty-five per cent of the amount of such school fund in any one year. ILLINOIS. AN ACT to authorize cities, incorporated towns, and townships to establish and maintain free public libraries and reading rooms. Section 1. (Library and library fund.) Be it enacted hy the people of the State of Illinois, represented in the general assembly, That the city council of each incorpo¬ rated city shall have power to establish and maintain a public library and reading room for the use and benefit of the inhabitants of such city, and may levy a tax of not to exceed one mill on the dollar annually, and in cities of over one hundred thou¬ sand inhabitants not to exceed one-fifth of one mill annually on all the taxable prop¬ erty in the city, such tax to be levied and collected in like maimer with other gen¬ eral taxes of said city, and to be known as the “ Library fund.” Sec. 2. (Nine directors to be appointed.) When any city council shall have decided to establish and maintain a public library and reading room under this act, the mayor of such city shall, with the approval of the city council, proceed to appoint a board of nine directors for the same, chosen from the citizens at large with reference to their fitness for such office; and not more than one member of the city council shall be at any one time a member of said board. Sec. 3. (Expiration of office, etc.) Said directors shall hold office one-third for one year, one-third for two years, and one-third for three years, from the first of July following their appointment, and at their first regular meeting shall cast lots for the respective terms, and annually thereafter the mayor shall, before the first of July of each year, appoint as before three directors to take the place of the retiring directors, who shall hold office for three years, and until their successors are appointed. The mayor may, by and with the consent of the city council, remove any director for misconduct or neglect of duty. Sec. 4. (Vacancies.) Vacancies in the board of directors, occasioned by removals, resignation, or otherwise, shall be reported to the city council, and be tilled in like manner as original appointments, and no director shall receive compensation as such. Sec. 5. (Powers, officers, etc.) Said directors shall, immediately after appointment, meet and organize by the election of one of their number president, and by the election of such other officers as they may deem necessary. They shall make and adopt such by-laws, rules, and regulations for their own guidance and for the gov¬ ernment of the library and the reading room as may be expedient, not inconsistent with this act. They shall have the exclusive control of the expenditure of all moneys collected to the credit of the library fund, and of the construction of any library building, and of the supervision, care, and custody of the grounds, rooms, or buildings constructed, leased, or set apart for that purpose: Provided , That all moneys received for such library shall be deposited in the treasury of said city to the credit of the library fund, and shall be kept separate and apart from oilier moneys of such city, and drawn upon by the proper officers of said city, upon the properly authenticated vouchers of the library board. Said board shall have power to purchase or lease grounds, to occupy, lease, or erect an appropriate building or buildings for the use of said library ; shall have power to appoint a suitable librarian and necessary assistants, and fix their compensation, and shall also have power to LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 541 remove such appointees; and shall, in general, carry out the spirit and intent of this act, in establishing and maintaining a public library and reading room. Sec. 6. (To be free.) Every library and reading room established under this act shall be forever free to the use of the inhabitants of the city where located, always subject to such reasonable rules and regulations as the library board may adopt, in order to render the use of said library and reading room of the greatest benefit to the greatest number; and said board may exclude from the use of said library and read¬ ing room any and all persons who shall willfully violate such rules. Sec. 7. (Annual report.) The said board of directors shall make, on or before the second Monday in June, an annual report to the city council, stating the condition of their trust on the first day of June of that year, the various sums of money received from the library fund and from other sources, and how such moneys have been expended, and for what purposes ; the number of books and periodicals on hand; the number added by purchase, gift, or otherwise during the year ; the number lost or missing ; the number of visitors attending; the number of books loaned out, and the general character and kind of such books, with such other statistics, information and suggestions as they may deem of general interest. All such portions of said report as relate to the receipt and expenditure of money, as well as the number of books on hand, books lost or missing, and books purchased, shall be verified by affidavit. Sec. 8. (Penalties by ordinance.) The city council of said city shall have power to pass ordinances imposing suitable penalties for the punishment of persons com¬ mitting injury upon such library, or the grounds or other property thereof, and for injury to or failure to return any book belonging to such library. Sec. 9. (Legacies and bequests.) Any person desiring to make donations of money, personal property, or real estate for the benefit of such library shall have the right to vest the title of the money or real estate so donated in the board of directors created under this act, to be held and controlled by such board, when accepted, according to the terms of the deed, gift, devise, or bequest of such property; and as to such property the said board shall be held and considered to be special trustees. Sec. 10. (Towns, villages, andtownships — submission to popular vote.) Whenfiffcy legal voters of any incorporated town . village, or township shall present a petition to the clerk of the town, village, or township (or trustee of schools in counties not under township organization), asking that an annual tax may be levied for the establish¬ ment and maintenance of a free public library in such town or township, and shall specify in their petition a rate of taxation not to exceed two mills on the dollar, such clerk (or trustee of schools in counties not under township organization) shall in the next legal notice of the regular annual election in such town or township, give notice that at such election every elector may vote ‘‘For a - mill tax for a free public library/*’ or “Against a - mill tax for a free public library,” specifying in such notice the rate of taxation mentioned in said petition, and if the majority of all the votes cast in such town, village, or township shall be “For the tax fora free public library,” the tax specified in such notice shall be levied and collected in like manner with other general taxes of said town or township, and shall be known as the “Library fund : ; Provided, That such tax shall cease in case the legal voters of any such town, village, or township shall so determine by a majority of votes at any annual election held therein, and the corporate authorities of such towns or villages may exercise the same powers conferred upon the corporate authorities of cities under this act. Sec. 11. (Election of six directors.) At the next regular election after any town, village, or township shall have voted to establish a free public library there shall be elected a library board of six directors, one-third for one year, one-third for two years, and one-third for three years, and annually thereafter there shall be elected two directors, who shall hold their office for three years and until their successors are elected and qualified; which board shall have the same powers as are by this act conferred upon the board of directors of free public libraries in cities. Sec. 12. (Emergent.) Whereas, all the libraries of Chicago were destroyed by the recent fire in that city, and large donations of books have been made to found a free library, and whereas no suitable building or organization exists to receive or preserve them, therefore an emergency exists that this law shall take effect imme¬ diately ; therefore this act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. Approved March 7, 1872. In force March 7, 1872. Statutes of Illinois; Myers, 1871-72. INDIANA. Article IX. — Free libraries. [1883, page 103. Approved March 5, 1883, and in force June 5, 1883.] 4524. (In cities and towns.) In all the cities and incorporated towns in this State the board of school trustees, board of school commissioners, or whatever board may be established by law to take charge of the public or common schools of such city 542 EDUCATION REPORT, 1815-96. or incorporated town, shall have power, if in their discretion they deem it to he the public interest, to establish a free public library, and for the care of the books pro¬ vided therefor, and for the taking from and returning to said library of such books, as the said board may deem necessary and proper, and to provide penalties for the violation thereof: Provided, That in any_city or incorporated town where there is already established a library open to all ‘the j>eople no tax shall be levied for the purpose herein named. 1. (Amendment.) As enacted in 1881, the benefits of this law were confined to cities of ten thousand inhabitants, but the amendment of this section, in force June 5, 1883, extended them to all cities and incorporated towns. 2. See sections 3782-3815, R. S. 1881, and for amendments to these sections see acts 1883, page 200 ; acts 1885, pages 9 and 120. [18S5, page 120. Approved and in force April 2, 1885.] 4524a. (Libraries in certain cities.) Wherever the board of directors of a library heretofore situate within the limits of any incorporated town may have filed the agree¬ ment and request with the board of trustees of said town, provided for in an act entitled “An act supplementary to an act entitled an act to establish public libra¬ ries,” approved February 16, 1852, approved March 8, 1883, and the boardof trustees of such town may have levied a tax for the support of such library in pursuance of such request and agreement and in accordance with said act, and such town may afterwards have become incorporated as a city, the common council of such city shall have all powers to levy tax, and do all other things granted by said act above named to trustees of towns, and all the provisions of said act applicable to such library, and its relations to the town before its incorporation as a city shall, after such incorporation, be applicable to such library, and its relations to such city. [1881, page 47. Approved and in force March 7, 1881.] 4525. (Tax to maintain.) Such board shall also have power to levy a tax of not exceeding one-third of a mill on each dollar of taxable property assessed for taxa¬ tion in such city in each year; which tax shall be placed on the tax duplicate of such city, and collected in the same manner as other taxes; and, when said taxes are collected, they shall be paid over to the said board for the support and main¬ tenance of said public library. Such board shall have power, and it shall be its duty to disburse said fund, and all revenues derived from gift or devise, in. providing and fitting up suitable rooms for such library; in the purchase, care, and binding of books therefor; and in the payment of salaries to a librarian and necessary assistants. 4526. (Real estate.) Any such city in which a free public library may be estab¬ lished in accordance with the terms of this act may acquire by purchase, or take and hold gift, grant, or devise, any real estate necessary for, or which may be donated or devised for, the benefit of such library, and all revenues arising therefrom, and the proceeds of the same, if sold, shall be devoted to the use of said library. [1885, page 1G0. Approved and in force April 8, 1885.] 4526a. (Real estate for libraries.) In any case in which the board of school trus¬ tees of any city of this State have purchased any real estate for the use of a public library of said city, under sections 4524, 4525, and 4526 of the Revised Statutes of 1881, and the revenue derived from taxation under said sections may have been or shall be insufficient to pay for such real estate, then said trustees be and they are hereby authorized to pay for the same out of any money in the treasury of such school city belonging to the special school fund thereof. [1891, page 37. Approved and in force February 26, 1S91.] 4527. (School and library tax in cities of 30,000.) In all cities of the State of Indiana where boards of school commissioners have been elected and are managing the school affairs of said city under an act of the general assembly of the State of Indiana entitled “An act providing for a general system of common schools in all cities of thirty thousand or more inhabitants, and for the election of a board of school commissioners for such cities, and defining their duties and prescribing their powers, and providing for common-school libraries within such cities,” approved March 3, 1871, and the various acts of the general assembly amendatory thereof, and supple¬ mental thereto, and in which the office of city treasurer has been or hereafter may be abolished under and by virtue of an act of the geimral assembly of the State of Indiana, entitled “An act concerning taxation for city and school purposes in cities containing a population of over seventy thousand, as shown by the last census of the United States; to abolish the offices of city assessor and city treasurer in such cities, and provide for the discharge of the duties of such offices, and repealing laws LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 543 in conflict therewith, approved February 21, 1885, ” such hoards of school commis¬ sioners be, and they are hereby, authorized and empowered, in the manner and form in which they are now by law authorized to levy taxes, levy taxes for the suj>port of the schools within such city, including such taxes as may bo required for paying teachers, in addition to the taxes now authorized to be levied by the general assembly of the State of Indiana, not to exceed, however, in any one year the sum of twenty-live cents on the one hundred dollars of tho taxablo property, as shown by the certificate showing the assessment and valuation for taxation of all taxablo real and personal and railroad property of such city, required to bo delivered to said board of school commissioners by section 8 of the said act of the general assembly of tho State of Indiana, approved February 21, 1885, and also to levy a tax each year not exceeding four cents on each one hundred dollars of the taxablo property in said city, as shown by said certificate, for the support of free public libraries in connection with the common schools of said city, and to disburse any and all reve¬ nues raised by such tax levied for library purposes in the purchase of books and in the fitting up of suitable rooms for such libraries, salaries to librarians, and other expenses necessarily incident to the maintenance of such library; also to make and enforce such regulations as they may deem necessary for the taking out and return¬ ing to and for the proper care of all books. belonging to such libraries, and to pre¬ scribe penalties for the violations of such regulations. 4527a. (County treasurer reports to board of school commissioners.) In all cities in tho State of Indiana where boards of school commissioners have been elected and are managing the school affairs of said city, under and by virtue of said act of tho general assembly of the State of Indiana, approved March 3, 1871, and in which tho office of city treasurer has been, or may hereafter bo abolished, under and by virtue of said act of the general assembly of tho State of Indiana, approved February 21, 188o, as mentioned and described in tho first section of this act, it shall be the duty of the county treasurer, on and after making his settlement with the county auditor on the third Monday of April, 1891, and the payment to tho board of school commis¬ sioners of the amount by such settlement found to be due to it, as required by section 13 of the last above-named act, at the close of each calendar month, to make report, duly verified by his oath, to said board of school commissioners of all taxes and delinquent taxes collected within said month, and thereafter, upon demand of the treasurer of said board of school commissioners, to pay to him, for tho use of said board of school commissioners, the full amount of said taxes and delinquent taxes shown by said report to have been collected. Upon such payment being made, tho treasurer of the board of school commissioners shall execute to said county treasurer his receipt for the amount of money so paid, which receipt the latter shall deliver to the secretary of tho board of school commissioners, who shall give him a quietus therefor, and credit said county treasurer with the amount thereof, and charge such amount to tho treasurer of said board of school commissioners. 4527d. (County treasurer’s credits.) Said county treasurer shall thereafter, in his settlement with the county auditor, made as required by law on the third Monday of April and the first Monday of November in each year, present such quietuses to the county auditor, who shall give such county treasurer credit therefor as against the sums with which he is chargeable upon account of tho collection of such school taxes. Note. — This act has a general repealing section. The act reiieals the act of 1889, page 432, on the same subject. [1891, page 35. Approved and in force February 26, 1891.] 4527e. (Bonds for library buildings.) In all cities in the State of Indiana where boards of school commissioners have been elected and are managing the school affairs of said city under an act of the general assembly of the State of Indiana, entitled “An act providing for a general system of common schools in all cities of thirty thousand or more inhabitants, and for the election of a board of school commission¬ ers for such cities, and defining their duties and prescribing their powers, and pro¬ viding for common school libraries within such cities,” approved March 3, 1871, and the various acts of the general assembly amendatory thereof and supplemental thereto, such board of school commissioners be, and they are hereby, authorized and empowered to issue bonds in any sum not exceeding ono hundred thousand dollars for the purpose of erecting buildings for library and school offices to be used in con¬ nection with the common schools of said city. Such bonds to bear interest not exceeding five per cent per annum, payable after eleven years from the date thereof and within twenty years from the date thereof as follows, to wit : One-tenth thereof to be paid eleven years from date, and one-tenth thereof to bo paid each succeeding year until all are paid; the money obtained from the sale of such bonds shall be dis¬ bursed by said board of school commissioners in the erection of a building for the library and school offices, to be used in connection with tho common schools of said city. Such bonds shall be designated “Library building bonds,” and may be issued 544 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. in such denominations, and in such, sums, from time to time, as the hoard of school commissioners may deem expedient ; and each of said bonds shall upon its face des¬ ignate the date of the maturity thereof : Provided , That at no time shall the amount of bonds so issued for such purpose by any such board exceed the sum of one hun¬ dred thousand dollars; and that said board of school commissioners shall have no power to issue any renewal thereof, but the same shall be paid at maturity, as here¬ inafter provided : And provided further', That such bonds shall not be sold for less than their par value. 4527f. (Payment of bonds.) If the board of school commissioners in any city shall exercise the powers granted to it by this act, it shall provide for the payment of said bonds as follows : At the time of the levying of the taxes for the year, which shall be collectible immediately before the maturity of the first maturing of said bonds, said board of school commissioners shall levy, in addition to the levy of taxes they may be authorized to make for other purposes, a tax upon all property subject to taxation by it, sufficient to pay the first maturing of such bonds, and apply the money raised thereby to the payment thereof; and each year thereafter said board of school commissioners shall levy such tax, and apply the proceeds thereof to the payment of the bonds successively maturing until ail have been paid. Note. — This act has a general repealing section. TOWNSHIP LIBRARIES. [1865, page 8. Approved and in force March 6, 1865.] 4529. (Township trustee in charge.) Such library shall be in charge of the town ship trustee, shall be deemed the property of the township, and shall not be subject to sale or alienation from any cause whatever. 4530. (Trustee’s duties.) Such trustee shall be accountable for the preservation of said library; may prescribe the time of taking and the period of retaining books; assess and recover damage done to them by any person ; and adopt regulations neces¬ sary for their preservation and usefulness. He shall provide bookcases; also, blank books, ruled, in which to keep an account of books taken out and returned ; and report tbe number each year to the county superintendent. At the commencement of each school term, at each schoolhouse in the township, he shall cause a notice to be posted up, stating where the library is kept, and inviting the free use of the books thereof by the persons of the township. 4531. (Use of books.) Every family in the township shall be entitled to the use of two volumes at a time from said library, whether any member of such family shall attend school or not, 4532. (Where kept.) The trustee may deposit the library at some central or eligi¬ ble place in the township, for the convenience of scholars and families, and may appoint for that purpose a librarian to have the care and superintendence thereof. 1. (Pay of librarian.) AVhen the township trustee employs a township librarian, he has authority to make a contract to pay him so much a year. The power to appoint a librarian gives the trustee the power to secure the acceptance of such appointment by paying a sufficient, but reasonable, compensation. There is no statute fixing a fee for such work, but the same is to be paid for out of the town¬ ship’s general fund for ordinary township purposes. (Baldwin, attorney-general.) 4533. (When open.) The library shall be open to all persons entitled to its privi¬ leges throughout the year without regard to school sessions, Sundays and holidays excepted. [1885, page 9. Approved and in force February 18, 1885.] 4533a. (Tax levy for library.) Any township in which there has been or may here¬ after be established by private donations a library of the value of one thousand dollars or more for the use and benefit of all the inhabitants thereof, the township trustee of such towns 5 ip shall annually levy and collect not more than one cent on the hundred dollars upon the taxable property within the limits of such township, which shall be paid to the trustees of such library, and be applied by them to the purchase of books for said library, and may, with the consent of the board of com¬ missioners of the county, when it shall become necessary to erect or enlarge a library building, annually, for such period as may be necessary, levy and collect not more than five cents on the one hundred dollars upon the taxable property of said town¬ ship for not more than three years successively, which shall be expended by the trus¬ tees in the erection or enlargement of a library building. 1. When the Young People’s Reading Circle books shall, collectively, even though they may be distributed to the several district schools in the township, amount to one thousand dollars in value, I think the trustee of such township would be war¬ ranted by the above statute in levying a tax of one cent on the one hundred dollars of taxables for the support and addition to such library. (H. D. Vories, superintend¬ ent of public instruction.) LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 545 2. If tlie people of the several districts, or the pupils of the several schools, should appoint trustees, in some uniform way, as they may choose, I think the intent of the above section would be fully complied with. (EL D. Yories, superintendent of public instruction.) [1895, page 240. Approved March 11, 1895. In force - , 1895.] 4533b. (Tax levy for large library.) In any township in which there has been or may hereafter be established by private donations a library of the value of twenty- live thousand dollars or more, including the real estate and buildings used for said library, for the use and benefit of all the inhabitants thereof, the township trustee of such township shall annually levy and collect not more than six cents on the hundred dollars on the taxable property within the limits of such township, which shall be paid to the trustees of such library and be applied by them to the purchase of books for said library and to the cost of the maintenance thereof, and said trustee may, with the consent of the board of commissioners of the county, when it shall become necessary to purchase additional ground for the extension or protection of library buildings already established by such private donation, annually levy and collect not more than five cents on the hundred dollars upon all taxable property of said township for not more than three years successively, which shall be expended by said trustees in the purchase of said property and the erection and enlargement of the library building thereon. (School Laws of Indiana, 1895, pp. 184-ISO.) IOWA. The establishment and maintenance of a free public library is hereby declared to be a proper and legitimate object of municipal expenditure ; and the council or trustees of any city or incorporated town may assess, levy, and tax appropriate money for the formation and maintenance of such a library, open to the free use of all its inhabitants under proper regulations, and for the purchase of land and erec¬ tion of buildings, or for the hiring of buildings or rooms suitable for tnat purpose, and for the compensation of the necessary employees : Provided, That the amount assessed, levied, and taxed in any one year for the maintenance of such a library shall not exceed one mill upon the dollar upon the assessed valuation of such city or town. Any such city or incorporated town may receive, hold, or dispose of any and all gifts, donations, devises, and bequests that may be made to such city or incorporated town for the purpose of establishing, increasing, or improving any such public library, and the city or town council thereof may apply the use, profits, proceeds, interests, and rents accruing therefrom in such manner as will best promote the prosperity and utility of such library. Every city or incorporated town in which such a public library shall be maintained shall be entitled to receive a copy of the laws, journals, and all other works published by authority of the State after the establishment of such library for the use of such library, and the Secretary of State is hereby author¬ ized and required to furnish the same from year to year to such city or incorporated town. But no appropriation of money can be made under this section, unless the proposition is submitted to a vote of the people; and at the municipal election of such city or town the question, “ Shall the city (or town council, as the case may be) accept the benefit of the provisions of this section?77 [Chapter 18, acts twenty-second general assembly.] That all cities of the first class, organized as such since January 1, 1885, that have accepted the benefits of the provisions of section 461 of the Code of Iowa, shall, in addition to the powers conferred by said section, have power to levy and collect a tax not to exceed three mills on the dollar of the assessed valuation of such city or town to pay the interest on any indebtedness heretofore contracted, or that may hereafter be contracted or incurred, for the purchase of land and the erection of build¬ ings for a public library, or the hiring of rooms or buildings for such purposes, or for the compensations of the necessary employees, as provided in section 461 of the code, and to create a sinking fund for the extinguishment of such indebtedness. [Chapter 41, acts twenty -fifth general assembly.] There shall be established and created in any city or incorporated town that has heretofore accepted or may hereafter accept the benefits of the provisions of section 461 of the Code of Iowa, a board of library trustees, consisting of nine members, to be appointed by the mayor by and with the approval of the council. Said trustees first appointed shall hold office, viz : One-third for two years, one- third for four years, and one-third for six years from the first day of July following their appointment, and at their first meeting shall cast lots for the respective terms, reporting the result of such lot to the council; and biennially thereafter, before the first day of July, the mayor shall appoint, by and with the approval of the council, ED 96 - 18 546 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. three trustees to succeed the trustees retiring on the following first day of July, and who shall hold office for six years from such first day of July. Trustees shall hold until their successors are appointed and qualified. Vacancies occurring in the board shall he filled by appointment by the mayor in like manner, such appointee to fill out the uuexpired term for which the appoint¬ ment is made. Bona fide citizens and residents of the city or incorporated town (male or female) over the age of twenty-one years are alone eligible to membership. The removal of any trustee permanently from the city shall render his office as trustee vacant. Members of said board shall receive no compensation for their services. Said board of library trustees shall have and exercise the following powers : To meet and organize by the election of one of their number as president of the board, and by the election of a secretary and such other officers as the board may deem necessary; to have charge, control, and supervision of the public library, its appur¬ tenances and fixtures and rooms containing the same, directing and controlling all the affairs of such library; to employ a librarian and such assistants and employees as may he necessary for the proper management of said library, and fix their com¬ pensation, but prior to such employment the compensation of such librarian and assistants shall be fixed for the term of employment by a majority of the members of said board voting in favor thereof; to remove such librarian, assistants, or employees by a vote of two-thirds of such board for misdemeanor, incompetency, or inattention to the duties of such employment; to select and make purchases of books, pam¬ phlets, magazines, periodicals, papers, maps, journals, furniture, fixtures, stationery, and supplies for such library; to make and adopt, amend, modify, or repeal by-laws, rules, and regulations not inconsistent with law, for the care, use, government, and management of such library and the business of said board, fixing and enforcing penalties for the violation thereof ; to have exclusive control of the expenditures of all taxes levied under section 461 of the Code of Iowa and collected for, and all moneys belonging to the library fund; also to perform and exercise such other duties and powers as may be conferred by this act or by law. Said board shall keep a record of its proceedings. All moneys received or set apart for the maintenance of such library shall be depos¬ ited in the treasury to the credit of the library fund, and shall be kept by the treas¬ urer separate and apart from other moneys of such city or incorporated town and paid out upon the orders of the board of library trustees, signed by its president and secretary, and countersigned by the mayor. The board of library trustees shall, before the first day of August in each year, 461 determine and fix the amount or rate to be appropriated" for one year under section of the Code of Iowa for the maintenance of such library, and cause the same so fixed to be certified to the council, and the council shall make such appropriation and levy the necessary tax for such year to raise said sum and certify the percentage or rate, not exceeding one mill on the dollar, of such tax to the county auditor, with other taxes levied by the city or incorporated town for said year under section 495 of the Code of Iowa : Provided , That in cities of the first class the city council may and shall levy and certify such further sum of tax as it may deem expedient to create a sinking fund and pay interest under the provisions of chapter 18, acts of the twenty- second general assembly, and acts amendatory thereof. The board of library trustees shall also each year make to the council a report for the year ending June 30, containing a statement of the condition of the library, the number of books added thereto, the number of books circulated, the number of books not returned or lost, the amount of fines collected, and the amount of money expended in the maintenance of the library during such year, together with such further information as the board may deem important. [Chapter 42, acts twenty-fifth general assembly .] That where in any city of the first class incorporated under the general incorpora¬ tion laws of the State, whose population according to the census of 1875 was not less than nineteen thousand, the city council of such city has heretofore levied a tax known as or called a “library tax” upon the taxable property of such city, the levy and the assessment and collection of such tax shall be and are hereby declared to be legal and valid, in all respects the same as though such tax had been fully authorized by law. That where any of such taxes now remain uncollected, the treasurer of the county in which such city is situated is hereby authorized to collect the same as other taxes are collected. (Code of Iowa, sec. 461.) LOUISIANA. There shall be established a public library of the State of Louisiana, which shall be placed in the Stato House. LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 547 Section 1392. It sliall be tlio duty of tlie secretary of state annually to employ a competent librarian at an annual salary of nine hundred dollars, and an assistant librarian at an annual salary of six hundred dollars, and both librarian and assist¬ ant librarian shall be required to enter into good and solvent bond in the sum of five hundred dollars with the governor of the State for the faithful performance of their respective duties. Sec. 1393. Before the librarian shall take possession of the State library an inventory shall be taken of the books and papers, clearly setting forth all the printed books and the manuscripts which shall be placed under the care and custody of the librarian. The inventory shall be taken under the inspection of the secretary of state and State treasurer. Sec. 1391. Two copies of said inventory shall be made, both certified to be correct by the signatures of the secretary of state, the librarian, and the State treasurer. One of said copies shall be deposited in the office of the secretary of state and the librarian shall retain the other. Sec. 1395. All books, statutes, manuscripts, plans, maps, papers, and documents of every description belonging to the State shall be placed under the charge and respon¬ sibility of the said librarian. Sec. 1396. In addition to the inventory required to be made, it shall be the duty of the librarian immediately after his appointment to make two exact catalogues, so as to class separately the books and documents which are to be preserved from those which are to be distributed or for sale. Sec. 1397. The secretary of state shall establish such rules, regulations, and restrictions not inconsistent with law in relation to the library as he may deem proper, and from time to time alter and amend the same. Sec. 1398. It shall be the duty of the librarian to attend every day, Sundays and legal holidays not excepted, and to see that the library confided to his care shall suffer no injury, and in case of neglect or inattention to his duties, the secretary of state shall forthwith remove him. Sec. 1399. The librarian shall keep the library open daily from 8 o’clock a. m. to 9 o’clock p. m.. Sundays and legal holidays not excepted. Sec. 1400. The librarian, on retiring from office, shall be bound to account for all the books and papers which may have been mentioned in the inventory and such as he may have received since; and in case the books can not be accounted for or procured, he shall pay such sum, not exceeding the amount of the bond, as by the secretary and treasurer of state shall be deemed a sufficient compensation for the loss of such "books. ♦ Sec. 1401. Every citizen of the State shall have free access to the library, provided no book be taken out of the same, except when for the use of either branch of the legislature. Sec. 1402. The State librarian is authorized, under the direction of the secretary of state, to exchange with the several States of the Union, or with any foreign Gov¬ ernment, scientific institute, or person, any books of this State, such as reports of the supreme court, codes, digests, statutes, etc., for other books. Sec. 1403. All the books of the State, those for distribution among the -courts and parishes and public officers, as well as those remaining permanently in the State library, shall be placed under the control of the secretary of state, who shall direct and see that this duty is performed by the State librarian. Sec. 1404. All books distributed to State and other officers, except to members of the legislature, shall be and remain the property of the State of Louisiana, and such books shall be for the use of the office, and shall be, by the officer receiving them, delivered over to his successor in office, except in case of the removal or resignation of such officer, he shall deliver such books forthwith to the clerk of the district court in the parish in which his said office is located, taking a receipt therefor from such successor or clerk, which said receipt or a copy thereof, duly certified by such clerk, shall be filed in the office of secretary of state by such clerk or successor so receiving the same. It shall be proper for the secretary of state to cause to be delivered all books authorized to be delivered to parish, city, or town officers to the clerk of court in and for the parish in which said offices are located, to be by such clerk delivered to such officers, and such clerk shall take a receipt for all books so delivered from the officer receiving the same, and file a certified copy thereof in the office of the secretary of state. Any person neglecting or refusing to deliver such books to his successor in office or to the clerk of the district court, as hereinbefore provided, after demand thereof made, shall be subject to a fine of fifteen dollars for each and every book so withheld, to be recovered before any justice of the peace, with costs of suit, at the complaint of such successor, or clerk, or the district attorney, to be prosecuted, on request, by the district attorney. Sec. 1405. The secretary of state shall cause to be marked in a proper manner upon the outer cover of each book distributed the name of the State of Louisiana and for what use such book is intended. The secretary of state shall keep a 548 EDUCATION EEPOBT, 1895-96. record of all books so distributed, and be shall take a receipt therefor from the per¬ son to whom the same are delivered. He shall furnish to each person hereafter elected or appointed to any office entitling such person to the receipt of any book or books within a reasonable time after the election or appointment of such person to such office a certified list, under the seal of State, of all books to which such per¬ son is entitled. Sec. 1406. The secretary of state shall transmit free of postage to the Library of Congress, to the Smithsonian Institute, and to the governor of each State and Ter¬ ritory of the United States a copy of such acts, journals, documents, Eevised Statutes, and such reports of the decisions of the supreme court as may be necessary to complete their sets of the same, accompanied with a request of a similar favor and like return to be made to the governor of this State of the laws, documents, and reports of the United States and of the respective States and Territories. Sec. 1407. The remainder of said books not so distributed as aforesaid shall be deposited in the State library, five copies of which shall not be permitted to be taken from the library, the remaining copies only for the use of the members of the legislature and State officers on their receipt therefor duly given ; and in such case they shall not be removed from the State buildings, but shall be returned to the library at the close of the session of the then legislature, or within one week from the date of such removal. (Eevised Statutes, 1886.) MAINE. AN ACT to amend chapter fifty -five of the Revised Statutes relating to free public libraries. Section 1. Section nine of chapter fifty-five of the Eevised Statutes is amended by striking out all of said section and inserting the following: “ Section 9. Any town may establish a free public library therein for the use of its inhabitants and provide suitable rooms therefor, under such regulation for its gov¬ ernment as the inhabitants from time to time prescribe, and may appropriate for the foundation and commencement of such library a sum not exceeding two dollars, and for its maintenance and increase annually a sum not exceeding one dollar, for each of its ratable polls in the year next preceding.” Sec. 2. The municipal officers in any town or city where a free public library is established shall annually, on the first day of May, certify to the State treasurer the amount of money appropriated and expended by said town or city during the pre¬ ceding year for the purchase of books and documents for the use and benefit of such free public library ; and the State treasurer thereupon shall pay to said town from the State treasury for the purchase of books for the use of such library a sum equal to ten per cent of the amount so expended by said town as certified by its municipal officers. Sec. 3. Any town or city in which there is a library owned or controlled by a cor¬ poration or association may appropriate a sum not exceeding five hundred dollars yearly to procure from such library the free use of its books for all the inhabitants of the town or city under such restrictions and regulations as shall insure the safety and good usage of the books, and such library may then be considered a free public library, and said town or city shall be entitled to the benefits of the preceding sec¬ tion, provided that any books and documents donated by the State shall be and remain the property of said municipality. Sec. 4. In every town and city where a free public library exists, the State libra¬ rian shall transmit to such library all laws, Maine reports, and other documents which the town or city is by law entitled to receive from the State, and the same shall be constantly kept in such library for the use and benefit of all the citizens; and the municipal officers of said town or city shall transfer to said library all the laws, Maine reports, and other documents heretofore received from the State and now in custody of any of the officers of said town or city; and the officers of said library, on or before the first day of April of each year, shall send to the State libra¬ rian a report containing a list of all books and documents purchased with the State stipend for the preceding year, and of all books and documents received from the State in said library. Sec. 5. The State librarian is hereby authorized and directed to donate from the Maine State library to any town of less than fifteen hundred inhabitants, and having no free public library owned and controlled by the town, books purchased for that purpose not exceeding fifty per cent in value tiie books and documents purchased by said town for the purpose of founding a free public library therein, said donation in no case to exceed one hundred dollars. Sec. 6. No town shall be entitled to the benefits of this provision until its legal voters, at a regularly called town meeting, have raised and appropriated not less than one hundred dollars for the purchase of books, and have provided for the care, custody, and distribution of its own books and of those to be donated by the State. Sec. 7. The librarian or trustees of any free public library may ask the governor LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 549 and council for advice in regard to the selection of hooks, and may receive instruc¬ tion at the State library in cataloguing, and any other matters pertaining to the maintenance or administration of the library. Approved, March 21, 1893.’ (Revised Statutes, chapter 242.) MARYLAND. The Maryland Code, article 77, section 87, provides as follows: “For the further encouragement of education, district school libraries ought to bo established in each schoolhouse district, under the care of the teacher as librarian. For this purpose the sum of ten dollars per annum is ordered to be paid by the board of county school commissioners, out of the State school fund, to any schoolhouse district as library money as long as the people of the district raise the same amount annually. The books must bo selected by the board of district school trustees.” To aid in the execution of this law, the State board of education resolved some months since to publish a list of books suitable for school libraries, and requested the undersigned to prepare a list to be submitted to the board. The several mem¬ bers of the board furnished valuable lists, and from these, and by aid of the cata¬ logues of the principal publishers of the country, and of published lists for public school libraries, prepared by the State superintendents of public instruction of several of the States, who kindly furnished us the results of their labor, this list has been compiled. It is arranged under three general heads, viz : (1) Books suitable for primary grades ; (2) books suitable for grammar school grades, and (3) books suitable for high school grades. Under the first head the subdivisions are fiction and miscellaneous; under the second and third, history, biography, travels, science and natural history, fiction, poetry, and miscellaneous. A list of reference books and one of professional books for teachers are added. We have endeavored to exclude all sectarian and partisan books. The books for primary grades have been selected with special care, and we hope will be found to be especially interesting and instructive. We have aimed to include the works of only the best writers of each class of books. The list gives the retail price of each book. Baltimore booksellers have agreed to furnish the books on the list to public school libraries at a discount of from 10 to 33£ per cent. We respectfully recommend you to deal with them. Some publishers allow a larger discount to dealers than others, and we consider the above offer fair and liberal. You can select a list of books and send it to your bookseller for net prices before purchasing. It is recommended that libraries be kept in substantial bookcases, and that books be covered with stout paper before they are used. This list will be furnished to district schools having libraries or proposing to pur¬ chase libraries, through the school examiner or directly from this office, upon applica¬ tion, inclosing 4 cents in postage stamps. — E. B. Prettyman, State superintendent of public instruction. (School laws, 1893.) MASSACHUSETTS. LIBRARY LEGISLATION. 1798. AN ACT to enable the proprietors of social libraries to manage the same. [Chapter 45, Laws of 1798, repealed by the act of March 8, 1806.] Section 1. Be it enacted by the senate and house- of representatives in general court assembled, and by the authority oft the same, That any seven or more persons capable of contracting, in any towns or districts in this Commonwealth, who have or shall become proprietors in common of any library, may form themselves into a society or body politic for the express purposes of holding, increasing, preserving, and using such library, and to that end any five or more of them may apply in writing by them signed, to any justice of the peace within the county wherein the same town or district may be, stating the purposes of their meeting, and requesting him to issue his warrant tor calling a meeting of the said proprietors, which justice may grant his warrant to some one of them, directing him to call a meeting of the said proprietors at the time and place and for the purposes in such warrant expressed; which pro¬ prietors shall notify such meeting by posting up the substance of said warrant in some public place in the said town or district where the said library shall be kept seven days at least before the time of said meeting. Sec. 2. Be it further enacted, That any seven or more of the proprietors of such library, met in pursuance of such notice, shall have power to choose a moderator, 550 EDUCATION REPOST, 1895-96. clerk, librarian, collector, treasurer, and other necessary officers and committees; which cleric shall he sworn to the faithful and impartial performance of his duties; and the said proprietors, when so incorporated, shall have power to raise such moneys by assessments on the several shares in such library as they may judge necessary for preserving and increasing the same, and for the management [of] the affairs of the corporation, to make by-laws for the due regulation of its concerns, not repugnant to the constitution and laws of this Commonwealth, and to annex and recover pen¬ alties for any breach of such by-laws, not exceeding three dollars for any one breach thereof. Sec. 3. Be it further enacted, That the proprietors of any such library, so incorpor¬ ated, shall be called and known by the name of the Proprietors of the Social Library in the town of - , and by that name shall sue and be sued, prosecute and defend, plead and be impleaded in all actions and processes in law, and when there shall be more than one such library in any town or district the proprietors thereof shall be known and called by the name of “The Proprietors of the Second, Third, Fourth, etc. (as the case may be) Social Library in the town of - Sec. 4. And he it further enacted, That when any such meeting shall be dissolved the proprietors may again incorporate themselves and proceed in all respects as aforesaid; and in any meetings of such proprietors there shall be allowed one vote for each share. And the proprietors of any such library shall have power to hold, to them, their successors and assigns, real or personal estate to the amount of live hundred dollars over and above the value of their books, and shall have power at any regular meeting to fix the mode and manner of calling future meetings. [Passed March 3, 1798.] 1806. AX ACT to enable the proprietors of social libraries to manage tbe same. [Passed March 8, 18G6; repealed by chapter 146 of the lie vised Statutes.] Section 1. Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives in general court assembled , and by the authority of the same. That any seven or more persons, capable of contracting, in any town or district in this Commonwealth, who shall become proprietors in common of any library, may form themselves into a society or body politic for the express purposes of holding, increasing, preserving, and using such library; and to that end any five or more of them may by an application in writ¬ ing, by them signed, to any justice of the peace within the same county wherein the said town or district may be, stating the purposes of their meeting, and requesting him to issue his warrant for calling a meeting of the said proprietors ; and the said justice may grant his warrant to one of them, directing him to call a meeting of the said imoprietors, at the time and place, and for the jnirposes expressed in such war¬ rant; and said meeting shall be called by posting up the purport of said warrant in some public place in the said town or district where the said library shall be kept seven days at least before the time of said meeting; and the proprietors being thus met and organized, they may then agree and determine upon a method of call¬ ing future meetings; and in all cases votes shall be determined by counting and allowing one vote to each share ; and tbe proprietors of any such library shall have power to possess and hold, to them, their successors and assigns, real or personal estate to any amount not exceeding five thousand dollars over and above the value of other books. Sec. 2. Be it further enacted, That any seven or more of the proprietors of such library, met in pursuance of such notice, shall have power to choose a moderator, clerk, librarian, collector, treasurer, and such other officers as they may find neces¬ sary ; and the clerk shall be sworn to the faithful performance of his duties ; and the treasurer shall give bond, with sufficient surety or sureties, faithfully to account for all moneys he may receive by virtue of this act. And the said proprietors, when so incorporated and organized, shall have power to raise moneys by assessments on the several shares in such library, as they may judge necessary for preserving and increasing the same ; to make by-laws for the due regulation of the concerns of the said corporation not repugnant to the constitution and laws of this Commonwealth, and to annex and recover penalties for any breach of such by-laws not exceeding three dollars for any one breach thereof. Sec. 3. Be it further enacted, That the proprietors of any such library, so incorpo¬ rated, shall be called and known by the name of the Proprietors of the Social Library in the town of - , and by that name shall sue and be sued, prosecute and defend, plead and be impleaded in all actions and processes in law ; and when there shall be more than one such library in any town or district the proprietors thereof shall be known and called by the name of the Proprietors of the Second, Third, Fourth, etc. (as the case may be), Social Library in the town of - . Sec. 4. Be it further enacted, That an act passed the third day of March, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and ninety-eight, entitled “An act to LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 551 enable the proprietors of social libraries to manage the same/'’ be, and hereby is, repealed: Provided, nevertheless, That with regard to all suits and causes of suits, and all rights existing under and by force of said act, it shall be considered as in full force. 1815. AX ACT authorizing the establishment of law libraries. [Chapter 177, laws of 1815.] Section 1. Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives, in general court assembled , and by the authority of the same. That in every county withm this Common¬ wealth wherein there shall reside five or more attorneys at law regularly admitted and sworn to practice before the circuit court of common pleas it shall be lawful for any five or more of them to make application in writing to any justice of the peace within and for said county, requesting him to issue his warrant for calling a meeting of the practitioners at law within the same county to meet at some certain time and place for the purpose of organizing the establishment of a law library; and such justice shall thereupon issue a warrant under his hand and seal, directed to some practitioner at law residing within the shire town of said county, requiring him to notify the other members of the bar residing therein, either personally or by written notification posted up at some conspicuous place in the court-house in said county, at least seven days before the time of meeting as mentioned in said warrant, which meeting shall be holden at the next succeeding term of the circuit court of common pleas in said county, on some day subsequent to the second day from the commencement of it3 session; and the person to whom such warrant is directed shall serve the same in manner as aforesaid, and make return thereof under his hand to the justice who issued the same, or to some other justice of the peace within and for said county, whose duty it shall be to preside at said meeting in the choice of a clerk, a treasurer, and librarian, each of whom shall thereupon be sworn by the pre¬ siding officer, to the faithful discharge of their respective duties, and to hold their offices during the pleasure of the association; and the said members of the bar so notified and met, to the number of five or more, shall at their first meeting prescribe the mode of calling future meetings of said association and establish such rules and regulations as may be found necessary from time to time to carry the purposes of this act into effect not repugnant to the constitution and laws of this Common¬ wealth; and at all future meetings the oldest member of the bar residing within said county, who is present, shall preside. Sec. 2. Be it further enacted, That the sum of twenty dollars, which by law is now paid into the county treasury on the admission of all practitioners at the bar of the circuit court of common pleas, shall hereafter be paid to the treasurer of every law library association in any county in this Commonwealth that shall be formed in pur¬ suance of this act, which treasurer shall give his receipt therefor to the person paying the same, which sum so paid, as duty or excise as aforesaid, together with all bequests and donations made thereto, shall lie applied, under the direction of said association, to form a law library for the use of said county, under such reasonable regulations as the said association may appoint. And the clerk of said association shall keep an exact record of all the proceedings thereof, and the said treasurer shall keep an exact account of all moneys, donations, and bequests belonging to said association, which account he shall he holden annually to settle under oath with the association, in such manner as they shall prescribe ; and the librarian, as well as the treasurer and clerk, shall he answerable in an action on the case for all malfeasance or misfeasance in their respective offices to the association aforesaid, by the name of * • The Law Library Association/’ for the county within which it is formed: Provided , however, That the law library aforesaid shall be kept in a shire town within the county. Sec. 3. Beit further enacted, That the act passed on the twenty-seventh day of Feb¬ ruary. in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and ninety-six," so far as it relates to the payment of twenty dollars into the county treasury by persons admitted to practice law before the circuit courts of common pleas, as it relates to the counties in this Commonwealth in which law library associations are, or shall be, formed in pursuance of this act, and as to the receipt to be given by the county treasurer therefor, he, and the same is herebv, repealed. [Approved l>v the governor, March 2, 1815.] 1S23. AN ACT respecting law libraries. [Chapter 51, laws of 1823.] Be it enacted, by the senate and house of representatives, in general court assembled, and by the authority of the same, That the excise paid by attorneys on their admission to the supreme judicial court shall hereafter be paid and appropriated in the same 552 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. way and manner as the excise now paid by attorneys on their admission to the court of common pleas is paid and appropriated, any law to the contrary notwithstanding. [Approved by the governor, January 30, 1823.] 1825. AH ACT in addition to an act entitled “An act in addition to an act entitled ‘An act to enable the proprietors of social libraries to manage the same/ ” [Chapter 65, laws of 1825; repealed by chapter 146 of the Revised Statutes.] Section 1. Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives, in general court assembled , and by the authority of the same, That any seven settled and ordained min¬ isters of the gospel within this Commonwealth who shall become proprietors in common of any theological library, may form themselves into a society or body politic, by the name of the “ Theological Society in the Town of — - f for the express purpose of holding, increasing, preserving, and using such library ; and shall have all the powers and privileges and be subject to all the duties and requirements con¬ tained in an act passed the eighth day of March, in the year of our Lord one thou¬ sand eight hundred and six, entitled “An act to enable the proprietors of social libraries to manage the same;,; and to this end any five of them may make applica¬ tion to any justice of the peace within the county in which the library is to be kept, stating the purposes of their meeting and requesting him to call a meeting of said proprietors ; and the said justice may thereupon grant his warrant to any one of them, directing him to call such meeting accordingly; and said meeting shall be called by posting up the purport of said warrant in such public places in said county as said justice shall order; and the proprietors, thus met and organized, may then agree upon the method of calling future meetings. [Approved by lieutenant- governor, February 12, 1825.] 1839. AH ACT in further addition to an act entitled “An act to enable proprietors of social libraries to manage the same. [Chapter 138, laws of 1829.] Section 1. Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives* in general court assembled, and by the authority of the same, That any twenty or more persons in any town or county within this Commonwealth who shall, by writing, associate them¬ selves for the purpose of mutual improvement and for raising the standard of com¬ mon education, may become a body politic, by the name of “ The Lyceum of the Town of - ,” or “the County of — — ” (as the case may be), by observing and pursuing the provisions of the act to which this is in addition in regard to forming proprietors of libraries into bodies politic, and being so formed shall be entitled to all the pow¬ ers and capabilities to which the proprietors of said libraries are entitled by that act; and such lyceurn shall have the further power to possess and hold to them, their suc¬ cessors, and assigns, real and personal estate not exceeding ten thousand dollars. Sec. 2. Be it further enacted, That this act may be altered or repealed at the pleas¬ ure of the legislature. [Approved by the governor, March 4, 1829.] 1836. SOCIAL LIBRARIES. [Revised Statutes, 1836, chapter 41.] Section 1. Any seven or more proprietors of a library may form themselves into a corporation, under such corporate name as they shall adopt, for the purpose of pre¬ serving, enlarging, and using such library; and for that purpose any justice of the peace may, on the application of five or more of such proprietors, issue his warrant to one of them, directing him to call a meeting of the proprietors at the time and place and for the purposes, expressed in the warrant; and said meeting shall be called by posting up the substance of the warrant in some public place in the town where the said library is kept, seven days at least before the time of meeting. Sec. 2. Any seven or more of the proprietors of such library, met in pursuance of such notice, may choose a president, a clerk, who shall be sworn to the faithful dis¬ charge of his duty ; a librarian, collector, treasurer, and such other officers as they may find necessary; and they may also determine upon the mode of calling future meetings. Sec. 3. When such proprietors shall be organized as a corporation, in the manner before provided, they shall have all the powers and privileges and be subject to all the duties and liabilities of a corporation organized according to the provisions of the forty-fourth chapter, so far as the said provisions shall be applicable in such case and not inconsistent with this chapter. LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 553 Sec. 4. Tlio treasurer shall givo bond, with, sufficient sureties, to tbe satisfaction ’ of the proprietors, for tlio faithful discharge of his duties. ! Sec. 5. The said proprietors may raise such money, by assessments on tlio several shares, as they shall judge necessary for the purposes of preserving, enlarging, and using tho library; and the shares may be transferred according to the provisions of the forty-fourth chapter. Sec. 6. The said proprietors may hold real and personal estate to any amount not exceeding five thousand dollars, in addition to the value of their books. 1S37'. AN" ACT authorizing school districts to establish libraries for the use of common schools. [Chapter 147, acts of 1837 ; repealed by chapter 81, acts of 1849.] Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives , in general court assembled , and by the authority of the same, as follows: Section 1. Each legally constituted school district in this Commonwealth is hereby athorized to raise money for the purpose of establishing and maintaining a common-school library and apparatus for the use of the children therein, under such rules and regulations as said district may adopt : Provided, That no greater sum than thirty dollars the first year, or ten dollars in any subsequent year, shall be expended for the purpose aforesaid. Sec. 2. Any sum of money raised by virtue of this act at a meeting called for the purpose, shall be assessed, collected, and paid over as other school district taxes are. [Approved by the governor, April 12, 1837.] 1842. AN ACT in relation to law library associations. [Chapter 94, acts of 1842.] Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives, in general court assembled , and by the authority of the same, as follows : Section 1. The counsellors and attorneys at law, duly admitted to practice in the courts of this Commonwealth, resident in the several counties thereof except Suffolk, are hereby constituted corporations within their respective counties, for the purpose of holding and managing the law libraries belonging to said counties, by the name of the Law Library Association for the county in which it is formed, and may adopt by-laws for that purpose : Provided, the same shall be aj>proved by the justices of the court of common pleas ; and the officers of such associations shall be a clerk, treasurer, and librarian, whose duties shall be defined by the by-laws, which shall be adopted and approved as aforesaid. Sec. 2. The clerks of the several courts shall, within sixty days after this law shall take effect, call and notify the first meeting of the corporations in their respective counties, by posting up notifications thereof in some conspicuous place in the court¬ house of such county, to be held during the term of the court of common pleas, which shall be held next after ten days from the time of posting up such notification, at which meetings said clerks shall preside until a clerk of such association shall be chosen: Provided , That any inhabitant of the county shall have the right to use the books in said library, subject to such regulations as shall be prescribed by the asso¬ ciations, with the approval of the court of common pleas. Sec. 3. This act may be altered, amended, or repealed by any future legislature of this .Commonwealth. [Approved by the governor, March 3, 1842.] RESOLVE concerning school district libraries. [Resolves of 1842, chapter 74; amended by chapter 63, resolves of 1844; repealed by chapter 99, resolves of 1850.] Resolved, That the sum of fifteen dollars, to be taken from the school funds, be, and the same is hereby, appropriated to every school district in the Commonwealth, to be expended in books for a school district library; and that the treasurer pay said sum for said purpose to the order of the mayor of every city and the selectmen of every town, for each and every school district within the same which shall have produced evidence of having raised and appropriated fifteen dollars or more for the same object. [Approved by the governor, March 3, 1842.] ED 96 - 18* 554 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 1843. RESOLVES in addition to a resolve concerning school district libraries. [Resolves of 1843, chapter 6; amended by chapter 63 of the resolves of 1844.] Resolved, That the provisions of the resolve of March third, eighteen hundred and forty-two, concerning school district libraries be, and the same is hereby, extended to every city and town in the Commonwealth, not heretofore divided into school districts, in such manner as to give as many times fifteen dollars to every such city or town as the number sixty is contained, exclusive of fractions, in the number of children between the ages of four and sixteen years in said city or town : Provided, evidence be produced to the taeasurer, in behalf of said city or town, of its having raised and appropriated, for the establishment of libraries, a sum equal to that which, by the provision of this resolve, it is entitled to receive from the school fund. Resolved, That the treasurer be instructed, under the advice and direction of the governor and council, to make sales from time to time of notes of hand, bank stock, and other securities belonging to the school fund, to such amount as shall enable him to comply with the provisions of the above resolve, and with those of the resolve of March third, eighteen hundred and forty-two, concerning school district libraries, [Approved by the governor, March 7, 1843.] 1844. AN ACT in addition to “An act in relation to law library associations.” [Chapter 157, acts of 1844.] Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives, in general court assembled, and by authority of the same: Section 1. The counsellors and attorneys at law, duly admitted to practice in the courts of this Commonwealth, resident in either of the counties, who havo omitted to organize a law library association in their respective counties, within the time and pursuant to the provisions of the act to which this is in additiou, are hereby author¬ ized to organize themselves in their counties respectively, into an association by the name of the Law Library Association for such county, under the like provisions, and with the same rights, powers, and duties, as if the said association had been organized within the time prescribed by the act to which this is in addition, passed the third day of March, in the year one thousand eight hundred and forty-two; and said association, when so organized, shall be deemed and taken to be a corporation, and entitled to all the privileges and subject to all the provisions applicable to law library associations, created under and pursuant to the act aforesaid; Provided, how¬ ever, This act shall have no effect upon any association which shall not become organized within ninety days from the passing thereof. Sec, 2. This act shall take effect from and after its passage. [Approved by the governor, March 16, 1844.] RESOLYE concerning school libraries. [Chapter 63, resolves of 1844.] Resolved, That the provisions of the resolve of March third, in the year one thou¬ sand eight hundred and forty-two, and the resolve of March the seventh, in the year one thousand eight hundred and forty-three be, and the same are hereby, extended to every school district of every town in the Commonwealth. [Approved by the governor, March 11, 1844.] 1845. RESOLVES in addition to the resolves concerning school district libraries. [Chapter 113, resolves of 1845.] Resolved, That the provisions of the resolve of March third, ono thousand eight hundred and forty-two, be extended to the Latin school, English high school, and grammar and writing schools of the city of Boston, in such manner as to give as many times fifteen dollars towards a purchase of a library or libraries for said schools as the number sixty is contained, exclusive of fractions, in the number of children belonging to said schools between the ages of seven and sixteen years, said number to be estimated by the mayor of said city, provided the said mayor shall certify to the treasurer of the Commonwealth that an equal sum of money has been raised and appropriated subsequent to the first day of January, in the year one thousand eight hundred and forty-five, for the same purpose. LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 555 Bcsolvcd, That the apportionment or distribution of the hooks purchased as above provided for shall ho determined by the school committee of the city of Boston. Resolved, That these resolves shall take effect from and after their passage. [Ap¬ proved by the governor, March 25, 1845.] 1849. AX ACT relating to seliool libraries and school apparatus. [Chapter 81, acts of 1849.] Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives , in general court assembled , and by the authority of the same, as follows: Section 1. The inhabitants of any school district, in any city or town, and of any city or town not divided into school districts, in this Commonwealth, may, at any meeting called for that purpose, raise money for the purchase of libraries and necessary school apparatus, in the same manner as school districts may now raise money for erecting and repairing sehoolhouses in their respective districts. Sec. 2. The one hundred and forty-seventh chapter of the statutes, passed in the year one thousand eight hundred and thirty-seven, is hereby repealed. [Approved by the governor, April 5, 1849.] 1850. REPEAL OF STATE APPROPRIATION FOR SCHOOL DISTRICT LIBRARIES. [Chapter 09, resolves of 1850.] Resolved, So much of the resolve of the third of March, eighteen hundred and forty-two, as appropriated to every school district in the Commonwealth fifteen dol- iarsl “to be expended for books for a school district library,** is hereby repealed. This resolve was to take effect August 1, 1850. [Approved bv the governor. May 2, 1850.] 1851. AX ACT to authorize cities and towns to establish and maintain public libraries. [Chapter 305, acts of 1851; amended by chapter 25, acts of 1859.} Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives, in general court assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows: Section 1. Any city or town of this Commonwealth is hereby authorized to estab¬ lish and maintain a public library within the same, with or without branches, for the use of the inhabitants thereof, and to provide suitable rooms therefor, under such regulations for the government of such library as may, from time to time, be prescribed by the city council of such city, cr the inhabitants of such town. Sec. 2. Any city or town may appropriate for the foundation and commencement of such library, as aforesaid, a sum not exceeding one dollar for each of its ratable polls, in the year next preceding that in which such appropriations shall he made; and may also appropriate, annually, for the maintenance and increase of such library, a sum not exceeding twenty-five cents for each of its ratable polls, in the year next preceding that in which such appropriations shall be made. Sec. 3. Any city or town may receive, in its corporate capacity, and hold and manage any devise, bequest, or donation for the establishment, increase, or mainte¬ nance of a public library within the same. [Approved by the governor, May 24, 1851.] 1856. AX ACT in further addition to an act in relation to law library associations. [Acts of 1856, chapter 71.] Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives, in general eourt assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows: Section 1. The county commissioners of the several counties are hereby authorized to pay and disburse, from the treasuries of their respective counties, to the treasurers of the law library associations now existing, or that may hereafter be duly organized therein, such a sum or sums as they may deem necessary and proper, for maintaining and enlarging the public law libraries for the use of the courts and eitizens of the several counties; such sum not to exceed the amount paid into the treasury of any county by the clerks of the courts. Sec. 2. The treasurer of any such law library association, before receiving said moneys, shall give a bond, with sureties, to the satisfaction of the commissioners, for the faithful application of the same, and that he will make a return annually to them, under oath, of the manner in which all such applications are made. [Approved by the governor, March 28, 1856.] 556 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. AN ACT in addition to an act in relation to law library associations. [Acts of 1856, chapter 184.] Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives, in general court assembled , and by the authority of the same , as follows: The counsellors and attorneys at law duly admitted to practice in the courts of this Commonwealth, resident in either of the counties, who have omitted to organize a law library association in their respective counties, are hereby authorized to organize themselves in their counties respectively, into an association by the name of the law library association for such county* under the like provisions and with the same rights, powers, and duties, as if the said association had been organized within the time prescribed by the ninety-fourth chapter of the statutes of the year eighteen hundred and forty-two, and said association, when so organized, shall be deemed and taken to be a corporation, and entitled to all the privileges, and subject to all the provisions applicable to law library associations, created under and pur¬ suant to the act aforesaid. [Approved by the governor, May 24, 1856.] 1858. RESOLVE in favor of law library associations. [Resolves of 1858, chapter 1.] Resolved, That the secretary of the Commonwealth be, and he is hereby, authorized to furnish upon application one copy of the acts and resolves passed by the general court, and also one copy of such volumes of the special laws of the Commonwealth as he may have in his possession, not otherwise appropriated or required for the use of the Commonwealth, to the social law library located in the county of Suffolk : and also to each law library association which shall have been duly organized m con¬ formity with the ninety -fourth chapter of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and forty-two, or the one hundred and eighty-fourth chapter of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and fifty-sis. [Approved February 23, 1858.] 1859. AN ACT to amend an act to authorize citie3 and towns to establish and maintain public libraries. [Acts of 1859, chapter 25.] Be it enacted , etc,, as follows : Section 1. The three hundred and fifth chapter of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and fifty-one, is so far amended as to allow any city or town to appropriate annually, for the maintenance and increase of a public library within the same, a sum not exceeding fifty cents for each of its ratable polls in the year next preceding that in which such appropriation shall be made. Sec. 2. This act shall take effect from and after its passage. [Approved Febru¬ ary 14, 1853.] AN ACT in addition to the acts in relation to law library associations. [Acts of 1859, chapter 372.] Be it enacted, etc,, as follows : Section 1. The several county treasurers shall, on the first day of January in every year, pay to the treasurers of the county law library associations now existing, or that may hereafter be duly organized in their respective counties, one-quarter part of all the sums which said treasurers may have respectively received from the clerks of the courts during the preceding year ; provided such quarter part in any year does not exceed the sum of one thousand dollars ; and if said quarter should exceed one thou¬ sand dollars, then said treasurers shall pay one thousand dollars, and all sums so paid to the treasurers of the law library associations shall be applied to maintain and enlarge the public law libraries for the use of the courts and citizens in the several counties. Sec. 2. Nothing in this act contained shall be construed to prevent county com¬ missioners from authorizing other payments from the county treasuries, under the seventy-first chauffer of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and fifty-six. [Ap¬ proved April 5, 1859.] LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 557 1860. General Statutes, 1860, Chapter 33. LAW LIBRARIES. [See 1871, chapter 387.] Section 1. Law library associations heretofore organized in any county except Suf¬ folk shall remain corporations in the same manner as if organized under this chapter. Sec. 2. The attorneys at law admitted to practice in the courts of the Common¬ wealth and resident in a county for which there is no law library association may organize themselves by the name of the law library association for such county, and when so organized shall be a corporation for the purpose of holding and manag¬ ing the law library belonging to the county, and may adopt by-laws for that pur¬ pose, subject to the approval of the justices of the superior court. Sec. 3. The clerk of the courts in any county in which no association has been organized, upon the application of seven attorneys at law resident therein, may call a meeting for the purpose of such organization by posting up notifications thereof in some convenient place in any court-house of the county; which meeting shall be holden during the term of the superior court commencing next after ten days from the time of posting up such notification. The clerk shall preside at such meeting until a clerk of the association is chosen. Sec. 4. The officers of such association shall be a clerk, treasurer, and librarian, whose duties shall be defined by the by-laws. Sec. 5. Every inhabitant of a county in which such association is organized may use the books in the library, subject to such regulations as may be prescribed by the association with the approval of the superior court. [Section 6, amended by chapter 215, acts of 1863, and chapter 156, acts of 1874.] Sec. 6. County treasurers shall annually, on the first day of January, pay to the county law library associations in their respective counties one-quarter part, not exceeding one thousand dollars, of all sums which said treasurers have received from the clerks of the courts during the preceding year; and they may also pay such fur¬ ther sums, not exceeding the amount paid into the respective county treasuries by the clerks of the courts, as the county commissioners deem necessary and proper. All sums so paid shall be applied to maintain and enlarge such libraries for the use of the courts and citizens. Sec. 7. The treasurer of a law library association, before receiving said money, shall give a bond with sureties, to the satisfaction of the commissioners, for the faith¬ ful application thereof, and that he will make a return annually to them, under oath, of the manner in which all such applications are made. TOWN AND CITY LIBRARIES. [See 1866, 222; 1871, 26.] Sec. 8. Each town and city may establish and maintain a public library therein, with or without branches, for the use of the inhabitants thereof, and provide suit¬ able rooms therefor, under such regulations for its government as may from time to time be prescribed by the inhabitants of the town or the city council. [Section 9, repealed by chapter 222, acts of 1866.] Sec. 9. Any town or city may appropriate money for suitable buildings or rooms, and for the foundation of such library a sum not exceeding one dollar for each of its ratable polls in the year next preceding that in which such appropriation is made; may also appropriate annually, for the maintenance and increase thereof, a sum not exceeding fifty cents for each of its ratable polls in the year next preceding that in which such appropriation is made, and may receive, hold, and manage, any devise, bequest, or donation for the establishment, increase, or maintenance of a public library within the same. SOCIAL LIBRARIES. [Public library corporations See 1872, 217.] Sec. 10. Seven or more proprietors of a library may form themselves into a corpo¬ ration, under such corporate name as they may adopt, for the purpose of preserving, enlarging, and using such library ; with the powers, privileges, duties, and liabili¬ ties of corporations organized according to the provisions of chapter sixty-eight, so far as the same may he applicable, and may hold real and personal estate to an amount not exceeding five thousand dollars in addition to the value of their books. 558 EDUCATION REPORT, 1885-96. Sec. 11. Upon application of five or more such, proprietors, a justice of the peace may issue his warrant to one of them, directing him to call a meeting of the pro¬ prietors at the time and place and for the purposes expressed in the warrant. The meeting shall be called by posting up the substance of the warrant in some public place in the town where the library is kept seven days at least before the time of the meeting, at which, if not less than seven of the proprietors meet, they may choose a president, a clerk who shall be sworn, a librarian, collector, treasurer, and such other officers as they may deem necessary, and may determine upon the mode of calling future meetings. Sec. 12. The treasurer shall give bond with sufficient sureties, to the satisfaction of the proprietors, for the faithful discharge of his duties. Sec. 13. Such proprietors may, by assessments on the several shares, raise such money as they judge necessary for the purposes of preserving, enlarging, and using the library. 1863. AN ACT relating to tiie county law library associations. [Chapter 215, acts of 1863; repealed by chapter 156, acts of 1874.} Beit enacted , etc., as fallows : Section 1. The sixth section of the thirty- third chapter of the General Statutes is so far amended that the several county treasurers shall pay to the' county law library associations the whole amount received from the clerks of the courts during the preceding year, provided the same does not exceed four hundred dollars. And in case the same exceeds four hundred dollars, they shall pay over in addition thereto one quarter part of the surplus, provided, however, that the whole amount paid to said association in any county in any one year shall not exceed one thousand dollars. Sec. 2. This act shall not be deemed to prevent the county commissioners from allowing any further payment asprovkled in the said sixth section of the said thirty- third chapter of the General Statutes. Sec. 3. This act .shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved April 29, 18fi3. ] 1866. AN ACT in relation to town libraries. [Acts of 1866, chapter 222, incorporated in sectionlO, Public Statutes.] Be it enacted, etc., as foBou's : Section 1. Any town may, at a legal meeting, grant and vote money for the estab¬ lishment, maintenance, or increase of a public library therein, and for erecting or providing suitable buildings or rooms therefor, and may receive, hold, and manage any devise, bequest, or donation for the establishment, increase, or maintenance of any such library. Sec. 2. Section nine of chapter thirty-three of the General Statutes is hereby repealed. Sec. 3. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved May 9, 1866. J 1S67. AN ACT for the preservation of books and other property belonging to public libraries. [Acts of 1867, chapter 69; repealed by chapter 42, acts of 1872,] Be it enacted, etc., as follows : Whoever willfully and maliciously writes upon, injures, defaces, tears, or destroys any book, plate, picture, engraving, or statute belonging to any law, town, city or other public library, shall be punished by a fine of not less than five dollars nor more than one thousand dollars for every such offense. [Approved March 16, 1867.] RESOL YE for the distribution of the annual reports to public libraries. [Resolves of 1867, chapter 36.] Besotred, That after the current year it shall be the duty of the secretary of the Commonwealth to furnish each public library organized under the laws of this Commonwealth, on the application of the librarian thereof, with the annual reports described in the General Statutes as the “ Public Series/7 [Approved April 22, 1867.] LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 559 iseo. AX ACT in addition to an act concerning dogs. [Chapter 250, acts of 1869; incorporated in section 107. chapter 102, Public Statutes.] Be it enacted , etc., as follows : Section 1. Moneys received by the treasurer of any county under the provisions of chapter one hundred and thirty of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and sixty-seven, and not expended in the payment of damages done by dogs, in accord¬ ance with the provisions of said act, shall be paid back to the treasurers of the several cities and towns of said county, in the month of January of each year, in proportion to the amount paid by said city or town to said county treasurer ; and the money so refunded shall be expended for the support of public libraries or schools, in addition to the amount annually appropriated by said city or town for those pur¬ poses. In the county of Suffolk moneys received by any treasurer of any city or town under the provisions of said act, and not expended in accordance with the pro¬ visions of the same, shall bo appropriated by the school committee of said city or town for the support of the public schools therein established. Sec. 2. The last clause of section twelve of chapter one hundred and thirty of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and sixty-seven is hereby repealed. Sec. 3. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved May 10, 1869.] 1370. AX ACT to authorize the establishment of districts, for maintaining street lamps, and for other purposes. [Acts of 1870, chapter 332; incorporated in sections 37-40, chapter 27, Public Statutes.] Be it enacted, etc, as follows: SECTiox 1. Any town, at a legal meeting, having an article in the warrant for the purpose, may authorize a village or district in such town containing not less than one thousand inhabitants, the limits of which shall be accurately defined, to organize under such name as may be authorized by such town, for the purpose of erecting and maintaining street lamps, establishing and maintaining libraries, building and maintaining sidewalks, and employing and paying watchmen and police officers, or any of such purposes. Sec. 2. The provisions of sections thirty-five, thirty-six, thirty-nine, forty-three, forty-four, forty-five, and forty-seven of chapter twenty-four of the General Statutes, and chapter two hundred and fifty-seven, of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and sixty-five, shall, so far as applicable, apply to such districts. Sec. 3. The officers of such districts, in addition to a clerk and prudential com¬ mittee, may be a treasurer, and such other officers as the district may decide to elect; and all of such officers shall hold their offices for one year, and until others are chosen and qualified in their stead. Sec. 4. Such districts may adopt such by-laws as they may deem proper, to define the duties of their officers, and the manner of calling meetings of the districts. Sec. 5. Such districts may sue and be sued in the name of the inhabitants of such districts. [Approved June 10, 1870.] 1371. AX ACT in relation to depositing books in public libraries. [Acts of 1871, chapter 26; incorporated in section 11, chapter 40, Public Statutes.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. The city government of the several cities, and the selectmen of the sev¬ eral towns in this Commonwealth, in which may now or hereafter be public libraries, owned and maintained by said cities and towns, are hereby authorized to place in the public libraries, for the use of the inhabitants, such books, reports, and law's as have been or may be received from the Commonwealth. Sec. 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved February 17, 1871.] AX ACT to provide for furnishing certain documents to the law library societies in each county. [Acts of 1871, chapter 387 ; incorporated in section 8, chapter 40, Public Statutes.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. In addition to the volumes now required bylaw to be furnished to the law library societies in each county, the sergeant-at-arms shall, immediately after their publication, distribute, as far as practicable, to such societies one volume each of the following documents, viz: Legislative documents (senate and house), journal of the senate, journal of the house, and the manual of the general court. Sec. 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved May 26, 1871.] 560 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96, 1872. AN ACT for the preservation of books and other property belonging to public libraries. [Acts of 1872, chapter 42; incorporated in section 79, chapter 203, Public Statutes.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows : Section 1. Whoever wilfully and maliciously or wantonly and without cause writes upon, injures, defaces, tears, or destroys any hook, plate, picture, engraving, or statute belonging to any law, town, city, or other public library, shall be punished by a fine of not less than five dollars nor more than fifty dollars, or by imprisonment in the jail not exceeding six months, for every such offense. Sec. 2. Chapter sixty-nine of the acts of the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven is hereby repealed. [Approved February 26, 1872.] AN ACT to provide for the formation of library corporations. [Acts of 1872, chapter 217; incorporated in sections 16-19, chapter 40, Public Statutes.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows : Section 1. Three or more persons within this State who shall have associated themselves together by an agreement in writing, such as is described in section seven of chapter two hundred and twenty-four of the acts of the year eighteen hun¬ dred and seventy, with the intention to constitute a corporation, under any name by them assumed, for the purpose of establishing and maintaining a public library, with or without reading rooms connected therewith, shall become a corporation upon complying with the provisions of sections eight, nine, ten, and eleven of said act, and shall remain a corporation with all the powers, rights, and privileges belonging to any corporations organized under the provisions of said act, and subject to all the duties, restrictions, and liabilities set forth in all general laws which now are or hereafter may be in force applicable to such corporations. Sec. 2. Any name may be assumed by such corporation not previously in use by any existing corporation or association, and shall contain therein the word “library.” Upon filing the certificate named in section eleven of said act with the indorsement of the commissioner of corporations thereon, and the payment of the fees named in section fifty-nine of said act, the secretary of the Commonwealth shall sign and issue to such corporation a certificate in the form prescribed and having the same force and effect named in said eleventh section of said act. Sec. 3. Any existing library association under general law may, by complying with the provisions of section twelve of said act and payment of the fees aforesaid, obtain of the secretary of the Commonwealth the certificate therein prescribed. Sec. 4. Corporations formed under the provisions of this act may hold real and personal estate necessary for the purposes of their organization to the amount named in their agreements of association not exceeding fifty thousand dollars, exclusive of books, papers, collections in natural history, and works of arts ; may receive and hold for the purposes aforesaid any grants, donations, or bequests under such conditions and rules as may be prescribed in such grants, donations, and bequests : Provided , The same are not inconsistent with the provisions of law. And so long as any cor¬ poration formed under this act shall allow the inhabitants of the city or town wherein the same is located free access to and use of its library, such city or town may annually appropriate and pay to the said corporation established therein money to aid in supporting its library. Sec. 5. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved April 17, 1872.] AN ACT to amend an act to provide for the formation of library corporations. [Acts of 1872, chapter 326; incorporated in section 20, chapter 40, Public Statutes.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. Nothing contained in the provisions of chapter two hundred and sev¬ enteen of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and seventy-two shall be construed to require library corporations, formed under the same, to have a capital stock when it is otherwise provided in the agreement of association. Sec. 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved May 4, 1872.] 1873. AN ACT to authorize towns and cities to appropriate money toward defraying the expenses of main¬ taining libraries. [Acts of 1873, chapter 306; incorporated in section 10, chapter 27, Public Statutes.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Any city or town may appropriate and pay such sum annually as it may see fit toward defraying the expenses of maintaining any library within such city or town LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 561 to wliicli the inhabitants are allowed free access for the purpose of using the same ou the premises. [Approved May 23, 1873. ] 1874. AX ACT relating to the county law library associations. [Acts of 1874, chapter 156; repealed by chapter 89. acts of 1881.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. The sixth section of the thirty- third chapter of the General Statutes is so far amended that the several county treasurers shall pay to the county law library associations the whole amount received from the clerks of courts during the preced¬ ing year: Provided, The same does not exceed one thousand dollars; and in case the same exceeds one thousand dollars they shall pay in addition thereto one-quarter part of the surplus : Provided , however, That the whole amount paid to said association in any county in any one year shall not exceed two thousand dollars. Sec. 2. This act shall not be deemed to prevent the county commissioners from allowing any further payment as provided in the said sixth section of the said thirty- third chapter of the General Statutes. Sec. 3. Chapter two hundred and fifteen of the acts of eighteen hundred and sixty- three is repealed. Sec. 4. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved April 9, 1874.] 1880. AX ACT to authorize towns to establish and maintain public reading rooms. [Acts of 1880, chapter 111.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. Any town which now maintains in whole or in part a public library therein, for the use of the inhabitants thereof, or which may hereafter do so, may, at a legal meeting, grant and vote money for the establishment and maintenance of a public reading room, in connection with said library, and for the use of the inhabit¬ ants of said town, to be under the control and management of the board of trustees of said library,* or of such other persons as have control and management of said library ; and such town may receive, hold, and manage any devise^ bequest, or dona¬ tion for the establishment or maintenance of any such reading room. Sec. 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage, [Approved March 17, 1880.] 1881. AX ACT relative to law library associations. [Acts of 1881, chapter 89; incorporated in section 6, chapter 40, Public Statutes.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. Section six of chapter thirty-three of the General Statutes is hereby amended so as to read as follows : County treasurers shall annually pay to the county law library associations, in their respective counties, all sums paid into the county treasuries by the clerks of the courts during the year, but not exceeding fifteen hun¬ dred dollars in any one year : and they may also pay such further sums from the county treasury as the county commissioners deem necessary and proper. All sums so paid shall be applied to maintain and enlarge such libraries for the use of the courts and citizens. This act shall apply to all sums paid into the county treasuries by the clerks of the courts from and after the first day of January, eighteen hundred and eighty-one. Sec. 2. Chapter one hundred and fifty-six of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and seventy-four is hereby repealed. Sec. 3. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved March 16, 1881.] 1882. The Public Statutes, Chapter 40. LAW LIBRARIES. Section 1. Law library associations heretofore organized in any county, except Suffolk, shall be subject to the provisions of this chapter relating to such corporations. Sec. 2. The attorneys at law admitted to practice in the courts of the Common¬ wealth, and resident in a county for which there is no law library association, may organize themselves by the name of the Law Library Association for such county ; and, when so organized, shall be a corporation for the purpose of holding and 562 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. managing tlie law library belonging to the county, and may adopt by-laws for that purpose, subject to the approval of the justices of the superior court. Sec. 3. The clerk of the courts in any county in which no such association has been organized may, upon the application of seven attorneys at law resident therein, call a meeting for the purpose of such organization by posting up notifications thereof in some convenient place in any court-honse of the county; which meeting shall be held during the term of the superior court commencing next after ten days from the time of posting up such notification. The clerk shall preside at such meet¬ ing until a clerk of the association is chosen. Sec. 4. The officers of such an association snail be a clerk, treasurer, and librarian, and their duties shall be defined by the by-law3. Sec. 5. Every inhabitant of a county in which such association is organized may use the books in the library, subject to such regulations as maybe prescribed by the association with the approval of the superior court. [Section G amended by chapter 246, acts of 18S2.1 Sec. 6. County treasurers shall annually pay to the law-library associations in their respective counties all sums paid into the county treasuries during the year by the clerks of the courts, to an amount not exceeding fifteen hundred dollars in any one year ; and said treasurers may also pay such further sums as the county commis¬ sioners may deem necessary and proper. All sums so paid shall be applied to main¬ tain and enlarge such libraries for the use of the courts and of citizens. Sec. 7. The treasurer of a law library association, before receiving any money from the county treasury, shall give a bond, with sureties, to the satisfaction of the com¬ missioners, for the faithful application of such money, and that he Avill make a return annually to them, under oath, of the manner in which such application has been made. Sec. 8. Each law library association shall be entitled to receive from the sergeant- at-arms one copy of each of the following volumes immediately after their publica¬ tion, namely, legislative documents (senate and house), journal of the senate, and journal of the house. TOWN AND CITY LIBRARIES. Sec. 9. Any tovn or city may establish and maintain a public library therein, with or without branches, for the use of the inhabitants thereof, and may provide suitable rooms therefor, under such regulations for its government as may from time to time be prescribed by the inhabitants of the town or by the city council. Sec. 10. Any town may, at a legal meeting, grant and vote money for the estab¬ lishment, maintenance, or increase of a public library therein, and for erecting or providing suitable buildings or rooms therefor; and may receive, hold, and manage any devise, bequest, or donation for the establishment, increase, or maintenance of any such library. Sec. 11. The city government of a city or the selectmen of a town in which there is a public library, owned and maintained by such city or town, may place in such library, for the use of the inhabitants, such books, reports, and laws as have been or may be received from the Commonwealth. SOCIAL LIBRARY CORPORATIONS. Sec. 12. Seven or more proprietors of a library may form themselves into a corpo¬ ration under such corporate name as they may adopt, for the purpose of preserving, enlarging, and using such library, and with the powers, privileges, duties, and liabilities of corporations organized according to the provisions of chapter one hun¬ dred and five, so far as the same may be applicable, and such corporation may hold real and personal estate to an amount not exceeding five thousand dollars in addition to the value of its books. Sec. 13. Upon application of five or more of such proprietors, a justice of the peace may issue his warrant to one of them, directing him to call a meeting of the pro¬ prietors at the time and place and for the purposes expressed in the warrant. The meeting shall be called by posting up the substance of the warrant in some public place in the town where the library is kept, seven days at least before the time of the meeting, at which time, if not less than seven of the proprietors meet, they may choose a president, a clerk, who shall be sworn, a librarian, a collector, a treasurer, and such other officers as they may deem necessary, and may determine upon the mode of calling future meetings. Sec. 14. The treasurer shall give bond, with sufficient sureties, to the satisfaction of the proprietors, for the faithful discharge of his duties. Sec. 15. Such proprietors may, by assessments on the several shares, raise such money as they judge necessary for the purposes of preserving, enlarging, and using the library. LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 563 PUBLIC LIBRARY CORPORATIONS. Sec. 16. Three or more persons within this Commonwealth who associate them¬ selves together by an agreement in writing, such as is described in section sixteen of chapter one hundred and six, with the intention of forming a corporation, under any name by them assumed, for the purpose of establishing and maintaining a public library, with or without reading rooms connected therewith, shall become a corpora¬ tion upon complying with the provisions of sections seventeen, eighteen, twenty, and twenty-one of said chapter, and shall remain a corporation, with all the powers, rights, and privileges, and subject to all the duties, restrictions, and liabilities, applicable to such corporations. Sec. 17. Any name may be assumed by such corporation which is not in use by an existing corporation or association, and which contains the word “library.” Upon filing the certificate named in section twenty-one of chapter one hundred and six, with the indorsement of the commissioner of corporations thereon, and the payment of the fees named in section eighty-four of said chapter, the secretary of the Com¬ monwealth shall sign and issue to such corporation a certificate in the form pre¬ scribed, and having the force and effect named in said section twenty-one of said chapter. Sec. 18. Any existing library association organized under general laws may, by complying with the provisions of section twenty-two, of chapter one hundred and six, and payment of the fees aforesaid, obtain of the secretary of the Commonwealth the certificate therein prescribed. Sec. 19. A corporation formed under section sixteen may hold real and personal estate necessary for the purposes of its organization, to the amount named in its agreement of association, not exceeding fifty thousand dollars, exclusive of books, papers, collections in natural history, and works of art, and may receive and hold for the purposes aforesaid, any grants, donations, or bequests under such lawful con¬ ditions and rules as may -Ire prescribed therein. Sec. 20. Nothing contained in the four preceding sections shall bo construed to require a corporation formed in accordance with the provisions thereof to have a capital stock, when a different provision is made in the agreement of association. APPROPRIATION OF MONEY FOR LIBRARIES. Section 10 of chapter 227 of the public statutes provides that the towns may at legal meetings grant and vote such sums* as they judge necessary for maintaining any library therein to which the inhabitants are allowed free access for the purpose of using the books on the premises, and for establishing and maintaining a public reading room in connection with and under the control of the manager of such library. THE DOG TAX. Section 107 of chapter 102 of the public statutes provides that the money received for dog licenses and refunded to the towns shall be expended for the support of public libraries or schools. DEFACING BOOKS, PAPERS, ETC. Section 79 of chapter 253 of the public statutes provides that whoever wilfully and maliciously or wantonly and without cause writes upon, injures, defaces, tears, or destroys a book, plate, picture, engraving, or statue belonging to a law, town, city, or other public library, shall be punished by a fine of not less than five nor more than fifty dollars, or by imprisonment in the jail not exceeding six months. LIBRARY CORPORATIONS. Seven or»more persons may form a corporation for the establishment and mainte¬ nance of places for reading rooms, libraries, or social meetings, under the provisions of the general law for the incorporation of associations for charitable, educational, and other purposes, contained in chapter 115 of the Public Statutes. AN ACT in relation to law library associations. [Acts of 1882, chapter 24G.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. Section six of chapter forty of the Public Statutes, providing for annual payments to the law library associations of the several counties, is amended by striking out in the fourth line thereof the words “fifteen hundred dollars,” and inserting in place thereof the words “two thousand dollars.” This act shall apply 564 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. to all sums paid into the county treasuries "by the clerks of the courts on and after the first day of January in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-two. Sec. 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved May 19, 1882.] 1883. AN ACT to prevent the wilful detention of books, newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, or manu¬ scripts of certain libraries. [Chapter 77, acts of 1883.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows : Section 1. Whoever wilfully and maliciously or wantonly and without cause detains any hook, newspaper, magazine, pamphlet, or manuscript belonging to a law, town, city, or other public or incorporated library, for thirty days after notice in writing, from the librarian of such library, given after the expiration of the time which by the regulations of such library such book, newspaper, magazine, pam¬ phlet, or manuscript may be kept, shall be punished by a fine of not less than one nor more than twenty-five dollars, or by imprisonment in the jail not exceeding six months. Sec. 2. The notice required by the foregoing section shall bear upon its face a copy of this act. Sec. 3. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved March 24, 1883.] AN ACT for the better protection of property of certain libraries. [Chapter 81, acts of 1883.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. Section seventy^nine of chapter two hundred and three of the Public Statutes is hereby amended so as to read as follows : Whoever wilfully and maliciously or wantonly and without cause writes upon, injures, defaces, tears, or destroys a book, plate, picture, engraving, map, newspaper, magazine, pamphlet, manuscript, or statue belonging to a law, town, city, or other public or incorporated library, shall be punished by a fine of not less than five nor more than fifty dollars, or by imprisonment in the jail not exceeding six months. Sec. 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved March 24, 1883.] 1885. AN ACT to protect persons using public libraries from disturbance. [Acts of 1885, chapter 225.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows : Whoever wilfully disturbs persons assembled in a public library or reading room connected therewith, by making a noise or in any other manner, during the time in which such library or reading room is open to the public, shall be punished by imprisonment in the jail not exceeding thirty days, or by a fine not exceeding fifty dollars. [Approved May 12, 1885.] 1888. AN ACT concerning the election and the powers and duties of trustees of free public libraries or of free public libraries and reading rooms, in towns. [Acts of 1888, chapter 304.] Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. Every town which raises or appropriates money for the support of a free public library, or free public library and reading room that is owned by the town, shall at its annual meeting, or at a legal town meeting appointed and notified for that purpose by the selectmen, elect a board of trustees, except in cases where such library has been or may be acquired by the town, in ivhole or in part, by some dona tion or bequest containing other conditions or provisions for the elections of its trustees or for its care and management, which conditions have been accepted and agreed to by a vote of the town. [Section 2, amended by chapter 112, acts of 1889.] Sec. 2. Said board of trustees shall consist of any number of persons divisible by three, not exceeding nine in all, which the town may decide to elect, one-third thereof to be elected annually and to continue in office for three years, except that the town shall first elect one-third of the trustees for one year, one-third for two years, and one-third for three years, and thereafter one-third the number annually LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 565 for the term of three years. No person shall he ineligible to serve upon said board of trustees by reason of sex. Such board of trustees shall be elected by ballot, and shall organize annually by the choice of a chairman and secretary from their own number. Sec. 3. If any person elected a member of the board of trustees, after being duly notified of his election in the manner in which town officers are required to be notified, refuses or neglects to accept said office, or if any member declines further service, or from change of residence or otherwise becomes unable to attend to the duties of the board, the remaining members shall in writing give notice of the fact to the selectmen of the town, and the two boards may thereupon, after giving public notice of at least one week, proceed to fill such vacancy until the next annual town meeting ; and a majority of the ballots of persons entitled to vote shall be necessary to an election. Sec. 4. The trustees so elected by the town shall have the entire custody and man¬ agement of the library and reading room and all property owned by the town relating thereto; and all money raised or appropriated by the town for its support and maintenance, and all money or property that the town may receive by donation from any source, or by bequest, in behalf of said free public library and reading room, shall be placed in the care and custody of the board of trustees, to be expended or retained by them for and in behalf of the town for the support and maintenance of its free public library and reading room, in accordance with the conditions of each or any donation or bequest accepted by the town. Sec. 5. In every town which shall, by a majority of the votes cast at its annual town meeting or at a legal town meeting appointed and notified for that purpose by the selectmen, so direct, the board of trustees shall, in addition to the officers named in section two of this act, elect from among their own number a treasurer, who shall give a bond to the town similar to the bond given by the town treasurer, for such an amount and with such sureties as may be satisfactory to the selectmen; and until a town directs otherwise, the town treasurer shall act as treasurer of the board of trustees. Sec. 6. The trustees shall make an explicit report to the town at each annual town meeting of all their receipts and expenditures, and of all the property of the town in their care and custody, including a statement of any unexpended balance of money they may have, and of any bequests or donations they may have received and are holding in behalf of the town, with such recommendations in reference to the same as they may deem necessary for the town to consider. Sec. 7. Nothing in this act shall be construed to interfere with library associations, nor with any library that is or may be organized and managed under special act of the legislature. Sec. 8. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved May 4, 1888.] 1889. AX ACT relating to the election, powers, and duties of trustees of free public libraries and reading rooms in towns. [Acts of 1889, chapter 112.] Be it enacted, etc., as folloics: Section two of chapter three hundred and four of the acts of the year eighteen hun¬ dred and eighty-eight is hereby amended by striking out in lines two and three the words “ not exceeding nine in all,” so as to read as follows : Section 2. Said board of trustees shall consist of any number of persons divisible by three which the town may decide to elect, one-third thereof to be elected annually and to continue in office for three years, except that the town shall first elect one-third of the trustees for one year, one-third for two years, and one-third for three years, and thereafter one-third the number annually for the term of three years. No person shall be ineligible to serve upon said board of trustees by reason of sex. Such board of trustees shall be elected by ballot, and shall organize annually by the choice of a chairman and secre¬ tary from their own number : provided any town having a free public library which has heretofore elected a board of trustees to manage the same, consisting of a "number divisible by three, and has heretofore elected annually one-third of said board for three years, may continue to elect annually one-third of said board for three years, and the trustees in office shall hold their offices until the term for which they were elected shall expire, unless the town shall vote otherwise. [Approved March 14, 1889.] 1890. AX ACT to promote the establishment and efficiency of free public libraries. Be it enacted, etc., as follows: Section 1. The governor with the advice and consent of the council shall appoint five persons, residents of the Commonwealth, who shall constitute a board of library 566 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96, commissioners. The governor sliall designate the chairman thereof. One member of said board shall be appointed for the term of five years, one for four years, one for three years; one for two years, and one for one year; and thereafter the term of office of the commissioners shall be five years. All vacancies on said board, whether occurring by expiration of term or otherwise, shall be filled by the governor with the advice and consent of the council. Sec. 2. The librarian or trustees of any free public library may ask said board for advice in regard-to the selection of books, the cataloguing of books, and any other matters pertaining to the maintenance or administration of thelibrary ; and the board shall give such aclvice in regard to said matters as it shall find practicable. The board shall make a report of its doings to the general court in January of each year, and fifteen hundred copies of said report shall be printed as one of the public docu¬ ment series. Sec. 3. Said board is hereby authorized and directed to expend, upon the applica¬ tion of the board of library trustees of any town having no free public library owned and controlled by the town, a sum not exceeding one hundred dollars for books for any such town entitled to the benefits of this act: such books to be used by said trustees for the purpose of establishing a free public library, and said commissioners shall select and purchase all books to be provided as aforesaid. Sec. 4. No town shall be entitled to the benefits of this act until such town has accepted the provisions hereof at a regularly called town meeting, and has elected a board of library trustees as provided in chapter three hundred and four of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and eighty-eight, and until said trustees shall haAre provided, in a manner satisfactory to the board of commissioners, for the care, custody, and distribution of the books furnished in accordance with this act. Sec. 5. Any town accepting the provisions of this act shall annually appropriate from the dog tax or shall otherwise annually provide for the use and maintenance of its free public library, a sum not less than fifty dollars if its last assessed valuation was one million dollars or upward, or a sum not less than twenty-five dollars if said valuation was less than one million and not less than two hundred and fifty thou¬ sand dollars, or a sum not less than fifteen dollars if said valuation was less than two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. Sec. 6. No member of the board of commissioners shall receive any compensation, but the board may expend a sum not exceeding five hundred dollars annually for clerical assistance and incidental and necessary expenses in the discharge of its duties; and all sums expended under the provisions of this act shall be paid from the treasury after the bills therefor have been approved by the board and sent to the auditor of the Commonwealth, who shall certify to the governor and council the amount due, as in case of all other bills and accounts approved by him under the provisions of law. Sec. 7. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved May 28, 1890.] (Fifty -fourth Annual Report Massachusetts Board of Education, 1889-90, pp. 271-290.) 1892. [Acts of 1892, chapter 255,] Be it enacted , etc., as follows: The board of library commissioners may expend the sum of one hundred dollars for hooks for the free public library of any town whose valuation does not exceed six hundred thousand dollars, which maintained a free library before the passage of chapter three hundred and forty-seven of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and ninety, and which has fully complied or hereafter fully complies with the pro¬ visions of said act. MICHIGAN. 113. Section" 1. A township library shall be maintained in each organized town¬ ship, which shall he the property of the township, and shall not be subject to sale or alienation from any cause whatever. All actions relating to such library, or for the recovery of any penalties lawfully established in relation thereto, shall be brought in the name of the township. 114. Sec. 2. All persons who are residents of the township shall be entitled to the privileges of the township library, subject to such rules and regulations as may be lawfully established in relation thereto: Provided , That persons residing within the boundaries of any school district in which a district library has been established shall be entitled to the privileges of such district library only. 115. Sec. 3. The township board of school inspectors shali have charge of town¬ ship library, and shall apply for and receive from the township treasurer all moneys appropriated for the township library of their township, and shall purchase the books and procure the necessary appendages for such library. LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 567 116. Sec. 4. Said board eliall be held accountable for the proper care and preser¬ vation of the township library, and shall have power to provide for the safe-keeping of the same, to prescribe the time for taking and returning books, to assess and collect fines and penalties for the loss or injury of said books, and to establish all other needful rules and regulations for the management of the library as said board shall deem proper or the superintendent of public instruction may advise. 117. Sec. 5. The board of school inspectors shall cause the township library to bo kept at some central or eligible place in the township, which it shall determine ; such board shall also, within ten days after the annual township meeting, appoint a libra¬ rian for the term of one year, to have the care and superintendence of said library, who shall be responsible to the board of school inspectors for the impartial enforce¬ ment of all rules and regulations lawfully established in relation to said library. 118. Sec. 6. Any school district, by a two-thirds vote at any annual meeting, may establish a district library, and such district shall be entitled to its just proportion of books from the library of any township in which it is wholly or partly situated, to be added to the district library, and also to its equitable share of any library moneys remaining unexpended in any such township or townships at the time of the establishment of such district library, or that shall thereafter be raised by tax in such township or townships, or that shall thereafter be apportioned to the township to the inspectors of which the annual report of its director is made. 119. Sec. 7. The district board of any school district in which a district library may be established in accordance with the provisions of this act shall have charge of such library: and the duties and responsibilities of said district board in relation to the district library, and all moneys raised or apportioned for its support, shall be the same as those of the board of school inspectors are to the township library. 120. Sec. 8. The school inspectors shall give, in their annual report to the superin¬ tendent of public instruction, such facts and statistics relative to the management of the township library and the library moneys as the superintend ent of public instruc¬ tion shall direct ; and the district board of any school district having a library shall cause to be given in the annual report of the director to the board of school inspect¬ ors like facts and statistics relative to the district library, which items shall also be included by the said inspectors in their annual report. 121. Sec. 9. In case the board of school inspectors of any township, or the district board of any sehool district, shall fail to make the report required by the preceding section, or in case it shall appear from the reports so made that any township or school district has failed to use the library money in strict accordance with the provisions of law, such township or district shall forfeit its share of the library moneys that are apportioned, and the same shall be apportioned to the several other townships and districts in the county as hereinafter provided: Provided, That in townships where the boards thereof shall determiue and report to the superintendent that the public will be better served by using the said money for general school purposes no such forfeiture shall occur. 122. Sec. 10. The superintendent of public instruction shall annually, and previous to the tenth day of May, transmit to the clerk of each county a statement of the townships in his county that are entitled to receive library moneys, giving the num¬ ber of children in each of such townships between the ages of five anti t wenty years as shall appear from the reports of the hoard of school inspectors for the school year last ending; said clerk shall file sueh statement in his office and shall forthwith furnish a copy thereof to the county treasurer. 123. Sec. 11. The clear proceeds of all fines for any breach of the penal laws of this State and for penalties, or upon any recognizance in criminal proceedings, and all equivalents for exemptions [exemption] from military duty, when collected in any county and paid into the county treasury, together with all moneys heretofore col¬ lected and paid into said treasury on account of such fines or equivalents and not already appropriated [apportioned], shall he apportioned by the county treasurer, before the first day of June in each year, among the several townships in the county according to the nnmber of children therein between the ages of five and twenty years, as shown by the statement of the superintendent of public instruction pro¬ vided for in the preceding section, which money shall he exclusively applied to the support of the township and district libraries, and to no other purpose: Provided, That from and after January first, one thousand eight hundred and eighty-two, such money may be used for general school purposes in any township wherein the town¬ ship hoard thereof shall so determine. 124. Sec. 12. The qualified voters of each township shall have power, at any annual township meeting, to vote a tax for the support of libraries established in accordance with the provisions of this act, and the qualified voters of any school dis¬ trict in which a district library shall he established shall have power, at any annual meeting of such district, to vote a district tax for the support- of said district library. When any tax authorized by this section shall have been voted, it shall he reported to the supervisor, levied, and collected in the same manner as other township and school district taxes. 568 EDUCATION BEPOBT, 1895-96. 125. Sec. 13. The district hoard of any school district .may donate or sell any library hook or hooks belonging to such district to the hoard of school inspectors of the township or townships in which said district is wholly or partly situated, which hook or hooks shall thereafter form a part of the township library. [Chapter XI, school laws of 1893/] MINNESOTA. Par. 239. (School library list.) The superintendent of public instruction and the presidents of the normal schools of this State are directed to prepare a list of hooks, to he amended from time to time, suitable for school libraries, to include hooks of reference, history, biography, literature, political economy, agriculture, travel, and natural science ; they shall advertise in at least two leading papers for the lowest rates at which sellers will fill orders of school districts for hooks selected from this list, and make contracts accordingly with the lowest responsible bidder for a period not to exceed two years. (1887, c. 121, § 1.) 240. (State aid.) Any school district having purchased under this contract any one year a selection of books from the list prepared and recommended by the State superintendent of public instruction, and having provided for their care a suitable bookcase, and for their distribution by the appointment of a librarian, and by the adoption of suitable rules and regulations, and having forwarded a certified state¬ ment of the same through the county superintendent, with his endorsement, to the superintendent of public instruction, shall make requisition upon the State auditor for one-half the amount to be expended, who shall issue his warrant in favor of said district for said amount. Provided, first, That no district shall receive more than twenty dollars upon the first statement, nor more than ten dollars upon the second statement, nor more than five dollars upon any subsequent statement. Provided, second, That for the purposes of the provision immediately preceding, each township organization of schools shall be estimated as equal to four districts, and shall be entitled to a proportionate aid in the establishing of a school library. Provided, third, That whenever the county superintendent shall make report to the superintendent of public instruction that upon satisfactory investigation he finds that the books of any district are not properly cared for or properly used, it shall be his duty to exclude or suspend such district from the benefits of this act. (Id., § 2.) 241. (Statement.) No more than one statement shall be made by any one district in any one school year. (Id., § 3.) 242. (Fund.) The sum of ten thousand (10,000) dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary to meet the provisions of this act, is hereby annually appropriated. (Id., § 4.) [School laws of Minnesota, 1891.] MISSOURI. Section 7979, item 5. To vote such a sum as they may deem proper for the pur¬ chase of books for a district library. Sec. 8089. (Duties, restrictions, and liability of board.) The board shall, except as herein provided, perform the same duties and be subject to the same restrictions and liabilities as the boards of other school districts acting under the general school laws of the State: Provided, however, That in cities as hereinafter specified the board of education shall have power to establish and maintain a library for the use of the public school district therein, and to appropriate such sums as they may deem proper for the support thereof, not to exceed in any one year two thousand five hundred dollars for cities of twenty thousand and under one hundred thousand inhabitants, and not to exceed five hundred dollars for cities of five thousand and under twenty thousand inhabitants, and not to exceed two hundred and fifty dollars for cities of one thousand and under five thousand inhabitants, the population to be determined by the last United States or municipal census. (Laws, 1893, p. 250, amended.) NEBRASKA. AN ACT to authorize incorporated towns and cities to establish and maintain free public libraries and reading rooms. Be it enacted by the legislature of the State of XebrasTca : Section 1. The city or town council of each incorporated city or town shall have power to establish and maintain a public library and reading room for use of the inhabitants of such city or town, and may levy a tax of not more than one mill on the dollar annually, to be levied and collected in like manner as other taxes of said city or town, and to be known as the library fund. Sec. 2. When any city or town council shall have decided by ordinance to establish and maintain a public" library and reading room under this act, they shall electa LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 569 library board of nine directors, to be chosen from the citizens at large, of which board' neither the mayor nor any member of the city or town council shall be a member. Such directors, first elected, shall hold their office, three for the term of one year, three for the term of two years, and three for the term of three years, from the first day of July following their appointment, and three directors shall be chosen annually thereafter; and in cases of vacancies by resignation, removal, or otherwise the council shall fill such vacancy for the unexpired term, and no director shall receive any pay or compensation for any services rendered as a member of such board, and such directors shall give such bond as the council may require. Sec. 3. Such directors shall, immediately after their appointment, meet and organ¬ ize, by electing one of their number president, and such other officers as may be necessary. Five of such board shall be a quorum. They shall have power to make and adopt such by-laws, rules, and regulations for their own guidance and for the government of the library and reading room as they may deem expedient, subject to supervision and control of the city or town council, and not inconsistent with this act. They shall have exclusive control of expenditures of all moneys collected or donated to the credit of the library fund and of the renting or construction of any library building, the supervision, care, and custody of the grounds, rooms, or build¬ ings, constructed, leased, or set apart for that purpose. Sec. 4. Any tax levied or collected or funds donated thereto shall be kept for the use of such library separate and apart from other funds of said city or town and shall be drawn upon Tjy the proper officers upon the authenticated vouchers of the library board and shall not be used or disturbed for any other purpose. Sec. 5. The library board shall have power to purchase or lease grounds ; to erect, ’ lease, or occupy an appropriate building or buildings for the use of such library; to appoint a suitable librarian and assistants, to fix their compensation, and to remove their appointments at pleasure; and shall have power to establish regulations for the government of such library as may be deemed necessary for its preservation and to maintain its usefulness and efficiency, and to fix and impose by general rules penalties and forfeitures for trespasses or injury upon or to the library grounds, rooms, books, or other property, or failure to return any book, or for violation of any by-law or regulation ; and shall have and exercise such power as may be necessary to carry out the spirit and intent of this act, in establishing and maintaining a public library and reading room. Sec. 6. Every library and reading room established under this act shall be for¬ ever free to the use of the inhabitants of the city or town, subject always to such reasonable regulations as the library board may adopt to render said library and reading room of the greatest use to the inhabitants of said city or town, and the board may exclude from the use of the library and reading rooms any person who shall wilfully violate or refuse to comply with rules and regulations established for the government thereof. Sec. 7. The library board shall, on or before the second Monday in June in each year, make a report to the city or town council of the condition of their trust on the first day of June in such year, showing all moneys received and expended, the num¬ ber of books and periodicals on hand, newspapers and current literature subscribed for or donated to the reading-room department ; the number of books and periodicals ordered by purchase, gift, or obtained during the year, and the number lost or miss¬ ing; the number of visitors attending; the number of and character of books loaned or issued, with such statistics, information, and suggestions as they may deem of general interest, or as the city or town council may require, which report shall be verified by affidavit of the proper officers of said board. Sec. 8. Any by-law or regulation established by the library board may be amended or annulled by the council of said city or town. Sec. 9. Penalties imposed or accruing by any by-law or regulation of the library board may be recovered in a civil action before the police judge, or any justice of the peace, or other court having jurisdiction; such action to be instituted in the name of the u library board of the city or town library,” and moneys collected in such action shall be forthwith placed in the city treasury to the credit of the library fund. Sec. 10. Any person may make any donation of money or lands for the benefit of such library, and the title to property so donated may be made to and shall vest in the library board, and their successors in office, and such board shall thereby become the owners thereof in trust to the uses of the public library of such city or town. Sec. 11. The property of such library shall be exempt from execution, and shall also be exempt from taxation as other public property. Sec. 12. The library board shall have power to authorize any circulating library, reading matter, or work of art, of any private person, association, or corporation, to be deposited in the public library rooms, to be drawn or used outside of the rooms only on payment of such fee or membership as the person, corporation, or association owning the same may require. Deposits may be removed by the owner thereof at pleasure, but the books or other reading matter so deposited in the rooms of any 570 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. such public library shall be-separately and distinctly marked, and kept upon shelves apart from the books of the public city or town library, and every such private or associate library, or other property so deposited in any public library, while so placed or remaining shall be subject to use and reading within the library room without charge by any person an inhabitant of said city or town, and entitled to the use of the free library. [Approved February 17, A. D. 1877. Laws of Nebraska, 1877.] AN ACT regulating the State library. Section 1. Be it enacted by the legislature of the State of Nebraska, That the books, pamphlets, maps, and charts belonging to the State, now in the State library, or which shall hereafter be added to the same, shall constitute the State library. Sec. 2. There shall be two divisions of the State library, one of which shall embrace all miscellaneous works, books, pamphlets, maps and charts, and the statutes and other books required by law, to be deposited in the office of the secretary of state, and shall be known as the miscellaneous division of the State library, which shall be kept under the charge of the secretary of state, and of which he shall be librarian. The other shall embrace all books of reports, and other law books, and shall be known as the law division of the State library, which shall be kept under the charge of the clerk of the supreme court, and of which he shall be librarian. Sec. 3. The governor, secretary of state, and auditor shall constitute a board of directors of the miscellaneous division, and the judges of the supreme court shall constitute a board of directors of the law division of the State library. Sec. 4. Each board of directors shall have power to make such rules, not incon¬ sistent with this act, for the regulation of the division of the library under their direction as they may elect proper, and may prescribe penalties for any violations thereof, which shall be collected in the same manner as for the nonreturn or injury of any books. Sec. 5. Books may be taken from the State library by the members of the legisla¬ ture ancl its officers during the session of the legislature, and by the officers of the executive department of the State, and judges of the supreme court and district courts; and no other person shall be permitted to take or detain from the library more than two miscellaneous works at one time, or take the same away from the capitol. Sec. 6. Each librarian shall cause to be kept a register of all books issued and returned at the time they shall be so issued and returned, and none of the books, except the laws, journals, and reports of this State, wThich may be taken from the library, shall be detained more than ten days, and all the books taken out by officers or members of the legislature shall be returned at the close of the session. Sec. 7. If any person injure or fail to return any book taken from the library, he shall forfeit and pay to the librarian of the division to which it belongs, for the use of the library, double the value thereof, or of the set to which it belongs, if a set is broken by its loss, to be recovered in an action, in the name of the people of the State, in any court of competent jurisdiction ; and before the auditor shall issue his warrant in favor of any person authorized to take books from the library for the value of his services or amount of his salary he shall be satisfied that such person has returned all books taken from the library or settled for the same; otherwise he shall deduct all accounts for the detention or injury of such books. Sec. 8. Each librarian shall, on or before the twentieth day of December in each year, report to the governor the condition of the division under his charge, stating the number of volumes contained therein, the number of volumes purchased during the past year, and the cost thereof, the number of volumes received by donation, the number of volumes injured, or not returned, if any, and the amount received in com¬ pensation therefor, and such suggestions and further information as may be deemed by him desirable. Sec. 9. The librarian of each division of the library shall give bond to the people of the State, in the sum of five thousand dollars each, with good and sufficient sureties, to be approved by the board of directors of their respective division, con¬ ditioned for the faithful performance of the duties of their respective offices, which bonds shall be filed in the office of the State auditor. Sec. 10. Each librarian, shall receive for his services the sum of four hundred and fifty dollars per annum, to be paid quarterly, and the State auditor is authorized to draw his warrant on the treasurer for such amounts as they become due. Sec. 11. Two hundred dollars shall be annually paid out of the State treasury for the use of the library, one half to each division, which amount, together with the amounts received from fines and forfeitures under this act, shall be annually expended in the purchase of additional books, under the direction of the board of directors. Sec. 12. It shall be the duty of each librarian to cause each book in his division to be labeled with a printed or stamped label containing the words, “Nebraska State Library,’7 and also to write the same words on the thirtieth page of each volume. LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 571 Sec. 13. The directors of the law division of the State library may sell or exchange any surplus or duplicate sets of reports or law boohs in such division of the library, and use the money arising from such sale in purchasing other law books or reports for such library. Sec. 14. If either librarian shall permit or allow any person not authorized by this act to remove a book from the library, he shall bo liable on conviction thereof to pay a lino of not less than five nor more than fifty dollars for every book so taken. Sec. 16. Chapter 32, entitled Library of part one (1) of the Revised Statutes, approved in 1866, and also an act entitled “An act to create the office of State librarian, and to define the duties of the same/’ approved June 22, 1867, are hereby repealed: Provided, however, That no causes of action for fines, penalties, or forfeit¬ ures, and no prosecutions for misdemeanors to which any person may have become liable under any of the provisions of the chapter or of the act hereby repealed, shall be barred or in any manner affected by this act; but such actions and prosecutions may be commenced and carried on as if this act had not been passed. Sec. 17. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of this act are hereby repealed. Sec. 18. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. [Approved March 3, 1871. Laws of Nebraska, 1870-71.] NEW HAMPSHIRE. FUEE PUBLIC LIBRAMES. Section 21. The governor, with the advice and consent of the council, shall appoint four persons, residents of the State, who, together with the State librarian, shall constitute a board of library commissioners. The governor shall designate the chairman thereof. Two members of the board shall be appointed for the term of four years and two for two years, and thereafter the term of office of the com¬ missioners shall be two years. All vacancies on the board shall be filled by the governor, with the consent of the council. Sec. 22. The librarian or trustees of any free public library may ask the board for advice in regard to the selection of books, cataloguing of books, and any other matters pertaining to the maintenance or administration of the library; and the board shall give such advice in regard to the matters as it shall find practicable. The board shall make a report of its doings to the legislature biennially, which shall be printed in the report of the State librarian. Sec. 23. The board is hereby authorized and directed to expend, upon the appli¬ cation of any town having no free public library owned and controlled by the town, a sum not exceeding one hundred dollars for books for such town entitled to the benefits of these provisions, such books to be used by the town for the purpose of establishing a free public library; and the commissioners shall select and purchase all books to be so provided. Sec. 24. No town shall be entitled to the benefits of these provisions relative to free public libraries, until such town has accepted the provisions at a regularly called town meeting, and until the town shall have provided in a satisfactory man¬ ner to the board of commissioners for the care, custody, and distribution of the books furnished in accordance therewith. Sec. 25. Any town accepting the provisions aforesaid shall annually appropriate for the use and maintenance of its free public library, a sum not less than fifty dol¬ lars if its last assessed valuation was one million dollars or upward, or a sum not less than twenty-five dollars if the valuation was less than one million and not less than two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, or a sum not less than fifteen dollars if the valuation was less than two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. Sec. 26. 1 The board of library commissioners shall receive no compensation, but shall bo allowed such reasonable sum for clerical assistance and other necessary expenses, in the discharge of its duties, as the governor and council shall determine, not exceeding five hundred dollars in any one year; and all sums expended under the provisions of this act shall be paid from the State treasury after the bills there¬ for have been approved by the board and by the governor and council. Chapter 14, Section 1. The secretary of state shall procure and furnish to each public library in this State and the Soldiers’ Home one copy of each history of New Hampshire organizations in the war of the rebellion which is not out of print, and has been or may hereafter be published in accordance with the provisions of existing laws. Sec. 2. This act shall be in aid only of such libraries as are regularly open for the use of the public in the towns and cities where they may be located and which are duly designated as public libraries, entitled to receive State publications by the 1 Section 26 printed as amended by the legislature of 1893. 572 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. governor and council, in accordance with, existing laws, on the first day of February next following the publication of such history. Sec. 3. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved March 12, 1891. Public Statutes of New Hampshire, 1891. Also annual report of board of library commissioners of New Hampshire for 1894, pp. 75-77.] NEW JEESEY. SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 192. The treasurer of the school fund, upon the order of the State superintendent of education, is hereby authorized and directed to pay over the sum of twenty dol¬ lars, out of the income of the school fund, to every public school for which there shall have been raised by subscription or entertainment a like sum for tke same purpose, to establish in such school a school library and to procure philosophical and chemical apparatus; and the further sum of ten dollars annually, upon a like order, to the said public school, upon condition that there shall have been raised by subscription or entertainment a like sum for such year for the purposes aforesaid. 193. In ail school districts where there are more than one schoolhouse, it shall be lawful to receive from the State treasury, as in said bill directed, the sum prescribed to be paid to each schoolhouse, and that such district shall have power to consoli¬ date and establish a library in one place in said district as may be designated by the board of education or such power as has control of the public schools in said district. 194. The selection of books and apparatus shall be approved by the school trustees of such district. 195. The school trustees of each district shall make proper rules and regulations for the management, use, and safe-keeping of such libraries. 196. Whenever, in any county in this State, there shall have been raised by sub¬ scription a sum of money not less than one hundred dollars for the establishment of a library of pedagogical books for the use of the teachers of public schools in such county, the treasurer of the school fund, upon the order of the State superintendent of public instruction, is hereby authorized and directed to pay the sum of one hun¬ dred dollars, out of the income of the school fund, to the county superintendent of said county; and the further sum of fifty dollars annually thereafter, upon a like order, upon conditions that there shall have been raised by subscription a like sum for such year for the purpose aforesaid. 197. The county superintendent and three teachers of public schools in such county, appointed by him, shall constitute a committee for the selection of said hooks and the necessary apparatus and the making of rules and regulations for the manage¬ ment, use, and safe-keeping of such libraries. 198. The governor, the State comptroller, and the State superintendent of public instruction be and they are hereby authorized, upon its publication, to purchase and pay for, out of any funds not otherwise appropriated, as many copies of a political and legislative history of the State for the last twenty-five years, now being prepared by William Edgar Sackett, as they may deem proper for distribution among the public school libraries of this State. (School Laws of New Jersey, 1895.) NEW YORK. 35. (Public and free libraries and museums.) All provisions of sections 35 to 51 shall apply equally to libraries and museums, and the word “ library ;; shall be con¬ strued to include reference and circulating libraries and reading rooms. 36. (Establishment.) By majority vote at any election, any city, village, town, school district, or other body authorized to levy and collect taxes, or by vote of its common council, any city, or by vote of its trustees, any village, may establish and maintain a free public library, with or without branches, either by itself or in con¬ nection with any other body authorized to maintain such library. Whenever twenty- five taxpayers shall so petition, the question of providing library facilities shall be voted on at the next election or meeting at which taxes may be voted, provided that due public notice shall have been given of the proposed action. 37. (Subsidies.) By similar vote money may be granted toward the support of libraries not owned bv the public, but maintained for its welfare and free use : Pro¬ vided, That such libraries shall be subject to the inspection of the regents and regis¬ tered by them as maintaining a proper standard; that the regents shall certify what number of the books circulated are of such a character as to merit a grant of public money, and that the amount granted yearly to libraries on the basis of circulation shall not exceed ten cents for each volume of the circulation thus certified by the regents. 38. (Taxes.) Taxes in addition to those otherwise authorized maybe voted by any authority named in section 36, and for any purpose specified in sections 36 and 37, and LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 573 shall, unless otherwise directed by such vote, be considered as annual appropriations therefor till changed by further vote, and shall bo levied and collected yearly, or as directed, as are other general taxes ; and all money received from taxes or other sources for such library shall be kept as a separate library fund, and expended only under direction of the library trustees on properly authenticated vouchers. 39. (Trustees.) Such libraries shall be managed by trustees, who shall have all the powers of trustees of other educational institutions of the university as defined in this act : Provided, Unless otherwise specified in the charter, that the number of trustees shall be five ; that they shall be elected by the legal voters, except that in cities they shall be appointed by the mayor, with the consent of the common council, from citizens of recognized fitness for such position; that the first trustees determine by lot whose term of office shall expire each year, and that a new trustee shall be elected or appointed annually, to serve for five years. 40. (Incorporation.) Within one month after taking office the first board of trustees shall apply to the regents for a charter in accordance with the vote estab¬ lishing the library. 41. (Rex>orts.) Every library or museum which receives State aid or enjoys any exemption from taxation or other privilege not usually accorded to business cor¬ porations shall make the report required by 25 of this act, and such report shall relieve the institution from making any report now required by statute or charter to be made to the legislature, or to any department, court, or other authority of the State. These reports shall be summarized and transmitted to the legislature by the regents with the annual reports of the State library and State museum. 42. (Use.) Every library established under this act shall be forever free to the inhabitants of the locality which establishes it, subject always to rules of the library trustees, who shall have authority to exclude any person who wilfully violates such rules; and the trustees may, under such conditions as they think expedient, extend the privileges of the library to persons living outside such locality. 43. (Injuries to property.) Whoever intentionally injures, defaces, or destroys any property belonging to or deposited in any incorporated library, reading room, museum, or other educational institution, shall be punished by imprisonment in a State prison for not more than three years, or in a county jail for not more than one year, or by a fine of not more than five hundred dollars, or by both such fine and imprisonment. 44. (Detention.) Whoever wilfully detains any book, newspaper, magazine, pam¬ phlet, manuscript, or other property belonging to any public or incorporated library, reading room, museum, or other educational institution, for thirty days after notice in writing to return the same, given after the expiration of the time which by the rules of such institution such article or other property may be kept, shall be punished by a fine of not less than one nor more than twenty-five dollars, or by imprisonment in the jail not exceeding six months, and the said notice shall bear on its face a copy of this section. 45. (Transfer of libraries.) Any corporation, association, school district, or com¬ bination of districts may, by legal vote duly approved by the regents, transfer the ownership and control of its library, with all its appurtenances, to any public library in the university, and thereafter said public library shall be entitled to receive any money, books, or other property from the State or other sources to which said cor¬ poration, association, or school district would have been entitled but for such trans¬ fer, and the trustees or body making the transfer shall thereafter be relieved of all responsibility pertaining to property thus transferred. 46. (Local neglect.) If the local authorities of any library supported wholly or in part by State money fail to provide for the safety and public usefulness of its books, the regents shall in writing notify the trustees of said library what is necessary to meet the State’s requirements, and on such notice all its rights to further grants of money or books from the State shall be suspended until the regents certify that the requirements have been met; and if said trustees shall refuse or neglect to comply with such requirements within sixty days after service of such notice, the regents may remove them from office and thereafter all books and other library property wholly or in part paid for from State money shall be under the full and direct control of the regents who, as shall seem best for public interests, may appoint new trustees to carry on the library, or may store it or distribute its books to other libraries. 47. (Loans of books from State.) Under such rules as the regents may prescribe, they may lend from the. State library, duplicate department, or from books specially given or bought for this purpose, selections of books for a limited time to any public library in this State under visitation of the regents, or to any community not yet having established such library, but which has conformed to the conditions required for such loans. 48. (Advice and instruction from State library officers.) The trustees or librarian or any citizen interested in any public library in this State shall be entitled to ask from the officers of the State library any needed advice or instruction as to a library 574 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. building, furniture and equipment, government and service, rules for readers, select¬ ing, buying, cataloguing, shelving, lending books, or any other matter pertaining to the establishment, reorganization, or administration of a public library. The regents may provide for giving such advice and instruction either personally or through printed matter and correspondence, either by the State library staff or by a library commission of competent experts appointed by the regents to serve without salary. Tho regents may, on request, select or buy books, or furnish instead of money appor¬ tioned, or may make exchanges and loans through the duplicate department of the State library. Such assistance shall be free to residents of this State as far as prac¬ ticable, but the regents may, in their discretion, charge a proper fee to-nonresideuts or for assistance of a personal nature or for other reason not properly an expense to the State, but which may be authorized for the accommodation of users of the library. 49. (Use of fees and fines.) The regents may use receipts from fees, fines, gifts from private sources, or sale of regents’ bulletins and similar printed matter, for buying books or for any other proper expenses of carrying on their work. 50. (Apportionment of public library money.) Such sum as shall have been appro¬ priated bv tho legislature as public library money shall be paid annually by tho treasurer, on tho warrant of the controller, from the income of the United States deposit fund, according to an apportionment to be made for the benefit of free libra¬ ries by the rogents in accordance with their rules and authenticated by their seal: Provided, That none of this money shall be spent for books except those approved or selected and furnished by the regents; that no locality shall share in the apportion¬ ment unless it shall raise and use for the same purpose not less than an equal amount from taxation or other local sources ; that for any part of the apportionment not pay¬ able directly to the library trustees the regents shall file with the controller proper vouchers showing that it has been spent in accordance with law exclusively for books for free libraries or for proper expenses incurred for their benefit, and that books paid for by the State shall be subject to return to the regents whenever the library shall neglect or refuse to conform to the ordinances under which it secured them. 51. (Abolition.) Any library established under this act may be abolished only by a majority vote at a regular annual election, ratified by a majority vote at the next annual election. If any such library is abolished its property shall be used first to return to the regents, for the benefit of other public libraries in that locality, the equivalent of such sums as it may have received from the State or from other sources as gifts for public use. After such return any remaining property may be used as directed in the vote abolishing the library; but if the entire library property does not exceed in value the amount of such gifts it may be transferred to the regents for public use, and the trustees shall thereupon be freed from further responsibility. No abolition of a public library shall be lawful till tho regents grant a certificate that its assets have been properly distributed and its abolition completed in accord¬ ance with the law. 52. (Laws repealed.) Of the laws enumerated in the schedule hereto annexed that portion specified in tho last column is repealed. 53. (Saving clause.) The repeal of a law or any part of it by this act shall not affect or impair any act done or right accruing, accrued, or acquired, or liability, penalty, forfeiture, or punishment incurred prior to such repeal, under or by virtue of any law so repealed, but the same may be asserted, enforced, prosecuted, or inflicted as fully and to the same extent as if such law had not been repealed; and all actions and proceedings, civil or criminal, commenced under or by virtue of tho laws so repealed and pending at the time of such repeal, may be prosecuted and defended to final effect in the same manner as they might under the laws then exist¬ ing, unless it shall be otherwise specially provided by law. 54. (Construction.) Tho provisions of this act, so far as they are substantially the same as those of the laws herein repealed, shall bo construed as a continuation of such laws, modified or amended according to the language employed in this act, and not as new enactments. Repeals in this act shall not revive any law repealed by any law hereby repealed, but shall include all laws amendatory of the laws hereby repealed. References in laws not repealed to provisions of law incorporated in this chapter and repealed shall be construed as applying to the provisions so incorporated. Nothing in this act shall be construed to repeal any provision of the criminal or, penal code. 55. (To take effect.) This act shall take effect immediately. [Approved, May 14, 1892. Laws of New York, 1892, chapter 573.] COMMON SCHOOL AND PUBLIC LIBRARIES. Section 1. So much of the school library money as shall be needed for that pur¬ pose shall be apportioned among the several cities and school districts by the State superintendent of public instruction, who may, so far as consistent with law, make alter, or repeal any rules that he may deem proper for regulating the expenditure of LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 575 the school library money and the administration and care of school libraries estab¬ lished or maintained under authority of this act: Provided, That no portion of the school library money shall be expended except for books approved by the said superin¬ tendent. Said school libraries shall consist of reference books for use in the school¬ room, suitable supplementary reading books for children, or books relating to branches of study being pursued in the school, and pedagogic books as aids to teachers. And no city or school district shall share in the apportionment unless it shall raise and use for the same purpose an equal amount from taxation or other local sources, and shall also comply with the requirements of the superintendent as to the care of such libraries and otherwise. Library moneys shall be apportioned to the school districts and parts of school districts joint with parts in any city or in any adjoining county which shall be entitled to participate therein, as follows : To each of said dis¬ tricts "an amount equal to that which shall have been raised in said district for library purposes, either by tax or otherwise; and if the aggregate amount so raised in the districts within the county shall exceed the sum apportioned to the county the said districts respectively shall be entitled to participate in such apportionment pro rata to the total amount apportioned to the county. All school library money unappor¬ tioned by school commisioners and remaining in the hands of county treasurers shall, in each succeeding year, be added to the school library money apportioned by the superintendent of public instruction to the counties of the State. Sec. 2. The school library shall be a part of the school equipment and shall be kept in the school building at all times, and shall not be used as a circulating library, except that, so far as the rules fixed by the State superintendent shall allow, teachers and school officers or pupils, with the leave of the librarian, may borrow from said library any book not needed for reference in the schoolroom, but such persons shall not borrow more than one volume at a time and shall not keep the same more than two weeks. The board of education or trustees shall appoint a teacher of the schools under their charge as librarian, who, with the trustees, shall be responsible for the safety and proper care of the books, and shall annually, and whenever required, make such reports concerning the library as the State superintendent may direct. Sec. 3. All existing provisions of Jaw and rules established by the superintendent of public instruction for the management of district libraries shall hold good as to the management of school libraries till altered by or in pursuance of law. Sec. 4. Each city and school district in the State is hereby authorized to raise moneys by tax in the same manner as other school moneys are raised, or to receive moneys by gift or devise, for starting or extending or caring for the school library. Sec. 5. Any board of education in any city or union free school district, or any duly constituted meeting in any other district, is hereby authorized to give any or all of its books or other library property to any township or other free public library under State supervision, or to aid in establishing such free public library, provided it is free to the people of such city or district. A receipt from the officers of the said free public library, and an approval of the transfer under seal by the regents of the university, shall forever thereafter relieve the said school authorities of further responsibility for the said library and property so transferred. Sec. 6. Any books or other library property belonging to any district library, and which have not been in direct charge of a librarian duly appointed within one year, may be taken and shall thereafter be owned by any public library under State super¬ vision. which has received from the regents of the university written permission, to collect such books or library property, and to administer the same for the benefit of the public: Provided, That said books or other library property shall be found in the territory for which snch public library is maintained, as defined in its charter or in the permission granted by the regents: And further provided, That, on written request of the school authorities, any dictionaries, cyclopedias, and pedagogic books shall be placed in the school library of the district to which such books originally belonged. Any person, association, or corporation having possession of books or other property belonging to any school, district, or other public library, except books reg¬ ularly borrowed and charged for a period not yet expired, shall deliver the same within one month from the passage of this law to the legally appointed librarian of such library or of the free public library, duly authorized to take the same, as pro- vi :< d in this section, and willful neglect or refusal to comply with this provision shall be a misdemeanor. Sec. 7. The public shall not be entitled to use any library, now or hereafter in the custody of the school authorities; hut said authorities may appoint three trustees who shall have the powers, duties, and responsibilities of trustees of public libraries incorporated by the regents, and thereafter the school authorities may transfer to the custody of said trustees, for the purposes of a circulating library, any of their library property, as provided in section five. Sec. 8. The State superintendent of public instruction is hereby authorized to with¬ hold its share of public school moneys from any city or district which uses school library moneys for any other purpose than that for which they are provided, cr 576 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. for any willful neglect or disobedience of the law or the rules or orders of said superintendent in the premises. Sec. 9. The sum of fifty-five thousand dollars, directed to be distributed to the several cities and school districts of the State by section four of chapter two hun¬ dred and thirty-seven of the laws of eighteen hundred and thirty-eight, shall con¬ tinue to be appropriated and shall be known as school library moneys, and shall be applied to the purchase of books for the formation or extension of common school libraries. Sec. 10. For the fiscal year beginning October first, eighteen hundred and ninety- two, but not thereafter, out of said fifty-five thousand dollars, school library money, there shall be paid twenty-five thousand dollars for public library money, and said twenty-five thousand dollars shall be paid by the treasurer, on the warrant of the comptroller, according to an apportionment to be made for the benefit of free libra¬ ries by the regents in accordance with their rules and authenticated by the univer¬ sity seal : Provided , That none of this money shall be spent for books except those approved or selected and furnished by the regents ; that no locality shall share in the apportionment unless it shall raise for the same purpose not less than an equal amount from taxation or other local sources; that for any part of the apportion¬ ment not payable directly to the library trustees the regents shall file with the comptroller proper vouchers showing that it has been spent in accordance with law exclusively for books for free public libraries or for proper expenses incurred for their benefit, and that books paid for by the State shall be subject to return to the regents whenever the library shall neglect or refuse to conform to the ordinances under which it secured them. Sec. 11. Section four, chapter two hundred and thirty- seven of the laws of eight¬ een hundred and thirty-eight is hereby repealed, and sections one to nine of this act are hereby substituted for title eight, of chapter five hundred and fifty-five of the laws of eighteen hundred and sixty-four, which said title eight is hereby repealed ; and all other acts repugnant to or inconsistant with the provisions of this act are, so far as they are so inconsistent, hereby repealed. Sec. 12. This act shall take effect immediately. [School laws of New York, 1893.] NORTH CAROLINA. [Sections 19 to 32, inclusive, of Chapter LII of the Laws of North Carolina, 1715.] Section XIX. And whereas, at the promotion of the Reverend Doctor Thomas Bray, a Library hath been sent over to Bath-Town, for the use of the inhabitants of the Parish of St. Thomas, in Pamptico; and it is justly feared that the books belonging to the same will quickly be embezzled, damaged, or lost, except a law be provided for the more effectual preservation of the same : XX. Be it therefore enacted, by the authority aforesaid, That the said Library shall be, continue, and remain in the hands, custody, and possession of a Library-keeper, to be elected, nominated, and appointed by the Commissioners hereafter by this Act appointed, or the major part of them; which said Library-keeper is, and shall be hereby bound and obliged, to keep and preserve the several and respective books therein, from waste, damage, imbezzlement, and all other destruction, (fire, and all other unavoidable accidents, only excepted,) and is and shall be hereby accountable for the same, and every book thereof, to the Commissioners hereafter nominated; and to that end and purpose, the said Library -keeper shall pass two receipts for the Library aforesaid, one to the Commissioners hereafter named, and the other to the Churchwardens of the said Parish for the time being, in which receipts the title of each book shall be inserted: And in case all or any of the books is or shall be found to be wasted, damaged, or embezzled, or otherwise destroyed, (except as before excepted,) the said Library-keeper, his heirs, executors, and administrators, are and shall be hereby bound and obliged to answer double the value of the same ; and the said Commissioners are hereby empowered to sue for the same, in any court of record in this Province, by bill, plaint, or information, or other action; wherein no essoign, protection, injunction, or wager of law, shall be allowed; and that what thereby shall be recovered, (reasonable charges and expences deducted,) to employ and dispose of towards the compleating and perfecting the aforesaid Library so wasted, endamaged, embezzled, or otherwise destroyed, within the space of twelve months after such recovery. XXI. And he it further enacted, by the authority aforesaid, That in case of the death or removal of the said Library-keeper, the Churchwardens of St. Thomas’s Parish shall immediately take into their custody, possession, and safe keeping, all the books belonging to the said Library, and shall be answerable for the same to the Com¬ missioners hereafter in this Act nominated. XXII. And be it f urther enacted, by the authority aforesaid, That the Churchwardens of St. Thomas’s Parish, in Pamptico, upon the receiving the books belonging to the LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 577 said Library, shall compare the same with the catalogue and receipt for the same in their custody; and if any of the boohs aro wanting or damaged, they shall givo an account thereof, in twenty days at farthest, to the Commissioners hereafter men¬ tioned, who are impowered to sue the said Library-keeper, or in case of his death, his executors or administrators, for the same: And in case tlio said Churchwardens refuse or neglect to give such account, then the said Churchwardens, their heirs, executors, or administrators, and every of them, aro hereby made accountable to the Commissioners hereafter named for all the books belonging to the said Library, and contained in the catalogue thereof. XXIII. And be it further enacted, by the authority aforesaid, That the said Commis¬ sioners, or any five of them, within twenty days after such notice given, shall forth¬ with proceed to the election of another Library-keeper, to whose custody and safe keeping the said Library, and every book therein contained, shall be forthwith delivered by the said Churchwardens, by order of the said Commissioners; which said Library-keeper so elected, shall continue in the same office, unless removed by the said Commissioners, or the major part of them, (which they are, upon a just occasion, hereby impowered to do,) or until the settlement of a minister in the said Parish; which said minister or incumbent shall, ex officio, be Library-keeper, and shall be answerable for the same to the Commissioners aforesaid, in manner as is by this Act directed. XXIV. Provided always, That the said Library shall not be removed out of Bath- Town, other than to the incumbent’s house; and not thither, without liberty first had and obtained from the said Commissioners, or the major part of them. XXY. And be it further enacted, by the authority aforesaid , That the inhabitants of Beaufort Precinct shall have Liberty to borrow any book out of the said Library, giving a receipt for the same to the Library-keeper for the time being, with a prom¬ ise to return the said book or books, if a folio, in four months time; if a quarto, in two months time; if an octavo, or under, iu'one months time; upon penalty of pay¬ ing three times the value of the said book or books so borrowed, in case of failure in returning the same; And the said Library-keeper is hereby obliged to enter such receipt in a book, to be fairly kept for that purpose, and upon the return of any book or books so lent, shall note it returned on the opposite side or column of the said book, and not cross or blot the same : and in case the person that borrows any book or books out of the said Library, doth refuse to return the same, or doth dam¬ nify the said book, upon complaint thereof given by the said Library -keeper, his executors or administrators, to two or more of the Commissioners, and by them, or any five of them, to the Chief Justice of the Province for the time being, or any two Justices of the Peace, it shall be lawful, and the said Chief Justice, or any two Justices, are hereby impowered and required, by warrant of distress, directed to any of the constables of the said Precinct, to levy three times the value of such book or books, on the goods and chattels of the person so refusing to deliver, or damnifying the same; and for want of such distress, to commit the person to prison, till satisfaction be made to the said Library-keeper. XXVI. And be it further enacted, by the authority aforesaid, That the Commissioners hereafter named, shall make, or cause to be made, several catalogues of all and sin¬ gular the books in the said Library, and the same being fairly written, and signed by the said Commissioners, or some five of them, one to be entered upon record in the Secretary’s office of this Province, one to bo in the custody and for the use of the Commissioners hereafter named, under which the Library-keeper shall sign a receipt for the respective books, one to be in the custody of the Churchwardens of St. Thomas’s Parish for the time being, under which the Library-keeper shall also sign a receipt for the respective books, and one to be fairly entered in a book for that purpose to be kept by the Library-keeper in the said Library; that so any person may know what books are contained therein. XXVII. And be it further enacted, by the authority aforesaid, That the Commissioners, or any five of them, hereafter named, after making one exact catalogue of all and singular the respective books in the said Library, shall, and are hereby directed, to appraise and rate each book, at a price certain in the current money of this Prov¬ ince; which appraisment shall be an established rule to determine the value of the said books, in case any suit is brought by the said Commissioners against any person who shall detain or damnify any of the said books, or against the Library -keeper, his executors or administrators. XXVIII. And be it further enacted, by the authority aforesaid, That the Commission¬ ers hereafter named, or any five of them, shall, every year, on Easter Monday yearly, resort to the House where the said Library shall be kept, and there examine the books thereof by the catalogue, and see that there be the full number, and that they are not damaged or spoiled ; and therefore the Library-keeper is hereby required, in lending any of the said books out of the said Library, notwithstanding the time usually allowed by this Act, to oblige the said person to return such books as they borrow to the said Library-keeper ten days before the said Easter Monday, yearly, ED 9G - 19 578 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. tliat so all and singular tlie hooks belonging to the Library aforesaid, may be exposed to the view of the said Commissioners, the better to enable them to judge if they be any ways damaged or spoiled, and give their order accordingly. XXIX. And be it further enacted, by the authority aforesaid, That the Honorable Charles Eden, Esq; present Governor, and the Governor or Commander in Chief for the time being, the members of the Council for the time being, Christopher Gale, Esq; Chief Justice, and the Chief Justice for the time being, Tobias Knight, Esq; Secretary, and Secretary for the time being, Col. Edward Moseley, Speaker of this present Assembly, and the Speaker for the time being, Daniel Richardson, Esq; Attorney- General, and the Attorney-General for the time being, the members of the Precinct Court for the time being, Capt. Frederick Jones, Mr. John Porter, Mr. Joel Martin, Capt. John Drinkwater, Mr. John Clark, Mr. Patrick Maulo, Mr. Thomas Worseley, Mr. Lionel Reading, Mr. James Leigh, and Mr. Thomas Harding, or any five of them, are hereby nominated to be Commissioners and Trustees, for the due inspection and preservation of the Library aforesaid, and all and singular the respec¬ tive books to the same belonging; and they, or any five of them, shall have power to commence or bring any suit or action given by this Act. XXX. And in case of the death or absence of any of the Commissioners who are by this Act particularly by name before appointed, then the surviving Commissioners, or any five of them, at their next meeting after such vacancy, are hereby fully author¬ ized and impowerecl to make choice of another, in the place and stead of him or them who shall be dead or absented ; which said Commissioners so elected shall be invested with the same authority, as if he had been before in this Act particularly named and appointed. XXXI. And be it further enacted, by the authority aforesaid, That the Commissioners above named, or any five of them, after having examined the catalogue of books, and discovered wdiat are wanting, shall summons such persons as have the said books in their custody, to deliver the same, within twenty days after such notice in writing left with the person, or at his usual place of abode; and in case any person shall fail or refuse to deliver the said respective books to the said Commissioners, then the said Commissioners, or any five of them, are hereby required, directed, and impow- ered, to take such measure for the recovery of the same, or treble the value thereof, as is before by this Act prescribed. XXXII. And be it further enacted, by the authority aforesaid, That all persons that have borrowed, or have in their custody, any of the books belonging to the Library aforesaid, shall, on or before the next Easter Monday, return the same to the present Library keeper, under the penalty of the forfeiture of treble the valuo of each book not returned as aforesaid; the better to enable the Commissioners before named to make a perfect catalogue of the books belonging to the said Library. AX ACT to provide a suitable room for the supreme court and State library. [Lavs of Xortli Carolina, session of 1885, chapter 121.] The general assembly of North Carolina do enact: Sectiox 1. That it shall be the duty of the governor and his council to cause the west end of the agricultural building to be so altered and added to as to make it available for a supreme court room and office for the supreme court clerk and attorney- general, and for the librarian of the supreme court and State library. Sec. 2. The governor and his council shall determine what alterations are to be made in the present building, and what additions shall be made thereto for the pur¬ poses set out in the first section of this act. Sec. 3. That after the plans and specifications of the change and additions to be made are agreed upon by the governor and his council, a copy of them shall be given to the architect of the penitentiary, whose duty it shall be to erect the building and make the changes, utilizing therefor all the labor and material possible to bo pro¬ cured or manufactured at the penitentiary : Provided, That no plan shall be adopted, the completion of which shall exceed in cost the amount provided in this act. Sec. 4. In order to pay for such labor and material as can not be sup|3lied by the j>enitentiary, the sum of ten thousand dollars be and the same is hereby appropri¬ ated, to be paid upon the warrant of the auditor, upon the application of the archi¬ tect of the penitentiary, approved by the governor and his council. Sec. 5. The work shall be done by the penitentiary authorities, under the general directions of. the governor and his council. Sec. 6. As soon as said building is completed, the supreme court shall be moved into the room set apart therefor, and the court shall be held therein. Sec. 7. The law library, the State library, the supreme court clerk, and the attorney- general shall each occupy the rooms set apart for them in said building. Sec. 8. When the supreme court, its library and clerk, and the State library are moved out of the capitol, the auditor shall occupy the rooms now occupied by the LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 579 supremo court and its clerk, and the secretary of state sliall have tlie room now- occupied by the auditor, in addition to bis present room. Sec. 9. Tho room now occupied by the State library shall be set apart for the ancient records of the State, and it shall bo the duty of the governor and his council to have them removed thereto and properly classified and stored. Sec. 10. This act shall bo in force from and after its ratification. In the general assembly read three times, and ratified this tho 25th day of Febru¬ ary, A. D. 1885. AX ACT to authorize the governor ami council of State, in conjunction with the warden of tho State penitentiary, to provide for heating tho capitol, supreme court, and library buildings, and the intro¬ duction therein of a necessary water supply. [Laws of North Carolina, session of 1S87. chapter 225.] The general assembly of Norik Carolina do enact: Section 1. That the governor and council of State are hereby authorized and empowered, in conjunction with the warden of the State penitentiary, to provide for the heating of the capitol, supreme court, and library buildings, and the introduc¬ tion therein of a necessary water supply, including water-closets and laboratories, and shall within ninety days from the ratification of this act and aftef due advertise¬ ment contract with the lowest responsible bidder to heat said capitol, supreme court, and library buildings and supply the same with all necessary water conveniences, including water-closets and laboratories, on the best and most approved plan, said work to be completed on or before December, one thousand eight hundred and eighty- eight, and be paid for upon the warrant of the governor out of any moneys belonging to the general fund in the treasury not otherwise appropriated: Provided, That the said warden of tho State penitentiary shall supervise said work; and no money shall be paid out on the same, unless said warden shall certify in writing to the governor that the work has been done in first-class workmanship and of the best materials. Sec. 2. That the governor and his council, with said warden of the State peni¬ tentiary shall employ competent person or persons to prepare drawings and specifi¬ cations and details for said work, the same to be done under the supervision of the said warden, and to be paid for as provided in section one of this act. Sec. 3. That for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of this act tho sum of sixteen thousand dollars is hereby appropriated out of the general fund in the treas¬ ury as hereinbefore mentioned : Provided, That if a less sum shall be found adequate, any surplus shall be covered back into the general fund: And provided further, That in no case shall the said work cost in the aggregate more than sixteen thousand dollars. Sec. 4. That this act shall be in force from and after its ratification. In the general assemblv read three times and ratified this the 7th dav of March, A. D. 1887. Chapter 258. — AX ACT for the better preservation, of the records in the clerks’ offices of the senate and bouse of representatives and the libraries of the two bouses. The general assembly of North Carolina do enact: Section 1. That the State librarian be and he is hereby directed to have the clerks’ offices of the senate and house of representatives removed to the rooms now occupied by the superintendent of public instruction and the State library (when these offices are removed to the supreme court and library building) and properly classified, arranged, and labelled. Sec. 2. That it shall be tho duty of the State librarian to procure two copies each of the laws and journals of the general assembly and arrange these books on the shelves in chronological order for use of the two houses of the general assembly, respectively. Sec. 3. That the librarian is hereby constituted the lawful custodian of the record rooms and libraries of the two houses and shall keep the same locked, and for the faithful performance of his duties as such shall receive as compensation the sum of two hundred and fifty dollars per annum. Sec. 4. This act shall take effect from and after its ratification. In the general assemblv read threo times and ratified this the 7th day of March, A. D. 1887. Chapter 358. — AX ACT directing tbe trustees of tbe public library to secure and publish the manu¬ script of the late John A. Sloan concerning tbe Xortb Carolina troops in tbe late war between tbe States. Whereas, The late John A. Sloan during his lifetime collected and prepared for publication all facts and information then to be obtained which illustrate the part taken by North Carolina troops during the late war between the States, and died before publishing the same ; 580 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. And whereas, Unless immediately printed there is great danger that the manu¬ scripts, papers, and documents collected and prepared by the said John A. Sloan may he lost or destroyed, and thus no record of the gallant actions and soldierly conduct of our troops will he preserved; The general assembly of North Carolina do enact: Section 1. That the trustees of the public library are hereby authorized to examine said manuscript, and, if they shall deem it of sufficient importance and value, to procure and publish the same as prepared by the said John A. Sloan, as aforesaid, in a volume of such size and to such a number of copies as to them may seem best. Sec. 2. That after supplying the public libraries and the libraries of the university and colleges of the State with copies, the said trustees shall cause the remaining copies to be sold, and to this end shall have |iower to employ an agent or agents whose compensation shall be a commission upon the proceeds of sales made by him or them. Sec. 3. That in case the library fund shall prove to be insufficient to meet the expenses of carrying out the provisions of this act, the auditor is directed to draw his warrant for such sum as the said trustees shall certify to him to complete the said work. Sec. 4. That all net proceeds arising from the sale of the said remaining copies shall be paid into the public treasury for the purpose, first of reimbursing the treasury for moneys paid out on the said warrant of the auditor, and second of reimbursing the said library fund. Sec. 5. That this act shall he in force from and after its ratification. In the general assembly read three times, and ratified this the 7th day of March, A. D. 1887. AN ACT for the better protection of the hooks in the North Carolina State library. [Lavs of North Carolina, session of 1889, chapter 65.] Whereas many rare and valuable books are now owned by the State and are kept in the State library; and whereas, by their open and exposed condition are liable to be stolen or greatly damaged by dust and insects; therefore, The general assembly of North Carolina do enact: Section 1. That the State librarian is hereby directed to have glass doors placed to all the cases in the State library containing the general or miscellaneous books of literature, for the better protection of such books. Sec. 2. That the sum of two hundred and fifty ($250) dollars is hereby appropri¬ ated to cover the cost of such books. Sec. 3. That this act shall be in force from and after its ratification. Ratified the 5th day of February, A. D. 1889. Chapter 535. — AN ACT relating to tbe lavs, reports, etc., received by this State from other States and Territories by exchange. Whereas, There being no particular department of the State designated to receive and preserve a record of the receipts of the published laws, reports, documents, etc., from other States and Territories received by exchange for like documents from this State, and for the purpose of having such record carefully kept and preserved; therefore, The general assembly of North Carolina do enact: Section 1. That the State librarian be, and he is hereby, directed to keep a record of all such receipts, to receipt for the same, and to distribute them to the different departments to which they belong immediately on receipt. Sec. 2. That all States and Territories exchanging such documents with this State are requested to forward all documents direct to the State librarian. Sec. 3. That this act shall be in force from and after its ratification. Ratified the 11th day of March, A. D. 1889. A RESOLUTION in reference to keeping open tbe State library at nigbt. [Resolutions, p. 530.] JResolved by the house of representatives, the senate concurring , That the State libra¬ rian is hereby directed and authorized to keep the State library open from 7 o'clock until 9 each afternoon: Provided , That the necessary expense of keeping said library open be voluntarily paid by the Board of Trade of the city of Raleigh. Ratified on the 11th day of March, A. D. 1889. A RESOLUTION of instruction to tbe State printer. [Resolutions, p. 534.] Resolved by the house of representatives , the senate concurring, That the State printer be, and is hereby, directed to do all necessary binding for the State library : Pro- LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 581 Tided further, That the State treasurer is directed to pay for all such binding for the State library from such funds as are now used to pay for similar work for the other departments of the State: Provided, The cost shall not exceed one hundred dollars. Ratified the 11th day of March, A. D. 1889. AN ACT in relation to the supreme court library. [State laws of North Carolina, session of 1SS1, chapter 390.] The general assembly of North Carolina do enact: Section 1. That section three thousand six hundred and thirty-five of the Code is amended by providing that ten volumes of the reports shall he distributed to the supreme court library instead of five volumes, as is now provided in line eighteen of said section. Sec. 2. That for the purpose of rebinding the volumes in the library and for other contingent expenses of the supreme court, there shall be annually appropriated one hundred and fifty dollars. Sec. 3. That this act shall bo in force from and after its ratification. Ratified the 6th day of March, A. D. 1891. Chapter 471.— AH ACT to amend chapter fifty-two, sections three thousand six hundred and thirty- two and three thousand six hundred and thirty-five of volume two of the Code, in reference to laws and supreme court reports of the State for theState library. The general assembly of North Carolina do enact: Section 1. That section three thousand six hundred and thirty-two, chapter fifty- two of the Code, he amended by striking out in line fourteen the word “ten” and insert in lieu thereof the word “two:” that section three thousand six hundred and thirty-five of the same chapter he amended by striking out in line eighteen the word “ten” and insert in lieu thereof the word “two.” Sec. 2. That the State librarian is hereby directed to turn over to the secretary of state all of the said laws and reports in the library over and above this number, to be disposed of as such other documents are for the benefit of the State. Sec. 3. All laws in conflict with [this] act are hereby repealed, and this act shall be in force from and after its ratification. Ratified the 9th day of March, A. D. 1891. A RESOLUTION of instruction to the State printer and binder. [Resolutions, p. 655.] Whereas under a recent decision of the attorney-general (September 26, 1890) he decided that the annual appropriation for the increase of the State library was intended under the law for the purchase of books for the library, and not for the purpose of binding and repairs of books for preservation in the State library : Therefore, Resolved, That the State printer and binder, under the direction of the librarian and by authority of the trustees, be, and he is hereby, directed to have all the neces¬ sary printing and binding for the State library done under the present laws govern¬ ing the State printing, and the treasurer is directed to pay for the same in such man¬ ner as other work is paid for by the State : Provided, That not more than one hun¬ dred and fifty dollars ($150.00) shall be used during any one year for this purpose. Ratified the 3rd day of March, A. D. 1891. A RESOLUTION in reference to printing tbe bistory of North Carolina soldiers in late war. [Public Laws of North Carolina, session of 1893, resolutions, p. 498.] Whereas there is on file in the State library manuscript copies of the part taken by several regiments from this State in the late war for Southern independence, showing the brave deeds and heroism displayed by the North Carolina troops, and the same has never been published: Therefore*, for the purpose of doing credit to the memory of our brave soldiers, it is therefore Resolved by the house of representatives, the senate concurring. That the State librarian, under the supervision of the board of trustees of the State library, is hereby directed to prepare these papers in proper shape and such others as maybe secured, and have five hundred copies of the same printed. Resolved (2d), That when the said manuscripts have been printed it shall be the duty of the State librarian to supply one copy to each member of the general assembly, one to each State library, and to such schools and colleges of this State as may he entitled to receive the publications of this State : Provided, That the cost incurred herein shall not exceed one hundred dollars. Ratified the 6th day of March, A. D. 1893. 582 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. THE CODE OF NORTH CAROLINA, YOLUME II, 1883, CHAPTER FIFTY-ONE— PUBLIC LIBRARIES. [Section 3604. Librarian biennially appointed by the trustee of public libraries; salary. 1870-71, c. 70, s. 1. 1883, c. 216, s. 1.] A librarian shall be biennially appointed by the trustees of the public libraries, at a salary not exceeding seven hundred and fifty dollars a year, who shall give bond with security in such sum as the said trustees may determine, payable to the State of North Carolina, conditioned for the safe-keeping of the books and the faithful discharge of his duties, and he shall hold his place until his successor shall be appointed and qualified. People v. McKee, 68-429: People v. Bledsoe, 68-427; People v. McGowan, 68-520. [Section 3605. Hours of public library, libraries of senate and house of representatives. 1870-71, c. 70,s.2. 1881, c. 352.] The library shall be kept open during such hours as the trustees may prescribe; and the librarian shall also keep the libraries of the senate and house of representa¬ tives locked, except during the session of the general assembly. [Section 3606. Justices of supreme court appointed the trustees of the supreme court librar}-; to appoint, remove, and fix compensation of librarian. 1883, c. 100, ss. 1, 2.] The justices of the supreme court and their respective successors in office are appointed trustees of the supreme court library, and all moneys appropriated for its increase shall be paid out under their direction and supervision. The justices afore¬ said shall have charge of the court library, and may, in their discretion, employ a librarian, who shall perform his duties under such rules and regulations and shall receive such compensation as may be prescribed by such trustees, not exceeding the sum of three hundred dollars per annum. [Section 3607. Claims to be audited. 1883, c. 100, s. 3-1 All claims for such service shall be audited and approved by the auditor, and the same shall be paid by the treasurer of the State upon the warrant of the auditor. [SectioD 3608. Five hundred dollars yearly appropriated for increase of public library. R. C., c. 92, s. 1. 1840, c. 46.] The sum of five hundred dollars is annually appropriated for the increase of the public library. [Section 3609. Trustees of public library authorized to publish records, &c., belonging to the State, and bearing date prior to the year one thousand seven hundred and eighty-one, proviso ; printing and binding to be done by public printer and binder at rates fixed bylaw; how paid. 1881, c. 88, s. 1.] The trustees of the public library are hereby authorized to publish such number of volumes of suitable size of the records, papers, documents, and manuscripts, as they may deem proper, bearing date prior to the year one thousand seven hundred and eighty-one, belonging to the State of North Carolina: Provided, That the print¬ ing and binding shall be done by the public printer and binder at the rates fixed by law, and paid for out of the funds appropriated in the j>receding section for the increase of the public libraries of the State. [Section 3610. Colonial records missing from archives of State to be procured and published. 1883, pub. res., p. 619.] The trustees of the public libraries are authorized and directed to procure such of the colonial records of this State as may be missing from the archives of the State, and to publish them with the records heretofore authorized to be published. And in case the library fund shall prove to be insufficient to meet the expenses incurred in carrying out this resolution, the auditor is directed to draw his warrant for such sums as the trustees aforesaid shall certify to him to be needed to complete said work. [Section 3611. Trustees authorized to sell volumes printed under the preceding section. 1881, c. 88, s. 2.] The said trustees shall have authority to sell, on such terms as they may deem proper, any volume printed under the preceding section that may not be reserved for the use of the said public libraries. [Section 3612. Governor, superintendent of public instruction, and secretary of state made trustees for public libraries, State papers, etc. ; two may constitute a quorum. 1871-72, c. 169, s. 3.] The governor, superintendent of public instruction, and secretary of state, and their respective successors in office, are appointed trustees of the public libraries, documents, and all books, papers, and manuscripts belonging to the State of North LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES., 583 Carolina; and under their direction all moneys appropriated shall he expended,' whether to tho increase of the library or other purposes, except the salary of the librarian. And the board of trustees shall make rules and regulations by which the librarian shall be governed for the iirotection and iireservation of the books and library. [Section 3613. License tax to be applied to library of supreme court. lies. 1872-73.] The clerk of the supreme comt, under the direction of the justices of said court, is authorized, empowered, and directed to expend annually the amount paid in byj applicants for license to practice law, who are examined by the court, in the purchase of such law books as may be necessary to keep the supreme court library well appointed, and no other appropriation shall be allowed for that purpose. [Section 3614. Governor to designate documents to be preserved and bound; what books to be bouod and labeled. R. C., c. 92, s. 4. 1840, c. 46, s. 6. 1842, c. 68, s. 3.] The governor shall designate such portions of the documents, journals, and acts of the Congress of the United States as he may deem proper to be iireserved in the library; may designate which of them are to be bound, of such pamphlets, acts, and journals of the general assembly, works of periodical literature, laws of other States' and documents of the general assembly that may be added to the library ; and the ’ librarian shall have them bound. And all the books belonging to the library, or which may be added thereto, shall be labeled in gilt letters with the words “ State Library;” and the governor may draw upon the treasurer for such sums as may be necessary to defray the expenses thereof. [Section 3615. Penalty for injuring books. R. C., c. 92, s. 5. 1842, c. G8, s. 1.] Any person who shall damage, deface, or mutilate any book which he may bo allowed to withdraw from the library, or who shall return any book so damaged,4 defaced, or mutilated while in his possession, shall forfeit and pay the full amount of the damage, which amount shall be determined by the librarian, but in no case to exceed double the value of the book; and the lines and forfeitures accruing under this section shall be sued for and recovered by the librarian in the name of the State, before any justice of the peace; and the fines and forfeitures recovered shall be added to the fund for the increase of the library. [Section 3616. State librarian to be librarian of the senate and house of representatives. 1858-59, c. 41, s. 1.] The State librarian shall be the librarian of the senate and house of representa¬ tives, and he shall collect and arrange in the archives of the senate and house of representatives all tho records and papers belonging thereto, wherever they may be found. He shall also collect and have bound, or otherwise suitably preserved for tho library of the senate and house of representatives, such acts of our general assembly, reports, and documents to the number of three copies each, at least, together with such reports and documents as are or may hereafter be printed by tho several internal improvement companies, and other companies or associations within the State; and also such reports, documents, and papers as have been printed by the Federal Government and the States and Territories of the Union, as may be proper to place therein, and which have not been obtained, under the act of the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty-four, establishing a library of documents. [Section 3617. Records, documents, occ., whereto be kept. 1858-59, c. 41, s. 2.] For tho better preservation of the records, documents, and other papers by this chapter authorized to be collected, the State librarian shall cause to be erected in the offices of the clerk of the senate and the house of representatives and in the ante and committee rooms adjoining the chambers of the senate and house of representatives, such cases and shelves as will protect the same, and procure such furniture therefor as is necessary for the accommodation of persons using said libraries. [Section 3818. Librarian to furnish library with documents, erson, and ne\'er to any person not a LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 585 resident of tlie district. The library shall he open at least once each week for the accommodation of its patrons. It shall, under proper rules, permit teachers to take hooks from the library to their schools for use in illustrating any subject, and for instruction. It may at any time exchange any part or all of its library with any district or person, so far as different books may be so obtained for equal values of the books exchanged, and may at any time accept donations of books for the library, but it shall exclude therefrom all books unsuited to the cultivation of good char¬ acter and good morals and manners, and no sectarian publications, devoted to dis¬ cussions of sectarian differences and creeds, shall be admitted to the library. OHIO. LIBRARY LEGISLATION. Section 3995. (a) In any district the board of education may appropriate money from the contingent fund "for the purchase of such books, other than school books, as it may deem suitable for the use and improvement of the scholars and teachers of the district and in the purchase of philosophical or other apparatus for the demonstra¬ tion of such branches of education as may be taught in the schools of the district, or for either of such purposes; but not more than one-half of the amount herein authorized to be appropriated shall be expended in the purchase of such apparatus; (b) such appropriations shall not exceed, in any one year, twelve hundred dollars in city districts containing cities of the first grade of the first class, three hundred dol¬ lars in other city districts of the first class, one hundred and fifty dollars in city districts of the second class, and seventy-five dollars in other districts; and the books so purchased shall constitute a school library, the control and management of which shall be vested in the board of education. The board of education of any city of the second class, fourth grade, having a free public library organized, in pur¬ suance of law, may allow such free public library association the use and control of the public school library, subject, however, to such rules, regulations, and restric¬ tions as said board of education may prescribe for the use and control thereof. [72 v., 29, §51; 78 v., 110.] Section 1. Be it enacted by the general assembly of the Slate of Ohio, That the board of education (c) of city, village, township, and special school districts in the State be, and are hereby, authorized to purchase for each school in either of said districts one copy of “Howe’s Historical Collections of Ohio,” to be used as a reference book in the study of the history of the State : Provided, That said book shall be in quality, style, binding, and finish equal to the present published edition of said work, bound in half Russian leather, and shall cost not to exceed three dollars per volume for each set of.the three volumes; Provided further, That the price of the books and cost of transportation shall be paid out of the contingent fund of such district. Sec. 2. Said books during the vacation of schools, or when the schools are not in session, shall be taken care of in the same manner that maps, globes, dictionaries, and other school apparatus are cared for and preserved. Sec. 3. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. [Passed April 8, 1892 (c7) .] Sec. 3996. For the purpose of increasing and maintaining the school library of city districts the board of education may levy annually a tax of one-tenth of one mill on the dollar valuation of the taxable property thereof, to be assessed, collected, and paid in the same manner as are other school taxes of such districts. [64 v., 62, § 1.] Sec. 3997. The amount of such tax, when collected, shall be expended, under the direction of the board, for the purchase of such books as are suitable for public school libraries, the bills for which, with the attendant expenses, shall be certified by the president and clerk and paid by the treasurer of the school funds. [64 v., 62, § 2.] Sec. 3998. The board may appoint a librarian, fix his compensation, and make all needful rules and regulations for the management of the library, to which every family resident in such city districts shall have access. [64 v., 62^ § 3.] Sec. 3995 (a). For the establishment of a public library by township trustees, see Revised Statutes, sections 1476-1478. For powers of city and village councils, see section 1692, Revised Statutes. b. The question sometimes arises as to what is” apparatus. It is not customary to regard maps and charts as such. These, like clocks, desks, blackboards and blackboard furniture, would be classed among the essentials for furnishing a school, and they may probably be purchased under section 3987, as provisions necessary for the convenience and prosperity of the schools. c. Boards of education may purchase “school or reading charts” for use in schools of their respec¬ tive districts, and are not limited to the amount authorized to be expended by the previsions of section 3995, Revised Statutes. 2 O. Circuit Reports, 363. d. Under the statute providing for instruction as to the nature of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, and their effects on the human system, in connection with the subject of physiology and hygiene, in all grades of the schools, and which makes it the duties of boards of education to make provision l'or. such instruction, it seems a reasonable construction of the act that such boards are authorized to pur¬ chase such anatomical studies and charts as they may deem it necessary to give this instruction suc¬ cessfully without regard to limitations as to the amount to be expended,' set forth in this section 3995. ED 96 - 19* 586 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Sec. 3999. In cities not having less than twenty thousand inhabitants; the hoard of education having custody of any public library therein may at any regular meeting adopt a resolution providing for a hoard of managers of such library, and shall thereupon elect, by ballot, two persons to serve as members of such board for a term of three years, two persons to serve for a term of one year ; and annually there¬ after two persons shall be elected to serve for a term of three years; all vacancies in such board shall be tilled by the board of education by ballot, and a person so elected shall serve during the unexpired term of his predecessor; the president of the board of education shall be a member of the board of managers ex officio; and the board of managers shall at all times be amenable to and under the control of the board of education, as to tenure of office and authority, and shall serve without compensation. [64 v., 100, § 1.] Sec. 4000. The public library board of the city of Cleveland shall consist of seven suitable persons, residents of said city, no one being a member or officer of the board of education. The members of the library board shall serve without compensation, and hold their offices for three years, and until their successors shall have been elected and qualified, except that at the first election two of the board shall be elected for one year, twrn for two years, and three for three years. After said first election so many shall be elected each year as equals the number whose term expires that year. They shall be elected by roll call, as in other cases, by the board of edu¬ cation of the city of Cleveland at its first regular meeting after the third Monday of April, 1886, and annually thereafter as hereinbefore provided. The board of educa¬ tion shall have power at any time to fill vacancies in the library board for unexpired terms by election as aforesaid. [75 v., 101, § 7 ; 80 v., 172; 83 v. ; 104.] Sec. 4001. Such library board shall report in writing to the board of education once each year, and oftener if required by the latter, shall have exclusive charge and control of the public library of the city, and shall have full power to make all rules and regulations for the government and management thereof; to employ a librarian and such assistants and helps as may be needed for the care and protection of the library, and to attend to the drawing and return of books; but prior to such employment the compensation of such librarian, assistants, and help, shall be fixed by the library board, by a majority of the members thereof voting in favor of such compensation on roll call by the secretary, and such librarian, assistants, and help shall be employed by a vote in the same manner. [76 v., 50, § 2 ; 78 v., 132 ; 80 v., 172.] Sec. 4002. For the purpose of increasing and maintaining the public library in said city, and the territory thereto attached for school purposes, such library board may levy annually a tax of two and one-half tenths of one mill on each dollar valua¬ tion of the taxable property of the city and the territory thereto attached for school purposes, to be levied, collected, and paid in the same manner as are the school taxes of the city; all moneys appropriated, received, or collected by tax for the library shall be expended under the direction of the library board in purchasing such books, pamphlets, papers, magazines, periodicals, journals, and other property as may be deemed suitable for the public library, and in payment of all other charges and expenses, including compensation to the librarian, assistants and help that may be incurred in increasing and maintaining the library; and the pay rolls and all war¬ rants upon the treasurer given to pay such expenditures, upon the order of the library board, be certified by the president and secretary of such board, and paid by the treasurer of the city from such library fund. [76 v., 50, § 3; 80 v., 103.] Sec. 4003. In all cities, which at the last Federal census had, or at any subsequent Federal census may have, a population of ten thousand five hundred and ninety-two, it shall be lawful to merge any public library therein heretofore established with any other library or reading room therein existing; but the library formed by such consolidation shall be kept open for the use of the public at all reasonable hours. [75 v., 541, § 1; 76 v., 27, § 1.] Sec. 4004. The board of education of every such city shall, at its first regular meeting after the second Monday in June, 1879, elect by ballot three suitable persons, residents of the city, but other than members of such board, who shall be known as the library committee of the city, one to serve for one year, one for two years, and one for three, and until their successors are duly elected and qualified, and shall, annually thereafter, elect in like manner one person wuth the same qualifications, to serve for three years, and until his successor is elected and qualified, and any vacancy in such committee shall be filled for the unexpired term at its first regular meeting of the board held after the same occurs. [75 v., 541, § 2; 76 v., 97, § 2.] Sec. 4005. Such committee shall report in writing to the board of education at least once each year, and oftener if required by the board, and shall have entire charge and control of the school library in the city, with full power to make all rules and regulations for the government and regulation thereof, to employ a libra¬ rian. and such assistants and help as may be needed for its care and protection, and to require of the librarian such bond as they may deem proper for the faithful perform¬ ance of his duties, and to attend to the drawing and return of books ; but the salary LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 587 of sucli librarian, and tbe rate of compensation of such assistants and help, shall be lixed by resolution prior to such employment. [76 v., 97, § 3.] Sec. 4006. For the purpose of increasing and maintaining school libraries in cities mentioned in section forty hundred and three of the Revised Statutes of Ohio, and the territory thereto attached for school purposes, such library committee in such cases is authorized to annually levy a tax of two-tenths of one mill on the dollar valuation of the taxable property of such cities aforesaid, and the territory thereto attached for school purposes, to be assessed, collected, and paid in the same manner as are the school taxes of such cities ; and all money appropriated or collected by tax for such library shall be expended under the direction of said library committee in the purchase of such books, pamphlets, papers, magazines, periodicals, and jour¬ nals as may be deemed suitable for the public school library, and in payment of all other costs and charges, including the salaries of the librarian and assistants, that may be incurred in maintaining such libraries, the bills and pay rolls for which said expenditures shall, upon the order of the library committee, be certified by the chairman and secretary of such committee, and paid by the treasurer of the board of education of said city from such library fund. [55 v., 541, § 2; 76 v., 97, § 4: 78 v., 176.] [Ohio school laws, 1893.] PENNSYLVANIA. DISTRICT SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 269. That whenever, by subscription or otherwise, a collection of books, or funds to purchase the same, shall have been obtained to form a public library in and for any common school district in this Commonwealth, it shall be the duty of the board of directors thereof, for the time being, to select the most suitable schoolhouse therein in which said library shall be placed, preferring, if otherwise expedient, the schoolhouse in which the district institute is held, and to provide out of the school funds of the district a suitable case or cases for said library, and for such additional books as may annually bo added thereto. 270. That it shall be the duty of the said directors to receive into the district treasury all moneys contributed or otherwise obtained for the purchase or increase of the district library, and to select and purchase the books therefor, or to appoint a committee of the board or of not less than three citizens of the district, to make such selection and purchase, and also from time to time thereafter to make addi¬ tional selections and purchases in the same manner, but that no books shall be donated or placed in said library without the approbation and consent of the select¬ ing committee, nor shall the proper board of directors appropriate any of the school funds of the district to the purchase of books for the library, except such works of a strictly professional character, as shall be necessary and proper for the study and improvement of the teachers of the proper district ; and all moneys received by said board for library purposes shall be annually accounted for at the settlement of its accounts, in the same manner as common school funds are now by law accounted for. 271. That the legal possession and ownership of the books, cases, and other append¬ ages of the district library shall be and remain in the proper board of directors and their successors in office as trustees for the district, and that the felonious tak¬ ing and carrying away thereof, or of any part thereof, or of any book, article of apparatus or furniture, from or belonging to any common schoolhouse, shall and is hereby declared to be larceny, and the breaking into a common schoolhouse at night with intent to commit larceny, as herein set forth, or any felony, shall and is hereby declared to be burglary, and that any larceny or burglary so committed shall be punished as in other cases under existing statutes. 272. That any person over twelve years of age, and resident in the proper district, whether contributor or not to the library, shall be entitled, without charge, to tho use of the books thereof, according to the rules and regulations thereof; but that no book shall be issued to any minor without the order of his or her parent, guardian or master, who shall thereupon become liable to all the penalties for the abuse, loss, or undue detainment of any book by said minor; and all entries of the issue of books duly made in the library list by the librarian at the time of such issue shall be prima facia evidence thereof in a suit for any penalty, or for tho value of any book. 273. That the proper board of directors, and their successors in office, shall make, and from time to time as shall be proper, alter and amend the necessary rules and regulations for the care, issue, use, and return of the books of the district library, and ordain such penalties for the abuse, loss, or undue detainment thereof as to them shall seem just and proper, which penalties shall be recoverable as debts of like amount are now by law recoverable ; and such penalties shall either be payable to the librarian in compensation of his services, or into the library fund, as tbe proper board of directors shall determine. 274. That the secretary of tho proper board of directors, or such other member as 588 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. tlie "board may select, shall he the general librarian of the district library; and that the principal teacher of the school held in the house in which the library is kept shall be the assistant librarian while in charge of said school, and while so in charge such assistant librarian shall have the charge of the library, so far as relates to the care, issue, and return of the books, and the keeping of the list thereof; but that neither the librarian as secretary, nor the assistant as teacher, on going out of office shall receive his final instalment of salary till he shall first have accounted for all the books belonging to the library to the satisfaction of the proper board. 275. That wrhen the pupils or other persons connected with the common school shall have jnocured books or funds for the purchase of books for a school library therefor, it shall be the duty of the directors of the proper district to provide out of the school funds of the district a suitable case therefor, and also for such addi¬ tions as may subsequently from time to time be made thereto ; and the selection and purchase of the books for such school library, and of all additions thereto, shall be made by a committee composed of the teacher of the school for the time being and of not less than two parents of pupils attending such school, to be chosen by all the attending pupils; but that no books shall be donated to or placed in said library without the approval of the proper selecting committee, and that it shall not be lawful for the board of directors to appropriate any of the funds of the district to the purchase of books for said school library. 276. That all the pupils of the proper school, and no other, shall be entitled to the use of the books of said library at their homes, subject to such rules relating to the care, use, and return thereof as the aforesaid commitree for the selection and purchase thereof shall from time to time establish; and that one of the pupils of said school, to be selected by the other pupils, with the consent of the selecting committee aforesaid, shall be the librarian of the school library. 277. That the legal possession and ownership of the school library shall be in the proper board of directors; the felonious taking thereof shall be larceny, the issue list thereof shall be prima facie evidence of delivery, and the penalties for the abuse, loss, or detention of books shall be recoverable as hereinbefore provided in the case of district libraries. 278. That it shall be lawful for common school directors of any district to receive, hold, and use any devise, bequest, gift, grant, or endowment of property, whether real or personal, which may be made to them for the establishment, increase, or sup¬ port, either of a district or of a school library in existence or to be established under the provisions of this act, and the same to apply to the establishment, increase, and efficiency thereof, subject, however, to any terms, conditions, or restrictions attached to such devise, bequest, gift, grant, or endowment, and not inconsistent with the purposes of this act; and the said directors and their successors in office shall have authority to bring suit and to do all other things necessary for the recovery, use, and application of the same to the purposes aforesaid. [Pennsvlvania school laws, 1894.] EHODE ISLAND. Chapter 34, section 6. The electors of the city of Providence, at the annual elec¬ tion for members of the city council, may, by a majority vote of such electors voting, and the electors in every other town qualified to vote upon any proposition to impose a tax, or for the expenditure of money in such town, may, by a majority vote of such electors voting at the annual meeting for the election of town officers or mem¬ bers of the city council therein, appropriate a sum not exceeding twenty-five cents on each one hundred dollars of the ratable property of such town in the next year preceding such appropriation, for the foundation therein of a free public library, with or without branches, for all the inhabitants thereof, and to provide suitable rooms for such library, which shall be used under such regulations as may from time to time be prescribed by the town council of such town or city council of such city. Sec. 7. Any town having established a free public library therein, in manner as aforesaid, may annually, by the majority vote of the electors thereof, qualified as aforesaid, and voting on the proposition, appropriate a sum not exceeding twenty cents on each one thousand dollars of its ratable property, in the next year preced¬ ing such ajjpropriation, for the maintenance and increase of such library therein, and may take, receive, hold, and manage any devise, bequest, or donation for the establishment, increase, or maintenance of a public library therein, to be under such regulations for its government, when they are not prescribed by its donor, as may from time to time be prescribed by the town council of such town or the city council of such city : Provided, That the town of Pawtucket may appropriate a sum not exceeding thirty cents on each one thousand dollars of its ratable property. Chapter 47, section 6. The board of education may cause to be paid annually to and for the use of each free public library established and maintained in the State, and to be expended in the purchase of books therefor, a sum not exceeding fifty dollars for the first five hundred volumes included in such library J and twenty-five LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 589 dollars for every additional five hundred volumes therein : Provided, That the annual payment for the benefit of any one such library shall not exceed the sum of five hundred dollars. Sec. 7. The board of education shall from time to time establish rules prescribing the character of the books which shall constitute such a library as will be entitled to the benefits conferred by the preceding section, regulating the management of such library so as to secure the free use of the same to the people of the town and neighborhood in which it shall be established, and directing the mode in which the sums paid in pursuance of this chapter shall be expended. No library shall receive any benefit under the foregoing provisions, unless such rules shall ha^e been complied with by those in charge thereof, nor until they shall have furnished to said board satisfactory evidence of tho number and character of the books contained in said library. Sec. 8. Every payment herein authorized shall be made by the general treasurer upon the order of the commissioner of public schools, approved by the board of education, and payable to the librarian or other person having charge of such library or of the funds applied to its support designated by said board. Chapter 212, section 45‘. Every person who wilfully and maliciously or wantonly and without cause writes upon, injures, defaces, tears, or destroys any book, pamphlet, plate, picture, engraving, or statue, or other property belonging to any law, town, city, or other free public library, or suffers any such injury to be inflicted while said property is in his custody, shall be fined not less than one dollar nor more than ten dollars, the same to be for the use of the library. Sec. 46. Every person who shall take or borrow from any law, town, city, or other free or public library any book, pamphlet, paper, or other property of said library, and who upon neglect to return the same within the time required and specified in the by-laws, rules, or regulations of the library owning the property, has been noti¬ fied by the librarian or other proper custodian of the property that the same is over¬ due, shall upon further neglect to return the same within two weeks from date of such notice be considered to have unlawfully converted the property of the library to his own use. A written or printed notice, given personally or sent by mail to tho last known or registered place of residence, shall be considered a sufficient notice. Chapter 395, Section 1. Every town not owning a free public library may at tho annual town meeting appropriate a sum. not exceeding twenty cents on each, one thousand dollars of its ratable property in the year next preceding such appropria¬ tion for the maintenance and increase of any free public library therein. Chapter 1068, Section 1. In case any library, or funds for the establishment thereof, may be offered to any city or town on the condition that said library shall be maintained as a free public library, the city council of any city, or town council of any town, is hereby authorized to accept such gift in behalf of the city or town. Sec. 2. Whenever any city or town shall establish a free public library, or shall become possessed, as above provided, of any such library, the aforesaid city council or town council, as the case may be, shall proceed to elect a board of trustees, to consist of not less than three members nor more than seven. As soon as possible after the election of the first board the members thereof shall meet and be divided by lot into three groups or classes, the terms of office of one group exinring in one year from the date of their election, those of another group in two years, and those of the remaining group in three years. With the expiration of the term of office of any member the vacancy shall be filled by the city council or town council, as the case may be, for the term of three years. Vacancies occurring by resignation, removal, death, or otherwise shall be filled as above for the unexpired term thereof. Sec. 3. The aforesaid trustees shall take possession of said libraries, and shall thereafter be the legal guardians and custodians of the same. They shall provide suitable rooms lor the library, arrange for the proper care of the same, choose one or more competent persons as librarians, and fix their compensation, and make all needful rules and regulations for the government of the library and the use of the books, provided that no fee for the use of the books shall ever be exacted. Sec. 4. Each city or town acting under this chapter shall annually appropriate for the support of the public library an amount at least as much as that which tho library shall receive from the State. All appropriations from the city or town and State, and the income of all funds belonging to the library, shall be subject to the exclusive control of the trustees, and the several city and town treasurers shall pay, within the limits of the appropriations and other library funds in their hands, all bills certified by the said trustees. Sec. 5. In case of any bequest, legacy, or gift to or in favor of a public library, the trustees thereof are hereby authorized and empowered to accept the same in behalf of and for the use of the library, and their receipt shall be a full and sufficient dis¬ charge and release to any executor, administrator, or other person authorized to make the payment thereof. Sec. 6. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby repealed. [Public Statutes of Rhode Island, 1882-83.] 590 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1895-96. UTAH. TERRITORIAL LIBRARY. AN ACT providing for and regulating the Utah Territorial library. Chapter 67, Section 1. Be it enacted by the governor and legislative assembly of the Territory of Utah, That the hooks, pamphlets, maps, charts, globes, papers, appa¬ ratus, and valuable specimens belonging to the Territory now in the Territorial library, or which shall hereafter be added thereto, shall constitute the Utah Terri¬ torial library. Sec. 2. That the governor, secretary, chief justice, and associate justices of the supreme court of the Territory shall constitute the hoard of control of the Terri¬ torial library. Sec. 3. The board of control may, in their discretion, classify the books and arti¬ cles named in section 1 of this act, and deliver to and place in the library of the University of Deseret such books and articles belonging to and composing the Ter¬ ritorial library as they may consider more useful to the university library than to the Territorial library, and any books or articles so delivered to the university library shall thereupon become and thereafter remain a portion of the university library. Sec. 4. The public shall have access to the library, and the board of control "may make such rules and regulations, not inconsistent with the pro visions of this act, as they may deem proper, for the use of the library by the public and the officers herein named, and may prescribe penalties for any violation thereof, which shall be col¬ lected in the same manner as forfeitures for the nonreturn or injury of any book. Sec. 5. Books may be taken from the Utah Territorial library by members of the legislature and its officers, and at any time by the officers of the executive depart¬ ment of the Territory, justices of the supreme court, the marshal and attorney for the Territory, but no other person shall be permitted to take or detain any book from the library. Sec. 6. The governor, by and with the advice and consent of the legislative coun¬ cil, shall appoint a Territorial librarian, who shall cause to be kept a register of all books issued and returned, showing to whom they are issued, by whom they are returned, and the time they are so issued and returned ; and no book except the laws, journals, and reports of the Territory, which may be taken from the library, shall lie detained more than ten days, except when taken for the use of officers and mem¬ bers of the legislature while it is in session, and all books taken out by officers or members of the legislature shall be returned at the close of the session. Sec. 7. If any person injure or fail to return any book taken from the library, he shall forfeit and pay to the librarian, for the use of the library, the damage thereto, including costs and reasonable counsel fees for collecting the same, to be recovered in an action in the name of the Territory in any court of competent jurisdiction ; and it shall be the duty of the librarian in behalf of the Territory to commence suit for the collection of all such forfeitures and all fines. Sec. 8. The librarian shall on or before the twentieth day of December in each year report to the governor the condition of the library, stating the number of volumes contained therein, the number of volumes purchased during the last year and the cost thereof, the number of volumes received by donation, the number of volumes injured or not returned, if any, and the amounts received in compensation therefor, and such suggestions and further information as may be deemed by him desirable. Sec. 9. The sum of five hundred dollars per annum is hereby appropriated and ordered paid out of the Territorial treasury, in the usual manner, to be used by tbe board of control of the library, in the payment of the librarian for services, and of rent for rooms in which to keep the library. The sum of three hundred dollars is hereby appropriated and ordered paid in the usual manner out of the Territorial treasury, for the preparation and printing of a catalogue of the Territorial library, under direction of the board of control. Sec. 10. The sum of three thousand dollars is hereby appropriated and ordered paid ont of the Territorial treasury in the usual manner, to bo used by the board of control of the library for tho purchase of cases and such new and additional volumes for the use of the library as the said board of control may consider advisable. Sec. 11. It shall be the duty of the librarian to make out a written catalogue, con¬ veniently arranged in alphabetical order, and cause the same to be printed and dis¬ tributed to the officers entitled to the use of such library, of all books, pamphlets, maps, charts, globes, papers, apparatus, and valuable specimens in the library, adding thereto as the library is increased; which catalogue shall be kept for the use of those authorized to use books. He shall also make out and place in some conspicuous place a copy of the rules and regulations of the library. Sec. 12. It shall be the duty of the librarian to cause every book in the library to LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 591 be labeled with printed or stamped label containing the words “Utah Territorial Library,” and also cause the same words to bo written or stamped on the thirtieth page of each volume. Sec. 13. The board of control of the library may sell or exchange any surplus or duplicate sets of reports or law books in the library, and use the money arising from such sale in purchasing other law books or reports for the library. Sec. 14. If the librarian shall permit or allow any person not authorized by this act to take a book from the library, he shall be liable, upon conviction thereof, to pay a line of not less than five nor more than fifty dollars for each book so taken. All fines and forfeitures collected shall be used for the benefit of the library according to the best judgment of the board. Sec. 15. If any person not authorized by this act shall take a book from the library, either with or without the consent of the librarian, or violate any of the provisions of this act, he shall upon conviction thereof be fined in any sum not less than ten nor more than fifty dollars for each book so taken. Sec. 16. All acts or parts of acts superseded by or in conflict with the provisions of this act are hereby repealed. Sec. 17. This act shall take effect at twelve o’clock, noon, on the first day of April, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and ninety. [Approved, March 13, 1890. Laws of the Territory of Utah, 1890.] AN ACT to authorize cities aud towns to establish and maintain free public libraries and reading rooms. Be it enacted by the legislature of the State of Utah: Section 1 . That the city council of each city of the first and second class shall have power to establish ana maintain a public library and reading room for the use and benefit of the inhabitants of such city, and may levy a tax of not to exceed one- third of one mill on the dollar, annually, on all the taxable property in the city, such tax to be levied and collected in like manner with other general taxes of said city, and to be known as the library fund: Provided, That no such tax shall be levied in the first instance in any city of the first class until a petition, signed by at least one thousand qualified voters and property taxpayers, shall have been filed with the city council of such city, nor in any city of the second class, until such a petition, signed by at least two hundred and fifty qualified voters and property taxpayers, residents of such city, shall have been so filed. Sec. 2. When any city council in cities of the first and second class shall have decided to establish and maintain a public library and reading room, under this act, the mayor of such city shall, with the approval of the city council, proceed to appoint a board of nine directors for same, chosen fromthe citizens at large with reference to their fitness for such office; and not more than one member of the city council snail be at any one time a member of said board. Sec. 3. Said directors shall hold office : One-third for one year, one-third for two years, and one-third for three years, from the first day of July following their appointment, and at their first regular meeting shall cast lots for the respective terms; and annually thereafter the mayor shall, before the first of July of each year, appoint, as before, three directors to take the place of the retiring directors, who shall hold office for three years, and until their successors are apjminted. The mayor may, by and with the consent of the city council, remove any director for misconduct or neglect of duty. Sec. 4. Vacancies in the board of directors, occasioned by removals, resignation, or otherwise, shall be reported to the city council, and be filled in like manner as original appointments, and no director shall receive any condensation. Sec. 5. Said directors shall, immediately after appointment, meet and organize by the election of one of their number as president, and by the election of such other officers as they may deem necessary. They shall make and adopt such by-laws, rules, and regulations for their own guidance and for the government of the library and reading room as may be expedient not inconsistent with this act. They shall have the exclusive control of the expenditure of all moneys collected to the credit of the library fund, and of the construction of any library building, and of the supervision, care, and custody of the grounds, rooms and building constructed, leased, or set apart for that purpose: Provided, That all moneys received for such library shall be deposited in the treasury of said city to the credit of the library fund, and shall be kept separate and apart from other moneys of such city, and drawn upon by the proper officers of such city upon the properly authenticated vouchers of the library board. Said board shall have power to purchase or lease grounds, to lease or erect an appropriate building or buildings for the use of said library, to appoint a suitable librarian and necessary assistants, to fix their compen¬ sation, to remove such appointees at will, and in general to carry out the spirit and intent of this act in establishing and maintaining a public library and reading room. 592 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Sec. 6. Every library and reading room established under this act shall be for¬ ever free to the use of the inhabitants of the city where located, subject, however, to such reasonable rules and regulations as the library board may adopt in order to render the use of said library and reading room of the greatest benefit to the greatest number; and said board may exclude from the use of said library and reading room any and all persons who shall wilfully violate such rules. Said board may extend the privileges and use of such library and reading room to persons residing outside of such city, but in the State, upon such terms and conditions as said board may from time to timo by its regulations prescribe. Sec. 7. The said board of directors shall make, on or before the second Monday in June, an annual report to the city council, stating the condition of their trusts on the first day of June of that year, the various sums of money received from the library fund and from other sources, and how such moneys have been expended, and for what purposes; the number of books and periodicals on hand; the number added by purchase, gift, or otherwise, during the year; the number lost or missing; the number of visitors attending; the number of books loaned out, and the general character and kind of such books, with such other statistics, information, and sug¬ gestions as they may deem of general interest. All such portions of said report as relate to the receipt and expenditure of money, as well as the number of books on hand, books lost or missing, and books purchased, shall be verified by affidavit. Sec. 8. The city council of .said city shall have power to pass ordinances imposing suitable penalties for the punishment of persons committing injury upon such library or the grounds or other property thereof and for injury to or failure to return any book belonging to such libraries. Sec. 9. Any person desiring to make donations of money, personal property, or real estate for the benefit of such library shall have the right to vest the title to the money or real estate so donated in the board of directors created under this act, to bo held and controlled by such board, when accepted, according to the terms of the deed, gift, devise, or bequest of such property ; and as to such property said board shall be held and considered to be special trustees. Sec. 10. When fifty legal voters of any city of the third class or any town shall present a petition to the recorder or clerk of such city or town asking that an annual tax be levied for the establishment and maintenance of a free public library in such city or town, and shall specify in their petition a rate of taxation not to exceed one mill on the dollar, such recorder or clerk shall, in the next legal notice of a regular biennial election in such city or town, give notice that at such election every elector who shall have paid a property tax therein in the year next preceding such election may vote “For a mill tax for a free public library, Yes — No,” specifying in such notice the rate of taxation mentioned in said petition; and if the majority of all the votes cast in such city or town shall be “for the tax for the free public library,” the tax specified in such notice shall be levied and collected in like man¬ ner with other genei al taxes of said city or town, and shall be known as the “library fund:” Provided, That such tax shall cease in case the legal voters of any such city or town shall so determine by a majority vote at any biennial election held therein; and the corporate authorities of such cities of the third class and towns may exer¬ cise the same powers conferred upon corporate authorities of cities of the first and second class under this act. Sec. 11. At the same election that any city of the third class or town shall vote on the proimsition to levy a tax and to establish a free public library there may be elected a library board of six directors, one-third for two years, one-third for four years, one-third for six years, and biennially thereafter there shall be elected two directors, who shall hold their office for six years, and until their successors are elected and qualified; which board shall have the same powers as are by this act con¬ ferred upon the board of directors of free public libraries in cities of the first and second class, and said directors shall receive no compensation. Sec. 12. When the question of a tax for a library fund shall be submitted as pro¬ vided in section 10 of this act, ballots shall be x>repared containing only the words, “For a - mill tax for a free public library, Yes — No,” and the names of the voters chosen for directors of such free public library; and a special ballot box shall be provided for the reception of such ballots. [Approved March 18, 1896. Laws of Utah, 1896, Chapter LIV.] VERMONT. AN ACT to promote the establishment of free public libraries. Section 1. The governor shall appoint five persons, residents of the State, who shall constitute a board of library commissioners. The governor shall designate the chairman thereof. One member of said board shall be appointed for the term of five years, one for four years, one for three years, one for two years, and one for one LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 593 year; and thereafter the term of office of the commissioners shall ho live years. All vacancies on said hoard, whether occurring by expiration of term or otherwise, shall ho filled by the governor. Sec. 2. The librarian or trustees of any free public library may ask said hoard for advice in regard to the selection of hooks, the cataloguing of hooks, and any other matters pertaining to tho maintenance or administration of the library; and the board shall give such advice in regard to said matters as it shall find practicable. The hoard shall make a report of its doings biennially to the general assembly. Sec. 3. Said hoard shall expend, upon the application of the hoard of library trustees of any town having no free public library owned and controlled by the town, a sum not exceeding one hundred dollars for books for any such town entitled to the benefits of this act; such books shall be used by said trustees for the purpose of establishing a free public library, and said commissioners shall select and pur¬ chase all books so provided. Sec. 4. No town shall be entitled to the benefits of this act until such town has elected a board of library trustees and voted to instruct such board to make an application to the State hoard of library commissioners under this act, and until such trustees have provided in a manner satisfactory to the State board for the care, cus¬ tody, and distribution of tho books furnished in accordance with this act. The pro¬ visions of number three of the acts of 1892 shall apply to the elections of hoards of library trustees under this section and to said trustees when so elected. Sec. 5. Any town which has voted to instruct its library trustees to make an appli¬ cation to the State hoard of library commissioners under this act shall annually appropriate for the maintenance of its free public library a sum not less than fifty dollars if its grand list is ten thousand dollars or upward, or a sum not less than twenty-five dollars if its grand list is less than ten thousand dollars and not less than twenty-five hundred dollars, or a sum not less than fifteen dollars if its grand list is less than twenty-five hundred dollars. Sec. 6. No member of the State board of library commissioners shall receive any compensation, but the board may expend a sum not exceeding three hundred dollars annually for necessary exj)enses in the discharge of its duties, including all expenses for the transportation of books ; and all sums lawfully expended by said board under the provisions of this act shall be paid from the State treasury. Sec. 7. Whenever any town shall have accepted the conditions prescribed in this act the State board. of library commissioners shall so certify to the State Auditor, and he shall draw an order upon the treasurer payable to said commissioners for one hundred dollars, to be expended in the purchase of books as provided in this act. Sec. 8. The State board of library commissioners shall have the power to make such rules for their own government and for the care of the libraries which may be furnished by tho State as they may deem expedient and not inconsistent with the laws of this State. Sec. 9. This act shall take effect from its passage, and shall be subject to future legislation to alter, amend, or repeal. [Approved November 6, 1894.] No. 38.— AN ACT to facilitate the establishment of free public libraries in cities, villages, and towns of this State by devise or endowment. Section 1. That whenever property, real or personal, has heretofore been or shall hereafter be devised or bequeathed by last will and testament, or granted, conveyed, or donated by deed or other instrument, to trustees, to be applied by them to the foundation and establishment in any of the cities, villages, and towns of this State of a free public library, it shall be lawful, when not otherwise provided in said will or other instrument of gift, for the acting trustees in any such case, in order to pro¬ mote the better establishment, maintenance, and management of such library, to cause to be formed a corporation under the provisions of this act, with the rights, powers, and privileges hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. Such acting trustees may make, sign, and acknowledge before any officer authorized to take acknowledgments of deeds in this State and file in the office of the secretary of state a statement in writing in which shall be set forth the intent of such trustees to form a corporation under this act; a copy of the will or other instru¬ ment by which endowment of said library has been provided; the name adopted for the proposed corporation (which shall not be the name of any other corporation already existing) ; the city, village, or town in which the library and the principal place of business of the corporation will be located; the number of managers who may be denominated trustees, managers, or directors of the corporation ; and the names of the trustees, managers, or directors who are to constitute the original board of such officers, and who shall hold until their successors respectively are elected and qualified, as in this act provided. Sec. 3. Upon the filing in his office of such statement as aforesaid, the secretary of state shall issue to the incorporators, under his hand and the seal of State, a certifi¬ cate, of which the aforesaid statement shall be a part, declaring that the organiza- 594 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. tion of the corporation is perfected. The incorporators shall thereupon cause such certificate to he recorded in a proper record hook for the purpose in the office of the county clerk of the county in which the said library is to be located ; and thereupon the corporation shall be deemed fully organized, and may proceed to carry out its corporate purposes, and may receive, by conveyance from the trustees under said Trill, deed, or other instrument of donation, the property provided by will or other¬ wise as aforesaid for the endowment of said library, and may hold the same in what¬ ever form it may have been received or conveyed by said trustees until such form shall bo changed by the action of said corporation. Sec. 4. Organizations formed under this act shall be bodies corporate and politic, to be known under the names stated in the respective certificates or articles of incorporation ; and by such corporate names they shall have and possess the ordi¬ nary rights and incidents of corporations, and shall be capable of taking, holding, and disposing of real and personal estate for all purposes of their organization. The provisions of any will, deed, or other instrument by which endowment is given to said library and accepted by said trustees, managers, or directors shall, as to such endowment, be a part of the organic and fundamental law of such corporation. The trustees, managers, or directors of any such corporation shall compose its members, and shall not be less than five nor more than nine in number, shall elect the officers of the corporation from their number, and shall have control and man¬ agement of its affairs and property ; may accept donations, and in their discretion hold the same .in the form in which they are given, for all purposes of science, liter¬ ature, and art germane to the object and purpose of said corporation. They may fill by election, subject to the approval of the chief justice for the time being of the supreme court of Vermont, vacancies occurring in their own number by death, incapacity, retirement, or otherwise, and may make lawful by-laws for the manage¬ ment of the corporation and of the library, which by-laws shall set forth what offi¬ cers there shall be of the corporation and shall define and describe their respective duties. They may appoint and employ from time to time such agents and employes as they may deem necessary for the efficient administration and conduct of the library and other affairs of the corporation. Whenever any trustee, manager, or director shall be elected to fill any vacancy, a certificate under the seal of the cor¬ poration, giving the name of the person elected, shall be recorded in the office of the county clerk where tbo articles of incorporation are recorded. Whenever by the provisions of such will, deed, or other instrument by which endowment is created the institution endowed is declared to be and is free and public, the library and other property of such corporation shall be forever exempt from taxation. The trustees, managers, or directors of such corporation shall, in the month of January in each year, cause to be made a report to the governor of the State, for the year ending on the 31st day of December preceding, of the condition of the library and of the funds and other property of the corporation showing the assets and investments of such corporation in detail. Sec. 5. This act shall take effect from and after its passage. [Approved Novem¬ ber 27, 1894.] No. 39. — AX ACT to provide libraries with certain public documents. Section 1. When a town has established a public library under the provisions of No. 53 of the acts of 1892, said town may at any annual meeting vote to place in such library a copy of such documents and volumes heretofore received by said town for ifc or its town clerk's office, as it shall designate, and also a copy of such documents and volumes hereafter to be received from the State, except the Vermont reports and other books and documents provided by law to be kept in. the town clerk’s office, as it shall designate; the ownership of such books to continue in the town, but their use to be enjoyed by the library till said town shall otherwise vote. Sec. 2, The State librarian is directed to deliver to any town public library that shall have been voted by its town the use of books owned as above by the town such duplicate documents and volumes published or provided by the State as can in the judgment of the trustees of the State library be delivered without prejudice to the State library, said books to be delivered upon application stating what books have already been received from the town, and the property in said books to remain in the State, but their use to be in the public library to which they shall be delivered until the State librarian shall be directed by law to demand their return to the Stat9 library. Sec\ 3. When a public library exists in a town and is not established under the provisions of said act No. 53 of 1892, said town may at any annual meeting by a two- thirds vote make the provisions named in section 1 of this act, in respect to use by the library of books therein named owned by the town ; and in case of such vote the provisions of section 2 of this act shall apply to such library the same as if it were organized under said act No. 53 of 1892. LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 595 Sec. 4. The clerk of each town, village, and city in this State shall each year supply any library in the town or city in which he lives with two copies of the annual re¬ ports (if printed) of his town, villago, or city; and shall also send to the State library for its use two copies of the same. Said copies shall ho so delivered by the clerk within two weeks after receipt of such printed reports by him. And officers making such printed reports are hereby directed to supply the town, village, or city clerk with the four copies necessary for him to comply with the provisions of this section. Sec. 5. The first three sections of this act shall apply to cities as well as towns. [Approved November 27, 1894. Laws of Vermont, session of 1894.] VIRGINIA. The secretary of the Commonwealth to he general librarian. — He shall be general libra¬ rian and have charge of the library fund. He shall account for, apply, and pay over all moneys which may come to his hands as librarian, and his official bond shall be a security for the performance of all his duties both as secretary and librarian. Library fund. — The books and maps belonging to the State shall constitute the library fund, except such books or maps as may be appropriated in some way incon¬ sistent herewith. Donations from fund. — Out of the books and maps constituting the library fund such donations may from time to time be made to public libraries, learned societies, colleges, and other institutions as mny be deemed advisable by the library committee hereinafter mentioned. The general librarian shall furnish the universities, and any incorporated college of the State in which a law school is established, and the College of William and Mary for its law school, and which has not heretofore been furnished, out of any sur¬ plus copies on hand, with one copy of Henning’s Statutes, the journal, debates, and ordinances of the several State conventions, tlie journals of the senate and house of delegates, of the acts of assembly, and of the codes, and also eight copies of any law reports on hand or which may hereafter be on hand, and every incorporated college and academy in the State with a copy of the maps. Books and maps to be sold. — All the rest of the books and maps constituting the said fund, except such as it may bo proper to have in the libraries belonging to the States shall be sold. How sold; prices. — From time to time he may place a reasonable number of copies of the reports of decisions, of the maps, and of any other books which may seem to him advisable in the hands of booksellers to be sold upon a reasonable commission, selecting such booksellers as may seem to him best, and taking in every case an obli¬ gation from the bookseller, specifying the books and maps placed in his hands, the prices at which they are to be sold, and for what commission, and binding him, when thereto required by the librarian, to account for the said books and maps, return such as may not have been sold, and pay for those sold at the prices specified, after deducting the commission for selling. The librarian may himself sell any of the said books and maps or make exchanges thereof for other works. Library committee to fix jyrices of reports. — The library committee shall determine the prices at which the several volumes of reports of decisions of the court of appeals shall be sold and the amount of commissions to bo allowed on such sales. Library committee, its general duties; report. — A joint committee of the general assem¬ bly, to be called the library committee, shall be appointed biennally, which shall have the direction of the library and library fund, may make such rules for the regu¬ lation of the library, not inconsistent with this chapter, and prescribe such penalties for violations thereof as may seem to it proper. The general librarian shall, annu¬ ally, make a report to this committee of his proceedings, stating therein, among other things, in detail all purchases made, from whom made, and at what prices, and render an account of the receipts and disbursements of the library fund. The com¬ mittee shall examine his accounts and proceedings, and determine the prices at which the books and maps constituting the library fund may be sold. A journal of the proceedings of the library committee shall be kept by the general librarian, who shall act as its clerk, and the committee shall report fully to the general assembly. Additions to the State and law libraries. — There shall be annually procured such books in law, literature, science, and the arts and such maps and charts as it may seem to the committee desirable to procure. After making the jmrehases necessary for the State library the committee shall cause to be purchased, out of the library fund, such books as may bo required by the judges for the law libraries at Staun¬ ton and Wytheville : Provided , That not more than three hundred dollars shall be expended in any one year in the purchase of books for each of the libraries at said places. Historical works and relics. — The committee shall especially cause to be procured from time to time as opportunity may oiler a copy of any book, pamphlet, or maun- 596 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. script, work of art, or relic relating to the history of Virginia not now in the general library, which can be obtained on reasonable terms, and may cause to be printed any manuscripts relating to the history of Virginia which have not been published, including such portions of the executive journals and executive letter books and of the legislative papers as the committee may deem proper to print in the calendar of State papers, and shall cause the legislative papers ^to be so printed to be arranged for that purpose and preserved for reference. Librarian "to make purchases. — The general librarian shall make such purchases and do such other things as the committee may direct within the scope of their powers. And he shall have under his care, in the room provided therefor in the capitol, the general library and every thing therein. General library, when to be opened. — The general library shall be kept open every day in the year (Sundays and holidays excepted), such hours in each day as the library committee may direct. Doorkeeper of library; his pay. — There shall be a doorkeeper of the general library, appointed by and removable at the pleasure of the secretary of the Commonwealth, by whom his duties shall be prescribed. He shall receive for his services thirty dollars per month, payable out of the public treasury upon the certificate of the secretary of the Commonwealth. Who may use the general library. — The judges of the court of appeals, the governor, attorney-general, reporter of the court of appeals, members of the general assem¬ bly, and such other officers of government as the library committee may deem proper, shall be allowed to use the general library. And any of them may, under such regulations and penalties as the committee may prescribe, take from the library any book, except such as the committee shall determine is necessary always to be kept therein. In transmitting the above, Hon. John E. Massey, State superintendent of pub¬ lic instruction of Virginia, observes: “I regret to say that nothing, practically, has been done in this State looking to the organization of school libraries. In several of the cities some attention has been paid to the matter, but nothing like a move¬ ment has ever been made in the State, so far as I know. “The State constitution provides that ‘The board of education (State) shall pro¬ vide for uniformity of text-books and the furnishing of schoolliouses with such apparatus and library as may be necessary, under such regulations as may be x^ro- vided by law.' “ The statute provides that ‘ uniformity of text-books and the furnishing of school- houses with such apx>aratus and library as may be necessary shall be provided for on some gradual system by the board of education.'" WISCONSIN. AN ACT to promote tlie establishment and efficiency of free public libraries in the State of Wisconsin. The people of the State of Wisconsin, represented in senate and assembly, do enact as follows: Section 1. The governor shall apx>oint two xiersons who, with the x>resident of the University of Wisconsin, the State sux>erintendent, and the corresponding secretary of the State historical society, shall constitute a State library commission. One of the members ax>pointed by the governor shall be appointed for a term of five years, and the other shall be ax>pointcd for a term of four years. All subsequent apx>oint- ments shall be for terms of five years each, except ax>pointments to fill vacancies. The commission shall annually elect a chairman and a secretary. Sec. 2. The commission shall give advice and counsel to all free libraries in the State, and to all communities which may propose to establish them, as to the best means of establishing and administering such libraries, the selection of books, cata¬ loguing, and other details of library management. The commission may also send its members to aid in organizing new libraries or in improving those already estab¬ lished. The commission shall make a biennial report to the governor, and one thou¬ sand copies of this report shall be published as other official reports are published. Sec. 3. No member of the commission shall receive any compensation for services as a member, but their traveling expenses in attending meetings of the Commission or in visiting or establishing libraries and other incidental and necessary expenses connected with the work of the commission shall be paid: Provided, That the whole amount shall not exceed the sum of five hundred dollars in any one year. All bills incurred by the commission or by its members under this law shall be certified by the chairman and secretary of the commission to the secretary of state, who shail cause the same to be paid from the State treasury, and there is hereby annually appropriated from the general funds in the State treasury, not otherwise axmropri- ated, a sufficient sum to carry into effect the provisions of this act. LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 597 Sec. 4. This act shall take effect and he in force from and after its passage and publication. [Approved April 19, 1895. Laws of Wisconsin, 1895.] WYOMING. TERRITORIAL. LIBRARY. Section 1736. There shall he a Territorial librarian Avho shall be appointed by the governor of the Territory, by and with the consent of the legislative council," who shall hold his office for the term of two years, and until his successor is duly appointed and qualified. [C. L. 1876, ch. 110, § l.j Sec. 1737. The librarian shall have the charge and custody of all books, maps, papers, charts, engravings, paintings, and all other things properly belonging to the library, or directed to be deposited therein, and shall also keep a regular file of all newspapers published in the Territory which shall be donated thereto. Sec. 1738. It shall be the duty of the librarian to receive and transfer all books or documents sent by other States or Territories to the Territorial library from the post- office or other depot to which they may have been consigned, and to properly label and arrange them in the library. Sec. 1739. The Territorial librarian shall cause the receipt of each book, map, or other document that may come into his possession t y be acknowledged, and ho shall keep a record of all books and documents so received, and shall report the same as provided by law. Sec. 1740. And the librarian shall have full power to make any rules and regula¬ tions proper and necessary for the preservation and increase of the library not incon¬ sistent with law, which the librarian shall in all cases observe, and to superintend and direct all expenditures and appropriations made for the library, under the super¬ vision and control of the judges of the supreme court. Sec. 1741. The librarian is hereby directed to exchange statutes, journals, legisla¬ tive documents, and other books with other legislative bodies and libraries, as he shall deem proper. Sec. 1742. It shall be the duty of the librarian to issue books upon the order of the chief justice or either of the associate justices of the Territory, or upon the order of the governor of the Territory : Provided , That in each case said justices and governor shall become responsible to the Territory of Wyoming for the return of said books in as good order as when they were taken from the library, and if any damage be done said books, or they be lost, the librarian shall estimate the damage or value of said books, and, if necessary, recover the same of either the party authorizing the loan or the party receiving them, by civil process, in the name of the Territory of Wyoming. Sec. 1743. The librarian shall, on the first day of each regular session of the legis¬ lature, make a full and complete report of all receipts and expenditures, and of the condition of the library, and all other matters in relation thereto, for the information of the legislative assembly. Sec. 1744. It shall be the duty of the librarian to issue a printed circular to the citizens of the Territory, inviting them to deposit in the Territorial cabinet such minerals and geological specimens as any citizen may find on his premises or in any portion of the Territory. Sec. 1745. Whenever any such specimens may be deposited in the cabinet it shall be the duty of the librarian to correctly label and classify each specimen, and to enter in the book kept for that purpose the name of the donor and the character and quality of each specimen donated. Sec. 1746. The circular of the librarian will specify the kind and quality of speci¬ mens desired, both in geology, mineralogy and fossils. Sec. 1747. The cabinet so collected shall be open for inspection of all persons, subject to the rules and regulations of the librarian for the proper preservation of such specimens, during the hours as provided by the library. Sec. 1748. It shall be the duty of the librarian to keep the library open from the hours of ten o’clock a. m. until twelve o’clock m. and from two o’clock p. m. until four o’clock p. m. on each day during the year, Sundays and holidays excepted. Sec. 1749. The librarian before he enters upon the discharge of his duties shall give a good and sufficient bond in the penal sum of five thousand dollars, to be approved by the governor, to be filed in his office, made payable to the Territory of Wyoming, conditioned that he will faithfully discharge the duties of his office and deliver over to his successor in office all books and property belonging to the library according to laws and such regulations as may be adopted by the legislative assembly. Sec. 1750. The compensation of the Territorial librarian and ex officio superin¬ tendent of public instruction shall be a salary of eight hundred dollars per annum, payable quarterly, which salary shall be in full for all services which he may per¬ form in said office. Sec. 1751. It shall be the duty of the Territorial librarian to insure in some first- 598 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. class insurance company and on the hest terms for the Territory the Territorial law library for a sum not less than twelve thousand dollars, the policy to run to the Territory of Wyoming. Sec. 1752. It shall he the duty of all officers and persons who now have, or may hereafter receive, any hooks, maps, charts, or other documents designed for the use of the Territory of Wyoming to deposit the same immediately on receipt thereof with the Territorial librarian, to he hy him placed in the Territorial library. Sec. 1753. The Territorial librarian is hereby authorized to sell all such copies of the compiled laws of Wyoming as may not he needed for the use of the Territory to any person desiring to purchase the same for the sum of one dollar per volume, and the revenue arising from all such sales to ho reported to the Territorial treasurer. Sec. 1751. All moneys received upon the sale of said compiled laws shall he applied hy the Territorial librarian to the purchasing of hooks for the Territorial library, under the direction of the judges of the supreme court. [Revised Statutes of Wyoming, 1887.] COUNTY LIBRARIES. Section 681. When the county commissioners of any county have received proper and sufficient guarantees, whether in the form of conveyances or bonds of citizens, or associations or corporations, that a suitable place will he permanently furnished for the protection and use of a public library, as a condition precedent to their own action under the j)rovisions of this section, it shall he their duty to levy annually a tax of not less than one-eighth of a mill nor more than one-half of a mill on the dol¬ lar on all taxable property in the county, for the establishment and maintenance of a public library, to bo located at the county seat of such county. Sec. 685. The tax authorized by the preceding section shall be levied and collected at the same time and in the same manner as other county taxes of such county are levied and collected, and the whole amount so collected shall be set apart and shall be designated the county library fund : Provided, That nothing herein contained shall be construed into authorizing any additional levy to that now authorized by law. Sec. 686. The control and use of said library fund shall he intrusted by the county commissioners of any county to three competent and responsible citizens of the county, to be appointed by said commissioners, and to constitute aboard of trustees for this purpose. As soon as appointed they shall incorporate as a body, with an appropriate name, they shall serve without compensation, and the treasurer of the board shall give bonds, to be approved by the county commissioners, for the faithful performance of his duties. It shall be their duty, Upon notification from the county commissioners that a library fund is at their disposal, to expend so much of the said fund as shall be found available in the purchase of books for the library herein provided to be established: Provided, That the books so purchased shall be of a kind best suited to inform the mind and improve the character of the reader, that neither sectarian nor professional books shall be purchased out of such fund, and that not exceeding twenty-five per centum of such fund so expended shall be used for the purchase of works of fiction. Sec. 687. The said board of trustees is authorized to receive donations of real estate, money, or books in aid of the establishment or maintenance of the library, for which said trustees are hereby made responsible, and as trustees of the donor shall care¬ fully observe the conditions accompanying every such gift, and if any incorporated literary or library association shall donate to such county library property equal in value to one thousand dollars, or shall annually contribute to its resources a sum exceeding two hundred and fifty dollars in money, such association shall be entitled to name one person to be an associate member of said board of trustees, who shall have all the rights, privileges, and responsibilities of the other members thereof. When no provision can be made for otherwise furnishing the library with the neces¬ sary accommodations for its books and other publications without expense to the library fund arising from the public tax, it shall be the duty of the board of school trustees or directors of the school district embracing the county seat to provide accommodations for them in the best-situated school building over which such board of school trustees have control. The board of trustees shall also appoint a compe¬ tent person to have the immediate charge of the library, with such duties and com¬ pensation for services as they shall fix and determine. Sec. 688. Every library established and maintained under the provisions of this chapter shall be forever free to all residents of the county to which it belongs, on the condition that such persons comply with such rules and regulations for the safety and management of the library as the board of trustees shall prescribe, which rules and regulations may be enforced by legal proceedings in a court of competent juris¬ diction : Provided, That in the management of the library, the best possible provi¬ sion shall be especially made for the convenient use of the books thereof by the residents of such county residing out of the town wherein the library is situated. LIBRARY LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 599 Sec. 689. It shall be the farther duty of such board of trustees to beep a careful record of all its doings, with duplicate vouchers for all expenditures, one set of such vouchers to be hept in the office of the secretary of the board of trustees, the other to be filed with the county commissioners at the end of each calendar year. The board of trustees shall also, at the end of each year, report to the county commis¬ sioners all the important transactions for the previous twelve months, specifying in each report the sum ot money received from the county library fund, also the moneys and property received from other sources, the use and disposition made of such moneys and other property, the number of boobs and other publications then in the library, the number of books and other publications added by purchase and gift during the year, as well as the number of books lost and missing, the number, title, and cost of books, maps, and charts purchased out of the county library fund, the number of books loaned out, with the general character of such books, the number of persons who have drawn books from the library during the year, and the number of visitors thereto, together with such other facts deemed of public interest, a copy of which report shall be furnished by the clerk of said board of county commissioners for pub¬ lication in at least one paper of general circulation in the county. Only persons resident ofthe county shall be allowed to obtain a loan of books from the library, and in every case when books are lost or destroyed by such parties, or withheld from the library by such person, then in that event such persons shall be responsible for the loss of such book or books, and the value of said book or books may be recovered by proper action at law in any court of competent jurisdiction is the county. [Revised Statutes of Wyoming, 1887.] CHAPTER X. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF POPULAR EDUCATION AMONG CIVILIZED NATIONS: ADMINISTRATION OF POPULAR EDUCATION.1 POPULAR INSTRUCTION DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Various expressions liave been proposed by which to characterize tbe nineteenth century, and though many are appropriate to it by reason of the multiplicity of its work, nevertheless the name which it particularly merits is that of the century of popular education. But this designation is not applied to the nineteenth century because it has originated public schools, for they existed centuries ago, and every civilized people, whether Buddhists, Mussulmans, or Christians, have taught their children to read and write. The merit of the nineteenth century lies in the univer¬ sality of its work in educating the masses of humanity. The Reformation contributed to the dissemination of instruction among the j)opu- lace because it saw in education a means of advancing the cause of religion, yet it did not operate with equal force in all parts of Europe, as the history of education in England and Germany will bear witness. The eighteenth century in its turn also promoted the diffusion of education among the people, but not for the advan¬ tage of religion but in the name of humanity, as may be proved by the history of the German Empire of that period, of Scandinavia, and of many Catholic States. ReA'ertheless, the nineteenth century is the first which has systematized and gener¬ alized the education of the people for the value of education in itself, irrespective of its effect upon any particular form of worship. It has made education truly a matter which belongs to and is administered by the state. It is true that laws had been promulgated before the year 1800 regarding public education; indeed, the French Revolution furnishes a well known example. But these laws, speaking generally, were inoperative, and if some states were more advanced than others it is still a fact that at the opening of this century the majority of the people of the civilized world could neither read nor write. The growth of democratic ideas and of the application of industry to science has been favorable to the cause of popular education. It began to dawn upon the people how profitable it would be for each inhabitant of a country to be able to communicate with or receive communications from others through ability to write and read. This ability once gained and used, it was seen, would break down the barriers which cut off a large part of the people from the influence of the current of the intellectual life of the nation, and also in a certain measure would efface the inequal¬ ity which is caused by the neglect to provide any kind of instruction for the masses. But people differed upon this subject. In Protestant countries the difference of opinion was, in general, less than in Catholic countries. There have been those, especially in Catholic countries, who were alarmed lest the instruction of the peo¬ ple should lay open the minds of the masses to the influence of new and dangerous 1 From the French of E. Levasseur, member of Institute of Franco, translated by Mr. "Weilford Addis. 601 602 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-9G. notions; lest such, instruction should develop a spirit of examination and criti¬ cism and thus weaken the respect for social status, and inspire the lowly with unat¬ tainable desires and entice them from the labor befitting the position into which they were born. In Catholic countries it was also maintained that popular educa¬ tion will lead to atheism. There are even now men and parties who hold these opinions. But there were others who were convinced that it is the duty of society to amel¬ iorate as far as possible the physical, moral, and intellectual well-being of its mem¬ bers; that the education of the people is the primal instrument of their intellectual amelioration, which in its turn will influence their moral amelioration and the amel¬ ioration of their physical environment, and that consequently the education of the people is a debt virtually contracted by society with the child, which debt society should pay either by favoring the establishment of schools or by assuming the exj)ense of popular education. These persons have by degrees convinced the people and the Government of each nation that they are right. Most frequently it is the liberal party in each State which champions the cause of the education of the masses. “ Shower (repandez) instruction upon the heads of the people, for you owe them such a baptism,” exclaimed, at the close of the Napoleonic wars, the French advo¬ cates of the Bell and Lancaster systems of monitorial instruction. The Christian Brothers had, indeed, from the beginning of the eighteenth century, a method of instruction which the Abbe de la Salle had originated and published under the name of “Conduite des ecoles Chretiennes.” Pestalozzi also, inspired by Rousseau, had founded the Institute of Neuhoff, in Switzerland, about 1777, and had passed the rest of his life in the exposition of hi3 ideas and in exemplifying the man¬ ner in which they should bo applied. Prussia had, it is true, the school law of Frederic the Great, promulgated in 1763. Saxony had confirmed many times the laws of the sixteenth and seventeeth centuries, and Bell and Lancaster had, indeed, cre¬ ated two different types of the monitorial system in the closing years of the eight¬ eenth century. But, in truth, it is only during the nineteenth century that systems of pedagogy became the subject of much study and wide application and that the governing bodies energetically took up the question of schoolhouses, school furni¬ ture, and schoolbooks as something of public importance. In short, the nineteenth century has been infinitely more prolific in discussions, in pamphlets, and in books upon pedagogical subjects and works than all the preceding centuries put together, including the sixteenth, which was particularly fruitful in these particulars. The Government in every civilized country has since 1801 either enacted a law or has taken measures for the general introduction of public education. In Holland the first laws regarding public instruction were those of 1801, 1803, and 1806. In Bavaria compulsory attendance dates from 1802. In Prussia the ordinance of 1819 — given out two years after the creation of the department of ecclesiastical affairs, education, and medicine, a position so acceptably filled for twenty-three years by Altenstein— laid down the conditions of compulsory attendance in that State. In the Grand Duchy of Baden popular instruction was created in 1834. In the second half of the century the greater number of the German States multiplied continuation schools and made education compulsory. The greater number of thq Swiss cantons created a system of schools between 1830 and 1848. Sweden, where education had been already well introduced in the eighteenth century, promulgated its organic educational law in 1842, and since 1850 this same law has been the law of Norway, transforming her itinerant schools into definitely located establishments. In Fin¬ land, long a dependence of Sweden, the schools that the Reformation had called into being proved inadequate, and the public schools were organized by the laws of 1858 and 1866, while Hungary has made strenuous efforts to raise her schools to the level of those of the German peoples. In France the basic law, at least the first which was really efficient, is the law of 1833. It owed its origin to the Government of Louis Philippe, and more particularly POPULAR EDUCATION AMONG CIVILIZED NATIONS. 603 to M. Guizot. In England tlie first reform hill had opened the doors of Parliament to the mercantile class (bourgeoisie), and it had made the first appropriation for the construction of elementary schools. The committee of the privy council on educa¬ tion was instituted by tho English Parliament in 1839, but the first organic educa¬ tional law was not passed until 1870. Some of the Italian States had school laws in the first half of tho nineteenth century, but when, in 1859, Italy became a united kingdom the law of Piedmont was adopted for the whole peninsula and its islands. Tho law of Spain was passed in 1857. In the United States, after a formative period divided into a colonial and an organ¬ izing period, Horace Mann was appointed in 1837 secretary of the board of education of Massachusetts, and the first State normal schools were founded soon after. In 1887 a National Bureau of Education was founded. In Canada the fundamental law of public instruction in the province of Quebec went into effect in 1811. The school system of Ontario is due to Superintendent Adolphus Egerton Ryerson, who assumed tho duties of his position in 1814. The first law of the province of New Brunswick was promulgated in 1833. During the second half of the present century almost all the Spanish American republics modeled, partly at least, their school systems on those of the United States. The same activity in organizing public education has been shown in the colonies and countries under European control, as, for instance, in Algeria, Cape of Good Hope, India, British Australasia, and the Antilles. Japan, entering resolutely into the ideas of European civilization, created a system of public schools in 1872. The development of the idea of universal education has changed the moral equilibrium of the world. With science, which has changed the processes of indus¬ try and enormously increased the power of man over nature; with steam, which in annihilating distance by land or sea has given new facilities to commerce and new habits to nations; with the political changes, wTnch have given to democracy either the dominating or at least a considerable place in the government of the majority of civilized States — with each of these achievements of the nineteenth century the instruction of the people is assuredly to be ranked as the most considerable phe¬ nomena of tho nineteenth century and one of the most productive of happy results. The increase during the last fifty years of books, reviews, and journals published each year, of letters and printed matter transported by mail, furnishes a numerical proof of progress, though inadequate to give its full measure. There can be no question that the results have sometimes failed to justify the hopes that apostolic enthusiasm had engendered. The founding of tho school has not dispensed with the prison, for criminality has numerous causes, both individual and social, that can not be overcome by teaching children to read and write. The advancement of material well-being is not indissolubly joined, nor is it necessarily proportionate to the progress of education. It is even true that people may desire to feed upon debasing literature, as the success of more than one French periodical and more than one French novel will testify. The venality of the press is also an evil the growth of which it is deeply regrettable to see. But it is not necessary to conclude that this corruption by the agency of the press is entirely unremediable under the regime of liberty. Who, pray, should be impeached! The journal that wishes to live by obscenity and sophism, or the people who keep it alive by paying for it. Yet let us admit that revolutions so considerable can not happen without troubling certain interests, unclassing some persons, and causing to arise in some minds perverse desires. But it is not proper to judge such revolutions exclusively by the general trouble they cause and by their unpleasant details, for they must be judged in their entirety. It is undoubtedly not a matter of indifference that during the transi¬ tion from ignorance to knowledge the mob should exhibit an effervescence of con¬ fused ideas and a vomiting forth of insatiable desires, and that it should become more unmanageable. But ought not a thinker to ask himself whether those who deprecate these unquestioned evils do not find the mob so difficult to govern because 604 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. it is less inclined to be governed according to their wishes and whether their wishes have always been for the interest of the mob ? It is reiterated, especially in France, that when everybody shall be educated no one will desire to perform menial or arduous Avork, such as that of a domestic or a common laborer with pick and shovel. Assuredly, the diffusion of education will interfere with the present poise of the social strata and individual relations, and will, in addition, influence both the salary and condition of persons. There will be occupations which will offer fewer chances of employment and there will be others in which such chances will abound, but as it is necessary, after all, that almost every human being shall live by work, it is inevitable that each should como to the point where he will be willing not only to accept, but even to seek an occupation by which a living can be made. Yet these inconveniences arc of secondary importance. When the reconstruction is viewed as one whole its grandeur is apparent. It is therefore no exaggeration to say that public instruction has, in certain respects, been the redemption of humanity. If the desire of the savant to be always increasing his knowledge for the perfection of himself is respected, why refuse, even independently of all practical considera¬ tions, some knowledge to the great majority of men. In the daily business of life how profitable would it not be to the mass of humanity, made up as it is of men in their character of workers and of citizens, to participate in the living ideas of their times. When the nineteenth century shall render an account of its work to history it can not say that its own exclusive work in the domain of popular education has settled all social questions. Popular education is not a panacea. Nor is it a sedative, as it some¬ times even gives birth to new questions ; for, in spite of exceptions that may be named, it tends to enfeeble rather than to strengthen the religious sentiments of the masses whatever may be the particular form of worship concerned. As popular education acts thus because it gives rise to doubt and the spirit of personal investigation, it is asked if the school can replace the church in inspiring the soul with the principles of morality indispensable to social life. Again, the school is intrusted with the duty of forming the intelligences of the masses and it should give not only elementary instruction, but should also contribute to the making of a manly character and a good citizen. Therefore it is again asked whether it is easy to obtain teachers having the qualities which are necessary to bring about this double end, and whether the pupils in whom manhood and patriot¬ ism are to be developed are always sufficiently amenable to the instruction necessary to accomplish the double end. But let us not despair of the future and let us not turn our backs to it because the present, like every other historical epoch, presents a mixture of good and bad. When the twentieth century shall have half run its course the people of that age will be astonished that the nineteenth century was even able to debate the question of the education of the masses, but they will be thankful that it settled that question, while democracy, whose advancement the school has aided, will thank the century for what it has done. MUTUAL RELATIONS OF THE SCHOOL, RELIGION, AND THE CHURCH. There is evidently a connection between the form of worship practiced by a people and its public instruction. In every religion the ministers being concerned especi¬ ally with the needs of the soul, are naturally prompted to ponder upon the subject of intellectual development, and they have, speaking generally, more influence than any other class of persons in causing schools to be founded and in pursuading par¬ ents to send their children to them. Both the Protestants and the Israelites are usually more advanced than the Catholics in this respect, just as the Catholics are more advanced than the Greeks, the Mussulmans, and the Buddhists. Almost every¬ where the Israelites establish small churches, the members of which are in the habit POPULAR EDUCATION AMONG CIVILIZED NATIONS. 605 of sustaining and supervising their own schools. Among the Protestants it is nec¬ essary that tho faithful shall he able to read the Bible in order that each may seek in it the basis of his faith and the rule for his conduct, and they place the age of confirmation so late in life that tho child is retained in school longer than is tho case among the Catholics, who, although required to learn tho catechism, receive their religious instruction principally from the mouth of the priest and their moral guidance in tho confessional. Further on it will be seen that with rare exceptions, the States which have at least 15 children in school for every 100 inhabitants are Protestant or have a majority of Protestants within their borders, while of those States which have fewer than 10 children in school for each 100 inhabitants none are Protestant. Among peoples professing the Greek religion the most advanced nation has only children in school for every 100 inhabitants. Of course this rule is not universal and does not apply to the southern portion of the present German Empire, nor to Algeria, nor to Lower Canada, while the departments in the east of France show that a Catholic people can rival the Protestants in the matter of school attendance. Before the Reformation, the school in Christian countries was to some extent the child of the church; when the church had founded a school, she kept it under her control and when some one else had founded an educational institution she invariably demanded the right of directing or at least of supervising it. The cause of this early subordination of the school to the clergy is this : In the Middle Ages the monks (clerks), being almost the only members of society that were educated, were the only persons capable of educating others and from that very fact, education tended especially to form monks. When Protestantism had divided the Christian world the Protestant 'ministers were compelled to teach the children of their congregations, because the reading of the Bible was necessary for the acceptance of the Protestant faith just as the Catholic priests for the same reason were compelled to teach the catechism. The chief object of education in those times being to make adherents to the Christian religion, both sects were solicitous that instruction should not deviate from the purpose each had in view, and for this reason the clergy was invested by the civil power with authority over the schools. In very many coun¬ tries, both Catholic and Protestant, the ministers of religion retained this authority for a long time after the people had determined that instruction properly so called should be the principal aim of the school. Thus, in France, the first minister of public instruction was a bishop, but from the time of the restoration of the Bour¬ bons (1815) to that of the third Republic (1875) the question of the authority of the Catholic clergy over the public schools was the subject of long and angry debates. M. Guizot, who introduced the law of 1833, while minister of public instruction in the monarchy of that date, writes in his memoirs these sentences: “It was upon the preponderating and united influence of church and state that I counted in striv¬ ing to found a system of public instruction, yet the dominant fact that opposed my efforts both on the floor of the House of Deputies and throughout the country was precisely a feeling of mistrust and even of hostility toward both the church and state. What was feared for the schools more than anything else, was the influence of the priests and the central power.’7 This law of 1833 made a place for the cur6 both on the communal and on the departmental committee. Under the second Republic (1848) the bill of M. Carnot, minister of public instruction, made the school entirely lay, though the amendments made by tho constitutional assembly authorized religious instruction outside of school hours. The law of March 15, 1850, however, which was voted under the idea that it was necessary to oppose increasing revolutionary ideas by religious influence, declared that the public school ought always to be open to the minister of the gospel, and assigned an important ifla.ce to the clergy in the departmental council and in the higher council of public instruction. These provisions, however, though they were in great part inserted in the law of 1873, were omitted in the law of 1879., 606 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Since 1879 there has "been no. ecclesiastic either sitting in the u councils cf instruc¬ tion” or filling the office of inspector. The law of 1882 has in France removed from the programme of public education the subject of religious instruction and has replaced it by instruction in morals and civics, has withdrawn from the clergy all right of inspection and of superintendence over schools, whether public or private, ana has enacted that religious instruction must be given outside of the schoolhouse. These provisions of tho law of 1882 were considered by its authors as obligatory upon the Government, because of the compul¬ sory education feature which the law also contained, for though it was proper to oblige the parent to educate a child, it is improper to compel it to receive instruc¬ tion in a form of worship not its own. The law of 1882 was completed by the law of October 80, 1886, tho seventeenth article of which relates that “ in the public schools of every grade instruction is exclusively intrusted to persons not connected with a religious order (exclusivement confie a un personnel laique).” In this way there have originated in France the public school, compulsory education, free instruc¬ tion, and laic instruction, which is the very programme that the republican party had formulated before coming into power. But there are other nations which have maintained in their legislation the tutelage or superintendence of the ecclesiastical authorities over the schools. Thus, in Spain, the law of 1857, still in operation, has expressly stipulated that neither in the public nor in the private schools shall the exercise of the right of the bishops to watch over religious instruction and the purity of faith and manners be impeached in any way. In Russia the parish schools, which form a considerable part of the whole body of educational establishments and whose principal aim is “to strengthen the faith of the people,” are under the authority of the Holy Syr.od, which also administers several other classes of schools, such, for instance, as Sunday schools. It is to be observed, however, that the city schools of Russia aro under the minister of public instruction and have no sectarian character. In Hesso the ministers of tho gospel are members of the school council, but neither ecclesiastics nor members of a religious order can direct a public school. In Wurtem- berg the schools arc under the minister of education and worship, and are sectarian, and the teacher must be of the faith of the majority of the inhabitants. In Bavaria the communal school commission is presided over by the cure or the pastor, and tho inspector of the district who formerly was in orders is now ordinarily tho oldest [minister] in tho district. In Lutheran Sweden the educational committee in each district is presided over by tho pastor of the congregation, and the inspection of the schools is confided to the clergy, but the bishop and tho convocation in each diocese inspect tho schools and annually report to the King. In Norway the bishop and the oldest pastor super¬ vise the schools, in respect to religious instruction, in concert with the school director. In Denmark the schools are closely connected with the Lutheran Church. In Greece the general supervision of religious instruction and of the moral tenden¬ cies of the schools is lodged in the bishop of the diocese (eparchie), and the nomina¬ tion of the masters who are to teach religion are confirmed by him. In the Province of Quebec, where Catholicism is supreme, though under the monarchy of England, which has a state religion of its own, the council of public education, which par¬ takes with a cabinet minister the administration of the schools, is composed of two committees, one Catholic and one Protestant, each committee having charge of the schools of its own faith. In the Province of Ontario, where Protestantism is supreme, the school is called “ unsectarian, ” and the religious exercises are limited to a prayer and to reading the Bible; but the schools established by the Catholics have in certain cases rights which are analogous to those of tho public schools. Among the greater number of the remaining nations of the world there has been for the fifty years last past a very marked movement to separate the school and church. In the Dominion of Canada, Manitoba changed in 1890 an educational POPULAR EDUCATION AMONG CIVILIZED NATIONS. 607 law similar to that of Quebec to one which is detrimental to the interests of the Catholic party as far as sectarian schools are concerned. In the United. States public schools which were [at a very early date] sectarian have been for a long time in every State nonsectarian. Prayer and reading the Biblo without comment alone are authorized [in a few instances]. Many of the States of the American Union have even made this neutrality one of the articles of their constitution. The Catholic Church in the United States, however, establishes sectarian schools and is striving to secure the adoption of a system analogous in some respects to that which is in vogue in Ontario. New South Wales in 1880 suppressed all subsidies to sectarian schools. In Vic¬ toria the school is divorced from the church except to the extent that twice a week the session is closed earlier than usual and a minister of the gospel replaces the teacher. In Europe many States had antedated France in adopting the principle of neutral¬ ity in religious matters as far as concerns the public elementary school. These countries are Holland, by the law of 1806, the constitution of 1848, and by the laws of 1857 and of 1878; Switzerland by the federal constitution of 1874, which also obliged the parent or guardian in all parts of the republic to educate their children; Austria, by the law of 1869, and Italy, by the law of 1877, which permitted the com¬ munes to eliminate from the school programme the subjects of religious instruction, catechism, and sacred history. In Hungary, where Joseph II had already mooted this question by his regulations, where also the revolution of 1848 had proclaimed nonsectarianism only in turn to be disregarded by the reaction of 1852, the com¬ munal schools must not be made sectarian unless they are under the care of a reli¬ gious or other association. In England the grants of the education department are made only to schools which are open to every child irrespective of religious belief, and in which no child shall be called upon to receive instruction in religion against the will of the parents. The schools established by the English school board by virtue of the law of 1870 are nonsectarian, or at least the Bible is read without comment. In Scotland grants are made to schools where the children are not obliged to take part in religious instruction. In Prussia, where in 1854 religious instruction in the schools became strongly entrenched as a result of the reaction against the revolutionary tendencies of the era of 1848, the law of March 11, 1872, took away from the ecclesiastical authorities the inspection of the schools with which they had previously been endowed, or at least narrowed the sphere of that authority to religious instruction merely, while giving to the Government the supervision of both public and private schools. The same provisions are found in Saxony, where an early law had put the school under the church, but where also a law of 1873 has reserved to the State the right of inspec¬ tion. It is also the same in the Grand Duchy of Baden, where, after an active oppo¬ sition, the exclusive right of inspection given by the organic law of 1834 to the clergy was assumed by the State, and in Bavaria, where the ecclesiastical influence has given way twice since 1818 to the authority of the State, the second time in 1866. Thus a marked movement of separation or, at least, of emancipation of the school from the church has taken place. The school now claims to exist for itself and to govern itself by itself. This emancipation has been caused in some Catholic States by an opposition to the Catholic Church because the clergy actively engage in poli¬ tics, form a party, and thus provoke a feeling of bitterness in their opponents. This antagonism, which is by no means beneficial either in an ethical sense for the authority of the clergy nor for the education of the people, has been particularly manifest in France. But in the majority of States, especially Protestant States, the emancipation has been rather the result of a compromise between the different sects than an open hostility to religious worship. It has been recognized that the school¬ master, not being able to teach the dogmas and the ritualism of each church, should observe a neutrality which does not imply hostility to the religious sentiment, but 608 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. nevertheless gives a disposition to regard the various forms of its manifestation with indifference. The moral education of the child is one of the principal reasons for the interven¬ tion of the church in management of the school. It is said, “Without religion no morality/7 or at least no foundation on which to form and cultivate a true sense of morality. This assertion is certainly too absolute, since there are many people who are perfectly moral without being faithful adherents of any form of worship; and again people who go through religious forms without being secured against immor¬ ality. There have been nations in ancient times, and there are still races in existence, who have nothing more than religious superstitions devoid of an ideal, and yet they are not deprived of a moral sense in their private life and social relations. Still, there i3 no doubt but the present religions of civilized nations, especially the Christian religion, which on the one hand exhibits the divine origin of duty and on the other the sanction during life and after of good and evil actions, are powerful supports to morals and the consciousness of duty. To abstain from speaking to children of God, of worship, and of duty under pretext of not wishing to interfere with their liberty of conscience is not to be truly impartial, because such restraint will allow the tend¬ ency to indifference to implant itself in the soul. Experience shows that the troubles of life are more apt to extinguish religious belief than sceptical indifference is, and from this it would appear that a man who has been bred in the belief of his fathers is not on that account unable after maturity to discard it. But religious instruction of the child and that given under the authority of the church are two distinct things. RELATIONS OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION AND POLITICS. “Give me the school and I shall govern public opinion, and through public opinion the state.77 Thus many legislators have thought. But by being too absolute in their dictum they deceived themselves in as far as they imagined that programmes mold the minds no matter what the sentiments of the people may be'. They have been right in thinking that when these two factors are not in direct opposition educa¬ tion can greatly facilitate and generalize the development of certain ideas, and that when education constitutes a national system which is seriously applied it will con¬ tribute in giving the nation greater moral cohesion. It was a political idea that inspired the United States when they made great sacrifices in every township, every county, and every State in order to train citizens, and the same idea is the cause of their redoubled efforts to-day to Americanize the children of immigrants through the school. The Swiss Republic, when the Federal constitution imposed compulsory school attendance in all cantons, and the French Republic, when it voted the laws of 1881 and 1882, were both inspired by a political idea of the same nature. It is easy to recognize the ties which connect many other organic laws of primary instruction with politics: The law of 1833 in France, the law of 1859 in the Sardinian States, the law of 1872 in Prussia, and the law of 1868 in Hungary, etc. In most countries where the mass of the population has a certain participation in the management of public affairs there is a more lively interest in primary instruc¬ tion displayed than under absolute Governments : Switzerland, the United States? the Canadian Provinces, and Australasian colonies may servo as examples. But oue influence may be replaced or paralyzed by others. In Sweden the primary school had its beginning during the reign of absolute monarchs and through the aid of religious influence; on the other hand, in some Republics of Latin America the climate, the divisions which separate the strata of society, the apathy of the Indian race, and revolutions have counteracted the effects of a demccracy which is, it must be admitted, more nominal than real. The colonies which are peopled by the European race rank among the first in primary instruction; for example, Algeria, Upper Canada, New Brunswick, New South Wales, Victoria, and the United States, all which have the same European origin. Perhaps this superiority is due to that origin; for emigration and coloniza- POPULAR EDUCATION AMONG CIVILIZED NATIONS. 609 tiou presupposes, as a rule, a certain degree of intelligence and energy, and those 'svlio in this manner create new societies, understanding the value of instruction, ■wish to assure its benefits to their children. There are, no doubt, exceptions to the rule. The Slavic race which is pouring itself into America at present disquiets the American educators on account of its ignorance, and La Plata, which is principally colonized by southern Europeans, counts a large number of illiterates. When a colony contains inferior races, as coolies, negroes, etc., like Reunion, the Cape of Good Hope, French Guiana, and New Caledonia, then the ignorant preponderate and the level of instruction is very low. From this it may be concluded that race and climate exercise some influence upon primary instruction. It i3 only the people inhabiting southern Europe or the hot countries of South America that have an enrollment in school of fewer than 10 pupils for every 100 inhabitants, except in Russia, Finland, and Manitoba, which are labor¬ ing under special climatic and social conditions. The Teutonic race, comprising the Scandinavians, Germans, Dutch, and Anglo-Saxons, appears in our day to occupy the first rank as far as concerns the development of primary instruction, and it must be admitted that these races are mainly Protestant. The Slavic race, and still more the Mongolian, are evidently the least advanced races inhabiting Europe. Outside of Europe most of the countries that are peopled by half-breeds of Indian and Spaniard stock are on a still lower level.- But the severity of a winter climate is no insurmountable obstacle to instruction, as is proved by the Scandinavian States and Canada. During the long months of winter, when all agricultural labor must cease, the farmer can send his children to the village school or teach them at home, though during the summer, when the stock are in the pasture, and especially during the busy days of harvest, the children can not be spared. These conditions occur in the most widely separated countries, whether it be the United States, or Switzerland, or France. It is legitimate to inquire what effect the relatively great wealth of a nation has upon the education of its people. As it is necessary to expend constantly very large sums in order to educate the whole mass of a nation, it is indisputable that the possession of wealth gives great facilities to popular education. The Australasian colonies and the United States seem to be the countries where the expenditure is largest per capita of population and of attendance at school; but as the relation of the expenditures to the attendance is far from being exact, it is better not to be too positive in laying down the rank that each State is entitled to from such data, for Switzerland and Scandinavia, although only moderately wealthy, instruct their chil¬ dren well. Certain it is, however, that .the absence of pecuniary resources in the open country is an obstacle to securing satisfactory schools in such localities, and this obstacle is, especially in Russia, one of those that neutralizes the zealous activity of educators. If the influence exerted by rich manufacturing industries is inquired into, it is found that on the one hand they permit the maintenance of large schools well fitted with apparatus and placed in the immediate vicinity of the pupil’s home, but that on the other hand the business of the city, the seat of large industries, attracts the children by the opportunity of earning money (appat de salaire), thus tending to take the pupils at a* early hour from the school, and, further, that for various reasons the large cities are not always the most favorable places for attendance. The school serves to instruct youth, but it also propagates ideas that will con¬ stitute the national spirit. This it accomplishes through nearly every branch of instruction, especially through the teaching of geography, history, and civics, but the most effective work in this line is done by the personality of the teacher. This tendency of the elementary school should not be disguised, for it is legitimate. It is necessary that in each nation there should exist above the clashing of ideas, of classes, and special interests a certain national spirit which binds together the ED 96 - 20 610 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. members of the social body, assuring concord and facilitating the administration of public affairs. But in this, as in many other political matters, tho good may degen¬ erate into the bad, as when a Government wants to impose its will in some matter for which there is no warrant other than a desire of subversion; for the school may in this manner become an instrument of oppression, by aid of which a dominating nationality may try to extinguish another nationality. Examples of this are seen in Alsace-Lorraine, in Poland, and in other countries. Tho teacher may personally find himself mixed up with politics by becoming a kind of political agent — thanks to the relations he has with small cities and with the masses of the population. This is a deviation from his proper functions which, however seductive it may be to ambition, serves the ends of the master better than those of his school. But the abuse of an institution should not cause the services which the institution renders to be forgotten, for if the sentiment called patriotism is more active and more widespread now than formerly, one is justified in attributing this fact partly, indeed, to the wars of the nineteenth century, but partly also to the training which the masses of the people have received in the elementary school. CHAPTER XI. EDUCATION IN FRANCE.1 France, Republic. — Area, 204,092 square miles. Population (actual), April 12, 1891, 38,095,156; domiciled or legal, 38,343,193. Civil divisions. — For purposes of civil government, France is divided into 86 depart¬ ments (90 if Algiers be included), each having its local legislative assembly formed by election. The departments arc subdivided into arrondissements and these into cantons. The smallest civil divisions comprised within the cantons are communes. For previous articles in the Reports of the Commissioner of Education see the following : The educational system of France, (Report, 1888-89, Yol. I, pp. 112-149.) Report of the educational congresses and exhibition held in Paris, 1889 (Report, 1888-89, Yol. I, pp. 41-186), by W. H. Widgery. Brief view of the educational system, with statistics for 1888-89. (Report, 1889- 90, Yol. I, pp. 249-261.) Elementary education in London and Paris. (Report, 1889-90, Yol. I, pp. 263-280.) Education in France : Statistics, 1890-91 ; progress of primary schools since Guizot’s law, 1833; higher primary and classical schools of France. (Report, 1890-91, Yol. I, pp. 95-124.) Education in France : Outline of the system, and statistics for 1892 ; State faculties ; proposed transformations and development of teaching functions. (Report, 1891-92, Yol. I, pp. 73-95.) Civil service in France, by W. F. and W. W. "Willoughby. (Ibid., pp. 369-412.) Education in France: Outline view, with current statistics ; inspection of infant schools; recent changes in the baccalaureate; reorganization of medical studies, and of the scientific course preparatory thereto. (Report, 1892-93, Yol. I, pp. 219-237.) Education in France, with statistics for 1891-92. (Report, 1893-94, Yol. I, pp. 187-201.) Education in France: Statistics for 1891-92 and 1893; recent modifications in the department of secondary education; recent development of the faculties (universi¬ ties); progress of the system of primary instruction; schools for adults ; movements for the admission of American students to the universities of France. (Report, 1894-95, Yol. I, pp. 289-312.) TOPICAL OUTLIXF. — The French system under the Republic as preserving the form of the Imperial Univei'sity, but gradually infusing therein the spirit of liberty; the organization and chief officials of the system — The State inspection of primary schools ; obligation of the communes to establish schools and statistical evidence of their general compliance with the law— ^Statistics of enrollment in 1894-95 and decline since 1891-93 affecting public schools and secular private schools — Results of school instruction as shown by the number of candidates for primary certificates ( elementary 1 Prepared by Miss Asna Tolman Smith. 611 612 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. and superior grade ) — Teachers, their number and status as regards diplomas and the average size of schools under a head teacher — Attendance upon normal schools — School savings banks decreasing, but deposits increasing — Communal funds in aid of pupils; decline in numbers, but increase in receipts and disbursements — Current expenditure for primary instruction ; amounts showing increase for three successive years; also increase of communal appropriations for optional expenditure — Decline of illiteracy among conscripts — Department of secondary instruction, including lycees and com¬ munal colleges; difficulties in the way of modifying the traditional course of study and end of the lycees as typified in the bachelors degree — Recent modifications and final proposal to abolish the baccalaureate — Department of superior instruction; the law investing the faculties with the legal title of university, the crown of a series of meas¬ ures developing the essential conditions of university life; text of the law ; elaboration of its motives and purposes in the speeches of the minister of public instruction and of the director of superior instruction ; details of the scholastic and financial demands to which its provisions are addressed, especially emphasized in the speech of M. Louis Liard — Requirements for admission to the French faculties ; statement by M. Paul Melon, showing in detail the requirements for admission to the several faculties of France for candidates who aspire to degrees — Status of medical students in France under the latest official regulations. Appendix — Education in France, with especial reference to the lycees, by Dr. Alcde Fortiei \ Summary of educational statistics, 1S94-95. Classes of institutions. Date. Enrollment. Teachers. Current ex¬ penditures. Male. Female. Men. Women Primary schools (public and private) : Infant schools (6coles mater- nelles), ages 2 to 6 . Elementary primary schools (public and private) , ages 6 to 13. 1894-95 } 1894-95 (714! 2, 790, 710 734) 2, 749 385 / h. ; (66,031 1 9, 199 076) \ 82, 906/ a $37, 048, 012 Total Secondary scliools : Public, ages 8 to 20 . J 61892 Private, ages 8 to 20 . 6 1892 Normal schools : Primary, ages 16 to 20 . 1894-93 Universities : Faculties — ' Public . [ 1895 Private . ! 61893 6, 254, 829 85 291 89, 566 3, 930 25, 887 988 160,112 a Public primary only. 11, 605 3, 926 4, 418, 620 2, 628, 415 6 Latest dato of official statistics. THE SYS TEH IN GENERAL, Franco presents the highest type of a centralized, unified State sys¬ tem of education. The form of organization is substantially that of the Imperial University established by Napoleon in 1808, and invested with the monopoly of teaching throughout the State. The system suited admirably the purpose for which it was created, namely, that of making a professional service that would furnish careers for subservient talent and at the same time afford a channel for the general diffusion of impe¬ rial ideas. In maintaining the form of this system, at least as regards its main features, the Republic has had also the purpose to infuse into it the spirit of liberty and to make it the means of encouraging free initiative. This interesting experiment has illustrated in a very strik¬ ing manner the cast and temper of the national genius. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 613 The executive chief of the system is a cabinet officer — the minister of public instruction, fine arts, and worship. The portfolio generally changes hands with every cabinet crisis,1 but the permanency and steady progress of the system is not seriously affected thereby, as the directors of the three great departments of the system, i. e., primary, secondary, and superior, are retained for long periods, and even when changes occur the vacancy is generally filled by the logical successor of the departing officer. Thus, after nearly twenty years of service as director of primary instruction, M. Ferdinand Buisson2 has just been trans¬ ferred to the Sorbonne to fill the chair of pedagogy made vacant by the death of M. Henri Marion. The directorship in the ministry is filled by the transfer of M. Charles Bayet, who, as rector of the Academy3 of Lille, has given proof of his adherence to the ideal of the Bepublic. Each of the three great departments is charged with the interests of the corresponding grade of education 5 each has its separate budget and distinct body of laws, decrees, etc. The correlation of these separate orders is effected through the local or geographical divisions of the system. These are academies, seventeen in number, each of which com¬ prises, under the general direction of a rector (appointed by the minis¬ ter), all the schools, colleges, and faculties (university) of the respective districts.4 The central authority does not hold undivided sway in aca¬ demic districts ; within each there is a system of primary schools estab¬ lished by the communes and supported and controlled in part by commu¬ nal funds and authorities 5 there are also communal colleges or lower grade classical schools which are aided by the State, but established and partly controlled by local managers. Above these are the State classical colleges (lycees), which, until a very recent date, were rigidly controlled by State decrees; and crowning all are the faculties that, as we shall presently see, are now transformed into universities. The superior council of public instruction is the great deliberative head of the State system. Its prototype was the council of the Impe¬ rial University, a body appointed by the grand master and subject to his will. The change in the constitution of this council is a striking illustration of the movement toward professional liberty which the Bepublic has fostered. Of the sixty members of the present council one-fourth only serve by appointment of the President of the Bepublic; the remaining three-fourths are chosen by their peers from the three orders of instruction. A recent project for the reform of the council proposed the admission of members representing interests distinct from education, i. e., the 1 The present minister is M. Eambaud, who succeeded M. Comhees April 29, 1896. 2M. Buisson’s appointment dates from 1879, Jules Ferry being then minister of education. 3It will be observed that the word academy is here used in a special sense; it means neither a school nor a society of learned men, but a district of educational administration, a division of the State system officered by Government appointees. The^e must, however, be men of approved scholastic attainments ; thus the academy rector must be a graduate with tbe doctor’s degree. * The directorships of superior and secondary instruction are held, respectively, by M. Louis Liard and M. Kabier. 614 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. departments of justice, commerce, industry, etc.; this project failed, but the fact that after thirty years’ discussion the idea has at last been submitted to formal debate, indicates that professional exclusiveness will find its limits. So far as education is concerned, the present council is eminently a representative body, even women who are inspectresses of infant schools or directresses of normal schools being eligible to membership. ISTine of the members appointed by the President and six elected members constitute a permanent section, which meets every week. The entire council holds two annual sessions — one in July, the other in December. The permanent section deliberates upon matters which are to be sub¬ mitted to the general council, and offers its advice upon the same. These matters relate to programmes and regulations for all classes of schools, the creation of university courses or faeultes, of lycees, and of normal schools, the multiplication of chairs, choice of text-books, and, in short, to all questions pertaining to studies, administration, discipline, and standards which may be submitted by the minister. These questions are eventually deliberated in the general council, which prescribes the course of instruction in all public schools and determines the condi¬ tions under which private schools may be opened. The council is also a final court of appeal from judgments rendered by the academic or departmental councils in certain cases of discipline or contention. The deliberations of the council are presided over by the minister. In each ‘ -academic ” there is a council for the assistance of the rector, composed of members chosen for the most part by their peers, and representing the two higher orders of instruction, to whose interests the deliberations of the council are confined. Finally, in each department there is a council of primary instruction composed of members of the superior council and primary school directors, under the presidency of the prefect,1 which deliberates, advises, and renders judgment in certain matters pertaining to primary schools. THE DEPARTMENT OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION— STATE INSPECTION OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The State maintains a very close and intimate inspection of primary schools by means of a graded series of inspectors, (1) general inspect¬ ors, including nine assigned to particular sections of the country, sev¬ eral assigned to the oversight of special branches of study, and general inspectresses of infant schools. These officials report directly to the minister as to the manner in which the educational law is carried out. (2) Academic inspectors (inspecteurs d’academie), one for each depart¬ ment, who are subordinate to the rectors. They have the general direction of primary schools, conduct examinations for teachers’ certifi- The prefect is a civil officer, tlie chief of a department. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 615 cates, appoint all teachers on probation, and name the candidates from whom the prefects of departments may appoint full teachers. (3) Pri¬ mary inspectors, at present about 450 in number, or one for every 150 primary schools. They inspect the work of individual schools, and report to the academic inspector. (4) Medical inspectors, whose duties include the examination of children with respect to their physical con¬ dition and of sites and buildings with respect to sanitary particulars. COMMUNAL OBLIGATIONS. As regards primary schools, however, the initiative of the people is enlisted in several ways. The law (1833) makes it obligatory upon every commune to establish a public school, which, under the law of June 1G, 1881, must be a free school and, under laws of 1882 and 1886, secular and taught by a lay teacher, A commune, it must be remem¬ bered, is the simplest civil division in France. Its local affairs are con¬ trolled by a council, and a mayor chosen from the members of the same. A commune may have less than 20 inhabitants or it may be a populous city. Paris, indeed, is a commune, although differing somewhat from others in its form of local government. Large or small, the commune must establish a free primary school, provide the site and building, and a proportion of the current expenditure; not only so, but every com¬ mune of more than 500 inhabitants must have a separate school for girls (laws of March 15, 1850, and April 10, 1867). The situation of the communes in these respects as shown by the official report for 1894-95, 1 was as follows : Out of 36,509 communes 35,582 had established a public school, 841 were united for the purpose with adjoining communes, 35 had only a private school, and 51 were without schools. The last class, however, are small communes of from 100 to 200 inhabitants, whose children obtain instruction in neighboring districts. The general preference for the separate education of boys and girls is indicated by the constant increase in the number of communes provid¬ ing a public school for girls. The number having a population of 500 or upward not making such provision fell from 1,427 in 1891-92 to 1,360 in 1894-95. STATUS OF PRIMARV SCHOOLS AS REGARDS ENROLLMENT. The enrollment in primary schools continues to decline from year to year, as is shown by the statistics for successive years here presented: Class of school. Enrollment. 1891-92. 1892-93. 1893-94. 1S94-95. School for hoys . - . 2, 805, 849 2, 750, 621 2, 800, 316 2, 753, 799 2, 799, 089 2, 749, 091 2, 790, 710 2, 749, 385 School for girls . Total . ; 5, 556, 470 5, 554, 115 ! 5, 548, 180 5, 540, 095 1 “Resume des etats de situation de l’enseignement primaire,” for the school year 1894-95. 616 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The decline is slight, only tliree-tentlis per cent from 1891 to 1895,' but it presents conditions that are alarming. First, the ratio of decline is much greater for boys than for girls, five-tenths per cent against four hundredths per cent; second, it takes place in public schools only, the private schools considered as a whole showing steady gains, as will be seen from the following tabulation: Classes of school. Enrollment. 1891-92. 1892-93. 1893-94. 1834-95. Public schools : Secular . . . . 3, 753, 250 527, 933 3, 760, 729 497,208 3, 766, 551 475, 361 3, 764, 716 Clerical . . . . 450, 665 Total . 4, 281, 183 4,257,937 4, 241. 91^ 4, 215, 411 Private schools : Secular . Clerical . . . 147, 727 1, 127, 560 143,536 1,152,642 139, 668 1, 166, 600 135, 494 1, 189, 190 Total . 3,275,287 1,296,178 1, 306, 268 1, 324, 684 General total . 5,556,470 5, 554, 115 5, 548, 180 5, 540, 095 From an inspection of the particulars in the foregoing table it appears further that the decline in attendance affected public schools and sec¬ ular private schools, clerical jirivate schools showing steady increase, amounting, in the four years reviewed, to 5 per cent. As regards the decline in the enrollment of boys, M. Buisson, in his comment upon the figures, expresses the belief that they contain some hidden error which the statistical commission 1 may yet discover. Spe¬ cial investigation of this point will be made and the results published in the next quinquennial report. The enrollment in the primary schools, as given above, 5,540,095, is equivalent to 14.4 per cent of the population.2 The enrollment, 714,734, in maternal or infant schools, that is for children 2 to G years of age, may properly be added to the above, as these are also under State super¬ vision and partly supported by the State. This would give a general total of 6,254,829 pupils; 73 per cent of this total, viz, 3,452,764 pupils in the primary and 118,456 in the infant schools, were of the obligatory school ages — that is, 6 to 13 years. This total is 87.2 per cent of the entire number of children of the ages specified. If Algiers be omitted, the proportion for France alone is 96.5 per cent. The very small num¬ ber of children of the legal school age, 156,000, not found within the schools bears witness to the vigilance of teachers and school officers. It should be noted also that the preparatory departments of secondary schools receive many children of legal school age — in 1891-92 their rolls showed 64,413. 1Tliis commission was constituted in the ministry of public instruction and fine arts in 1876 and has issued altogether five reports. The chief of the commission is the distinguished statistician and writer upon economics, M. E. Levasseur. 2 This ratio is absolutely less than the corresponding ratio of neighboring countries, in Germany and England, for example, where it is 17 per cent, but it must be remembered that the child popula¬ tion of France bears a smaller ratio to the total population than in neighboring countries. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 617 Tlie superior primary schools which correspond to high schools of this country are included in these estimates. The public schools of this grade had an enrollment of 47,397 pupils, an increase of 13 per cent in four years. The private schools of the same grade had the enrollment of 50,051. THE TEACHING SERVICE. The primary schools employed 150,913 teachers, of whom 105,102 were in public and 45,751 in private schools. In maternal schools there were 9,199 teachers, all women. The following table shows the classification of the teachers of the primary schools with respect to their qualifications as indicated by the diploma obtained : PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS. Class or grade of teacher. Inferior diploma (brevet 616men- taire) . [ Teacher's diploma (hr 6 vet sup6- rienr). i No diploma. Total. Men. Women. Men. Women. Men. Women. Fall teachers (titnlaires) directing n anlinnl . . . . . 30, 890 6, 024 3,090 22, 903 5,073 4, 790 6, 971 5,461 3,406 5, 097 3, 705 3,811 a 84 7 40 1, 435 641 G58 67, 380 20, 911 15, 795 Full teachers in charge of a class. . . Probationers (stagiaires) . Total . 40, 004 32, 766 15,838 12, 613 131 2, 734 104, 086 PRIVATE PRIMARY SCHOOLS. Directing a school..... . 3, 053 6, 459 9, 427 15, 709 240 1,282 2, 478 24 1,743 4, 154 15, 769 29, 982 In charge of a class . 415 767 Total . 9,512 25, 136. 655 3,760 791 5, 897 45, 751 a Many of these have the bachelor’s degree. The increase in the number of public-school teachers provided with the full diploma above the number in 1891-92 is 5,753 (2,388 men, 3,365 women). The number having no diploma has diminished by 1,669 in the same time. In view of the number of teachers in charge of a school (viz, 67,380 in public schools), it is interesting to note the number of pupils to a school. In this respect the classification of the 102,506 schools was as follows: Per cent. Having 50 pupils or less . 90. 1 Having 51 to 60 pupils . 6. 8 Having 61 to 70 puj)ils . 2. 1 Having 7 i to 80 pupils . 0. 7 More than 80 pupils . .3 It appears also that there were 7,271 schools enrolling less than 20 pupils. The number of pupils seeking the certificate of elementary primary studies steadily increases. In 1895 there were 233,806 candidates ed 96 - 20* 618 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. (128,181 boys, 105,625 girls), as against a total of 228,170 in 1892. Of tlie number presented for examination, 185,467 obtained tlie certificate in 1895 (175,675 in 1892). Pupils may offer themselves for tlie examina¬ tion at 11 years of age. The certificate procures exemption from further attendance at the elementary schools and also admits the holder to the superior primary school. The certificate for superior primary schools is also sought by an increasing number of pupils, 3,359 in 1895 against 3,049 in 1892. The number of certificates of this grade delivered in 1895 was 2,035; in 1892 only 1,850. The normal schools for elementary teachers belong also to the depart¬ ment of primary instruction; these in 1895-96 enrolled 7,856 students, 3,930 men, 3,926 women. Evidences of the good results of the instruction obtained in the schools are afforded by the decline of illiteracy among conscripts. The proportion able to read and write, which was 92.2 per cent in 1892, had risen to 94.2 in 1895. SCHOOL SAVING'S BANKS AND FUNDS IN AID OF POOR CHILDREN. The use of school savings banks (caisses d’epargne scolaires) as a means for teaching thrift is apparently not increasing, the number of banks having fallen from 19,826 in 1893 to 17,793 in 1895, and the num¬ ber of depositors from 419,896 to 410,188. The amount deposited, how¬ ever, increased in the same time from $2,589,050 to $2,597,068. There is also apj)arently a slight diminution in the number of communes maintaining funds in aid of poor children (caisses des ecoles). The number of such funds was 15,893 in 1895 against 16,121 in 1893. The receipts and disbursements, however, show increase in the same time, the former from $1,032,612 to $1,061,334; the latter from $804,255 to $871,390. FINANCES. The current expenditure for public primary schools (including the elementary and superior primaries) reached the following totals for the years specified : 1892 . . . . $34,254,839 1893 . . 35,002,400 1894 . 37, 048, 012 This expenditure is divided between the State and the communes, the ratio borne by each having been the same for the three years, viz, 64 per cent for the State, 36 per cent for the communes. The expenditure for primary normal schools not included in the above amounted in 1894 to $1,780,900 borne by the State. The State not only bears the largest part of the expense of primary instruction, but, except¬ ing in the large cities, is the animating impulse and controlling author¬ ity in respect to courses of study, qualification of teachers, and standards of exmination. This comes about very naturally among a people long EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 619 accustomed to take their educational direction from an ecclesiastical hierarchy. Evidences of the growing interest of communes, however, seems to be afforded by the increased funds which they contribute for optional expenses. Omitting Algiers, which is included in the statistics heretofore given, the contributions of the communes under the head specified have been — 1892 . f>3, 940, 915 1893 . 3, 980, 133 1894 . 4, 418, 620 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. To the department of secondary instruction belong the lycees (State classical colleges), 107 in number, established and maintained by the State with the cooperation generally of the cities in which they are located, and the communal colleges, numbering 2 35, an inferior grade of classical school established by communal authorities with the aid of the State. No recent statistics of this department have been published. The latest will be found in the general table on page 612. THE LYCEE IDEAL AND ATTEMPTED MODIFICATIONS. The lycee course embodies the French ideal of liberal culture. “It is in the lycee,” says M. Breal, --that the elite of our youth, magistrates, administrators, officers, diplomats, authors, receive all the general instruction that they will carry into life. In them is accomplished the apprenticeship of mind, and it may be said in advance that whatever gaps and deficiencies exist in secondary instruction will show them selves in the intellectual life of the nation.’’ 1 Because of this relation peculiar impor¬ tance attaches to all efforts for the modification of the general conduct, the course of study, and the official recognition of these typical institu¬ tions. No problem before the superior council of public instruction has occupied more time or given rise to more serious efforts than that of the scope and adjustment of the lycee course. Some important changes were effected in the method of classical instruction by the new pro- - grammes of 1890, but the composition of the course and the predomi¬ nance given to Latin show the tenacity of the old conception of liberal education. The modern course introduced as “ enseignement secondaire special” in I860 by M. Duruy was changed in name, “moderue” being substituted for “special,” and also rendered more scholarly or less utili¬ tarian by a decree of 1891. As to the effect of these changes no official report has yet been made. The plan of a trifurcated course and a triple baccalaureate introduced also by M. Duruy in 1865 was abandoned under the decree of 1890 and a single bachelor’s degree adopted. The course was made uniform for ail students of the full or classical division up to the last year, i. e., philosophy, when options are allowed. According to the choice made 1 “Que3que3 mots sur l’instmction publique en France," page 157. 620 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. tlie successful candidate lias liis diploma inscribed: “Lettres, philo¬ sophies” “Lettres, mathematiques,” or “Lettres, sciences physiques et naturelles.” A proposition to abandon the baccalaureate altogether has recently been submitted to the superior council. The present minister of public instruction is opposed to the measure in this extreme form but favors the substitution of a leaving examination similar to the “ Abiiurienten- Examen” of the German gymnasia. This movement appears to have two motives, one to lessen the distinction now existing between the clas¬ sical and the modern course, the other to change somewhat the relation of the lycee course to the general scheme of State education. As we have already stated, the province of the lycees has been to deter¬ mine the tone and provide the means of liberal culture for the elite of the nation. All higher institutions are for special study. It has long been recognized that the French system needed to be deepened and extended as regards provision for general study. With the development of the university idea the disposition to make liberal culture the work of the faculties of letters and of science has increased. The present move¬ ment tends in that direction and excites naturally intense opposition from those who fondly cherish the traditional system. It is impossible at this moment to forecast the outcome. The lycees are not secondary schools in the American sense of the word; they correspond rather to our colleges, and they hold the devotion of their graduates by the memory of all the delightful associations which cluster around the word “alma mater.” The State has strengthened the tie by turning the public exercises of the lycees into an imposing and brilliant ceremony. The characteristic ceremony is the annual competition of lycee students held at Paris. An account of this public festival, for such it is, with an intimate view of lycee work, written by Dr. Alcee Fortier,1 is appended to this chapter, and may fittingly close the review of this division of the French system. From this letter it will be seen that the system has a repressive influence, which increases the difficulty of getting new ideas into practical operation. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. In the department of superior instruction important movements have been going on during the past decade which have been explained in the recent reports of the Commissioner of Education. They have tended, all, to the gradual transformation of the State faculties into autonomous universities, and their culmination is the law that passed the lower Chamber in May and the Senate in August of the present year (1896), giving the faculty groups the legal title of university. The law is here cited, together with extended extracts from the speeches made in the Senate, which explain the full purport of the measure and show its relation to previous measures in the series. Professor of Romance languages, Tulane University, New Orleans. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 621 The Senate in its session of July 7, 189G, upon a resolution of urgency, adopted by a vote of 291 against 31, the project of law relative to the constitution of the universities. The following is the text of the law: Article 1. Tlfe corps of faculties instituted by tlie law of April 26, 1893, shall he called universities. Art. 2. The council general of the faculties (i. e., of each faculty group) shall he called the council of the university. Art. 3. The council of the university is substituted for the academic council 1 in the consideration of disputed and disciplinary matters pertaining to superior public instruction. Art. 4. From the date, January 1, 1898, the required fees for courses, registration, use of library and laboratories, paid by the students, shall be retained by the respective universities.2 These funds can be applied to the following objects only : Expenditure for labora¬ tories, libraries, and collections; construction and furnishing of buildings; estab¬ lishment of new courses of instruction; equipments for the advantage of the students. The fees for examination, for certificates of aptitude (certifying that the candidate has passed the examinations required for a diploma), fees for “visa” (that is, signa¬ tures upon duplicate diplomas) paid by candidates for the degrees or titles recognized by law, as also the fees for “dispense” (that is, exemption from the customary term of study), and for equivalence (i. e., recognition of foreign diplomas) will continue to be collected into the public treasury. The law met with opposition from those who desired complete auton¬ omy for the individual universities and those who are opposed to any innovations upon the existing system. Even among those who voted in favor of the measure there were signs of discontent with its provi¬ sions, particularly with the recognition accorded to incomplete faculty groups — that is, having less than four distinct faculties. The minister of public instruction, M. Eambaud, made an eloquent speech in defense of the project. The epitome of the minister’s address here presented comprises his principal arguments in favor of the measure. Referring to the history of the university bill which, in one form or another, has been before the legislature since 1890, M.Bambaud recalled a succession of ministers who had been pledged to its support — M. Ber- thelot, M. Fallieres, M. Wallon, and others. Its purpose he declared was to give life to higher instruction. Following the advice of Jules Ferry, its friends had proceeded without precipitation or recklessness. From the foundation of the third Republic the most urgent reforms had been first considered. * * * For more than thirty years, from the ministry of Victor Duruy to that of Jules Simon, the faculties had suffered chiefly from the want of suitable equipment. This miserable condition has been overcome. One by one the buildings have been reconstructed, laboratories equipped, libraries supplied. The teaching personnel has been reenforced and increased, the audiences of hearers 1 An academy is one of the seventeen districts of edncational administration. 2 Heretofore all fees have been paid into the public treasury. 622 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. liave gradually been replaced, by veritable students, and thus life has been imparted to the poor and isolated faculties. The beginning of this development, which has culminated in the present project, was the inquiry ordered by M. Jules Ferry. One of his successors, belonging to a different political school, M* Goblet, has collected together the results of this inquiry- it is he also who counter¬ signed the decrees of July 25 1 and December 28, 1885- 2 these decrees were followed by a law of July 18, 1889, regulating the finances, after which came a new decree, February 22, 1890, 3 then a new financial law, that of April 18, 1893, and finally the decrees of August 9 and 10, countersigned by M. Poincare. Thus nothing has been left to hazard or to chimerical notions. Prog¬ ress has taken the experimental course. That is to say, the effort has been to create a condition before giving it a name. This method has been justified by its practical success, and first and chiefly by the con¬ stantly increasing number of students in the schools of higher instruc¬ tion depending upon the minister of public instruction. In 1885 the total number of students was 16,579. In December, 1895, it was 25,887. This great increase has not had the effect of overcrowding the Paris faculties. All the faculties of France have shared in the advantage, the provincial faculties even in larger measure than those of the cap¬ ital. The minister quoted from a table which showed that while the rate of increase in the total number of students from 1885 to 1896 was 60 per cent, the ratio at Paris was only 37 per cent. The faculties of the provinces greatly exceed this rate. Besan§on has seen its student population increase in the time by 103 per cent' — that is, more than double. It is nearly the same at Aix, Bordeaux, Dijon, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, where the rate varies from 89 to 95 per cent. At Lille, Lyons, Montpellier, the increase is still higher, from 103 to 119 per cent. Thus, as regards students, a veritable decentralization has been going on. This increase in the student population of the provinces is in direct proportion to the hopes that these university groups have founded upon the pending bill. Referring to the charge of a critic who had declared, “If we have many students it is because we pay students to be instructed, which is done only in France, the minister said : There is great exaggeration in both of these statements. What is the total num¬ ber of scholarships offered by the French Republic in the faculties of letters and of 1 Instituting a general council of the faculties of each “ academie ” and empowering the faculties to hold property, receive gifts, and manage their own estates. 2 Extending the authority of the general councils to all matters pertaining to the internal conduct of the group, such as the courses and coordination of studies, estimates of expenditure, the division of common funds, etc. The same decree constituted a council of each faculty composed of the titular or full professors and an assembly of each faculty comprising full professors and agreg£s (fellows). The functions of the former pertained to the general affairs of the faculty, and of the latter to scho¬ lastic work. 3 Relating to finances. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 623 science, fortlie question only arises with respect to these? There arc no scholarships cither in the faculties of law or in those of medicine. The total number is at present 371, a number small indeed, it must bo admitted, in comparison with the number of students in letters and science, which is 6,000. Xow, why have we these scholarship funds? It is because they are demanded by the service. We do not pay young men to study in order to hll up the benches before the professors: but we need them for the recruitment of the teaching force of secondary schools. Observe that this total of 371 scholarships in letters and science furnishes each year from 80 to 100 candidates for the professorships of second¬ ary instruction. In respect to letters particularly this number is quite insufficient. Without doubt the free students, by the increase of their numbers and of their knowledge, have furnished us a most valuable source of recruitment. In propor¬ tion as these free elements have been supplied the credits demanded from Parlia¬ ment for the scholarship funds have been diminished. Since 1888 (when the total amount allowed under this head was $144,000) there has been a decrease of about $40,000. The present year the amount is reduced by about $6,000. And when it is asserted that France is the only country where they pay young men to be instructed, I respond that this same thing is done notably in Germany * but in Germany it is not so readily apparent, because there students are not supported solely by State appropriations, but partly also by endowments. In the Empire of Eussia, if you wish to make comparison, you will find that the free students are nearly one-third the entire number in the Kussian universities. So much for the declaration that “this is done only in France.'7 As another evidence of the success of the late reform, the minister noted the increase in the number of foreign students in the French faculties. In January, 1896, the total had reached 1,828. The largest proportions were furnished by Russia, Turkey, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Greece ; that is to say, by countries in which the equipment for superior instruction is meager, and hence they come to take, as it were, “the watchword from French science.” M. Rambaud noted further that even among the scientific representa¬ tives of the older countries with richly endowed universities there is heard unmistakable expressions of admiration for the work accom¬ plished in France. As to the reproach of opponents of the proposed bill, that it confers nothing more than a name upon existing institutions, M. Rambaud reminded his hearers that there are names that create the things named. Hence the Latin saying, “Homina numina.” The institution which is a university in all but the name, lacks legal existence in its true character. Herein is the value of the name. It stands for an important and imposing idea, the universality of science, or, as ex¬ pressed by Father Didon, “the true higher learning in its liberty, its universality, and its unity As to the objection urged in some quarters that it is a vain endeavor to seek to unite in general councils professors teaching subjects so unlike as science and law, as letters and medicine, M. Rambaud reminded his hearers that all the reforms already accomplished have been the outcome of conferences between the minister of public instruc¬ tion and the general councils of the faculties, especially that of the faculties of Paris. To such collaboration is due the late measure 624 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. obliging students of medicine to pass one year in a faculty of science to acquire general scientific culture, tlie reform of tlie u license cs sci¬ ences” (degree of licentiate in science), wliicli gives recognition to important specialties, the reform of the doctorate of law, etc. To cite these is sufficient to dispose of the objection that professors of different branches united in conference do not speak the same lan¬ guage and are incapable of understanding each other. The minister advocated the university idea particularly as tending to correct the extreme professional bias. u Universities,” he said, u by the general character of their instruc¬ tion, counteract the professional weakness (tare) among those who practice the liberal professions. They enable specialists to acquire easily that general knowledge which, even in respect to the speciality itself, constitutes the real value and originality of the man.” As to the criticism that the measure is opposed to the development of specialties demanded in the various localities, the minister showed that these have been strengthened as the university idea has grown. He said: At Bordeaux, besides the general instruction given in the faculty of sciences, there has been created a laboratory of industrial chemistry specially devoted to the re¬ searches pertaining to the culture of the vino and the industries depending thereupon. To this laboratory is to be credited the remedy for mildew. At Lyons, the center of the silk and dyeing industries, there has been created a chair of industrial chemistry whose incumbent devotes himself to experiments in dyeing. Every year he sends out thirty or forty students, who go forth to apply in the local manufactories the knowl¬ edge acquired in the faculty. At Nancy, the center at once of agriculture and of brewing, the endeavor has been to meet the double demands of the region. Hence a chair of agricultural chemistry and a brewing laboratory, so that in the subsoil of the faculty of sciences model beers, ideal beers, are elaborated, which become the standards for the neighboring breweries. At Lille there is found a course in industrial chemistry and agriculture and a course in industrial physics. It is understood that physics can be made equally with chemistry the precious auxiliary of industry. I can not enumerate all the chairs, all the courses of agriculture or industrial chemistry. They are found in nearly all our university centers, and always adapted to the local demands. At Caen there exists as an annex to the faculty of sciences a laboratory particularly valuable in a seacoast and fishing place, namely, a laboratory of mari¬ time zoology. At Besangon, center of manufactures and of clock making, we have a professor of chronometric science and an observatory of chronometry. So much for the faculties of science. They are inspired with the ideas appropri¬ ate to each section of France; they have sought to meet the demands of trade, and beside the general instruction which is their province they have founded this special instruction. The same is true of the faculties of letters. At Bordeaux there is a chair of the history of the southwest; at Nancy, a chair of the history of the east of France; at Lille, a chair of the languages and the literature of Picardy, and of the Wallons, and a chair of the Russian language and literature. Why the Russian language? Because that this region, from the seventeenth century, from the time of the forma¬ tion of the “ Company of the North ” by Colbert, has been in relations with Russia through Dunkirk. At Aix there is a chair of Provencal literature; at Rennes, a course in Celtic lan¬ guage and literature; at Toulouse, a chair of the history of the middle region of France, and a chair of the Spanish language and literature ; at Grenoble, a course EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 625 in Italian literature; at Caen, a chair of Norman literature and art; at Poitiers and at Clermont, chairs consecrated to the history of the province. But all this does not prevent the teaching of the same chemistry at Lyons as at Bordeaux. The movement toward these varied creations appears to me very wise because it tends to attach the faculties to the region in the center of which they are installed; because it will naturally lead them to love it and will result in their finding in the sympathies of tho region, in the liberality of citizens justly proud of their little provincial possession, inexhaustible resources. This will enable them, thanks to the freedom which this law imparts, to develop the special local features of their work. In effect they will henceforth only be limited in respect to those matters that con¬ cern the obligatory courses of a general character. It should be observed further that the funds for the greater part of these chairs, these courses, laboratories, and observatories, which I have just enumerated, have been furnished, either in whole or at least one-half, by the cities, departments, or sometimes the regions. Having tints disposed of the objection that the interests of special instruction would suffer from the new law, the minister proceeded to consider its effect upon the national character of the institutions. The j)ossibility of this character he illustrated by the German uni¬ versities, to which he paid a noble tribute as u vigorous factors in the national evolution'7 and u the incarnation of the national idea.” In replying to certain objections against the law the minister found occasion to contrast the ideal of the newly constituted universities with that of the old universities, and also with that of the Imperial creation. Only the principal points of contrast dwelt upon are here summarized. So far as possible that is done by verbatim citations. In the universities of the Middle Ages theology held first place. The new univer¬ sities “will be, above all, secular and free.” The old institutions were essentially “international.” “The University of Paris in the thirteenth century was as much foreign as French ; that is to say, the students of foreign countries, those who were divided into ( nations/ English, German, Flem¬ ish, were perhaps more numerous than the French.” But in the university of to-day the national character predominates, and the end to which their instruction is directed is national. In the old universities the separation between the different orders of instruction, between theology and law, between law and medicine, were strongly marked. They had no internal unity. Now, it is precisely the establishment of this internal unity that is sought in the proposed reform. The universities of the Middle Ages, and this should be particularly noted, were poorly endowed. The professors refused to accept new colleagues in order to secure for themselves all the revenues of the corporation, all the profits from tuition fees. Wo have the spectacle in the seventeenth century of such a university, that of Bourges, reduced to be the fief of a father-in-law supported by his son-in-law. It is precisely because of poverty that the French universities have given nothing to the Middle Ages and to modern times, because it is impossible to accomplish any¬ thing for science without instruments and without material. Now, we desire, as is well known, universities amply endowed to fulfill the mission that we propose to confide to them. W e desire for our universities modern manners as well as modern studies. Between the universities of tho Middle Ages and those of to-day there is nothing in common; nothing excepting the name; nothing apart from the idea, always just, that those who desire to study should associate themselves together. We realize that science being so extensive professors ought to devote more time to their students, to become their intimate collaborators. We realize also that science 626 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-9G. being so vast in its variety, and eacb of its divisions and subdivisions forming in itself a science, it requires ample equipments, and a numerous teaching body, and for this work the resources of an association united to those of the State are none too great. In considering tlie objections of those who hold that the new measure is contrary to the spirit of the French Revolution, the minister showed that the charge is unfounded, first, as regards the instruction proposed. This is to be general in its nature, encyclopedic as it were; but “the encyclopedia is the very essence of the eighteenth century itself,” “ it is the French Revolution itself.” The work of the lycee, as proposed by Mirabean, was “ to teach let¬ ters, sciences, and arts.” Condorcet defined the lycees as “establish¬ ments where all the sciences will be taught in their whole extent.” How does this differ, asks the minister, from the universities proposed by the new law! “ This idea of the lycee,” he sa}^s, “ this university idea, that is not of special schools, but of schools for general knowl¬ edge, was discussed during the entire period of the Convention, and among its advocates are to be found Romme, one of the authors of the revolutionary calendar, Lepeletier de Saint -Fargeau, and Robespierre.” The reaction against this university idea, according to the minister, was the work of the Consulate and the Empire. Napoleon was devoted, and that in an ever-increasing degree, to special schools. The cause is easily understood, for they met his immediate and pressing demands for officers, magistrates, engineers, and doctors. As to the faculties that he created — that is, the 27 faculties of letters and the 27 of science — “this apparent luxury of provision was in reality only poverty and weakness.” The faculties of Napoleon were recruited from the neighboring lycees (not the lycee of Condorcet, but that of to-day, which is also a creation of Napoleon). The professors of the higher classes of the lycees constituted in effect the faculties of letters and of science, and the “ proviseur,” or principal, of the lycee was the dean of the faculty. And moreover the faculties thus constituted were simply examining juries. There were, it is true, illustrious professors — in the faculties of Paris, many cele¬ brated and glorious. Some such might be mentioned in the provinces also ; but this does not obscure the fact that the general state of superior instruction was that of mediocrity and sterility. In contrast with this conception of higher instruction, comprising on the one hand special schools intended to supply candidates for certain professions necessary to the State and on the other isolated faculties having no proper being, stands out the lib¬ eral conception of 1789 in respect to education, the encyclopedic conception embodied in what wero called lycees in the time of Condorcet and in what are to-day called universities. While from some quarters it had been urged that the proposed uni¬ versities would have too much liberty, from others the complaint was heard that they would not have enough. The minister observed that the two objections refuted each other. For himself he disclaimed any EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 627 desire to repress tlieir free development. “ I believe,” lie said, “that it is the essence of a republican State, developing in all directions the consequences of its own principle, to put freedom everywhere together with universality ; not alone in letters and in science, but also in the arts.” The actual innovations made by the law into the existing system as explained by the minister relate to finances and programmes. The universities will have the full control of part of their funds, with respect to others they will have a determining voice, and for the rest they will be limited to the mere privilege of giving advice or opinions. It will be the same with the programmes of study. These will com¬ prise portions obligatory upon the universities, because they correspond to the examinations and decrees prescribed by the State; but there will also be a wide margin for free options. From the funds which will belong to the universities and which for the most part will be provided by benefactions at their own disposal, the universities may create whatever instructions they desire, courses in Egyptology, in Assyri- ology, but they can not restrict the courses which the State judges to be necessary and which are maintained by the funds of the State. As to the general reorganization of public instruction, the law makes no changes. There will still be a rector at the head of each academy. Above the council general of each university there will be the superior council with its permanent section ; the professors and u agreges” (asso¬ ciated professors or fellows) will be appointed; the project of law voted exactly as at present. Although appointments to professorships are made by the President, upon the advice of the minister, this is now scarcely more than a form, since the choice of the minister is greatly restricted. “ There are not many countries,” said M. Rambaud, “ where the minister upon the presentation on the one side of the faculty inter¬ ested and on the other of the permanent section is obliged to appoint the person whose name heads the list.” All things considered, the future universities will be as independent as the German universities. The only restriction imposed upon the former relates to the programmes. This is explained by the difference between the French diplomas and the German. The new project, far from destroying the University of France, will, in the opinion of the minister, give it a higher value. It will also have the effect of drawing benefactions into the treasuries of the new universities. Already, under the impulse of the recent movements, bequests to the amount of $600,000 have been received from private sources. Mont¬ pellier has been unusually favored in this respect, having received $300,000 in a single legacy. At Paris two chairs have been privately endowed, one of the history of the French Revolution and a second by the Count de Chambrun of the history of economic doctrines. The minister was followed by M. Louis Liard, director of superior 628 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. instruction, who confined liimself cliiefly to the statistics pertaining to liis department. The following are the principal facts brought out in his statement. From 1884 to 1895 there was a notable decrease in the x>ublic expend¬ iture for superior instruction. The State appropriations in the former year were $2,310,471. In 1895 they were $2,028,415, but during the same time the receipts from fees increased from $781,200 to $1,326,400 ; that is, while the expenditure increased by $300,000 the receipts increased by $540,000. During the same period the net expenditure for a student declined, being $109 in 1884 and only $54 in 1895. In no country, said M. Liard, not even omitting Germany, does a student cost less. For the purpose of comparison with the resources of the French uni¬ versities, M. Liard submitted the following statement as to German universities. The total receipts he gave in round numbers as $4,740,000, derived as follows: From endowments and revenues, $600,000- from fees for courses, examinations, and matriculation, $540,000; subvention from the State, $3,600,000. In France, if the amounts received during the year by the establishments of superior instruction and which are turned into the treasury be subtracted from the State appropriations for the same, it will be found that the net cost to the State has been only $1,301,825. It is desirable to note further that the net cost of a student is 271 francs ($54). In Germany the net cost to the State — that is, after deduc¬ tion of the university revenues — is 645 francs ($129). It may be noted further that the expenditure for a university student per capita of the population is in Switzerland from 96 centimes to 1 franc (19 to 20 cents), varying in different cantons; in Germany it is 37 centimes (7 cents), in France it is only 16 centimes (3 cents). Far from being excessive, as some have urged [said the director], the contribution from the State is actually insufficient. Take, for example, the budget of the Paris faculty of medicine, which comprises more than 4,000 students. The budget is consid¬ erable, but divided between the varied and important services, consider how small the appropriation' for each. For the chemical laboratory only 5,215 francs ($1,043) per annum; for the physical laboratory a sum total of 1,460 francs ($292) ; the labor¬ atory of histology, 2,020 francs ($404); the laboratory of anatomy, 1,250 francs ($250) ; that of therapeutics, 2,015 francs ($403) ; that of legal medicine, 1,720 francs ($344); of hygiene, 2,470 francs ($494); that of surgery, 1,190 francs ($238); that of comparative and experimental pathology, 2,470 francs ($494). This is pitiable. I will now give the sums allowed for materials for each of the clinics of the Paris faculty of medicine. These aro also mere pittances ; no other word can be used. The medical clinic of the Hdtel Dieu receives 1,930 francs ($386); the surgical clinic, 1,200 francs ($240); the medical clinic of the “Charity,” 1,610 francs ($322); the surgical clinic of the same hospital, 1,720 francs ($344); the medical clinic of the “Phie,’’ 790 francs ($158); the surgical clinic, 1,190 francs ($238). The situation is nearly the same for the faculty of sciences at Paris. You know the 6clat that this faculty has imparted to superior instruction and the discoveries by which it has contributed to tho progress of science. Well, the appropriations for the laboratories, for the cost cf instruction in this faculty, which comprises 25 EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 629 experimental branches, is only 60,000 francs ($12,000) ; that is, about 2,400 francs ($480) for each. The Bordeaux faculty of sciences, which has 10 experimental branches, receives only 14,500 francs ($2,900); that is, about 1,450 francs ($290) each. That of Lille, for 11 experimental branches, receives 15,550 francs ($3,110), or on the average 1,400 francs ($280) for each. The same penury for the libraries. The university libraries have been constructed and already "well furnished, but how meager their budgets, especially by comparison. Compare, for example, Strasburg and Nancy. Strasburg receives annually for the material of its library 72,500 francs ($14,500); Nancy only 21,625 francs ($4,325); Gottingen, which may be compared with Lyons, received 55,887 francs ($11,177); Lyons only 24,000 ($4,800) ; Halle has 30,000 francs ($6,000) and Poitiers 11,750 francs ($2,350). M. Liard called attention farther to what has become a matter of absolute dishonesty in the financial system. The students pay certain fees annually for the use of libraries, laboratory facili¬ ties, etc. These sums are turned into the public treasury. As the number of stu¬ dents increases the product of the fees increases also, and since the State appropria¬ tions are not proportionately augmented, it follows that a part of the income from fees goes to the profit of the State instead of to the benefit of the institution and the students. For example, at the Paris faculty of medicine the student is charged 50 francs ($10) for the use of laboratory the first year and 40 francs ($8) for the second and third year each. In making up the balance between the funds from these fees which are thus received into the treasury and the appropriations allowed by the State for the same purpose, it appears that by reason of tho increase in the number of students the resources of the faculty are actually reduced by an average amount of 21 francs, 34 centimes ($4.26) per student. It is the same with the superior school of pharmacy, and with all the faculties where practical work is maintained. One of the most important of all the faculties is that of medicine and pharmacy at Lyons; the number of students who took x>art in the practical works in 1895 was 1,065. The amount allowed for these works in the budget of public instruction was 19,350 francs ($3,870) or 18 francs 17 centimes ($3.63) per student, but the amount turned into the treasury from tho fees paid by the students on account of the experimental work averages 45 francs ($9) each. The same thing occurs with respect to the libraries. Each student pays a library fee of 10 francs ($2) per annum. At Paris, in 1895, the total receipts from this source were 63,200 francs ($12,640). The appropriations from the State for the university library and for the libraries of the faculties of medicine, of theology, of law, and of the superior school of pharmacy, collectively, for the purchase of volumes and for subscriptions, were only 45,900 francs ($9,180). It is fully recognized that this is an injustice that ought not to be tolerated, and for this reason, among others, the new law has been submitted, which will put an end to these abuses after January, 1898. Under this law the State will continue its appropriations as heretofore, but after tho law goes into operation each university will retain the laboratory fees, library fees, and fees for courses as expressed in article 4. REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION TO THE FRENCH FACULTIES. The Keport of the Commissioner for 1894-95 contained an account of important efforts for facilitating the admission of American students to university privileges in France. The initiatory impulse to this move* 630 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. uient was given by Professor Fnrber, of Chicago, who met with an immediate and cordial response from the ministry of public instruction and the university professors of France. A committee of university men was formed under the name of the “Committee Franco- American/7 to promote the object, and subsequently an advisory committee was organized in the United States under the presidency of Prof. Simon Newcomb. Concessions were secured immediately respecting admis¬ sion to the faculty of science, as explained in the previous report. The following paper, for which the office is indebted to M. Paul Melon, of Paris, general secretary of the “Committee of patronage of foreign students,77 sets forth in detail the existing requirements: Explanation of terms used in this paper for which there is no exact English equivalent, or whose equivalent in English is misleading. 1. Faculties. Equivalent to universities of other countries. 2. Cours. The instruction or lectures of the professors. 3. Dispense. An official certificate entitling the holder to exemption from certain examinations in consideration of other and equivalent proofs of capacity, and upon condition of paying the accumu¬ lated fees for the examinations from which he is exempted. Because of the latter condition the “dispense ” is said to give tho right to the candidacy for the higher degree by “titre onereux” (literally, burdensome title). 4. Inscription. The act of registering on the roll of a faculty ; for this formality', which must he renewed every three months, a fee is charged. Only those who have taken the required number of inscriptions can bo admitted to examination. 5. Stage officinal. Period of practical work in compounding medicines required of students in pharmacy. 6. Travav.x pratiques. Practical works which differ in the different faculties. In the faculty of medi¬ cine, they comprise anatomical dissections, hospital practice, etc. ; in tho faculty of sciences, experiments, and, in general, laboratory work. Higher education in Erance is given in the faculties and the special schools. The faculties form groups "which, while a part of the State system (that is, dependent upon the State), preserve a certain autonomy. The courses are absolutely free.1 There are four faculties, that of letters, of sciences, of medicine, and of law. They arc as freely open to foreigners as to the natives, either being admitted to take their degree. Both foreigners and natives are required to furnish proof of certain prelim¬ inary study. For foreigners this proof consists in tho production of a certificate of secondary study. This is then referred to the judgment of the minister, who decides whether the scientific value of the certificate produced is sufficient to admit of the course being followed with profit. This is called a “ dispense” (i. c., exemption or authorization). This authorization, however, does not carry the right to enter the desired course excepting by “titre onereux,” that is to say, that the candidate pays tho accumulated fees for the terms of study or the examinations from which he is exempted by the “ dispense.” This “dispense” is never granted for the degrees of licentiate or doctor; but a waste of the time for studying may be obviated by tho cumulative concessions of a certain number of “inscriptions” (terms), granted on the condition that the student shall submit to a probationary examination. Tho foreign doctor of medicine who wishes to take the title of doctor in French medicine may perhaps be authorized to take an aggregate of sixteen inscriptions simultaneously,2 but ho must undergo an examination and submit a theme. The foreign pharmacist may obtain a “dispense” or exemption from the stage of practical work (stage officinal) and the concession of twelve terms, but he must submit to three definitive examinations. When a !Eees are required for registration (inscription), for use of laboratories, libraries, etc., for examina¬ tions, diplomas, etc., but the regular courses under the professors are free. 2 Representing sixteen terms of study. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 631 foreign student who lias graduated from a foreign university wislics to take the course in a French university ho is required to seud to the minister of public instruction a request for a “dispense,” accompanied hy the diplomas obtained in his native country after they have been translated and legalized; also a certificate of birth (original and translation). When the certificate produced by the grantee shows obscurities or gap!, the foreigner is subjected to a trial examination by a commission of the faculty in which he wishes to enter. This examination is based on the matter which was not clearly indicated by the certificate which had been shown. The comple¬ mentary Latin examination consists in a theme and translation written at sight. This applies only to the students who aspire to the degrees conferred by the fac¬ ulty : but those who wish simply to profit by the instruction have the greatest liberty allowed them in following the course. The foreigner who has furnished proof of the necessary preliminary instruction is admitted to the greater number of our special schools, either as pupil or as free auditor, and especially is this the case with the Superior Maritime School, the School of St. Cyr, the School of Forestry at Nancy, the School of Manufactures, the Superior School of Mines, the School of Bridges and Roads, the School of Telegrai>hy, the School of Agriculture (Institut National Agronomique), the Schools of Decorative Arts and of Fine Arts, the “Fcole Centrale,” the “£c ole Pratique des Hautes fltudes,” the Conservatory of Music, etc. In order to obtain the degrees in higher education it is necessary to pay the fees for inscription for the library, for practical work, examinations, and diploma. The fee for inscription (which carries the privileges of the course for one term) is 30 francs ($6) for three months, that of the library 10 francs ($2) per annum, that of the diploma varies from 40 to 100 francs ($8 to $20). The diploma fees shown in detail are : Theology: Baccalaureate in theology, 155 francs ($31); licentiate in theology, 155 francs ($31); doctorate in theology, 190 francs ($38). Law: Certificate of capacity in law, 255 francs ($51); baccalaureate, 700 francs ($140); licentiate, 430 francs ($86) : doctorate, 570 francs ($114). Medicine: Doctorate, 1,305 francs ($261); diploma of surgeon dentist, 960 francs ($192). Science: Certificate of study (in chemistry and natural science), 300 francs ($60); baccalaureate, 120 francs ($24) ; licentiate, 230 francs ($46) ; doctorate, 140 francs ($28). Letters: Baccalaureate, 120 francs ($24); licentiate, 230 francs ($46) y doctorate, 140 francs ($28). Pharmacy: Diploma of pharmacy, first class, 144 francs ($28.80) ; diploma of phar¬ macy (higher), 400 francs ($80). The degree conferred by the faculties in France are those of bachelor, of licentiate, and of doctor. No student can be registered for the course in which he presents himself for examination unless he is a bachelor of letters, excepting for the faculty of science, in which a diploma of bachelor is sufficient.1 To be admitted to take the examination of bachelor in theology it is necessary to follow a course of three years in one of the faculties of the French Republic, com¬ mencing with the first year of preparatory study, terminated by an examination called the ascension in theology. Students provided with the licentiate of letters are exempted from the preparatory year. Every six months the student must pre¬ sent himself for examination (examen de passage). For the baccalaureate one must undergo a written and oral examination and submit in public a printed thesis. For the licentiate in theology it is necessary to show proof of four terms taken 1 The official decree of August 8, 1890, instituting a single bachelor's degree for the three formerly recognized was waived for candidates for the degree of bachelor of science until November, 1894. Hence many candidates for higher degrees have only the science baccalaureate. 632 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. since the oaccalaureate, and one only receives the degree of licentiate after under¬ going a written and oral examination and submitting two theses, one of which is in Latin. In order to he received as doctor in theology one must submit a general theme after having proved four inscriptions taken since the licentiate. Examination for law. — In order to obtain a certificate of capacity in law a diploma of bachelor is not necessary. It is necessary to take four inscriptions, to follow during one year the course of civil law for the first and second years, and also the course of criminal and civil procedure, and to pass an examination on matters connected with each of these courses. The course for the baccalaureate is one of two years. For the licentiate there is a supplementary year. At the end of the scholastic year each student must pass an examination on all the subjects taught during the year. The second examination confers the degree of bachelor of law; the third, that of licentiate in law. The last is divided into two parts. The written examination consists in two com¬ positions, one on a question of civij law, the other on a question of commercial law. The candidate may make use of the Code. Only candidates (those who have taken the necessary inscriptions) are admissible to the examinations. There are two ordinary sessions, one in July and the other in November. Unless for some very serious reason the student must present himself in July. In order to obtain a diploma of doctorate in law the candidate must first be a licentiate in law, pursue a four-years course of study, pass two examinations, and sustain a public act (disputation in which the candidate maintains a certain proposition). The diploma of doctor of law must make mention of one of the following subjects : Science of jurisprudence, political and economic science. The candidate recognized as prepared for a degree in one of the above-named subjects may obtain the other by passing the examination and composing and sus¬ taining a second theme. Doctorate in medicine. — The aspirants for a doctorate in medicine, in order to take the first inscription, must produce the bachelor’s diploma of classical studies (lettres- pliilosophie) and the special certificate of studies (pnysics, chemistry, and natural sciences).1 They must pass five examinations and sustain a +hesis. The subject of the thesis is chosen by the candidate. The first examination takes place between the sixth and eighth terms; the second between the eighth and tenth; the third between the thirteenth and sixteenth; the fourth and fifth after the sixteenth. The fourth and fifth and the theme must be submitted to the same faculty. Examination in the faculty of letters. — The candidate for the examination of licen¬ tiate must possess the title of bachelor of letters and take four terms in the course of the faculty. There are four classes of the licentiate of letters — literary, philo¬ sophical, historical, and living languages. There are two sessions (of the examining board) per annum, one in July and the other in November. At Paris there is an extraordinary session in April. Pharmacy. — Inferior diploma. After the twelfth term the students who have ful¬ filled the required term of study are admitted to the three examinations at the end of the course. The candidate who presents a thesis showing original research 1 Certificate of studies, physics, chemistry, and natural sciences. To he admitted to the course for this special certificate, which is given in the faculty of sciences, candidates must he provided with the diploma of bachelor or the teacher’s diploma (brevet superieur) or the certificate of studies of the superior primary schools. In order to he admitted to the examinations the student must have finished four terms and must have taken part in practical work. The examination comprises four interroga¬ tories and four proofs of practical study in the following subjects : Geology, chemistry, zoology, and botany. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 633 may, with the consent of the school/ he exempted from the second part of the third examination. The superior diploma is obtained after four years of study, made valid by an exam¬ ination and the submission of an original theme approved by the school. The diploma of higher instruction is equivalent to the doctorate of physics and natural sciences. Besides these there are, in certain faculties of letters, of science, and of law, certifi¬ cates of higher studies and of legal study. The conditions for obtaining this cer¬ tificate are left to the faculties, who have the greatest liberty in regard to the same. This certificate, as its name indicates, simply bears witness to the kind of study pursued by the recipient and does not allow him any of the rights conferred by the diploma. In the same manner there is given in the faculty of letters a diploma of higher study in history and geography. This diploma serves as the evidence of a scientific apprenticeship) on the nart of the student. This diploma is delivered after the fol¬ lowing proofs : (a) Examination and discussion of a topic in history or geography, which is chosen by the candidate and approved by the professors or masters or lecturers in history and geography of the faculty of letters or of the superior normal school. (Z>) Discussion of a question in history and of a question in geography indicated to the candidate three months in advance. (c) The critical explanation of a historical or geographical text chosen by a can¬ didate. (cl) Examination upon a subject drawn by let, at tho choice of the candidate, either from the sciences auxiliary to history (archaeology, ethnography, paleography, diplomacy, bibliography) or from general geography. The faculties of science deliver a certificate of higher study corresponding to the subjects taught by them. The diploma of licentiate in science is conferred on the student who produces three certificates of study. The student is allowed to choose between the different subjects which are taught in the faculties, and, if he presents the certificates of higher studies, he may obtain the degree of licentiate. Higher instruction is also given in a great number of schools or scientific estab¬ lishments which have an independent life. These establishments do not grant degrees as do the faculties, but they confer certain diplomas having an exclusively scientific character. For example, the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes (Practical School of Higher Stitdies), the School of Charts, the School of Oriental and Living Languages, schools or establishments such as the u College de France,” the Museum of Natural History, the a£cole du Louvre” (School of the Louvre), all of which are veritable scientific laboratories in which one may pursue the investigation of truth. The courses in these establishments are open to foreigners as freely as to the natives. As to the special schools of application, such as maritime schools, the school of forestry, the schools of agriculture, the school of mines, etc., foreigners are admit¬ ted as free auditors or as pupils, if they prefer, provided that they have had sufficient scientific instruction and are recommended by the minister of their own country residing in France. In order to facilitate the sojourn of foreigners in the universities and in the schools, committees, called committees of patronage for foreign students, have been formed at Paris and in the most important educational centers of the provinces. These committees not only endeavor to do for the students everything possible as regards educational advantages and moral support, but also everything that is necessary from the point of view of material life. By means of their intervention between the student and the municipal authorities the sojourn in France is rendered as profit¬ able and agreeable as possible. Many of these are organized to give foreigners every The superior schools of pharmacy have the same rank as faculties. 634 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. opportunity to acquire the French language. Installation in one of these is sufficient to procure hospitality of the broadest and most comfortable sort. These committees are found at Aix, Bordeaux. Montpellier, Nancy, Paris, and Toulon. 1 The following statement relative to recent official regulations respect¬ ing the status of foreign students of medicine in France was drawn up by Mr. Henry Viguaud, charge d’affaires of the United States at Paris. The paper was transmitted from the State Department to the Depart¬ ment of the Interior and referred by the Secretary of the Interior to this office for the purpose of bringing its contents to the attention of those specially interested in the information : Embassy of the United States, Paris, July 24, 1896. Sir : American medical students who come to Paris with the view of graduating in one of the medical schools of France were heretofore allowed certain facilities to enter these schools. When they were graduates of our well-known colleges, or held a diploma of doctor of medicine issued by a reputable foreign scientific institution, they were permitted, upon application being made through this embassy, to follow the regular courses of the French medical schools exactly like French students who had graduated from the French faculties, and at the end of the course, in the fall, if successful in the final examination, were awarded the same diploma as those to Frenchmen — diploma which carried with it the jmvilege of practicing in France. The number of foreign students in France having by degrees considerably increased, and the proportion of those who, for a certain time at least, remain here to practice their profession having also become much larger, the French Government has adopted a stricter rule for the admission of foreigners to the French medical schools. In the future, foreigners desirous of obtaining the same diploma of doctor of med¬ icine as that awarded to Frenchmen will have to submit to the same conditions imposed upon French students; that is to say, that the diploma they may have obtained abroad or in any private institution will not be at all considered, and that before being allowed to register at any of the French medical schools, they will have to produce, like French students, a French State diploma of “Bachelier de FEnseignement classique,” and the “Certificat de Sciences physiques, chimiques et naturelles.77 To the foreign students who do not propose to practice medicine in France the facilities usually extended to them will be continued and even enlarged, but they will only be entitled to a special diploma solely intended for foreigners of that class and granting no rights to practice in France. These regulations were issued on the 21st instant. They are not applicable to foreign students already registered. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, Henry' Vignaud. Hon. Richard Olney, Secretary of State. 1Vor the American student who wishes to pursue his studies in France the committee at Paris is able to obtain a reduction of 30 per cent on the steamers of the G-aliic-Transatlantie Company. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 635 APPENDIX. EDUCATION IN FRANCE.1 By Dr. Alcee Fortier. Paris, July 31, 1895. Since mr arrival in Paris nothing has interested me more than the general compe¬ tition of the lycees and colleges at the Sorhonne. I was fortunate in obtaining an admission card, and I had an excellent seat, where I heard perfectly the addresses of the orator of the day and of the minister of public instruction. The following extract from the Temps of July 31 gives a good idea of what took place: “At noon the minister arrived, escorted by a platoon of policemen on horseback. A double line of policemen pushed back the idlers on the sidewalk of boulevard St. Michel and of rue des Ecoles. “M. Greard, vice-rector, received, on the steps of the Sorhonne, M. Poincare, who was accompanied by M. Liard, director of superior education; M. Rabier, director of secondary education; M. Xavier Charmes, director of the secretariat; M. Bernard, chief of the cabinet, and M. Grant, private secretary. “ The minister entered by the middle door and went to the reception hall, the drums beat, and the foot guard were ranged in a row in the grand vestibule. “ The cortege went by the gallery of the faculty of letters toward the grand amphi¬ theater. The mace bearers of the faculties walked ahead, then came the members of the academic council, of the general council, of the faculties of the superior coun¬ cil of public instruction, of the institute, of the diplomatic corps, etc. All these high dignitaries took their seats on the platform around the minister. “The hall was entirely lilled. In the hemicycle were seated M. Greard, the pro- viseurs (presidents) of the lycees, and the faculty professors, behind them the stu¬ dents. In the tribunes and the galleries were the relations of the students and the persons holding cards. The music of the republican guard played a selection. Then M. Poincare called on M. Bergson, professor of jdiilosophy at the Lyc£e Henry IY, for the oration of the day.” M. Bergson chose for his subject, “Good Sense and the Classical Studies,” and spoke with great elegance. The address of M. Poincare was really very fine. Here are some passages which impressed me : “Our education is made, in part, from what we receive from others, and, in part, from the free working of our will. The lessons of the school and of the college com¬ plete one another, in the course of our lives, by the teaching of things and by the example of men; they are sharpened by the secret action of conscience. Our youth is passed in continuing the education of our childhood ; our mature age, in perfect¬ ing that of our youth; our old age, in regretting our not having had the time to terminate that of our mature age. But we leave after us a little of that education always incomplete, and that little enters, for the benefit of future generations, the common fund of humanity. “In that continuous evolution which constitutes education the school and the college will never give to the mind of the student but a first orientation, but what is indispensable is to make exactly that direction in the path of right and truth. “ We do for you, my friends, what we can. We do not answer for remote devia¬ tions and unforeseen accidents. We set the needle as best we can. Let each one of you then regulate his march, survey his route, and maintain the initial velocity. “ But if I repeat thus, writing them purposely, these two fraternal expressions of school and college, it is because education has not, according to the degree of instruc¬ tion, distinct aims and contrary paths ; because the impetus, weaker here and stronger 1 Translated by tlie author from his “ Yoyage in Europe in 1895.” 636 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-90. there, must be everywhere in accord; "because everywhere the clear and just percep¬ tion of life must he awakened, and because in the college as well as in the school, the work of the state, unless it be inert and useless, is the initiation, prudent and resolute, of childhood to contemporary reality.” These are very liberal ideas, this is what modern education should be; it must not he always directed toward the past, it must attend to the present and look the future boldly in the face in order to he able to surmount all the difficulties which might present themselves. The list of premiums was ready, and the students came to receive their prizes, which consisted in books, and in a crown which the minister or one of the high dig¬ nitaries on the platform placed on the heads of the students. When the grandson of M. Greard was called the latter rose from his seat and kissed the boy on both cheeks. That caress of a grandfather was truly French and was loudly applauded. There were a first premium, a second premium, and eight accessits (second bests). Among that large number of pupils representing all the lycees of Paris I was astonished to hear only two historical names called, d’Argenson and de Maurepas. This fact shows the changes in society made by the French Revolution. The distribution of prizes in Paris does not resemble at all the commencement exer¬ cises of our colleges; besides, the French lycdes are entirely different from the American colleges. M. Foucin, general secretary of the Alliance Frangaise, was kind enough to procure for me the following authorization, which I reproduce here to show what are the formalities requisite to visit the schools and lycees in Paris. “Academy of Paris, University of France, “Paris, July 13, 1895. “M. Alcee Fortier, professor in New Orleans, member of the Alliance Franyaise, is authorized to attend a few classes in the following establishments : “Lyc6e Janson de Sailly, rue de la Pompe. “College Chaptal, boulevard des Batignolles. “ficole Turgot, rue de Turbigo. “ficole normale destitutions de la Seine et 6cole primaire annexe, 10 rue Molitor. “ The proviseur and directors will please give all facilities to M. Fortier. “The Vice-Rector, Greard.” With this authorization I presented myself at about 8.30 a. m. at the Lyc6e Janson de Sailly, situated at Passy, between Paris and the Bois de Boulogne. It is a mag¬ nificent establishment, which comprises, according to the prospectus, “four colleges really distinct,” where the students, according to their age, form four separate divisions, which do not communicate with one another. They each have their court for recess, their study halls, their classes, their refectories, and dormitories. The first two colleges form the “grand lyc£e,” directed by the proviseur; the last two colleges constitute the “petit lycde.” Children are admitted at the lyc6e at the age of 6, and they remain there until they have obtained the bachelor’s degree, between 16| and 17 years. We see that young men in France leave the lycees at about the age when, in the United States, they enter college; that is to say, if classes were named, as with us, freshman, sopho¬ more, junior, and senior, the bachelors in France would be of the age of the freshman class, or rather of the sophomore. It is true that in leaving the lycfie the young man may go to one of the great schools of the Government — Superior Normal School, Polytechnic School, Central School, St. Cyr, Agronomic Institute, School for High Studies, etc. At the Lycee Janson de Sailly “religious instruction is given to the boarding students for whom a special dispensation has not been asked by the x>arents. Con¬ ferences are given in each division, and give rise to periodical compositions and annual premiums, as in the other branches. Two chaplains of the Catholic religion, a pastor, and a rabbi are attached to the house. On the demand of families, the day scholars are admitted gratuitously to the religious conference.” EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 637 ¥ regret that I was able to visit only one class at Janson de Sailly. On arriving at thelycee I ashed for the proviseur, and his secretary told me that he had jnst left his office with the inspector. I was requested to wait in an antechamber, where through the windows I saw the boys playing in the yard. I did not lack time to study the games of the students, for the proviseur did not return. Alter having waited for an hour, I asked the secretary 'whether I could not visit the lycee with some other person than the proviseur. The secretary seemed to be terrified, and exclaimed: “Oh, sir! Visit the lyc6e in the absence of Monsieur le Proviseur!” I waited half an hour longer; then I left. I came back in the afternoon, at 2 o’clock, and had the good fortune to meet the proviseur. That gentleman received me per¬ fectly, and replied with great politeness to the numerous questions which I asked him about education in France. I could not help expressing my astonishment that they should have made me wait for ‘an hour and a half in an antechamber without allowing me to visit the establishment in his absence. I told him that in my country if a professor in a French lyc£e were to visit one of our colleges he would not wait five minutes; in the absence of the president any one of the professors would will¬ ingly take him all over the college. The proviseur told me that what had happened to me was the result of the inordinate centralization in France. He introduced me then to +he censor, who took me to a Latin class — the third class, I believe. The class was reading an extract from Seneca, but the professor told me that the author read by the class was Livy, which appeared to me an advanced grade for boys of 13 or 14. The pronunciation of Latin is entirely French, and differs completely from that of the American colleges. The students begin Latin and Greek one year earlier than with us, and I believe that they are right in France. The professor’s seat is on a platform and the students’ benches are in rows raised one above the other. I was well pleased with the method of teaching, although it seemed to me that the pro¬ fessor spoke a little too much about Seneca and did not question the students sufficiently. In a class of young pupils it is better that they should translate the Latin and explain the grammatical construction than to hear the professor give a kind of lecture on the author whose work is being read. On leaving the Latin class I was invited by the censor to return the next morning to the lyc6e. I arrived at the appointed time, but to my great surprise the censor told me that the students were standing their examinations and that the presence of a stranger might embarrass them. I was astonished at this reasoning, for according to M. Guard’s letter all facilities were to be given me to study the system of educa¬ tion in France, and there is no better way to understand what a class is doing than to attend the examinations of that class. I said to myself that either the Lyc6e J anson de Sailly was not a very hospitable place or at that school there was exaggerated red tape. I went immediately to the normal school for teachers of the Seine, and there I was most cordially received. I did not wait a minute, and I attended the examinations of several classes — French grammar, mathematics, English, and explanation of French texts. The examination in grammar was not brilliant, and I saw that pupils in France do not distinguish themselves in that branch any more than in America. The exiffanation of texts was very good, and the examination in English very inter¬ esting. The examination in mathematics was satisfactory. The pupils present them¬ selves four or five at a time before two teachers and are examined orally. I was anxious to see Chaptal College, of which my friend Dr. Devron, a former pupil of that institution, had often spoken to me. I was admitted immediately, and I attended M. Hinzelin’s class in literature. At Chaptal College there are two classes of professors — the general professors and the special professors. The former are charged “'first, to be present at the courses of the special professors of a division; second, to classify weekly the pupils of that division.” M. Hinzelin is a special professor and a poet of talent. I listened with great inter¬ est to a lecture which he gave on Alfred de Musset. He made a critical analysis of the 63 8 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. principal works of the poet and recited hundreds of lines. 1 was impressed by some of his remarks. He said that the Andromaquc of Racine was parodied by Musset in his Marrons dn Feu, and made an interesting comparison between the two works. lie said also that Musset resembles La Fontaine; that he affects laziness like the great fabulist; that he unrhymed his verses purposely. M. Hinzelin’s role is limited to giving lectures to the pupils; the latter take notes and are examined on these notes by another professor. It does not seem to mo that this system is good. In that way the professor does not exert a sufficient influence on his pupils. I took a special interest in M. Gricourt’s English class. This professor, whom I had already met at the normal school for teachers of the Seine, pleased me very much. I have never met a more charming man. He speaks English very well, without any trace of French accent. His class was reading David Copperfleld and translated very creditably that novel difficult to translate. M. Gricourt docs not believe in the natural method, and uses in the beginning of Lis course an English grammar wwitten in French. He tries, however, as much as possible to speak English to his pupils. He requested mo to speak to them in English, and I questioned them on what I had told them. They answered very well. Chaptal College belongs to the city of Paris and was founded by Prosper Goubaux in 1844. It corresponds, to a certain extent, with the German Realschule; that is to say, Latin and Greek are taught, and much attention is given to the physical and natural sciences, to the modern languages, and to the French language and literature. The following extract from the prospectus explains the aim of the founder: “ In organizing, in 1844, Chaptal College, the city of Paris had for its aim to create an establishment where the young might find, at the same time as the principles and the general instruction which are the basis of any good education, an instruction which should preparo them for examinations requiring a more special study of the sciences, for the different occupations of banking, of finance, and of the administra¬ tion, as well as for the professions specially devoted to industry, commerce and agriculture.” Chaptal College, as well as the lycees, receives boarders, half-boarders, and day scholars, and the instruction is not free. The building is immense and very hand¬ some. A. Dumas fils and Claretie are former pupils of Chaptal. I had the pleasure of receiving a visit from M. H6doux, secretary of the friendly association of the alumni of Chaptal College, to whom Dr. Devron had kindly introduced me. Secondary education is given in the lycees and colleges, and is not free. It is even costly, but the Government grants a certain number of scholarships in each lyc6e or college. Let me explain here that by “University of France” is meant the whole sys¬ tem of education directed by the Government, and by “academy ” the institutions com¬ prised in a certain locality. Thus, the Academy of Paris forms part of the University of France, and signifies the institution of the Government situated in Paris. Besides the lycees and the colleges and the schools of the Government, there are everywhere in France private schools and schools directed by the religious orders. Secondary education is divided into two parts, classical secondary and modern secondary. The elementary division comprises the preparatory class and the classes of the eighth and seventh grades ; the division of grammar comprises the classes of the sixth, fifth, and fourth grades ; the superior division comprises the classes of the third and second grades, of rhetoric, and of philosophy. The programmes of the modern secondary are about like those of Chaptal College, and do not differ much from those of the German Realschule. In the latter, however, Latin is taught, but not Greek, which is replaced by a more complete study of mathematics, of modern languages, and of the physical and natural sciences. In the French modern secondary, Latin and Greek are not taught. The classes of rhetoric and of philosophy of the clas¬ sical instruction are replaced in the modern by the first class (letters) and the first class (sciences). The bachelor’s degree of the modern secondary course gives access to almost all professions. There are also in the lyedes special classes of mathematics, EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 639 where one studies arithmetic, algebra, geometry, descriptive geometry, and analyt¬ ical geometry. In the regular course of mathematics descriptive geometry and analytical geometry are not taught. The student who has received his bachelor’s degree may prepare himself for the excellent institutions for superior instruction in Paris, but it seems to me that it would be better if the studies of the lycees were continued two or three years longer, and if there were universities in the principal cities of France, as before the revo¬ lution, and as in America and in Germany to-day. The system of instruction in the lycees appears to me very judicious, but I fear that there is overwork in tli6 study of Greek and of Latin. I like very much the study of the modern languages, German and English, begun in the preparatory class and continued to the end of the course, in the class of philosophy and in the first grade classes. There are also optional classes in Italian, Spanish, and Russian. As far as I can judge the system of education in Paris and, consequently, in France, is excellent. The Government, however, does not offer as many facilities for supe¬ rior instruction as in the United States. With us, in almost every State, there is a State university where tuition is free. In France all the great schools for superior edu¬ cation are in Paris, and that must prevent a number of young men from rising higher than the bachelor’s degree. The great advantage of France over the United States is that primary elementary education is compulsory. By that system, in a few years, all Frenchmen will know how to read and write, and France need no longer fear, as was said in 1870, to be vanquished by the German schoolmaster. CHAPTER XII. EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. By F. F. Hilder. Mexico and the Republics of Central America have a history which is exceedingly interesting to every thoughtful and unprejudiced student of human life and progress on this continent. To the people of this country Mexico has a peculiar interest, not only from her being our nearest southern neighbor, separated from us by a merely imaginary boun¬ dary line 1,250 miles in extent, but from the fact that in her long struggle for liberty she has always looked up to the United States as her model, and has proved her confidence in our institutions by adopting them as a basis for her own. In her efforts to establish a republican form of government Mexico has labored under tremendous disadvantages as compared with our own battle for independence. English rule in this country was based on the spirit of liberty, and however far the Government may have departed from that spirit, the people of the colonies were enlightened and in every way prepared by nature and training for self-government. In Mexico and Central America the material for citizenship was very different. Dur¬ ing the years of Spanish dominion the ruling class was Spanish or of Spanish blood. The Spanish-American or mixed race then had little influence, and a middle class hardly existed. There was only a ruling class, rendered autocratic and tyrannical by centuries of domination over a downtrodden and enslaved people, and the great toiling masses who lived the life of the serfs of feudal times, so ignorant that they did not know enough to be unhapjiy in their lot, nor to form plans to improve it. The chaotic past has been very dark, and to the superficial observer it may have often appeared almost hopeless to expect that a free and progressive republic could arise from the discordant elements, but each upheaval has left the country a little in advance, and the outlook for the past few years has been brighter than ever before. In the construction of their constitutions the United States and Mexico male grievous errors, which in both instances came near destroying the Governments. The United States guaranteed slavery and made religion free. Mexico abolished slavery but restricted the right of worship to a single sect. Both of these errors have been rectified, but by a fearful expenditure of blood and treasure, and in the case of Mexico by the prolongation of her exhausting struggle for freedom. The enlightened and sagacious statesmen of Mexico can look backward with pride on a history teeming with the details of a heroic struggle for liberty, and to the future as offering a brilliant prospect for the enjoyment of the benefits and blessings of republican institutions. For the full fruition of their hopes and aspirations the great necessity is that the people, by the diffusion of knowledge and the spread of education, may become worthy citizens and judicious conservators of the liberty that has been won for them. Popular education must now do for Mexico what no other agency can accomplish toward building up a government “of the people, for the people, and by the people,” whose foundations must be laid in an intelligent and self-respecting citizenship. ED 96 - -21 641 642 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The population of the Republic of Mexico in 1893 was 12,056,046. The predomi¬ nating race, in numbers, of the present clay is not the Indian, as in former times. An official authority classes the present population as consisting of 19 per cent European and Spanish- American, 38 per cent Indian, and 43 per cent of mixed blood. There is now a very large and influential middle class, composed of both Indian and mixed races, which is every year, by the spread of education, gaining large accessions from the humbler class, who are making wonderful progress by aid of the fine educational advantages now offered them. It is from this class that are spring¬ ing from year to year men of genius and talent, who by toil and study are taking their position in the front rank of the army of progress, in commerce, literature, art, and science, which is the reward of labor, fidelity, and patience. It is to the credit of the statesmen who have directed the career of the country in its heroic struggle for liberty that they have always recognized the fact that popular education is one of the primary functions in the life of the State ; that no republican form of government can exist without it, and that the question of the education of its citizens is one which concerns the life and permanence of the State. They saw clearly that it was a question for the State, and one that could not be left to a church or a parent to decide; that the Republic must claim the right to educate its citizens, not only from a humanitarian point of view, but to preserve its integrity and existence. In spite of all the unrest and turmoil of the years which followed the downfall of the Spanish power in Mexico, the attention of the Government was directed toward the question of education. The first law on the subject, which was compiled by Don Jose Louis Mora, during the presidency of Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa- Anna, was promulgated in October, 1833. It was based upon advanced and liberal principles, and contained an excellent plan of study for use in the public schools. It, however, contained also a provision authorizing the appropriation of some real estate belong¬ ing to the church to provide the necessary funds. The clergy were excluded from taking any part in public education maintained at the expense of the Government, and the ancient Clerical University was suppressed. The reactionary and clerical party were strong enough to create a revolution, which resulted in the restoration to the church of the property which had been taken, and the reestablishment of the university under the direction of .the clergy. For several years the country was convulsed by war with France and civil war within its borders, but in spite of these troubles the cause of education was not lost sight of, and in August, 1843, the Government issued a decree for the purpose of establishing uniformity in methods of teaching and a graded system of classes in the schools. In November of the same year a decree was published centralizing in the City of Mexico the whole direction of the educational system of the country. This remained in force until October, 1846, when the centralization was abolished and the right returned to the states to control the educational systems within their own boundaries. The war with the United States for several years prevented any progress in national educational matters, and the revolution of 1852, which led to the establishment of the dictatorship of General Santa- Anna, again caused a retrograde movement toward the old antidemocratic system. In 1855 this insupportable tyranny was overthrown and a constitutional republic was established, one of the first acts of which was to restore the educational law of 1843. In April, 1861, when Don Ignacio Ramirez was minister of justice, ho obtained the passage of another law on the subject, which was one of the most liberal that had been promulgated, and true to the spirit of the law of 1833. The disturbed condition of the country, the invasion by the French army, and the disastrous reign of Maximilian prevented a practical application of the law, and it was not until the establishment of a constitutional republic that the cause of education emerged from the deplorable condition into which it had fallen during the continuance of the struggle which had convulsed the country. A law was jmssed in December, 1867, for reopening the establishments for secondary instruction, which EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 643 had been closed; for the improvement of the primary schools, and to eliminate from the methods of teaching such ideas as were not in harmony with republican princi¬ ples. This law was amended by another promulgated May 15, 1869, giving a still greater impetus to instruction, extending the privilege of education to all social classes, and making primary instruction obligatory in the federal district and terri¬ tories. At last, after fifty years of almost continuous wars and revolutions, the party of liberal opinions had definitely triumphed. The results of this triumph have been the complete separation of church and state, universal religious toleration, a constitution based on the broadest republican principles, a free press, and free schools- As the ground swell which had been raised on the sea of Mexican life by the storms that had swept over it subsided and the ship of state floated in calmer waters, a tremendous task lay before the Government, nothing less than the education of mil¬ lions of poor and ignorant people in the knowledge to bo obtained from books, in the habit of thinking, and in all the essentials of self-respecting citizenship. Under the most favorable circumstances considerable time must be required for such an undertaking. Nothing can hasten beyond a certain point the solution of the problem, audit is not surprising that great difficulties were encountered. In April, 1873, the Government formulated another plan for public instruction, but owing to unforeseen obstacles was unable to put it in operation. In October, 1887, the committee on public instruction of the House of Deputies presented a bill to enforce compulsory education within the Federal District and Territories, which became a law in 1888. The principal provisions of this law were the making primary instruction obliga¬ tory and free for all children between the ages of 6 and 12 years, directing the establishment of a primary school for boys and another for girls for every 4,000 inhabitants, which proportion might be raised in the Territories of Tepic and Lower California, the schools to be placed under control of the local authorities, who were to have control of the funds and appoint directors and teachers. For the support of the schools the law provided that subsidies should be made from time to time by the Federal Government, and appropriations by municipal cor¬ porations from taxes levied for the purpose, and from such fines as might be imposed by law and devoted to the schools. In order to carry out the principle of compul¬ sory education, all persons having charge or control of minors were required to prove that the children for whom they were responsible had received the necessary primary education. The penalty for violation or neglect of this order was fixed at from 10 cents to $10, or from one to ten days7 imprisonment. The law required that this plan should be put in operation within one year, but as it was desired to extend its provisions to all the States of the Republic its organiza¬ tion was suspended until this object could be attained. Here was encountered the principal difficulty caused by a lack of uniformity. In all educational matters a condition of chaos existed, as every State had its own school legislation; hence there was no uniform system in the curricula of secondary schools and preparation of teachers, while in the primary schools matters were still more complicated by changes and modifications made by municipal authorities. Educa¬ tional theories were taken from foreign pedagogical works without being thoroughly understood, and new methods and ideas were blindly accepted or rejected. Even in the course of a single school year changes were made and courses lengthened or shortened, to the confusion and bewilderment of both students and teachers. With a view to overcoming these difficulties, and to establish a uniform system in the legislative and scholastic regulations throughout the Republic, and to secure more satisfactory results from the efforts and sacrifices made by the Government in the cause of education, Sen or Joaquin Baranda, minister of justice and education, one of the most enlightened and progressive of Mexican statesmen, issued a circular in June, 1889, for the purpose of organizing in the City of Mexico a congress to be composed of eminent educators and representatives from the different States, to be appointed by their respective governors. This was followed by another circular 644 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. issued on October 5 of the same year, requesting the governors to furnish for the use and guidance of the convention statistics giving the number of pupils receiving instruction in the schools, number of schools, resources for their maintenance, and copies of all the laws, regulations, programmes, and rules for study in use in their respective States. The convention met on November 28 in the chamber of the House of Deputies in the City of Mexico, under the presidency of Senor Baranda, and the formal sessions commenced on December 1. It remained in session until March 31, 1890. The points submitted for the deliberation of the convention are comprised in the following extract from the circular issued by the minister: u First. Primary, laic secular instruction, compulsory and gratuitous, including the age at which children should be received, the classes to be taught, the progress¬ ive order of study, the number of years to complete the course, the means of enforcing compliance with the rules, the establishment in towns of small schools for children and adults, and of rural schools, with itinerant teachers. “ Second. Preparatory instruction, gratuitous and voluntary, including the studies necessary for a complete and vigorous course, such as preparation for professions, the scientific distribution and order in which they are to be taught, the programme, and number of years to complete the course. “ Third. Professional instruction, voluntary and protected by the State, including the subjects to be comprised in each course, the order and method of teaching, number of years to complete the course, practical professional programmes, and rules for professional examinations.” The work of the congress on all these points was well done, and immense progress was made in the direction of insuring uniformity in methods of national education, but in spite of the admirable spirit and industry of the delegates many minor ques¬ tions were left unsettled at the conclusion of their labors. In order to continue and perfect the work the minister of justice addressed another circular to the governors of the States, dated June 19, 1890, requesting them to appoint delegates to a second educational convention to be opened on December 1 of the same year. This convention met at the appointed time and completed the work assigned to it, closing its sessions in March, 1891. The work of these pedagogic congresses was very effective in harmonizing and introducing uniformity of administration; in awakening and renewing public inter¬ est in the establishment of schools and the whole subject of public education, and have promoted the adopting of measures which are a happy combination of local inde¬ pendence, with a degree of centralization sufficient to insure greater economy of means and equality of conditions and methods of instruction. The result of the work done by these two conventions was embodied in a law pro¬ mulgated by the Executive of the Republic on March 21, 1891, to take effect January 7, 1892. The principal provisions of this law may be stated as follows : Primary elementary instruction made obligatory for children of both sexes from 6 to 12 years of age, and may be obtained in any public or private school, or from private tutors, instruction in the public schools to be laic (secular) and gratuitous. The course of obligatory primary instruction for boys, to be completed in four years, to comprise : Instruction in the practical and civic duties of life; the national language, includ¬ ing reading and writing; arithmetic; rudiments of physics and natural sciences; elements of geometry ; rudiments of geography and national history ; drawing and sketching of common and simple objects; singing; gymnastic and military exercises. A similar programme to be adopted for girls’ schools, with the necessary modifica¬ tions in gymnastic exercises, and manual instruction in the following branches to be added: First year: Embroidery; stitching; hemming; knitting with wool and thread with wooden needles. EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 645 Second year : Straight backstitching ; knitting of designs; forked and coarse stitch, ing; embroidery with colored threads; baud stitching. Third year: Sewing; backstitching; double sewing; tucking; knitting with metal needles; embroidery on coarse materials. Fourth year: Marginal embroidery ; simple fastenings; raveling out; practical and simple ideas for cutting and making the principal garments. In cases where it is impossible to comply with the above programme of compulsory education, a four years’ course to comprise the following items will be considered as a sufficient compliance with the law : Practical ideas of the duties of life; instruction in civics and history of the nation; the national language, comprising reading and writing; arithmetic; such general lessons as may be convenient ; gymnastic exercises. For the primary schools the scholastic year to consist of ten months, to commence January 7 and ending November 2, when the classes shall be suspended to commence the examinations. The scholastic week to consist of five days, from Monday to Friday, inclusive. In the first year the daily work not to exceed four and a half hours, in the second year five hours, five and a half hours in the third, and six hours in the fourth year. In the first year the time occupied iu any lesson not to exceed twenty minutes, in the second year twenty-five minutes, thirty in the third, and forty in the fourth year. Half an hour for recreation to be included in the hours for daily work. No x>unishments to be administered that may degrade or injure the children. In the public elementary schools there shall be a director to have charge of not to exceed fifty pupils, an assistant to be appointed for every fifty in excess of this number. In the schools where not more than one teacher is employed the supplementary programme to be adopted instead of the full course. In places where from lack of funds it is not possible to establish two schools the same programme shall be used in mixed schools, the boys to attend in the morning and girls in the afternoon, or vice versa. In order to stimulate teachers prizes consisting of medals and premiums of money are offered as rewards for meritorious and painstaking work, as indicated by suc¬ cessful examinations of their pupils. At the termination of ten years’ faithful serv¬ ice teachers are given a bronze medal, a silver one at the end of twenty years, and one of gold at the completion of thirty years’ service, when they are entitled to retirement on full pay, or to receive double pay if they choose to continue their work. In the month of June, 1891, a body called “the superior body of primary instruc¬ tion” was established, to which all matters relating to elementary education are intrusted. Committees have been formed in the municipalities of the Federal District aud the Territories to see that the law is complied with in respect to compulsory education. In the States, and particularly the less populous ones, and where the Indians pre¬ dominate, compulsory attendance, although recognized by law, can not yet be enforced. The extension of education among the rural population and the more remote communities is a problem that only time can solve. The Indian population, although uneducated, have the imitative faculty largely developed, and they display marvelous ingenuity in the construction of an infinite variety of articles. They manipulate straw, wax, wood, marble, grass, and hair; their productions from these substances and in clay and glazed pottery are marvel¬ ous. Their feather work also is beautiful, delicate, and artistic. There are pro¬ found possibilities in this race ; with the dissemination of education among them they will enter the field of industrial competition with an equipment which, com¬ bined with their frugality and habits of patient labor, will in time elevate them to a much higher social plane. There are still in the mountains and remote parts of Mexico many Indians who 646 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. are yet uncivilized, for -whom special schools have been established, in vrhich the teachers are young Indians taken from the same tribe and trained in the Govern¬ ment institutions for teachers. SECONDARY EDUCATION. The Government of Mexico, while making provision for the dissemination of ele¬ mentary instruction among the masses of the people, has not been unmindful of its duties in meeting the demand for higher education and scientific training. It has laid under contribution the most advanced scientific research and experiments, and has organized schools and colleges covering almost every branch of education in science and art. NATIONAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERS AND MINING. One of the most famous of the older scientific schools of Mexico was founded by royal ordinance in May, 1783, which ordered the establishment of a seminary ‘for the teaching of metallurgy and mining. The college was opened January 1, 1792. It was afterwards installed in the magnificent building which it still occupies. This fine structure, which was commenced in 1797 and finished in 1813, cost, including repairs which have since been made, $1,500,000. In December, 1867, the national school of engineers was established in the same building, and in November, 1881, together with the school of agriculture, it was taken from the jurisdiction of the secretary of justice and assigned to the secretary of colonization, industry, and com¬ merce. In May, 1883, however, both of these schools were again placed in charge of the secretary of justice and a decree published establishing new rules and regulations for their guidance. At the same time new classes were formed and the programmes promulgated determining the course of study for the different branches of the pro¬ fessions concerned. In order to be enrolled as a student the candidate must present a certificate from the national j)reparatory school showing that he has passed a successful examina¬ tion either at that or some other official school in the States covering the folio wing- subjects : Spanish grammar, Greek roots, French, English, elements of German, arith¬ metic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, mechanics, experimental physics, natural history, cosmography, physical and political geography (especially that of Mexico), logic, and linear and landscape drawing. The curricula of professional studies as established by law are as follows : For assayer and metallurgist: Analytic chemistry and assaying of minerals, sort¬ ing and grading ores, coining and management of mints, and industrial chemistry, with practical work in all these branches. . For topographic and hydrographic engineer: Higher algebra, analytic geometry and integral calculus, descriptive geometry, topography, hydrography, meteorology, topographical drawing, and practical work in these branches. For industrial engineer : Higher algebra, analytic geometry and integral calculus, descriptive geometry and hydrography, stereotomy, carpentry, analytic and applied mechanics, industrial mechanics, construction and installation of machinery, analytic and industrial chemistry, meteorology, study of building*materials, theory and prac¬ tice of building, topographical, mechanical, and architectural drawing, and practical work in all. For road, bridge, and canal engineer: Higher algebra, analytic geometry and integral calculus, descriptive geometry, topography and hydrography, stereotomy and carpentry, analytic and applied mechanics, meteorology, theory and practice of building, study of building materials, roads and railways, bridges, canals, harbor works, graphic statics, topographical, mechanical, and architectural drawing, and practical work. For mining engineer and metallurgist: Higher algebra, analytic geometry and integral calculus, descriptive geometry, topography and hydrography, analytic and applied mechanics, stereotomy and carpentry, study of building materials, theory EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 647 and practice of building, analytic chemistry and assaying, meteorology, mineralogj', paleontology, geology, mining work, artesian wells, mining legislation, metallurgy, graphic statics, topographical, mechanical, and architectural drawing, and practical work in branches named. For geographical engineer: Higher algebra, analytic geometry and integral cal¬ culus, descriptive geometry, topography and hydrography, physics, meteorology, analytic mechanics, elements of cosmography, geodesy, physical and practical astron¬ omy, elements of geology, topographical and geographical drawing, and practical work in all. There are in connection also with this college schools in various places in the coun¬ try for the practical teaching of mining and metallurgy and the training of managers and overseers of mines and specialists in the various branches of mining industry. In these schools the prescribed course is: Elementary studies in arithmetic and algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, mechanics, chemistry, metallurgy and mining work, and accounts, and in practical application of all these elements to the management and economy of mines and reduction works; Spanish, and linear draw¬ ing. These studies, however, are subsidiary to the actual practice which forms the prominent feature in these schools. The college has a meteorological observatory and a well-assorted library of scien¬ tific books; also a museum of building materials, ores and minerals, fossils, and objects connected with geodesy, astronomy, and industrial mechanics. Two classes of pupils are admitted, viz, those who take the full course with the intention of adopting one of the professions taught in the college, and those who merely wish to attend one or two of the classes. All the classes are open to the public and any person may attend them. The instruction in the college and schools in connection with it is free, and no fee is required on entrance or at time of receiving a degree or diploma. MEDICAL COLLEGE. The medical college was founded by royal decree in 1768, and was established in the old convent at Belem. It afterwards occupied various other buildings until 1853, when the Government purchased the structure formerly occupied by the Inquisition for the sum of $50,286 for the use of the college. Its classes were opened there in 1854, and it still occupies the same premises. The established courses are medicine, surgery, obstetrics, and pharmacy. Classes are established and lectures delivered on the following departments of medical science: Descriptive anatomy, pharmacy, physiology, histology, internal and external pathology, therapeutics, operative sur¬ gery, obstetrics, hygiene, and meteorology, medical jurisprudence, and medical, surgical, and obstetrical clinics. For the jmofession of pharmacist the prescribed studies are: Theoretical and practical pharmacy, chemistry, and chemical analysis, history of drugs and materials used in medicine, and practical pharmaceutics. Female students are admitted to study for qualification as midwives in classes of theoretical obstetrics and the clinical lectures on that subject. There are also advanced and post-graduate classes in ophthalmology, gynecology, bacteriology, and pathological anatomy and histology. NATIONAL MEDICAL INSTITUTE. This institution was established by the Government in 1888, and was formally opened in July, 1890, for the purpose of the study of the botany, fauna, climatology, and medical geography of the country and their practical application in the science and practice of medicine. It is controlled by the department of colonization and industry, and is governed by a faculty consisting of a director and prefect, subpre¬ fect, secretary, assistant secretary, and a treasurer appointed by the General Govern¬ ment. For carrying on its work the following departments have been established: First. Natural history, in charge of three professors, who must be doctors orphar- 648 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. inacists, aided by an assistant professor, two draftsmen, a photographer, a collect¬ ing anatomist, and a clerk. Its objects are the collection of plants and animals, to classify and distribute them, and to study their history, properties, and character; to form herbariums and anatomical collections of animals, and to furnish the other institutions such specimens and data as they may require. Second. Analytic chemistry, in charge of three professors, who must be doctors or pharmacists, and five assistants. It is employed in analyzing and separating the elemental compounds of such products as may be sent to it by other departments, and when they are recent discoveries to make elementary analysis of them and ai range their formula; in making the requisite preparations for experimental use by the third department, and to furnish such data as may be required. Third. Experimental physiology, in charge of three professors, who must be doc¬ tors, and another who is a veterinary surgeon. Its work is to determine the dynamic- medical action of the elements and preparations under consideration by the second department, and to give the results of their studies to the governing hoard, advising when the same may be applied to therapeutics, or their opinions on the subject. Fourth. Clinical therapeutics, with two professors, one of whom is a physician, the other a surgeon, and six assistant doctors, assisted by such military surgeons and physicians, attached to public hospitals and private medical institutions, as may wish to become attached as coworkers. The subject being the study of clinical appli¬ cation that can be made of the substances that have been considered by the first, second, and third departments. Fifth. Climatology and medical geography, with two medical professors, an assist¬ ant, and a clerk. Its objects are the study of the distribution of epidemic diseases in all parts of the Republic; the distribution and spread of epidemics; local etiolog¬ ical conditions in relation to the preceding subjects, and the nature of the diseases; climatic conditions and classification of the variations of the climate throughout the country for the purpose of forming a general climatological chart; distribution of water for the purpose of forming a hydrographical map, and the distribution of the races comprising the population and their classification. Gold and silver medals and diplomas are conferred on such professors as may lend efficient services, or who publish original works on subjects comprehended in the plan of the institution. The work done by the Mexican Medical College within the past few years is excel¬ lent, and it is now fairly entitled to be classed with the best institutions of this character in Europe and America. NATIONAL COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY SURGERY. An attempt to introduce the scientific teaching of agriculture in Mexico was made in 1850 by the establishment of professorships in the old college of San Gregorio. Classes were formed for Theoretical teaching, and practical instruction was given on farms belonging to the college. In 1853 the Government founded an agricultural and veterinary school, which was established in February, 1854, in the building for¬ merly used as the convent of San Jacinto, which was purchased for that jmrpose. By a law passed in 1883 the whole subject of agricultural and veterinary instruc¬ tion received complete reorganization, and was placed under the supervision of the minister of public works. Pupils are now admitted at 12 years of age and upward, the only qualification for admission being a good primary education, and passing a successful examination. The full course of instruction occupies seven years, and is judiciously divided between literary and scientific subjects, theory and practice. For the latter a thor¬ oughly equipped experimental farm has been provided. The degrees granted by the college are agricultural engineer and veterinary sur¬ geon ; the courses of study are as follows: For agricultural engineer, arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry, analytic and descrij)tive geometry, integral calculus, analytic EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 649 and applied mechanics, topography and hydrography, cosmography and geography, especially that of Mexico, physics, meteorology, agricultural chemistry and Tech¬ nology, botany, zoology, geology, agronomy, hydrography, drainage and irrigation, farm buildings, zootomy, farm accounts, management and economy, agricultural legislation, Spanish language, Greek and Latin roots, French, English, ami elements of German, landscape, topographical, mechanical, and architectural drawing, micro¬ biology, political economy and logic; also practical work on the farm. For veterinary surgeon, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, physics, meteorology, chemistry, botany, zoology, comparative and descriptive anatomy, study of domestic animals, farriery, veterinary physiology, surgery, obstetrics, hygiene, therapeutics, zootomy, medical jurisprudence and veterinary legislation, Spanish language, Greek and Latin roots, French, English, and elements of German, anatomical and landscape drawing, clinics, and practical work. For the veterinary school there is a large hospital with stables and cattle sheds, containing various types of domestic animals. There are also farriery shops and other adjuncts. At the termination of each college year scientific excursions are made to different parts of the country, giving the pupils the opportunity of studying the flora and fauna and the methods of cultivation appropriate to tropical, temperate, and cold climates, Mexico, in consequence of its peculiar topographical features, possessing all these variations of climate according to altitude. Industrial and agricultural establishments are also visited and inspected, so that at the end of the course the pupil is not only thoroughly equipped with professional knowledge, but he has acquired a practical knowledge of his native country and the various conditions he may have to encounter in his future professional career. There is also in connection with the college a completely equipped meteorological and astronomical observatory, the observations of which are transmitted every month to the National Observatory through the minister of public works. In addition to the appropriations for the support of the college the Government has established sixteen scholarships of $300 each for poor pupils, the retention of which, however, is subject to the condition of passing successful examinations. The college is at once an institution of higher instruction and a first-class secondary school. The Government has been prodigal of expense in its establishment and maintenance. COMMERCIAL COLLEGE. This institution was established in the year 1868 in compliance with the law of December, 1867, as a higher school of commerce and administration. It occupies a fine building, which was erected in 1756 by a religious corporation ; having been con¬ fiscated in 1861, it was afterwards purchased from the holder by the Government for $75,000 and devoted to its present use. The regulations at present in use by the government of the college were promul¬ gated in August, 1887. For enrollment as a pupil the applicant must not be less than 14 years of age, he must have completed a satisfactory primary education, and if a minor must be presented by his father or guardian. The following is the course of study : Arithmetic, fiscal accounts, bookkeeping, commercial correspondence, commercial geography, political economy, theory of credit, international law, diplomatic correspondence and usage, commercial, con¬ sular, and maritime law, administrative and constitutional law, practical knowledge of national and foreign finance, commercial chemistry, commercial handwriting, history, and particularly that of Mexico, statistics and history of commerce, finan¬ cial, banking, and exchauge operations, Spanish, French, English, and German languages. There is a library of about 5,000 volumes for use of the students. ED 96 - -21* 650 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS. Iii 1781 arrangements were made preparatory to establishing a school of art, and on November 5 of that year drawing classes were opened, a fund for their main¬ tenance having been provided chiefly by private donations and subscriptions from the mining interests. This movement led to the issuing of a decree by Charles III, of Spain, in December, 1783, for the foundation of an academy of art, which was duly opened on November 4, 1785, rooms having been provided for it in the mint. In 1791 the academy was removed to an ancient building which had been used as a hospital, where it remained until 1825, when the building and neighboring houses which it now occupies were purchased for its use for the sum of $76,000. Since the year 1861 the establishment has been directly dependent on the Federal Government for its maintenance, and was then placed under the charge of a committee of the professors, with a director chosen from among themselves. In 1868 a plan of studies was established and the name of the “ National School of Fine Arts” was adopted, by which it is now known. The whole course of study is extended over ten years, five years preparatory and five years advanced. The pro¬ gramme for preparatory studies, some of which are also taught in the National Preparatory School, is as follows: Spanish, Italian, and French languages, figure drawing, ornamental drawing, arith¬ metic, algebra and elementary geometry, preparative drawing from plaster casts, landscape drawing, drawing from classic models, anatomy, geography, sketching from nature, general and national history, natural history, and history of art. The advanced studies are : Section of painting: Study of light and shade, classic studies, drawing from the nude, copying pictures, sketching in colors from nature, history of fine arts. Landscape painting: Elements of coloring, studies from nature, landscape and figure drawing, drawing of classic orders of architecture, anatomy, painting land¬ scapes and figures, composition, history, and aesthetics of the fine arts. Section of sculpture: Studies of the antique and living model, composition, anat¬ omy, history and aesthetics of the fine arts, and the execution of studies in marble and metal. Section of ornamental modeling : Copies of ornaments, drawing from plaster casts, anatomy, classic architectural studies, studies of still life, drawing from nature, his¬ tory of the fine arts, composition of ornaments of every style, and practical work in plaster, alabaster, marble, and wood. Section of line engraving and sketching: Use of burin and etching lines, prepara¬ tion of backgrounds, field and drapery, drawing from the nude, pen sketching, burin and etched copies of pictures, engraving figures burin and etched, drawing from paintings and from nature, composition, history of the fine arts. Section of mezzotint engraving: Studies of heads and casts of figures, engraving from the antique and from prints, anatomy, classic architectural studies, historical elements of heraldry, letter engraving and from ornamental models, historical models, drawing, composition and drawing from the nude, history, and history of the fine arts. Section of architecture: For entry into this branch the pupils must have studied in the National Preparatory School and have passed a successful examination in mathematics, French, English, physics, cosmography, chemistry, geography, and history. The course in the academy consists of the following studies: Mechanics, descriptive geometry, elements of mineralogy and geology, study of the classic and other orders of architecture, and drawing of representations of the different orders, mechanics as applied to building, stereotomy, perspective, history of the fine arts, practical topography, composition, laws relating to architecture, estimates, and sur¬ veying. There are also night classes for industrial and mechanical drawing. These are intended especially for mechanics and artisans, who are taught the styles adapted to their various trades and employments. EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 651 Artists and amateurs are permitted tlio free use of tlio scliool and art galleries for the purpose of study, or to copy the works contained therein. Periodical exhibitions are held of the works of the pupils. On November 5, 1881, the twentieth exhibition was' opened, which was also intended to celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the institution. Annual examinations are held and prizes awarded, consisting of medals and diplo- mas. The works to which prizes are awarded are retained for the benefit of the school, and their owners are compensated by a payment not exceeding $400, the amount being fixed by the committee which awards the prizes. According to the latest reports there are nearly 1,000 pupils enrolled, the majority of whom are men. There is an excellent library containing several thousand volumes on architecture and the fine arts for use of the students. The gallery of paintings contains many treasures of art. Among those by Euro¬ pean artists are works of Zurbaran, Murillo, Rubens, Correggio, Velasquez, Leo¬ nardo da Vinci, and other masters. Mexican artists are represented by works of Jose and Louis Juarez, Eclianove, Rodriguez, Arteaga, Cabrera, Parra, Baltazar de Chave, and many others. The sculpture galleries contain a good collection of the works of the celebrated sculptors, including many of the modern Mexican school, and a large number of plaster casts of famous statues and architectural works for the use of the students. The galleries of engravings and architectural prints and drawings are also magnificent. Mexico presents great opportunities for the student of art, as the churches through¬ out the country contain pictures of great merit, and the picturesque landscapes, architecture, and street scenes afford good material for artistic study. NATIONAL CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC. This institution was founded in 1866 by members of the Mexican Philharmonic Society, and was supported by voluntary subscriptions and subventions from the Government until January, 1877, when the Government assumed full charge of the establishment, and indemnified the Philharmonic Society for all the funds it had expended upon it. In 1883 the institution and course of study was reorganized, and the plan of study adopted which has been in use ever since. The course is divided into the following classes: Preparatory, instrumental, higher technical, united stud¬ ies, auxiliary studies, and finishing. The subjects taught are elements of musical theory and preliminary knowledge of harmony, solfa, choral and choir singing without accompaniment, choral singing with accompaniment, and vocalization, knowledge of the anatomy, physiology, and hygiene of vocal organs, lyrical declamation, piano, harp, organ, violin, viola, violin- cello, bass viol, flute, hautboy, clarionette, euphonium, saxophone, flageolet, bassoon and trombone, trumpet, cornet, bugle, sax-horn, tuba, trombone, and ophiclide instru¬ ments of the Saxe system, percussion instruments, harmony, composition, accom¬ paniment, musical aesthetics, both theoretical and applied, history of music and biographies of its great men, acoustics and phonography, religious music, symphony music, harmony and mixed music, musical writing, and the French and Italian languages. The pupils are divided into three classes — the regular pupils, who intend to under¬ take the whole course of study prescribed by the establishment in the order pre¬ scribed ; the supernumerary pupils, who only take some branch of study without refer¬ ence to the whole course, and such pupils as attend the lessons on some particular instrument or branch without becoming enrolled as either regular or supernumerary pupils. For admission as a regular pupil the candidate has to present the following creden¬ tials: A certificate of good character, of knowledge of reading and writing and the four rules of arithmetic, or to undergo an examination on these subjects; a certifi- 652 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. cate of vaccination, and one showing that he does not suffer from any contagious disease, and proof that his age is not less than 8 years. In connection with the conservatory, an orchestra has been organized. In order to obtain admission to it the following qualifications are required : Good conduct, punctual attendance in the classes, best record in the annual examinations, the ability to read music at sight, good execution, and instrumental ability. If the pupil fulfills these conditions he is admitted, and the appointment is given in the form of a diploma, which is considered as an honorary title and certificate of ability. Most of the professionals who compose the orchestras in the theaters and opera houses of the capital, and the musicians and directors of the military bands, have been selected from the orchestra of the conservatory. An official report in 1893 gave the number of pupils as 1,656, of whom 617 were women and 1,039 men. The Mexican people are great lovers of music, and musical culture is a leading feature in every institution of learning in the country. The talent for music is even more striking among the Indians and laboring people than in the cultured higher classes. It is no uncommon thing to see, in the country towns, bands composed of boys from 12 to 18 years of age, which render music in such a manner that even a pro¬ fessional musician could find small room for criticism, or to hear a ragged urchin of the streets whistling with wonderful precision and effect elaborate operatic music. NATIONAL LAW SCHOOL. During the colonial period and the earlier years of independence legal studies were pursued in the colleges of San Ildefonso, San Gregorio, San Juan de Letran, and the Seminario, all of them more or less under ecclesiastical influence, the latter particularly so. The National Law School was founded in conformity with the law of December, 1867, and was formally opened June 18, 1868, in the building formerly known as the Convent of La Incarnacion. The studies are preparatory for the professions of lawyer, advocate, notary public, and business agent ; the course is for six years, and embraces the following subjects : First year, Roman and civil law; second year, second course of Roman and civil law ; third year, code of civil proceedings, uncodified law, and first course of medical jurisprudence; fourth year, code of criminal proceedings, penal law, commercial code, and second course of medical jurisprudence ; fifth year, constitutional law, first course of political economy, and international law; sixth year, administrative law, international law, second course of political economy, and forensic eloquence. In order to matriculate for the full course, with right to come up for examination for a diploma, the pupil must have spent five years in preparatory study in the National Preparatory School, and have left it with credit. Supernumerary pupils are admitted without this qualification, but they are not eligible for the examina¬ tions or diplomas. In addition to a full corps of professors, the officers of the institution consist of a director, secretary, assistant secretary, prefect, superintendent, and librarian. NATIONAL MILITARY COLLEGE. The Military College was originally established on a small scale in 1824 at San Carlos de Perote, but was afterwards transferred to the City of Mexico and was installed, in connection with the battalion of engineers, in the old Bethlemite Con¬ vent. In 1833 it was transferred to the building at San Lucas now used as a military hospital. In 1838 the college was reorganized and thoroughly equipped, and in 1843 it was removed to the castle of Chapultepec. This edifice having been captured by the American forces in the year 1847, the college did not reopen its classes until the fol¬ lowing year, when it was located in the Rastrillo barracks and the building of San Lucas, where it remained until 1869, when it was removed to the building in the suburb of Tacubaya, which had been formerly used as the residence of the archbishop. In 1881 it was again transferred to the castle of Chapultepec, where it still remains. EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 653 The college is in charge of a director, who has the rank and authority of a colonel in the army; it has a very competent faculty consisting of thirty-five professors, four assistant professors, and three preparatory masters who teach physics, chemis¬ try, and natural history. Professors appointed from civil life have the rank of senior captaius in the army, hut military officers appointed to the position retain their rank and line of promotion as if on active service in the army. The qualifications required for entry as a pupil are as follows : He must he a Mexi¬ can citizen either hy hirth or naturalization, not less than 16 nor more than 18 years of age, although pupils may he admitted up to 20 years of age if they can pass an examination in the nonmilitary sciences which form a part of the first three years of the college course. He must have passed a successful examination in some public school in arithmetic, algebra, Spanish, and first-year studies in French, and must not have been expelled from any school or college for misconduct or incompetency. lie must have been vaccinated, and has to undergo a rigid medical examination and produce a certificate from the medical officer of the college of his physical fitness for a military career. The applicant for entrance must address his application, in his own handwriting, to the secretary of war, in the month of October or November of each year, givinghis name, age, and place of birth, accompanied by a declaration by his father or guar¬ dian certifying that he agrees to his son or ward entering the army, a copy of his baptismal register, and. a certificate from a school or college of his conduct, diligence, and proficiency in his studies. Sons of soldiers are admitted as pupils from 15 years of age, who must send with their application, in addition to the documents required from other applicants, a certificate stating their father’s rank in the army. It is understood that from the day they enter the college they are members of the army and are at all times liable, whatever may be the condition of their studies, to be called upon by the Government for active service as officers in the army. Cadets are under obligation to serve as officers in the army for at least three years after graduation, and those who are promoted to the faculty must serve at least five years; those who are intended for the navy pass into the naval school on completing their course at the college. The pupils are fed and clothed at the expense of the Government and are furnished with books, drawing materials, and stationery free of charge. The courses of study for the various arms of the service are the following: For officers of infantry and cavalry. — First year: Infantry tactics and drill in same. Military regulations for first year, from duty of the soldier to aid-de-camp, includ¬ ing general orders, military and general honors and salutes ; geometry, trigonometry, French, landscape drawing, gymnastics, and swimming. Second year: Cavalry tactics and drill, and service of cavalry in the field. Mili¬ tary regulations for second year, including the whole of the third government treatise and documents, theoretical and practical military topography, making military jour¬ neys and reconnaissances, and study of charts, geography (particularly of Mexico), topographical drawing, and military accounts. Third year: Military regulations third year, including the whole of the third treatise, comprising the service of troops of all arms in the field, military legislation and laws of war, field fortification and encamping, history (especinlly that of Mexico), fencing and pistol practice, military hygiene, and veterinary medicine and surgery. For artillery officers. — First year: Infantry tactics and drill. Military regulations for first year, from duty of the soldier to aid-de-camp, including general orders, mili¬ tary and funeral honors, geometry, trigonometry, French, landscape drawing, gym¬ nastics, and swimming. Second year: Cavalry tactics and drill, and service of cavalry in the field. Mili¬ tary regulations for second year, including the whole of third treatise and documents. English first year, geography (especially that of Mexico), analytic geometry, integral calculus, first-year water-color and geometrical drawing. 654 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-98. Third year : Field fortification and encamping. Military regulations for third year, including the whole of the fourth treatise, comprising service of troops of all arms in the field; higher algebra and second year of analytic geometry, integral calculus, history (especially that of Mexico), linear drawing, English second year. Fourth year : Permanent fortification and military bridges, military legislation and laws of war, analytic mechanics, descriptive geometry, English third year, mechani¬ cal drawing first year. Fifth year: Military hygiene and veterinary medicine, applied mechanics, physics, mechanical drawing second year, military accounts, stereotomy. Sixth year : First year of artillery, fencing, and pistol practice. First year in chem¬ istry, mechanical theory of building, study of building materials and practical build¬ ing, topographical drawing first year. Seventh year: Topography and hydrography, second year of artillery, fencing, and pistol practice, logic, and constitutional law. For engineer officers. — First year: Infantry tactics and drill, military regulations from duty of soldier to aid-de-camp, including general orders, military and funeral honors, geometry and trigonometry, French, landscape drawing, gymnastics, and swimming. Second year: Cavalry tactics and drill, and service of cavalry in the field. Mili¬ tary regulations, the whole of third treatise and documents, analytic geometry and integral calculus first year, geography (especially that of Mexico). English first year, water-color and geometrical drawing. Third year : Field fortification and encamping. Military regulations for third year, the whole of third treatise, comprising service of troops of all arms in the field, higher algebra, and third year of analytic geometry and integral calculus. English second year, history (especially that of Mexico), linear drawing. Fourth year: Permanent fortification and military bridges, military legislation and laws of war, analytic mechanics, physics, English third year, military hygiene and veterinary surgery. Fifth year: Military accounts, fencing, and pistol practice, descriptive geometry, perspective and shading, spherical trigonometry, cosmography and theory of errors, topographical drawing. Sixth year: Artillery, fencing, and pistol practice, topographical drawing second year, general topography, natural history, strategy and grand tactics. Seventh year: Surveying and astronomy, including the theory of eclipses, logic, elements of constitutional law, geographical drawing and cartography. The navy of Mexico being so small, there is no naval college, but the cadets are required to undertake the following course of studies for midshipmen of the national navy : First year: Infantry tactics and drill. Military regulations from duties of soldier to those of aid-de-camp, including general orders, military and funeral honors, geometry and trigonometry, French, landscape drawing, gymnastics, and swimming. Second year : Field fortification, analytic geometry and integral calculus, geog¬ raphy (especially that of Mexico), English first year, linear and water-color drawing, military legislation, and laws of war. Third year: Fencing and pistol practice, analytic mechanics, cosmography, history (especially that of Mexico), English second year, military hygiene, mechan¬ ical drawing. Fourth year: Theoretical and practical military topography, making military journeys and study of charts, navigation, dead reckoning, nairtical terms and tac¬ tics, fencing and pistol practice, physics, English third year, logic, constitutional law, topographical drawing. After the completion of this course, the naval cadets are transferred to one of the navy -yards on the coast, where naval schools are established, for technical instruc¬ tion and practical seamanship. EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 655 Annual encampments of tlio cadets are formed from the 15tli to the 30tli of Novem¬ ber each year; at distances not more than 8 leagues from the capital, to which the cadets make the march on foot, accompanied by regular troops. During this encampment the cadets are instructed in artillery and rifle practice, construction of fortifications and entrenchments, and field service in general. The annual examinations commence on October 1 and end November 12. The prizes, diplomas, etc., are distributed by the President of the Republic during the first week in December of each year. The Mexican army is an important feature in the educational system of the coun¬ try. The Government has always fostered the education of its soldiers by every possible means. In addition to instruction in strictly military subjects, every soldier who is illiterate is taught reading, writing, and the principal rules of arithmetic, so that, however ignorant a recruit may be when he leaves his native x>lace, he returns to it after his five years’ service with a good elementary education, and is in every respect a more useful citizen. When it is considered that the Mexican army consists of about 30,000 men, the great bulk of whom are renewed every five years, it will bo readily understood what an important part it performs in the education of the masses of the people. NORMAL SCHOOLS. The Normal School, for training male teachers of the City of Mexico, was founded by decree of the Government in December, 1885. It is under the immediate juris¬ diction of the department of justice and public instruction. The course required for the degree of professor of primary instruction extends over four years and embraces the following subjects: Advanced reading, recitations and exercises from memory, arithmetic and algebra, geometry, rudiments of mechan¬ ics, cosmography, geography (especially that of Mexico), history of Mexico, rudi¬ ments of physics and meteorology, chemistry, agriculture and natural industries, natural history and physiology, pedagogics, logic, scholastic organization and discipline and history of pedagogism, Spanish grammar and composition, French, English, general history, rudiments of medicine and domestic and scholastic hygiene, rudiments of constitutional law and political economy, caligraphy and drawing, gymnastics, choral singing, military drill, observation of methods of teaching com¬ bined with actual practice. To afford the necessary opportunities for practice, two schools have been established in connection with the Male Normal School, ono for small children of from 5 to 7 years of age and the other for pupils of from 7 to 14 years of age. The course of instruction in the school for the younger children is for three years, and includes kindergarten instruction, objective calculation not exceed¬ ing the number ten, rudimentary ideas in relation to the three kingdoms of nature, cultivation of language, ideas of Mexican and universal history, and of moral and civic education, gardening, care of domestic animals, and gymnastic games. The course in the school for older pupils covers six years, and includes the following studies : Reading, writing, arithmetic, Spanish grammar, geograj)hy, history (par¬ ticularly that of Mexico), rudiments of natural sciences, civic instruction, drawing, French and English languages, gymnastics, military drill, and choral singing. The students of the normal school are required to teach in all the grades of these schools, commencing with the first year in the j unior school and gradually ascending to the highest grade in the senior school, for the purpose of practice, and to obtain a practical knowledge of the duties of their profession. The students who are trained in the normal school must promise to servo as teach¬ ers in the jrablic schools of the federal district or territories for at least three years after their graduation. Scholarships have been established carrying an annual salary as rewards for talent and superior application. The Normal School for Female Teachers was established in June, 1888, in place of the National Secondary School for Girls, which Avas consolidated with it. 656 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The course of instruction extends over five years, and embraces the following subjects: Arithmetic and algebra, caligraphy, geometry, cosmography and geogra¬ phy (especially that of Mexico), physics and rudiments of medicine and chemistry, history (especially of Mexico), domestic economy and duties of women, natural his¬ tory, ideas of political economy and constitutional provisions, theoretical hygiene, pedagogics, rudiments of general and descriptive physiology, logic, scholastic organ¬ ization and discipline, and history of pedagogism, Spanish, French, and English languages, needlework, music, drawing, and gymnastics. The following branches are also taught to those students who desire instruction in them: Bookkeeping, drawing from nature, horticulture and gardening, Italian, piano, cooking, aquarelle painting, taxidermy, and botany. Two schools have been established in connection with the female normal school to afford the students the opportunity of acquiring a practical knowledge of teach¬ ing ; one is for boys and girls of from 4 to 6 years of age and the other for girls of from G to 14 years. The course for the younger children covers three years and comprises the same studies as those taught in the junior school connected with the male normal school. In the school for older girls the course covers six years, and includes the following studies : Reading, writing, arithmetic, rudiments of algebra, geometry, Spanish grammar, geography, history, lessons on morals and civics, draw¬ ing, French, English, needlework, such knowledge of mechanics as may be useful to females, gymnastics, and choral singing. Similar rules for scholarships and prizes exist as in the normal school for male teachers. There is also in the City of Mexico a national preparatory school, in which all the preliminary branches of education are taught, to fit the iiupilsfor entrance to the colleges for higher education. NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES FOR MEN. This institution has been established for the purpose of affording manual and industrial training and a higher education for mechanics and the working classes in general. In order to obtain admission, the applicant must not be less than 13 years of age and have finished a course of instruction in the primary schools. The subjects studied in the classes are : Spanish grammar, geography of Mexico, writing, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, model and ornamental draw¬ ing, linear and mechanical drawing, wood carving, physics and mechanics, chemis¬ try in general and as applied to the arts, French, English, music, and gymnastics. There is also a class for constitutional law and political economy. The workshops attached to the school are blacksmith and locksmith, carpentry and cabinetmakiug, turners7 shop for solids and hollow work, machinists’, pottery, stonecutters7, gal¬ vanizing works, and a foundry. Photography, typography, and lithography are also taught. In March, 1842, the practical school for machinists was transferred from the National College of Engineers to this institution. The studies comprised in the course are: Arithmetic, algebra, elementary geome¬ try, trigonometry, elements of physics and mechanics, practical knowledge of the materials and tools used for the construction of machinery, assembling and taking apart machines, theoretical and practical knowledge of steam engines, especially of new or improved locomotives, practical working and management of steam engines and locomotives, laws and regulations relating to running railroad trains, linear and mechanical drawing, rudiments of French and English, practice and overseeing of railway machine shops, foundries, and industrial establishments. Fifty fellowships have been created for pupils of this institution, of which each state of the Republic has a right to one. Successful pupils are also rewarded by promotion to positions as directors and assistants in the various workshops. EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 657 NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES FOR WOMEN. This institution was founded by President Juarez in November, 1871, for the pur¬ pose of improving the social condition of working women and affording them an opportunity to obtain artistic and technical instruction in a sufficient measure to enable them to obtain remunerative employment in commerce or industrial business. The instruction is general and technical, the former consisting of Spanish, English, arithmetic, bookkeeping, writing, drawing, and ideas of science and civics. The latter embraces painting, dressmaking, embroidery, bookbinding, printing, music, making artificial flowers, lace making, manufacture of picture frames, tapestry, cords and fringes for decorative purposes, upholstery, and gilding. There is a store in the school where the work of the pupils is sold for the benefit of the institution. The Government provides the pupils with comfortable rooms and two good meals a day, and furnishes clothing for many who are too poor to provide themselves with appropriate garments. In order to obtain admission, the applicant must be not less than 13 years of age nor more than 25, and if a minor must be pre¬ sented by her parent or guardian. She must have been vaccinated and be free from contagious disease, be able to pass an examination in reading, writing, and the four rules of arithmetic, and to prove her good moral character to the satisfaction of the director. A neatly printed newspaper, called La Mujer (woman), is conducted and published by the pupils. The average number of pupils in attendance is from 400 to 500. Beneficent, Industrial, and Correctional Schools. NATIONAL SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND. This school was founded in 1870 by private charity, but was taken in charge by the Government in the following year. Poor blind children of both sexes from 8 to 16 years of age are admitted and supported without payment of any fee. On enter¬ ing the school a photograph is taken of each pupil, which is pasted in a large book. By its side is written a full description, with age, date and place of birth, and quantity and quality of clothing. Outdoor pupils may attend the classes and lectures without payment. The blind children of parents who are able to pay a small monthly sum for tuition are also admitted, and the fees thus received are used for the benefit of the establishment. The course of study includes reading, writing, Spanish grammar, arithmetic, geography, geometry, history of Mexico, English, French, gymnastics, singing, and harmony. Musical instruction is a leading feature, and the course of instruction includes the piano, clarionet, mandolin, flageolet, hautboy, harp', violin, concertina, and other stringed and brass instruments. The trades taught are tailoring, shoemaking, bookbinding, typography, carpentry, lace making, brush making, the manufacture of cigars, pasteboard boxes, and mats, weaving, needle and crochet work, and knitting. Between thirty and forty teachers are employed at salaries of from $20 to $70 per month . SCHOOL FOR DEAF MUTES. A school for deaf mutes was founded in 1866 by the municipal authorities of the City of Mexico, but was nationalized in November, 1867. To enter the school, the applicant must be not less than 7 nor more than 12 years of age, must have been vaccinated and be in good health, and is admitted on probation, subject to an intel¬ lectual trial, for a period of one month, at the termination of which he is either admitted or rejected. Only the older pupils use the manual signs, as the most modern methods are now in use, the oral system having been introduced, and is taught by teachers who have been trained in the most celebrated European schools at the expense of the Government. 658 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The subjects taught comprise reading, writing, grammar, arithmetic, geometry, bookkeeping, horticulture, drawing, and gymnastics. The trades are lithography, tailoring, shoemakiug, the manufacture of hats and artificial flowers, millinery, and dressmaking. On leaving the institution the pupils receive a gratuity from the amount of their earnings to enable them to commence business in the trade they have learned. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR ORPHAN BOYS. This school was founded in 1877 and is under the direction of the interior depart¬ ment. Boys from 10 to 14 years of age who are destitute are received, provided with board and lodging, and may remain until they attain their eighteenth year. In order to obtain admission, it is necessary that a petition be presented to the director by the person having charge of the boy, stating that he is an orphan and has no inheritance, or, if his father and mother are living, that the father is crippled or otherwise unable to work, and that both parents are too poor to bestow proper care upon him; that he has been vaccinated and is free from contagious disease, and that some person known to the director shall guarantee the safe-keeping of the clothes supplied to the pupil. The instruction in this school is divided into two classes, elementary and second¬ ary. The elementary course includes reading, writing, orthography, elements of Spanish grammar, the four rules of arithmetic, common fractions and decimals, teaching morality and politeness, rudiments of drawing, music, and gymnastics. The higher course consists of reading in prose and verse, writing, Spanish grammar, advanced arithmetic, the metric system, algebra, geometry, geography, history (especially that of Mexico), instruction as to the constitution and political organiza¬ tion of the Republic and duties and right’s of the citizen, hygiene, music, and gymnastics. The trades taught are lithography, typography, bookbinding, weaving, carpentry, tailoring, shoemaking, and working in tin. The managers of the shops are expressly forbidden to exact from any pupil more work than is suited to his age and strength. On the conclusion of the regular courses of study the pupils are given elementary instruction in physics, chemistry, and mechanics as applied to arts and trades, and French and English languages. The institution has between 300 and 400 beds and is admirably managed, the cleanliness, ventilation, and sanitary arrangements being especially good, wdiile the workshops are fitted with the best of modern machinery and appliances and are in every way adapted for their uses. LA PAZ COLLEGE. This institution owes its origin to the benevolence of a few wealthy gentlemen, and was founded in the year 1734 as a house of refuge and school for poor girls and a shelter for poor and invalid Spanish widows. During the colonial period it was under the direct patronage of the King of Spain and was governed by the rector and congregation of Aranzazu. This confraternity was suppressed, together with all similar religious organizations, by the law passed in June, 1879, and the manage¬ ment of the college and its property was assumed by the National Government. In reorganizing the institution the Government has preserved, as nearly as possible, the rules and arrangements established by the founders. The school is admirably conducted and is divided into departments for boarders and day scholars. The course of instruction extends over six years and includes the following subjects: Reading, writing, Spanish grammar; origin, history, and growth of the Spanish language; arithmetic, metric system, geometry, bookkeeping, correspondence, geography, history, physics, pedagogy, general literature, teleg¬ raphy, hygiene, English, French, music; drawing, linear and ornamental and from nature; sewing and embroidery. There is also an excellent library for the use of the pupils. EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. G 59 CORRECTIONAL SCHOOL OF TRADES AND PROFESSIONS. Tliis reformatory school was established in the year 1881 in the edifice formerly occupied by the Ecclesiastical College of St. Peter and St. Paul. It is intended for tho education and reformation of boys under 18 years of age who may be committed to its custody by sentence of the police and criminal courts or by parents or guard¬ ians who find them to be incorrigible. The object of the school is to correct and eradicate evil tendencies and the effect of vicious association and to teach habits of order and industry and such useful trades as may enable the pupils to become self-supporting and useful citizens when they leave the institution. It is organized on a military basis, the scholars forming a corps known as the “Industrial battalion,” in which strict military discipline is maintained. Good- conduct badges are given to such of the scholars as distinguish themselves by good behavior and strict compliance with the rules and discipline. The most deserving are promoted to the grade of corporal, sergeant, and captain. The literary instruction is limited to two hours daily and consists of itrimary and secondary studies fully equal in character to the national public schools. The trades taught are the machinist’s, iron working, brass working, carpentry, shoemaking, and tailoring. The workshops are fully equipped with the most improved modern machinery and appliances and are under the direction of skilled mechanics and workmen. The foregoing colleges and secondary schools are all situated in the City of Mexico. They have been described and the several courses of instruction particularized, as they are fair exponents of the assiduous care which the Government is giving to the promotion of education, not only in tho elementary and industrial branches, but also in furnishing the higher grades of instruction to fit the scholars for professional and scientific pursuits. They are also the models upon which the colleges and secondary schools are formed which exist in the cities and larger towns of the Republic. Many of these are institutions of high character, fit to be classed with the best and most advanced, at tho capital. For instance, the Instituto Literario, of Toluca, which may be taken as an illustration, is one of the most widely known among the institutions of learning in the Republic, and many of tho most distinguished men of the nation have been educated there. Each municipality of the State has the privilege of sending one student, who must pass successfully a rigid examination in preparatory studies. The institution possesses a fine library and a museum of national history and is provided with every appliance for the study of physiology, physical sciences, history, chemistry, music, and drawing. The students have a gymnasium, warm and cold baths, and comfortable domitories; for all these advantages the price of board, lodging, and tuition is only $16, Mexican currency, per month. Morelia, capital of the State of Michoacan, has schools and colleges with modern equipments that would reflect credit on any country. The College of St. Nicholas, of which the patriot Hidalgo was at one time regent, was founded in the year 1540. It has now been thoroughly modernized in its methods and is largely patronized. Oaxaca, the capital of the State of the same name, has a famous college, at which President Diaz, Romero, Juarez, and Mariscal were educated, as well as many other Mexicans who have achieved extended reputation and fame. It has an average attendance of 500 stu¬ dents, for whose use there is an excellent library of 14,000 volumes. Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Puebla, and Merida are well supplied with institutions for higher edu¬ cation; in fact, the list might be extended to include almost every city and town of importance in the Repub] ic. LIBRARIES. Soon after independence had been won the statesmen of Mexico, in their early efforts for the diffusion of education among the people, conceived the idea of estab¬ lishing a national library, and decrees for that purpose were issued in 1833 and 1846, EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 660 but internal revolutions and foreign invasions prevented the accomplishment of the design. On the reestablishment of the Republic, after the fall of Maximilian, the times seemed more propitious, and a decree was issued in November, 1867, ordering the formation of the library, and the old church of San Augustin was assigned for its use. By the suppression of the ecclesiastical colleges and other institutions many books and documents fell into possession of the Government. These were given to the library to form the nucleus of a national collection, as many of them contained matter of great interest to the historian and scholar. The changes necessary to adapt the building to its new purpose have been made, audits appearance has been secularized as much as possible, both externally and internally. This work has not only cost the Government large sums of money, but consumed years of time, and it was not until April, 1884, that the establishment was formally opened to the public. This library now has on its shelves about 170,000 volumes, among which are many which are rare and curious. There are also other libraries in the metropolis in con¬ nection with the Government departments, schools, and colleges, the combined contents of which will probably bring the number of books in the libraries of the city to about 250,000 volumes. Most of the large towns and cities in the Republic have public libraries, many of which contain very creditable collections of books. MUSEUMS. Museums are established in nearly every State of the Republic, many of them being well sustained by funds appropriated by the States, and contain very valuable collections, which are being constantly increased. In the City of Mexico an attempt to establish a museum was made as long ago as 1786, but without any permanent result. The effort was renewed from time to time, particularly after the country became independent, but it was not until 1867 that an institution worthy of the name of a national museum could be said to exist. In that year it was properly organized, a competent director appointed, and the sum of $500 per month appropri¬ ated for its maintenance. Under efficient management it has now become an insti¬ tution which is creditable to the Government. It occupies very spacious apartments in the building formerly used by the mint, which is a part of the national palace. It is divided into three departments — archaeology and history, natural history, and .the library. The sum of $12,000 is now annually appropriated for the purchase and preservation of specimens and for materials and repairs to the edifice. The staff of employees consists of a professor of archaeology and history, which office is usually filled by the director; a professor of zoology and botany, an assistant zoologist, a librarian, a secretary and treasurer, draftsman, photographer, and taxidermist. SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY SOCIETIES. The principal cities, such as Toluca, Morelia, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Puebla, Merida, and many others, have their literary and scientific associations, and there are at least twenty such societies within the federal district. Of these, that named El Liceo Hidalgo ranks the highest, and is in fact intended as a national institute. It was established in 1849, and for some years had a rather precarious existence, but since the reestablishment of the Republic it has rapidly increased in membership and influence. The aim of this institution is the encouragement and development of native talent. The material progress of the Republic of Mexico within the past thirty years has been marvelous, particularly since railroads have been so largely extended, inspir¬ ing more progressive methods, stirring the sluggish current of life, and spreading enlightenment among the people. Mexico has seen many revolutions, but none of such momentous importance to the nation as that which commenced with the new era when President Juarez reestab¬ lished republican rule, separated church and state, and inaugurated a most impor- EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 661 taut forward movement in tlie educational policy of tlie Government. This enlight¬ ened system has been nobly carried out by his successors and their constitutional advisers, and is now beginning to be crowned with success. This is a revolution that can not go backward. It creates its own momentum, increases as it moves, and is exerting a most important influence on the national life and progress. Great as this influence has been on the community, its effect upon the women has been per¬ haps the most noteworthy. Under the old Spanish rule their intellectual status was deplorable. Among the lower classes there was little or no effort made to edu¬ cate them; they were mere drudges, without any prospect or aim beyond a life of hopeless toil. In the higher classes, beyond a few showy accomplishments, they grew up mere children in intelligence or knowledge. Now no one can study the con¬ dition of education in Mexico without noting how eagerly the women strive to par¬ take in it. This spirit is shown by the pressure for admission to the National Normal School, for female teachers, which is doing such splendid work in preparing a culti¬ vated and trained womanhood for positions of influence in public education. The applications for admission have been so numerous that on several occasions it has been found necessary to close the books and receive no more candidates, as they were too numerous for the capacity of the schools. Of course it is in the larger cities that the effect of education upon women first manifests itself. In every class, from the highest to the lowest, the range of accomplishments and knowledge is being extended, to the manifest benefit of women both intellectually and morally. The result is shown more and more every day in the entry of women into tlie various departments of commercial, industrial, and professional life. It is not long since a young lady of the City of Mexico graduated in dentistry and became an assistant to her father — a most surprising revelation to those who have known tho ancient con¬ dition of female life in Mexico. No better illustration can be given of the forward movement of education in Mexico than in the following extract from the message of President Diaz to the Mexican Congress on April 1, 1895: “ Public instruction still receives the special and well-merited attention of the executive. Statistical information of the scholastic year last past shows a consider¬ able increase in tho number of pupils matriculated and approved — not only in the national schools, but also in the municipal and private schools which have accepted the'official programme or curriculum. From these figures may be obtained a most pleasing prophecy, and one that is welcome to all good wishers of the Republic — that education is largely in demand, and that the precepts of the laws relative thereto are voluntarily and patriotically complied with. The normal schools, especially those of lady teachers, have been obliged to close their books and receive no more applicants on account of the paucity of their accommodations. The executive is anxiously engaged in an endeavor to give wfider scope to these schools. The Female Normal College established during the month of February a meteorological observa¬ tory; while in the Male Normal College, in celebration of the eighth anniversary of its founding, were inaugurated shops for hand work, as also a new and well-adapted audience room. “An order has been sent for instruments and mechanical devices needed in the school of arts and industries for men, which, as is the case with the industrial college for women, must exercise beneficial influence upon the condition of the working classes, so worthy of protection and aid. “The school of agriculture is receiving new pupils, furnished through the auspices of the various states of the Federation. There has been reestablished therein a course of veterinary surgery, the Government being enabled to remove the difficulties by reason whereof this course had been closed, and thus provision is made for a system of education which promises to be useful and well paying. “ In order to impart an eminently practical character to the provisional examina¬ tion conducted in the school of engineers, the necessary provisions have been adopted, in accordance with the design of the various curricula in the school. 662 EDUCATION BEPOET, 1895-96. li Tlie executive, being determined to omit no effort nor any expense which might redound to the honor of the nation and to the advantage of its studious youth, has created an anatomia-pathological museum, with the double purpose of furnishing a new and efficient element of instruction to the school of medicine and also for the purpose of appreciating worthily the scientific labors which are to be presented to the second Pan-American Congress when it meets in this capital in 1896.” According to the latest statistics obtainable there were in the Republic about 8,000 public schools for primary education, the number of scholars enrolled about 500,000, and the amount appropriated by the Government for educational purposes about $3,500,000 per annum. In the Federal District there were 62 private free schools, 195 private schools in which the pupils paid for their education, and 113 public schools for primary education. In the private schools there were 10,355 pupils, and in the public schools 21,159 pupils were enrolled. GUATEMALA. From the year 1524, when it was conquered by the Spanish forces under the com¬ mand of Pedro de Alvarado, until 1821 Guatemala formed a part of the Spanish dominion in America. In September, 1821, its independence was proclaimed; then followed the attempt of Mexico to annex Central America to the ephemeral empire of Iturbide, and it was not until 1823 that the Central American Republic was estab¬ lished. Party rivalry and the jealousies of ambitious leaders caused the dissolution of the federation in 1839, and the Republics of Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica resumed their autonomy and have since been governed as independent Republics. From the date of its separation from Spain Guatemala was torn with internal strife, and when at peace was under despotic rule inspired by the old conservative and reactionary party, supported by the aristocracy and clergy. But in 1871 the liberal party, which in spite of all obstacles had rapidly increased in numbers and influence, succeeded in shaking off the yoke of the administration that had so long kept the country in inaction and ignorance. The liberating army had within its ranks a young man of high intelligence and indomitable energy, J. Rufino Barrios, who was elected President of the Republic in March, 1873. He was the Juarez of Guatemala, and from the day of his inauguration the country started on a new career of reform and progress. Every branch of the public service received his attention. The church, which had previously overshadowed the state, was finally separated from it. No priest nor minister of any sect was permitted thenceforth to control institutions of public instruction, and education was made public, free, and obligatory. Before his time a few parochial schools under the tutelage of the priesthood were the only provision for public instruction. He conferred upon the country an admirable public school system, devoted exclusively to secular education. Public instruction has ever since been placed within the reach of everyone, without distinction of race or social standing; and not only is tuition free, but text-books are furnished by the Government. Professional education, which in the United States is not considered to be a part of the system of free public instruction, is in Guatemala, as in Mexico, undertaken by the Government. The result of this enlightened policy is that the rising genera¬ tion is essentially liberal and enlightened in ideas and is displaying the benefits of education, the masses are gradually becoming elevated to a higher grade of civiliza¬ tion, and every insignificant Indian village boasts of at least one primary school. The indigenous race forms a very large percentage of the population. In general the natives are honest, laborious, gentle, and docile; they accept readily the benefits of civilization, and rapidly improve under the influence of education. There are at present between 1,300 and 1,400 schools for primary instruction in the Republic, of which less than 50 are private schools. There are also 15 kindergartens. The course of instruction is very similar to that of the Mexican elementary schools ; EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 663 Ibut in tlie primary schools of Guatemala the theory and science of agriculture in all its branches forms a part of the regular course of instruction. For this purpose a text-book has been prepared by Selior J. M. Garcia Sulas, a professor of primary edu¬ cation, which contains all that is necessary to give the pupils a theoretical knowl¬ edge of agriculture, particularly in relation to those productions best adapted to the soil and climate of the country. It also includes a short treatise on animal industry and on the method of keeping farm accounts. For a country so largely agricultural this is a very useful addition to the usual course of primary education, particularly in the rural districts, where, as a rule, the larger portion of the scholars never get beyond such education as is afforded in the primary schools. In fact, the whole sys¬ tem of education in Guatemala is admirably suited to the country and the people. In addition to the primary schools for the young of both sexes there are numerous night schools for adults; even the prisons are not neglected, and elementary schools are established in them, so that the most ignorant prisoner on regaining his freedom has received at least the rudiments of education. SECONDARY AND COLLEGIATE EDUCATION. While the Government has devoted great attention to the develoj)ment of public primary education, it has not been unmindful of the needs of the people in the direc¬ tion of secondary, technical, collegiate, and professional instruction. The city of Guatemala now possesses not only the largest number of higher educational institu¬ tions in Central America, but the most celebrated and best appointed. This is so generally recognized that many of the wealthy families of the other Republics send their children there for instruction, instead of to the United States or Europe, as was formerly an almost universal custom. The national institute for secondary education is one of the best institutions of its kind on the continent. More than 500 students from all parts of Central America are enrolled on its register. It has a geological museum, a cabinet and laboratory for the classes in physics and chemistry, an astronomical observatory, and numerous other buildings. The Belen Female Seminary, which occupies an old convent of that name, is a high- class institution for secondary instruction. It has an excellent faculty, and the pupils receive an excellent education. There are also in the capital 13 schools for secondary education, 7 of which are for boys and 6 for girls. There are also a number of private schools and colleges for higher education. Collegiate and professional education is well cared for in the National University, the Law School, the College of Medicine and Pharmacy, the College of Engineering? and the Polytechnic School, which is modeled on the plan of the celebrated Ecole Polytechnique of Paris. The Conservatory of Music is an admirably conducted institution, directed by a faculty of 12 professors. There are also 14 schools of music, which are subsidized by the Government. The people of Guatemala, in common with those of the other Central American Republics and Mexico, are great lovers of music, and show great aptitude in learning it. These institutions have therefore produced remarkable results. For the students of the western part of the Republic the Gov¬ ernment has provided colleges for the study of law, engineering, and medicine in the city of Quezaltenango. There are in the capital two schools of arts and trades, one for men and the other for women; also a similar school in the city of Quezalte¬ nango. These are supported entirely by grants from the national treasury. There is also a school of arts and trades for men in the city of Totonicapan, which is sup- j)orted by several municipalities, aided by a monthly subvention of $200 from the National Government. There is an excellent national library at the capital. At present it contains only between 30,000 and 40,000 volumes, but it is under able management and is constantly being improved and its collection of books enlarged. 664 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. SALVADOR. Salvador is the smallest of the Central American Republics, having an area of only 7,255 square miles. Being smaller in size, more compact, and more densely populated than the other Central American countries, it has been easier for the Government to extend its care over the mental improvement and material progress of the people. The upper classes are, as in other parts of Central America, cither of pure white blood or have a large admixture of it, but the indigenous race still composes the majority of the population. They are naturally docile and tractable, and generally honest, orderly, and industrious. The efforts of the Government to extend the benefits of education to all classes of the people are producing admirable results, as the inhabitants of the cities are attaining a degree of culture and refinement that is remarkable, when all circum¬ stances are taken into consideration, while the Indians, who form the majority of the agriculturists and laborers, are exhibiting marked evidences of progress. Article 33 of the constitution of Salvador reads as follows : “Education is free. Primary instruction is compulsory. The instruction given in the establishments supported by the State shall be laic and gratuitous, and shall be subject to the proper regulations.” It is to the credit of the Government that it has honestly endeavored to carry out this provision and has made great efforts to improve and develop the educational facilities of the country. The spirit in which this has been done is well exemplified by the following trans¬ lation of an extract from President Ezeta’s message to Congress delivered February 20, 1893 : “Profoundly convinced of the beneficial influence which education aud instruc¬ tion exercise on all social classes, I have contrived during the past year to extend to this important branch the most decided protection. “The large number of educational establishments sustained in greater part by the State has rendered necessary the iuvestment of large sums in the salaries of profes¬ sors and in the purchase of supplies and text-books. Knowing the difficulties under which authors labor in a young country like ours, I have ordered the printing at the public expense of various important works produced by some of the best talent in the country. Some of them unite intrinsic merit with fitness for use as text-books in our educational establishments.” According to the latest statistics there exist in the Republic nearly 600 primary schools, with an average daily attendance of nearly 30,000 pupils. The curriculum in use has been carefully considered, and is admirably adapted to the needs and intellectual capacity of the pupils. The kindergarten system has been introduced in the city of San Salvador by the munificence of a lady, and is doing excellent work among children too young for the public schools. Secondary education comprises preparatory studies for a university course, educa¬ tion for commercial life, land surveying, and for teachers. For this purpose the Gov¬ ernment supports three institutions, the Western, Central, and Eastern. The Central institute, which is located in the city of San Salvador, the capital of the Republic, has an excellent library, a museum, a cabinet of physical science, and a meteorological observatory. In the capital the Government also sustains the polytechnic school, a normal col¬ lege for ladies, and another for young men. Higher of professional education is regulated by a law passed February 15, 1886. The National University is governed by a board called superior council of public instruction, and is in charge of a rector and well selected faculty. The classes comprise pharmacy and natural science, medicine and surgery, law, and civil engineering. The course of study necessary for graduation is, in pharmacy and EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 665 natural science, three years; medicine and surgery, six years; and law, seven years; topographical engineering, three years; and in the departments of architecture, mechanical engineering, and bridges and roads, four years. There is also at the capital a national colleg^for the higher education of women. A good public library and free reading room has been established, and occupies commodious apartments in the building of the National University. There are also in different parts of the country the following private colleges for secondary education : In the city of San Salvador, the Salvadorean Lyceum, Santa Teresa College for girls, and a theological seminary. At New San Salvador there are two colleges for males, San Louis and the Sacred Heart, and one for girls called Santa Teresa. At Lacatecoluca, capital of the department of La Paz, there is one, and one in each of the following cities: San Vincente, Sensonate, Usulutan, and Acuachapan. In the city of San Salvador there is an excellent asylum and industrial school for orphans of both sexes, where they not only receive a good primary education, but the boys are taught carpentry, shoemaking, and other trades, and the girls the occupa¬ tions adapted to their sex ; there are also classes in music and electric telegraphy. HONDURAS. Honduras is much larger than Salvador, having an area of about 45,000 square miles, but it is much more sparsely populated, as the number of inhabitants is only about 440,000. Previous to 1876, when President Marco A. Soto assumed the functions of Provi¬ sional President, very little had been done to promote the cause of public education, but under his administration and that of his successor, President Louis Bogran, who was elected in 1883, great efforts have been made to extend educational facilities both in the primary and higher grades. These would have produced much more satisfac¬ tory results if the country had not suffered from the series of revolutions and political troubles through which it has passed, particularly since the expiration of the term of office of President Bogran, in 1891. According to the provisions of the constitution, primary instruction is obligatory, secular, and free. No minister of any religious sect is permitted to preside over or teach in any school or college supported or subsidized by the State. The latest sta¬ tistics give the number of primary schools in the Republic as 640, with an annual attendance of 23,000 pupils. The course of study in these schools is well arranged, the pupils are docile and display considerable aptitude for acquiring the rudiments of education, and the results obtained are very promising for the intellectual eleva¬ tion of the population. There is at the capital of each department of the Republic a school for secondary education and training of teachers, all of which are subsidized by the Government. For the higher grades of education the following establishments have also been established : At Tegucigalpa, the capital, the Central University, with departments of law, medi¬ cine, literature, engineering, and science. In connection with the university there is a free public library, which was founded by President Soto in 1880 ; the College for Women, with courses in modern languages, music, domestic economy, physiology, and hygiene; the National Scientific and Literary Institute; a manual training school for mechanic and decorative arts. There is also a theological seminary and parochial school attached, which is supported by and under the control of the Roman Catholic Church. At Yuscuran, a college and high school attached. At Danli, a high school. At Santa Barbara, a college for higher education, with classes in geol¬ ogy, mineralogy, zoology, botany, bookkeeping, and mercantile law and usage. At Santa Rosa, a college of sciences and letters, with a high school attached. There are also colleges for higher education in the cities of Gracias, Jutigalpa, and La Paz. 666 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. With a condition of permanent peace and a consequent return of national pros¬ perity, there is reason to believe that these establishments may become an honor to the country and potent factors in its advancement. NICARAGUA. Nicaragua labors under a similar disadvantage to that which exists in Honduras, having an area of upward of 40,000 square miles and a population of only about 360,000. The indigenous races, who form the bulk of the laboring inhabitants, are docile and industrious, and form an excellent rural population. They display con¬ siderable intelligence, and improve very rapidly under the influence of education. Hundreds of the wealthier Nicaraguans have been educated in the schools of Europe and the United States, and are as refined and accomplished as any people in the world. It is not, however, on the education and refinement of a few, but upon the education and intellectual advancement of the bulk of the people — the patient burden-bearers of the land — that the Republic must rely for safety and permanence. There is no doubt that the Government is fully alive to the importance of this work. Since 1877 it has devoted great attention and large sums of money to the cause of education. There is no lack of either public or private schools, but the good work has been sadly embarrassed by the civil wars, revolutions, and political troubles by which the country has been convulsed. It is hoped, however, that a more settled and peaceful condition may soon be attained, and that the Government may be again in condition to devote its attention more thoroughly to the intellectual needs of the people. In his message to Congress delivered January 1, 1896, President Zelaya dwelt with evident pride upon the fact that he had reestablished and effected great improvement in the public schools, which had been closed by his predecessor. Ac¬ cording to the latest statistics, there are now between 200 and 300 Government schools for primary education, also several municipal and private schools, with a total aver¬ age attendance of about 20,000 pupils. There are also, for secondary education, two high schools for boys and one for girls, well equipped with teachers and having a large attendance. The National University has also an excellent faculty, with classes for teaching, law, medicine, engineering, and natural science. In the city of Managua there is a free public library, which is liberally supported by the Government. COSTA RICA. * Costa Rica is the most southern and one of the smallest Central American Repub¬ lics. Its area is about 23,000 square miles. The population is officially estimated at about 240,000, and is much more homogeneous and with a smaller mixture of dark blood than is seen in the people of the neighboring countiles. It has had the good fortune to be free, in great measure, from the revolutions and civil strife that have distracted the other States of Central America, and its progress has been correspond¬ ingly greater. This condition of peace and prosperity has been very favorable to the cause of education, and the percentage of pupils under instruction, in proportion to popula¬ tion, is larger than in any other of the neighboring republics. Primary instruction is directly under the supervision of the Government; it is free of charge and compulsory; but every inhabitant of the Republic, whether native or foreign, is free to receive instruction or to teach in private establishments. There are in the Republic 200 primary public schools, with an average attendance of 10,000 pupils. In fact, a good school for primary instruction can be found in every village. The following institutions for higher instruction are also supported by the Gov¬ ernment: The National University, at San Jose, with a free public library attached; the high school for young ladies, at San Jos6 ; the Alajuela High School ; the Cartago College, and the School of Agriculture. The Government also supports at the capital EDUCATION IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 667 a physical and geographical institute, a meteorological institute, and a national school of music. There are a large number of private schools and colleges, several of which receive subsidies from the national treasury. The Government has also devoted considerable sums for tuition and expenses for Costa Rican boys educated abroad. So far as the learned professions are concerned, Costa Rica has certainly a larger proportion of her people so engaged than any of her sister nations. In fact, com* plaint has been made by many of her citizens that too large a proportion of the young men are receiving professional education instead of being devoted to commer¬ cial, agricultural, and other pursuits, more useful in the development of the resources of the country. The people of Costa Rica are great lovers of music : their taste in that direction is not only cultivated in the National School of Music, hut the San Jose Philharmonic Society has worked with great success in the same direction and has done much to promote the cultivation of music throughout the country. BRITISH HONDURAS. This small British colony, with a population of about 30,000, of whom perhaps less than 500 are of purely white blood, and the remainder negroes and half breeds, is well supplied with educational facilities. There are 28 schools, which are generally denominational, established and superintended by the clergy of the various religious bodies, but a few are private schools. The schools receive Government aid to the extent of about $10,000 annually. An inspector of schools is appointed by the Gov¬ ernment, who publicly examines the pupils of each school once a year, and the teach¬ ers receive a bonus according to the numbers who pass the examination successfully in the several grades. The number of pupils on the rolls averages between 2,500 and 3,000. The instruction is purely elementary. CHAPTER XIII. THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. By C. D. Raxdall, Delegate of the United States Bureau of Education. The Fifth International Prison Congress was especially favored in holding its ses¬ sions in the buildings of the Sorbonne and College of France. It was 4 o’clock on the last Sunday afternoon in June, 1895, when it convened in the great amphitheater of the Sorbonne. The very place was inspiring. History and art had united in mak¬ ing the place most attractive and interesting. As we fronted the great platform which occupies the rear of the capacious room, on our left we noticed the life-size statue of Sorbonne, the founder ©f the historic college, whose work was ended cen¬ turies ago, while the whole wall hack of the platform was occupied by the celebrated decoration of M. Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, representing in life size Greek conven¬ tional figures, in several groups, the arts and sciences, on either side of Sorbonne, typified by a female figure. This and the other decorations throughout the halls of the great building would be alone sufficient to make the Sorbonne most noticeable without its remarkable history. When the assembly was seated we noticed that the highest official and social life of France and other nations was there to do honor to the congress. France had invited the congress and France was there to welcome it. President Faure had arrived in his carriage, accompanied by General Tournier and a company of cuiras¬ siers. The multitude surrounding the entrance had warmly applauded him. On descending from the carriage he was received by M. Greard, vice rector of the Acad¬ emy of Paris. The President was escorted to and took his seat in the gallery over the entrance fronting the platform. With him were seated MM. Ribot, president of the council of ministers ; Hanotaux, minister of foreign affairs ; Trarieux, minister of j nstice ; Brisson, president of the Chamber of Deputies, and the ambassadors of tbe United States, Sweden, Italy, Denmark, and Japan. At his entrance the President was warmly applauded by the members of the congress. Upon the platform were MM. Georges Leygues, minister of the interior; F. Duflos, director of the French prison administration and president of the committee of organization ; Theophile Roussel, senator of France, member of the institute, and vice- president; the members of the International Prison Commission; Galkine-Wraskoy, director-general of the prisons of Russia; Beltrani Scalia, Italian councilor ot state; Pols, professor in the University of Utrecht ; Dr. Guillaume, secretary-general ; Goos, inspector-general of the prisons of Denmark; De Jagemann, ambassador of Baden, and many other high officials of France and other nations, including senators, mem- birsofthe Institute, councilors of state, etc. In the general audience there were many distinguished ladies and gentlemen, many of international reputation, many who, occupying high positions at home, had devoted very much of their studies and labors to the cause which had brought them together from the various parts of tbe world. The opening address was by M. Leygues, minister of the interior. He spoke as follows. 669 670 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. “Mr. President of the Republic: Your presence in our midst is a most pre¬ cious encouragement. I pray you to accept our respectful acknowledgement. “Gentlemen, in tlie name of tlie Government uf the Republic I welcome the for¬ eign delegates wbo have met here to declare the unchangeable adherence of those who have devoted their lives to the pursuit of truth and to the alleviation of human misery. “Science, gentlemen, takes on more and more an international character. The constant exchange beyond the frontier by books and the press no longer answers. The learned now go in person to reveal their discoveries and to place in the common patrimony the fruit of their meditations and labors. London, Stockholm, Rome, and St. Petersburg mark the great resting places, until now, in prison science. Gen¬ tlemen, the work you engage in is one of the most arduous aud noble which can be conceived. To strengthen repression and at the same time introduce humanity into law; to ask for indulgence more than severity, without abandoning any of the indispensable guaranties of social order; to revive in the soul of the delinquent and criminal the idea of duty, law, and justice; such is the end of your pursuit. “ It appears at first that your ideal is too exalted, and that you seek to attempt the impossible. Your generous conceptions are treated as chimerical. You are accused of sentimentalism and feebleuess. Nothing has power to shake your faith. You know better than anyone that there are evils which can not be cured ; ineorrigibles who must be prevented from wrongdoing, but you say that all evils are not incur¬ able, and that there are rescues which should be undertaken. In your eyes perver¬ sity is only the exception. You affirm that human nature, at the bottom, is right, loyal, and generous. You have never despaired of it. You are right. In the most ravaged and blinded heart may survive, as in the ruins of the temple, a last lamp forgotten by the last priest, which still burns for truth and goodness. To save this flickering flame is an act of justice. Nevertheless, it will not do to substitute for the severity of penal law a kind of philosophic indifference which lets everything go and compromises the public safety. It should work only to stimulate the moral forces, to evoke the generous instincts which can prevent the misdemeanor or crime, and, after the fall, to rehabilitate and raise up the offender. Never proclaim the irresponsibility of the being who has fallen. This would be to affirm the useless¬ ness of punishment or reward. It is true that the physical constitution, education, heredity, and poverty exercise a direct influence on criminality. The legislator considers these certain influences in estimating the acts and in graduating the pen¬ alties. On this point nothing has been changed by tradition. But you have inno¬ vated when, breaking away from ancient errors, you have said that intimidation and fear were not the only means to secure the reformation of the guilty, and that edu¬ cation and hope were also sure means to obtain it. This simple affirmation was a revelation. You have spoken of kindness. You have inclosed a flower between the pages of the code. Your doctrine is right. Punishment without the possibility of pardon discourages and degrades. The hope of rehabilitation provokes effort and elevates. You have put the principle of the theory into practice. But your ambi¬ tion was not satisfied. To repress or to reform is good; to prevent is better, and you have wished to dry up even the source of evil. It is these that the international prison congresses have accomplished, the finest of their work, in revising legisla¬ tion relative to abandoned or delinquent children. To rescue the child from ill- treatment, from bad examples, and from poverty is to fulfill the first of public duties. Has society the right to punish the feeble and defenseless being which it neither aids nor protects ? Offer to the delinquent child a friendly hand, comfort it in its distress, forget and make it forget its fault, is to make a good citizen of one who might become a useless and dangerous person. This is, then, to serve one's country, and, perhaps better yet, to serve humanity. No one knows how many sparkles of genius die in the souls of lost children. “It is to your indefatigable propagandism. gentlemen, that reform in houses of correction and the development of the admirable work of patronage for the past THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL FRISON CONGRESS. 671 twenty years is duo and promoted in all parts of tlie world. This result alone is sufficient to demonstrate the philosophic and social extent of your labors and to confirm your undoubted right to public recognition. Wherever you hold your ses¬ sions you receive evidences of the most precious and highest sympathy. Public sentiment encourages you, and governments hold it to be an honor to labor with you. It is in effect that in struggling against moral evils, in arresting their advance and suppressing them at their origin, you accomplish a work which surpasses the ap¬ parent limit of your action. In this way you contribute to assure the pacific evolu¬ tion of progress, for society, as the organized body prospers and grows as much as liberty under healthy conditions. “ Gentlemen, may the bonds of mutual esteem and reciprocal confidence which already unite you bind you still closer for the good of your countries. May the new efforts you will undertake be crowned with success for the peace of conscience and the triumph of truth and justice. “I declare the fifth International Prison Congress opened.” M. Pols, vice-president of the International Prison Commission, replied in the fol¬ lowing words : “Mr. Minister and Honorary President: Permit me to speak briefly, in the name of my colleagues of the International Prison Commission, to express the senti¬ ments which animate us at this time, and which, I am sure, are partaken by all the foreign members of the congress. We are happy to find you here, not only in the quality of travelers, meeting in a beautiful country and in a glorious city, in one of the great centers of civilizations, where everything recalls progress, the most bril¬ liant conquests, the richest promises of the future; but as the adherents of a great cause, as laborers in a noble work, reunited in a place where the grandeur of the work and its high value have for so long a time been recognized, wrho were certain to find a sympathetic welcome and a land rich and fruitful for their labors. “The cordial and unanimous greeting received five years ago at the congress of St. Petersburg, the vote to meet in Paris for the next congress, proves already how much this sentiment was generally prevalent. But since, the facts have confirmed this sentiment beyond our boldest expectations. The Government of France favor¬ ably received the choice of location, and immediately all that France had, the most illustrious in science and in prison work, gave ready assistance to prepare our work and to guarantee to the fifth congress an eminent place among its predecessors. How can the solemnity of this day be forgotten, celebrated in this noble temple of French science, antique and venerable by name, but also the emblem of the renewing of forms which impose themselves on science to avoid senile decrepitude and to assure the powerful and brilliant vitality of youth, always reviving with the eternal springtime? “ How can the presence of the eminent Chief Executive of France be forgotten, many other officials and distinguished citizens, our allies in the cause which brings us here, to take part iu our work, to enlighten their knowledge, their hope, and their charity ? “Finally, Mr. Minister, how can your words be forgotten, you who have consented to be our honorary president? After some days we shall again disperse, but we shall all take with us the ineffaceable memory of this occasion and your words. And this memory will form a solid bond which will maintain the union of hearts and spirits notwithstanding our separation. “But I believe that I reflect the sentiments not only of my colleagues of the inter¬ national commission, but of all the members of the congress, in extending our respectful homage and the expression of our cordial recognition to all those who, in preparing for the congress so sympathetic and brilliant a welcome, have brought to this work and the cause the aid of their high position, their authority, their knowledge, experience, and indispensable moral assistance. This moral aid appears to us more valuable as we dare to see in it the moral aid of France. What touches us in the presence of the chief magistrate who presides over the destinies of France, 672 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. in the words of a member of the Government, is not the expression of personal sentiments of the Government. This expression has certainly a higher value for us. But what gives it a higher value for us is that we believe we recognize in the expression the noble sentiments of the country they represent. Prison work — who doubts it? — is not only a Government interest, a simple affair of justice or administra¬ tion confined to the active and intelligent care of officials. It is before all a social interest of the first order, which requires the combined action of all social forces, private action along with official action, mutually supporting each other. Ue are happily far from the times when it was believed that they honored Justice in repre¬ senting her as cold and impassive, the sword and balances in her hands, but the eyes bandaged. This was the symbol of the impartiality and integrity of ideal justice, too often illy justified by the facts — the bandage symbolizing better, perhaps, another quality of the justice of other times, of not seeing clearly in weighing the fault, of striking blindly and without discernment the guilty. Prison science, whose tri¬ umphant flight marks one of the great advances of humanity, has dethroned this cold, impassive, and blind justice. Recognizing the fallacy of combating crime by severe punishment of the criminal, of mowing tares without rooting them up, has changed completely the tactics of repression. Endeavoring to ascertain and deter¬ mine the causes and the motives of crime, it was soon perceived that responsibility rests not alone with the author of the crime. It recognizes the complicity of human nature and society, the necessity of a complete revolution in the methods of attack and defense in the weapons of warfare. But at the same time, recognizing the horror of crime, the sentiment concerning the criminal is considerably modified. “If the two noble truths, which have been classics for ages, always admired as applied — that to prevent evil is better than to punish, and that justice does not exclude charity; that even there can be no justice without charity, as there can he no charity without justice — have not been discovered, there has been accomplished a living principle of reform. Moreover, this powerful and fruitful movement is not due to official initiation, but to the awakening of public conscience by private action. At the appeal of some choice spirits the human conscience has awakened from sleep, where it was held in secular routine, and has overthrown the idol of a. blind and brutal justice and substituted a conception more noble and intelligent. “This conception, which we may consider as generally adopted, and which has exercised a salutary influence on legislation and administration, is yet far from hav¬ ing obtained its full development. And it could not sustain itself if this generous breath which gives it life comes to want, if it had no more vivifying heat than can come alone from the public conscience, for it can not be denied it has above all multi¬ plied the questions and has singularly complicated the problem of justice, extended more and more the ground of study and the difficulties to solve. This congress proves this well, hut at the same time it furnishes the proof that the more the field is extended, the more extended becomes the number and devotion of the workers. Our beginnings have been very modest; but from London to Stockholm, from Stock¬ holm to Rome, from Rome to St. Petersburg, the labors of the congress have not only gradually extended themselves, hut have received more and more the favor of gov¬ ernments and public opinion. If death has deprived us of a number of our illustrious and deeply lamented coworkers, others in increasing numbers have taken their places, inspired by their spirit and devotion. At the same time the horizon of prison science has extended, and the congresses, to which this progress is in part due* have kept up with the advance. If progress has complicated the work of congress, it has, I dare say, ennobled it. The way from St. Petersburg to Paris marks an upward movement — a new progress. The congress of Paris will be distinguished, we hope, by a special solicitude for unfortunate and delinquent children. Thanks to the more and more recognized importance of this subject which so enlists our sympathy, and thanks to the experience at St. Petersburg, the International Prison Commission, ou the propo¬ sition of the Russian delegation, has recognized the necessity of reserving a special section devoted entirely to questions relating to childhood. And this will he the THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 673 honorable distinction of the iifth congress, that it has devoted itself mostly to that section of humanity, which more than any other claims the strict application of the principle that there is no justice without charity. “Happily, if this congress has a task more extended and more complicated, it will he equal to the demand, thanks above all to the moral aid, not only of the Govern¬ ment of France, of which we are already assured, but also of the nation, which has taken so considerable a part in the renaissance of the public conscience, in the gen¬ erous and powerful movement which has created penitentiary science and which has made penitentiary work the common work of all those who interest themselves for the good of humanity. Belonging all of ns to this humane section, which has insensi¬ bly been given, it may be unjustly, too high a place, we greet above all the adhe¬ sion, more and more marked, the cooperation, more and more cordial, of that other humane section which interests itself in the triumph of charity. If penitentiary science inclines more and more to accord to woman a distinct place, as it has already accorded to childhood, it must have first of all the moral aid and cooperation of woman in the study of the many questions relative to guilty and unfortunate women. Thesolution of questions concerning children and other unfortunates will only be pro¬ moted with the cooperation of woman. The presence of so many distinguished women in our midst as delegates and of others in this meeting is a happy augury, promising that the congress of Paris will be a new step in our ascending march. “To obtain this new success it will be only necessary to maintain the spirit which inspired our predecessors,” recognizing that our discussions and resolutions are powerless to solve the questions, except indirectly by the confidence they inspire and the impulse they give to public opinion. “This success is otherwise assured us by the good preparation for our work. “Mr. Minister, the words of high esteem you have addressed to the International Commission are accepted by us with all our hearts as a precious evidence of your kindness. Faithful to the mission it has received from the Governments which have united to form it, it has prescribed the direction of the work. But for the prepara¬ tion of this work the merit is due in a great part to our worthy president, to the employees of his administration, who assist him, to the distinguished men who have responded to his appeal to form a committee of organization, to the Soci6t6 G6n6rale des Prisons, and to all those Frenchmen or others who by their learned reports have prepared the ground for the discussions. I will not insist with more detail on their merit. Their presence and this place require discretion on my part. But I can not conclude without extending to all, and in the first place to our hon¬ orary president, the sincere and cordial homage and tribute of our appreciation for the signal services they have rendered to this congress and for their zeal and devo¬ tion to assure success. “ I keenly appreciate all that my words need to express my thoughts and the senti¬ ments of my colleagues ; but I console myself with the hope that this congress by its works will offer homage which will be for you of more value than can come from the words of the greatest orator.” The opening address of the honorary president and the above reply by Professor Pols are given to show, respectively, the French and Dutch estimate of prison science so far as the addresses go. Their ideas also correspond well with the general senti¬ ment prevailing in all countries among those who have made a study of penology or have been coiinected with prison reformatory or preventive administration. The session adjourned on the conclusion of the address of Professor Pols, and the foreign delegates, withdrawing to the grand salon of the Sorbonne, were each pre¬ sented to President Faure, who was surrounded by his ministers, the president of the Chamber, and foreign representatives. The delegations were received in the follow¬ ing order: Austria, the Grand Duchy of Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, the United States, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Japan, the Duchy of Luxembourg, Norway, Netherlands. Prussia, Roumania, Russia, the Grand Duchy of ED 96 - 22 674 EDUCATION REPORT, 1893-96. Saxony, Sweden, Switzerland, and Wurtemberg. The President had a pleasant word for each member as he was presented. The Russian delegation was the most numer¬ ous, and was presented hy M. Galkine-Wraskoy, the chief of the Russian prison administration. On Monday, July 1, at 9 o’clock a. m., the congress met in the amphitheater of the Sorbonne for organization. M. Pols nominated M. Duflos as president of the congress, which was unanimously approved. Thereupon M. Duflos addressed the con¬ gress as follows : “ Ladies and Gentlemen : It is not my intention to delay your work hy a long address. You heard yesterday the presentation in most admirable language, hy the highest authorities, of the general principles which inspire you in your discussions and the highest thought which has given birth to the magnificent work of the Inter¬ national Prison Congresses. I can not, however, fail to make the acknowledgment due. I wish to thank you for the high honor you have conferred upon me. I should never dare to accept if I were not to ho supported hy the powerful assistance of my eminent colleagues, M. Beltrani-Scalia, M. Galkine-Wraskoy, and Professor Pols. Their scientific labors, their brilliant role in preceding reunions, assure to tho presi¬ dency, of which they are a part, a valued authority. The cordial sympathy with which they have honored me until now permits me to hope I can guide well the high and formidable task you have confided to me. And in the meantime, since you have given me the right to speak in your name, permit me to repeat to our foreign col¬ leagues the welcome of Paris and France. So imposing is the character of this reunion, in which are mingled so many celebrities of both worlds, that I will ho par¬ doned for rejoicing with all my heart in stating the general interest which is attached to our work and the promptness with which our appeal is responded to. It is suf¬ ficient in the presence of this assembly to affirm that the work of the Fifth Interna¬ tional Prison Congress will he fruitful; that in a few days, after wise discussions, your resolutions, prepared hy profound studies, hy contemplation of the most elevated minds, will furnish to penology new light and many elements of progress. “ From the composition of your programme and the remarkable preparatory reports, which will serve as the basis of your discussions, what appears clear is the ever-increasing presence of the moral side of the prison mission, the necessity of preventing crime, the science attacking resolutely tho source of evil, resolutely decided to repress vigorously, when it is necessary, but considering, after all, repres¬ sion to be the worst. Repression is in effect an extreme means, which should he avoided as much as possible in working for the reformation of prisoners, in offering the means of rising again, and, above all, in arresting evil by the thoughtful educa¬ tion of unfortunate children whom penury or bad examples seem to devote to an irregular and depraved life. “It is thus that questions relating to drunkenness, prostitution, and vagabondage take in our programmes a place more and more important. It is thus that the former third section of the congress has been duplicated and that all which relates to child¬ hood has been made the subject of a special section. “There is nothing, gentlemen, more beautiful7 nothing grander, than the spectacle offered by your reunions. “Is it not singularly moving to see those most distinguished intellectually and socially traversing part of the world and crossing oceans to come hero to study together the methods for decreasing in the world the amount of crime and poverty, which skeptics claim can not be reduced, in order to spare themselves the care of the struggle and effort of inquiry. “You apply yourselves not only to scientific problems to procure for the mind most delicate satisfaction, you do not hesitate, when you truly believe you serve the cause of humanity, to overcome the most natural repugnances and the most legitimate indignations. You combat crime; but when the criminal has been for the time prevented from further acts you consider it is necessary to protect him from THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 675 himself, to draw him away from his instincts, to lead him to the light, to truth, to honor, to offer to delinquent children a protecting hand which, if it must he often severe, it need not he without pity. “In a word, charity incites you as much as the care of social defense. It is charity which elevates and which sustains your hearts while science guides yon. “Honor, then, to charity and science. Such is the cry with which I propose to open for you the Fifth International Congress. Honor to charity and science! They are indissolubly joined here. It is thanks to them that the work of progress and peace will he realized, It is in them that we fraternize to-day.” This address was frequently applauded. M. Duties then presented the nominations of permanent officers of the congress made hy the International Commission. The warm applause which greeted each name as presented witnessed, as stated hy the official j ournal, the eminent services rendered hy each to prison science. The congress cordially adopted the recommendations. They are as follows : Presidents. — M. Dufios, director-general of French prison administration,* M. Bel- trani-Scaiia, councilor of state, Italy; M. Galkine- Wraskoy, director-general of Russian prison administration; M. Pols, professor at the University of Utrecht. Vice-presidents. — Messrs. Braunhehrens, Prussia; Holzknecht de Hort, Austria; Laszlo, Hungary ; Le Jeune, Belgium; Marino, Spain: Pessina, Italy; Randall, United States; Ruggles-Brise, England; Wieselgren, Sweden, and Woxen, Norway. For each of the four divisions there were presidents and eight to ten vice-presi¬ dents. Gen. R. Brinkerhoff, of Ohio, was named as one of the vice-presidents of the penal or second section. The United States was represented in the Congress hy Phillip TV. Ayres, Gen, R. Brinkerhoff, Mr. Lawrence Poland, and Mr. H. C. Ranney, of Ohio; Maj. R. TV. McCiaugliry, of Illinois; Rev. Samuel Barrows, of Massachusetts; Mr. Charlton T. Lewis and Mr. TV. M. F. Round, of New York; Rev. TV. M. Pettis, of Tennessee, and Mr. C. D. Randall, of Michigan. The different States represented were Germany (Baden, Bavaria, Prussia, Saxony, Hamburg), England, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Denmark, Spain, United States, France, Greece, Holland, Italy, Japan, Luxemburg, Nicaragua, Nor¬ way, Sweden, Portugal, Roumania, Russia, Switzerland, TVurtemburg, and Argentina. The largest foreign delegation was from Russia, the official journal showing upward of thirty names. England was credited with twenty, while to the St. Petersburg congress she sent no officialrepresentative. The United States had twelve, while there was only one at St. Petersburg. Austria-Hungary had over twenty. Some countries sent only one, hut there were generally several from each. Some delegates represented especially their governments, while others represented universities, patronage and law societies, penal, reformatory, and preventive institutions, ministers of state, the state prison administrations, prison societies, etc. The American delegation was a repre¬ sentative one. Prisons, reformatories, preventive institutions, and charities of the United States were represented hy those directly connected with their administra¬ tion. Mr. TVilliam Tallack, the distinguished secretary of the Howard Association of London, in a letter from Paris to the London Times, writes of this delegation as follows : “The American delegation at this gathering is numerous and very influential. It is headed hy the veteran General Brinkerhoff, president of the National Prison Association of the United States, than whom, perhaps, no one in the Western Hemi¬ sphere has labored more successfully for the organization of efforts for penal reform. He is accompanied hy his valued colleagues Mr. TV. M. F. Round and Mr. C. T. Lewis, the chief moving spirits of the New York Prison Association, and hy Mr. C. D. Ran¬ dall, of Michigan, who has lately rendered that State a model one in the diminution of pauperism and crime hy means of a wisely administered system of hoarding out (placing in families hy indenture or adoption) and hy kindred measures of a reformatory and preventive character, applied especially to dependent and neglected 676 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. children. Mr. Phillip Ayres and Mr. Poland, of the Cincinnati charities; Mr. Hey- man, of New Orleans; Rev. Mr. Barrows, of Boston; Rev. Mr. Pettis, of Tennessee; Mr. H. C. Ranney, of Ohio, and General Norrish, of Minnesota, are other well- known Americans present. Major McClaughry, ex-chief of police of Chicago and now superintendent, of the Illinois Reformatory, of national reputation, represented his State at the congress.” The International Prison Congress holds its sessions about once in five years. There is a permanent commission composed of one delegate from each country which has given its adhesion to the project, paying the amount required by the rules to meet expenses. This commission makes all preparations for the congress, including the maturing and publication of the programme of questions for discussion. These questions in each congress differ from those of the preceding congress. The com¬ mission also request specialists in the various countries to prepare and send reports on one or more of these questions. These reports are printed in pamphlet form in the French language and are also put in book form. There were 240 of such reports sent in, and they appear in six octavo volumes of over 2,500 pages. These papers are distributed among those who are to attend as delegates some months prior to the opening and form the basis for the discussions. They cover a wide field and embrace many subjects of present interest. The value of these international prison con¬ gresses lies very largely in these preliminary reports. They are generally written very carefully, after considerable preparation, by those who are best informed on the subjects treated. Because of this preparation they are more perfect in thought and language than the discussions. The reports form a unique literature. The pro¬ gramme of questions established by the commission and afterwards reported on and discussed is as follows : Section I. * PENAL LEGISLATION. 1. Should the offender be held as a recidivist when he has only repeated the first offense? Should the increase of punishment be progressive for each new relapse? 2. Can transportation, in the broadest sense, be approved in a reasonable prison system; and if so, what is the special role it should occupy? 3. Can positive effect be given to penal sentences rendered in another country? 4. Does present legislation provide sufficiently for indemnity from the offender to the injured party ? 5. Is there any way to maintain in penal legislation the threefold division into crimes, misdemeanors, and violations? If answered in the negative, what simple division can be made? 6. What are the precise facts which should be considered as constituting vaga¬ bondage and mendicity? Within what limits and by what means can they be repressed ? 7. What repressive methods may be adopted against those who, by the aid of false pretenses, induce young girls to leave their homes and betray them into prostitution? 8. For what violation of criminal law, under what conditions, and to what extent should legislation provide for — (а) A system of admonitions or remonstrances addressed by the judge to the prisoner to take the place of conviction? (б) A method for suspending sentence either by fine, imprisonment, or by other disposition, in the discretion of the judge, but not applied to the prisoner so as to render him liable to a new conviction? THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 677 Section II. PENITENTIARY QUESTIONS. 1. Is there any way to generalize and unify the conditions of anthropometry and to ascertain the conditions under which an agreement in this respect could he advised ? 2. Could special regulations he applied to prisons for women quite different from those prescribed for prisons for men, which would apply to labor as well as to dis¬ cipline and diet? 3. Would it be practicable to have a prison system in which work was not obliga¬ tory? Is not labor in all prisons indispensable as an element of order, safety, mor- alization, and hygiene? 4. Should convicts receive compensation for their labor, or would it be best that the proceeds of their labor be used to cover the expenses for the support of all pris¬ oners of the same class, allowing, however, to each a stated portion of the proceeds and bestowing presents as a reward upon the most meritorious? 5. In order to influence prisoners as much by hope as by fear, would it be proper to bestow rewards frequently? 6. In what form and under what conditions should disciplinary punishments be adjudged and applied? 7. In the interest of general discipline and the reformation of prisoners, should the best or the worst be selected for the effort? 8. On what principle should the duration of punishment be estimated for those convicted who are affected by mental alienation : (a) When they are confined iu special asylums controlled by the prison admin¬ istration ? (&) When they are transferred to insane asylums, properly so called? 9. Has the influence of physical exercise in the prison regime been heretofore sufficiently considered, with reference to the classification of prisoners ? If answered in the negative, what methods should be recommended? Section III. PREVENTIVE MEASURES. 1. What means can be used to prevent prisoners from squandering their earnings on leaving prison, and thus, finding themselves without resources, from relapsing into crime? 2. Howr should schools and prison libraries be organized so that they may truly be of service to the accused and to convicts? Is there any special way to put in the hands of the prisoners periodical and other publications which would be particularly adapted to them ? 3. What measures may be taken, in the interest of social security, against irre¬ sponsible delinquents and against those whose responsibility is weakened when the crime or misdemeanor is committed by mental feebleness or alienation? 4. Would not an unlimited imprisonment in workhouses, by administrative order for adult vagabond recidivists, be preferable to limited convictions? 5. In a preventive view, what are the advantages of asylums for the curative treatment of drunkards, and what are the results obtained in such establishments ? 678 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Section IV. QUESTIONS RELATIVE TO CHILDREN. 1. In relation to young boys, would it not be well to defer the limit of penal minority until tbe age of military liability? It is necessary to understand by penal minority tbe period during wbicb tbe judge may acquit for want of discernment, wilb tbe privilege of sending tbe child to an institution for correctional education. 2. In wbat instances of forfeiture of parental rights would it be beneficial to sub¬ stitute tbe guardianship of tbe State? ‘ Would it be proper, under all circumstances, to confer upon tbe courts themselves tbe responsibility of deciding to whom tbe guardianship should be awarded? 3. Is there not a way to substitute for tbe unique typo of bouses of correction a series of appropriate institutions for the diverse classes of minors, according to penal law and under different names? Would it not especially be best to provide a school of protection, an institution of first degree, for simple mendicants and abandoned children. Wbat is tbe most effi¬ cient way to combat, with a preventive view, the mendicity and vagabondage of minors? 4. Wbat authority should have jurisdiction over tbe condition of children guilty of faults or violations ? For wbat reasons and upon wbat principles should these faults or violations ren¬ der them liable to : (a) Either a penal conviction and imprisonment in a penitentiary establishment, so called? (&) Or being placed in a special correctional institution for vicious or undisciplined children ? (c) Or to be sent to an educational establishment provided for pupils placed under the guardianship of public authority? Should the age of the children be the only consideration in their classification and in determining their disposition ? (d) In accordance with what principles and following what process could children committed to said institutions be provisionally, conditionally, or definitely liberated? (e) Under what conditions should minors be considered as recidivists, and what consequences should follow them in this regard? 5. In establishments for young people, is it not necessary that a large place should be assigned to reasonable physical training? 6. Would it not be well to fix a minimum period during which minors should be sent to correctional institutions, in accordance with penal law ? Is it not proper to decide that in all cases where minors have been convicted they should be sent until their majority, according to civil law, to an institution of peni¬ tentiary education? 7. How and by whom should dependent or morally abandoned children be placed in families after removal from reformatory institutions and be watched over ? Within what limits would it be useful to employ for this purpose patronage societies? 8. What method may be used to prevent and repress the prostitution of minors ? Would it not be desirable that an understanding be had between the different States for the purpose of suppressing the prostitution of young girls taken abroad and too often surrendered to vices through the machinations of certain persons or certain agencies ? These questions could not all receive like attention. Some attracted the greater interest, as shown in the preliminary reports and then in the discussions. In Section I the subjects of habitual offenders, compensation by criminals to their victims, vagrancy, mendicancy, decoying girls for prostitution, conditional liberty, had considerable attention. THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 679 In Section II tlie Bertillion system, prison discipline for women, prison labor, rewards and punishments, and criminal insanity were discussed mostly. In Section III aid to discharged prisoners, prison schools and libraries, intemper¬ ance and inebriate asylums were considered principally. In Section I Y parental responsibility, the forfeiture of parental rights, the classifi¬ cation, supervision, and disposition of dependent and delinquent children were warmly discussed and with probably more interest than were any of the subjects in the other divisions. Many of the ablest debaters and writers were in this section, and in point of ability it was second to none. It would be impossible in this paper to give even an abstract of the discussions on each subject. Some selections will be made from the discussions and preliminary reports relating to some of the more important questions of the programme. The discussions were first in the four sections in separate rooms in the College of France, in the forenoon of each day. In the afternoon the sections united in a general assembly and, hearing the reports from the secretaries of the sessions, rediscussed to a greater or less extent the resolutions adopted by the sections, and adopted or modified the .conclusion reached by the sections. The reports of the sec¬ tions were generally approved by the general assembly. These conclusions will be given in this report as finally adopted. Discussions axd Papers in Section I. PENAL LEGISLATION. The president of Section I was M. Fuchs, private counselor of finances and presi¬ dent of the Society of Patronage of the Grand Duchy of Baden. He was ably supported by nine vice-presidents from Greece, Hamburg, Russia, Italy, Switzer¬ land, Prussia, Holland, and Austria and four most competent secretaries headed by M. Robinquet, advocate for the State council and the court of appeals. There was in this section a marked attendance of jurists, statesmen, magistrates of all grades, professors of law, advocates, etc., all of whom were most competent to discuss the philosophy of penal law, the language and construction of statutes and the effects of their application. WHO A EE EECIDI VISTS ? The first question in this section refers to the recidivist, a new word in penology and especially so in the English language, and the question itself asks what consti¬ tutes one — whether repeating the same offense makes him a recidivist. The second part of the question is whether the penalty should increase with each offense. This subject in Europe is of far greater importance than in America at present and has consequently been more considered there and more provision has been made there to prevent relapse into crime. The prison population of Europe is so largely made up from old offenders that every effort is made to provide against the repetition of crime. There were eleven reports submitted on this double question: two English, one Spanish, one American, four French, one Greek, one Dutch, and one Italian. In the discussion some of the more prominent speakers held that where the first offense was a grave one and a second was committed the person should be considered a recidivist. By the second offense he had shown himself to be dangerous to society. In presence of the fact of the first crime he could not be considered as a first offender. He is in decided revolt against the law, whatever be the diversity of his acts. On the other hand, a less number of speakers favored the theory of special recidi¬ vists, especially in the case of minor offenses. They claimed that law should be more indulgent, reserving its severity for the habitual criminal. Different members, and especially the Russians, took this view. In their opinion the concurrence of similar violations was not sufficient to place the offender in the state of recidivism, for this 680 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. concurrence might he accidental. It is necessary that among the diverse violations there should he not only a material identity, hut above all they should he instigated hy the same motive; and only then can it he said that the criminal instincts are deeply rooted in the delinquent. Another opinion was presented relative to a different class of professionals, who renounce Avork and live at the expense of others, and for whom crime is a profession. All their actions are antisocial. These are without question special recidivists. There was an animated discussion on the point whether progressive increase of pen¬ alties should he obligatory on the judge. Some claimed the greatest latitude for the judge. On tbe other hand, it was claimed that the judge was too much influ¬ enced hy limited importance of the case before him and did not consider sufficiently the criminal tendencies revealed. It is important to limit the power of the judge in a way to prevent too many short sentences, w'hich are the principal cause of recidi¬ vism. It is better to put professional delinquents out of power to injure hy elimi¬ nating them from society for a long period. A proper measure against them is sen¬ tence on indeterminate sentence. Individual characters vary, and the judge can most properly determine the character of the prisoner by his antecedents, while the law can name the number of convictions from which the offender can he named a recidivist, or a professional. These were some of the various ideas presented on this subject. TRANSPORTATION. The discussion of the second question in Section I, relative to transportation, was somewhat spirited and interesting. This subject was before the congress of Stock¬ holm and St. Petersburg. It was a surprise to the congress that the Russian dele¬ gates did not defend the system — in fact, disapproved of it in many respects — and the defense rested mainly with France, which adheres to the system in theory and practice. M. Bahinet, for France, defended it. He said that transportation was not a theory; that it was a fact; that several nations had practiced it for a long time, and that it has entered into their systems of repression. He said that France had transported criminals for forty years and desired to continue the system, which was improving, and that foreign delegates should not discourage the French administration in its efforts in that direction. The Italian members took no part in the discussion. Speaking for Germany, Dr. Starke recalled the fact that at the beginning of the century Germany, which he represented, had attempted to put transportation into practice in accordance with a convention with Russia. Since then it has definitely renounced the system, and to colonize its African possessions will only have recourse to free emigration. But the institution was violently and ably attacked by M. Prins, of Belgium. He claimed that every people who had attempted to colonize with convicts had miserably failed, notably France, in New Caledonia and Guiana, and Russiain Siberia. Only Engl and for a time succeeded. Then the violent protests of the free colonists compelled the home Government to discontinue the system, and Australia increased remarkably in pros¬ perity. Besides, if transportation is to an unhealthy climate, it is to a slow death. You can not send the dregs of the population to develop a colony. On the contrary, if you send convicts to a healthy climate it is no more a punishment. It is a good fortune, while it is a defiance to the honest people among whom they are sent. Why place the prison so far from home, so far from serious control? Why not follow England, and organize transportation in the interior, as at Portland, Portsmouth, Chatham, and Parkhurst? Really transportation can only be employed to prepare a new colony for emigration, and then when the country is prepared the convicts should be withdrawn. It can only be employed at great expense. A transport costs seven times more than a convict in prison, and how can charitable and preventive work be incorporated in the system? The system is not preventive of crime. The convict THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 681 colony becomes the refuge of all classes who have become compromised in the mother country, and becomes a nursery of crime. It is wise, then, not to sacrifice all to trans¬ portation, which has too often been followed by failure. The surprise of the day came with the address of M. Spassovicz, of Russia. It was naturally expected that the Russian delegates would defend the system. For some years’ a public sentiment has been created, in America and England especially, against Russia on account of Siberian exiles, and the idea has been fostered that Russia was wedded to the system and persisted in its continuance and all its alleged cruelties. The intelligent student, however, in Russian affairs is aware that in the past one hundred years no country has made greater advances than Russia in prison reform, and that no country has more advanced thinkers and workers in all phases of penology than Russia. And among these no one is working more for the improve¬ ment of the prison system of Russia in Europe and Asia than M. Galkine Wraskoy, the able and humane chief of the Russian prison administration, who has been in that position the past fifteen years. He has lately returned from a long journey through Siberia and is doing all that he can to do away with Siberian transporta¬ tion, in which early success is expected. M. Spassovicz began by stating that he was not hostile to the principle of trans¬ portation. He considered the punishment as severe, intimidating, and an excellent measure for the protection of society. On the other hand, he admitted the great difficulty in removing from the convict all hope of returning to his own country. This takes away an element of reform of the first order. Russia to-day is in a peculiar condition, which must be considered. The nation has advanced rapidly, but has not reached its full development. It was only in 1861 that serfdom was abolished, and it was only in 1861 that the judicial and administrative departments were separated. It is to-day working thoroughly in prison reform. Until now transportation has above all been a means of removing divers rebellious elements from its midst. It has been applied to political, religious, and even municipal causes. It is certain that the institution should be radically reformed. But before that is done another duty is encountered and that is the reform of prisons. Every¬ where in Russia they are in a deplorable condition, and there must be prisons before transportation is discontinued. Following the lead of M. Spassovicz, M. Drill, law counsel to the minister of justice of Russia, M. Fonitzky, advocate-general of the court of appeals of Russia, and M. Woulfert, professor in the Military Academy, Russia, attacked the institution itself. They said that doubtless transportation in theory was an ideal penalty, but its practice demonstrated that it could not he organized, that it was decidedly condemned, and that in fifteen years there have been three movements for its abolition. The effort attempted in the Island of Sak- halien need not be taken into account. Its success could not remove the discour¬ aging results from the experience of centuries. It is time to break with the past and to abandon a system of repression which has produced nothing, and to return to that of imprisonment. The addresses of the Russian members showed a freedom of speech that is not usually credited to their country. They did not hesitate to attack a system of their country which for centuries has been interwoven in their criminal, religious, and po’itical system. The total abolition of transportation may be looked for in Russia along time before we shall see France abandon it, but not until prisons are made or rebuilt for their criminal population. Left alone to defend the system, the French members came to the rescue. M. Petit, one of the ablest counselors of the court of appeals, favored the system. He claimed that every State had a right to use its distant possessions in accordance with its interests. A people that does not wish to submit itself to the system of prolonged cellular detention has a right to set apart a portion of their colonial territory for long confinement for great criminals and incorrigibles. They can in this way protect themselves from recidivists and at the same time the colony can receive an element ED 96 - 22* 632 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. for its development, if watched with care, so that it does not become troublesome to the honest population; that it was worthy of remark that New Caledonia had never protested against the presence of convicts, and that at the colonial congress of 1890 only asked for new measures favorable to the colonists ; that if the penalty is severe it is repressive. It is necessary that work should bo obligatory and severe, and that for the interest of the colony the discipline should bo extremely rigorous. New offenses should bo punished by cellular imprisonment for an indeterminate time The punishment should be reformatory, and to moral instruction the religious should be added. The convict, so far removed from the scene of his crime, should be more accessible to good influences. He is encouraged in his efforts by successive mitiga¬ tions, which after a while will lead to conditional liberation, first provisional and then definite, so that ho may become a new man. Finally, he is to be allowed, at a day fixed, to be restored to his family. How, then, can it bo doubted that trans¬ portation should not take its place in a rational system of repression ? The defense of the system was continued by Professor Leveille, known as an ardent and indomitable French advocate of transportation. Ho had studied the system in the prisons of Guiana, and at the end of the Trans-Caspian Eailroad. The time limit for the discussion was too brief for so great a subject, but he treated it, however, very happily. Transportation, he said, had two virtues — it permits work in the open air and it does not exhaust the convict, and in the meantime it fits him for free life. It comprises, then, punishment and redemption of the fallen man. Consequently it has a striking superiority over the ordinary prison, which punishes but breaks up the family, declasses tho convict, and drives him fatally to recidivism. While the jail produces 95 recidivists out of 100 discharged, and the prison 50 in 100, transportation supplies only 5 in 100. Are not these figures eloquent? Abandoning general con¬ siderations, one may engage in refuting the objections which arc without cessation brought against transportation and strive to do justice to the legends with which transportation is surrounded. It is true that certain people condemn transporta¬ tion, but in truth practice it by indirect methods, such as throwing their discharged convicts upon other nations, forcing them by indirect means to leave the country, or generously facilitating their emigration. It is equally truo that tho states which have maintained it, as France and Eussia, havo met with repeated failures. So far as Franco is concerned, these failures are due not to the institution itself, but either to errors in the law or mistakes in exe¬ cuting the law. The law of 1850 was imperative because of requiring labor of political convicts. Tho law of 1885 on banishment could only end in miscarriage. It saw creatures exhausted by life in prisons on tho Continent and had not dared to clearly impose the obligations of labor, and had left to exist in an equivocal con¬ dition the convicts who considered themselves as free laborers. Finally, there was not enough daring to break the tie which held the prisoner to his country, and it maintained in him tho sentiment ©f return. On tho contrary, the law of 1851 on transportation was remarkably constructed. It contained in embryo two fruitful ideas, that which strengthens the penalty and that which assists the prisoner of merit, elevates him, and gradually transforms him to a free man. But not until lately has this law been turned to'account, which is really the chef d’ oeuvre of legis¬ lation. Tho penalty has been enervated by excessive indulgence, and thero is the attraction to the criminals of New Caledonia. Besides, from their embarkation, before atonement, the convicts were surrendered to speculators at a low price or even gratuitously. Wo understand from this why the enforcement of labor has been feeble and the support of the men has weighed so heavily on the budget of the State. But these abuses havo been shown and no longer exist. Eecently adminis¬ trative regulations havo given to the penalty its real character and havo arrested illegal traffic. On the other hand, the revision of the penal codo suppressed trans¬ portation for political offenses, and the penalty of banishment is strengthened, tho law of 1854 is maintained Then a happy innovation has been admitted; voluntary THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 683 transportation is authorized, which permits the administration to allow the convict his choice between imprisonment at home or transportation to the colony. Finally, to prevent the return of past abuses, it is proposed to establish a superior council of colonial punishments, which will supervise the execution of distant penalties. As to Russia, it should definitely relieve itself of all forms, of transportation which havo become odious to the nation and retain only transportation for crimes at com¬ mon law called katorga. It implies the obligation of work, without which neither repression nor colonization are possible. It corresponds directly to our penalty of forced labor, and for fifteen years it has been applied with success in the island of Saghalien. It is not proposed to abolish it, but to extend it, and the new project of the penal code of Russia formally favors it. Perhaps it would bo humane to imitate on our part the Russians, who, from the first, permit the family of the con¬ demned to follow the convict into exile. At all events, it is remarkable that, pro¬ ceeding separately, the Russians and French as to transportation end with the same conclusions. M. Willems, delegate of the French minister of the colonies, said that notwith¬ standing assertions to the contrary, penal labor could be made productive. Employ¬ ment of convicts in Algeria under the direction of the military authority has been productive. M. the Pastor Arboux, chaplain of Seine prisons, insisted with much emotion on the necessity, in a social point of view, to practice the system of riddance in regard to criminals by profession. They were not satisfied to be a scourge only, but applied themselves in addition, with perversity, to educate young criminals by detestable teaching. The person who issues from prison, even a cellular prison, is not for that reason restored. In this point of view transportation is most favorable to the reformation of criminals; above all, if it is organized solidly on moral and religious education. After this spirited discussion the conclusion was adopted as found herein, and, on comparison with the conclusion at Stockholm on the same subject, it will bo found that the congress of Paris was the more favorable of the two to transportation. This conclusion was doubtlessly affected by a sentiment of courtesy to France as the host of the congress. The question was discussed considerably in the general meeting in the Sorbonne, in which many took part. At this time M. Foinitzky, professor in the University of St. Petersburg, who has published an able work on transportation, took prominent part in the discussion, presenting this resolution : “The congress, approving the efforts to ameliorate the methods of transportation as a penalty and as a measure of protection to society, finds that the present condi¬ tion does not present sufficient data for a definite and uniform solution. " This was not adopted. The attention of his excellency M. Galkine-Wraskoy, the chief of the Russian prison system, having been called to an illustrated article in the Monde Illustrc on the island of Saghalien, ho stated that the information therein was absolutely authentic, and added that it was entirely true that the results obtained in the island of Saghalien were most encouraging. That the island is inhabited only by those condemned to exile. They undergo imprisonment with hard labor in view of colo¬ nization. In Siberia, on the contrary, more diverse elements are combined. Labor is not required of all the deported. “I have the right to say," added he, “that our efforts in Saghalien have succeeded." M. Fonitzky inquired of M. Wraskoy whether for some years there has not been a plan elaborated in Russia for the suppression of transportation. His excellency replied affirmatively, but added that it related to transportation to Siberia, where labor is not organized, while in the island of Saghalien, as ho had already remarked, forced labor was rigorously practiced. This view from the head of the Russian prison system showing that Siberian exile was to be discontinued, 684 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. and Saghalienwas to be tbe great and distant prison of Russia, is an important one to know. Tbe article referred to stated there were 25,000 convicts then in Saghalien aud 80 colonists, that all industries were represented, and that already 2,000,000 tons of grain and 8,000,000 tons of potatoes had been produced. Among the preliminary reports to the congress on transportation was one by M. N. S. Taganitzew, councilor of the court of appeals, professor of the law school of St. Petersburg, honorary member of the University of St. Petersburg and of St. Wladi- mir at Kiew. He was the only Russian writing on the question submitted who advo¬ cated transportation. His report contains a brief history of the rise of transporta¬ tion and somewhat of its present condition. Without making extracts from his argument, his conclusions are given as follows : “1. Colonization and transportation, united with imprisonment at hard labor, and in some cases separately applied, examined in the abstract unite the essential conditions of punishment and respond perfectly to the purposes of intimidation, safety, and correction. This is why it should not be excluded from the common system of penal measures in use at this time. “2. But as the practical application of transportation, as shown by historical experience, presents everywhere serious difficulties, it can only be recommended for states offering convenient conditions, and to a limited extent. “ 3. It would be desirable — “(a) That transportation be maintained in countries which possess proper terri¬ tory for its application; above all, if such countries do not believe it possible to secure penal repression by imprisonment. “(&) That transportation is not a general measure extending to a great number of criminals, without regard to individual qualities, but that it should be ordered con¬ formably to their physical and moral fitness for colonization. ” The jurisprudence society of St. Petersburg is one of high rank, and took a promi¬ nent position through its members attending the fourth International Prison Con¬ gress in St. Petersburg. They presented quite a number of reports at that congress, aud they were of the highest merit, taking the highest and most intelligent positions in prison science. It seems that the paper of M. Taganitzew was presented to the law society before the congress met and that society entered its protest against the position taken by the writer. The commission of the society, having heard the paper read, made the following report : “ 1 . That the signification of transportation as a penalty in an abstract idea and without regard to experience is unanimously recognized by Russian jurists in the same sense as presented by Professor Taganitzew. “ 2 . That, on the contrary, as to the practical application of transportation there are differences of opinion, and to the optimism of the report this society apposes a negative opinion, considering that it is doubtful whether there can be a rational organization of transportation in Russia, where for three hundred years it has existed and has not succeeded in strongly establishing itself. “ 3. Yet in the meantime we must accept transportation as necessary (always with the restrictions named by M. Taganitzew) in presence of the faults of prison organi¬ zation ; for of the two evils — a bad prison and bad transportation — the former is evi¬ dently the greatest, and at the same time it need not be forgotten that even the existence of transportation need not check the improvement of the prison system.” M. Taganitzew says of the present state of transportation : “ The want of enough prisons in Siberia for convicts was the cause, in 1879, of the publication of provisional regulations restraining transportation to Siberia to cer¬ tain classes of criminals. The convicts who were not transported finished their punishment in local prisons provided for that purpose. But sojourn in these prisons without labor and without any classification among criminals took away the rigor of punishment, making the prison a nursery of vice. And on the other hand the crowded local prisons, without sanitary conditions, raised the death rate to an THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 685 incredible figure, so that in 1880 transportation was reestablished on its former basis. At the present time the principal kinds of transportation are transportation with forced labor and transportation to the colonies for colonizing purposes. Forced labor is of two kinds: Sojourn in the islands with work for the State and sojourn in the colony. This is accomplished partly in Siberia and partly in the island of Saghalien since 1879, which forms a kind of colony for transportation. The island for administrative purposes is divided into three parts. At the head is the governor, while at the head of each division is a commander. The director of the principal prison is president of the administration, which has cognizance of all civil and crim¬ inal affairs of small importance. Those of the most importance are passed on by the maritime court of the division. In 1882, to aid in the installation of the transports, women condemned to hard labor were sent to Saghalien. The principal work of the convicts consists in opening roads through the vast forests which cover the island, in the construction of bridges, stations, embankments, etc. To this should be added the establishment of telegraphic communications with the continent, the construc¬ tion of a fort at Alexandrovsk, erecting buildings, steam mills, sawmills, foundries, salt works, and important work in the coal mines at Douet. In 1894 large compa¬ nies of convicts were sent into the province of Amour to work on the Oussouri Railroad. “Convicts are employed in clearing up the land and for raising crops; but rural economy and the raising of cattle do not supply the wants of the prisoners, and pro¬ visions are received from Odessa, in the region of the Amour. According to law the convicts, during their imprisonment, are divided into two classes: Those who are under observation and those who are in the way of reform. In the first class the convicts, in accordance with their punishment, are obliged to pass from one to eight years. Then, if they give some hope of amendment by their submission to the administration, by their temperance and their prudence, by their propriety and application to work, they will pass into the second class. At the end of one to three years they can receive permission to live out of the prison, to build houses with material furnished by the State, to have money, and to marry. During the continuance of forced labor one-tenth of the earnings belongs to the con¬ vict. At the end of this period the convicts pass into the colony, except those who are sentenced for an indeterminate period, and they can not become colonists under twenty years. For further information relative to Siberian transportation reference is made to the interview with M. Komorsky, inspector-general of Siberian prisons, in the report of the St. Petersburg International Prison Congress, published by the United States Bureau of Education. INDEMNITY FOR THE INJURED PARTY. The question relating to indemnity to the injured party by the criminal was dis¬ cussed in six preliminary reports and in the congress. There is a great variety of circumstances where the criminal has injured his victim, depriving him in whole or in part of the ability to support himself and family. The victim in some cases has died from his injuries and has left a family for public or private charity to maintain. A suit for private damages in a few cases will bring relief, but in most the judgment could not be collected, as poverty and crime are generally associated. As one of the speakers in the congress said, “poverty and crime are two unfortunate sisters who always travel hand in hand together.” The discussions developed no remedy for all cases. That would have been impossible. Simpler remedies by legal process were recommended and State assistance suggested without approval. Where the offender has no means to pay indemnity the injured or his family must suffer. With the hope that further light might be thrown upon the difficult problem, it was referred in the conclusions to the next International Prison Congress. Among the preliminary reports on this subject was an able one by Mme. Dr, Lydia 686 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Poet, the distinguished lady advocate of Italy. The following conclusions were pre¬ sented in her paper : “1. There should he secured to the victim of the crime a special lien on the prop¬ erty of the delinquent, and that attachment should issue in his favor at the same time as the warrant for arrest. “2. That for certain crimes which do not disturb the social order there should be imposed, instead of imprisonment for a short term, the payment of damages by the solvent delinquent, and for others the obligation to labor in establishments, and that the pay of the prisoner in whole or in part be allowed for indemnity to the victim until the debt be extinguished. “3. That in countries where it is authorized for certain crimes the accused should not be allowed the suspension of sentence until he has proved that ho has compen¬ sated the injured party. “4. That the pay of the prisoner bo employed to repair the wrong by indemnifying first the victim and in paying the expenses of his support by the administration, and that only after that he be allowed to dispose of his earnings freely. “5. That it should not be possible for the prisoner to obtain his pardon or condi¬ tional liberation in countries where such practices prevail, and that he be not allowed to be rehabilitated if he can not show he has indemnified his victim fully.” One of the preliminary reports was by M. Zucker, professor of criminal law at Prague. He presents the phases of the question at length, and ends with these con¬ clusions : “ 1 . Penal law should, more than heretofore, take into account the indemnity due the injured party. “2. The public minister should have the right ex officio and informally to order assessment of damages in favor of the injured party. “ 3. The party injured should have a lien on the real estate and a first lien upon the personal property of the guilty party, to date from his discharge, so that the guilty will not have time to dispose of his property. “4. The judge will decide what proportion of the receipts of the prisoner for labor in prison will be paid to the injured party for indemnity that is due him.” In his preliminary report on this question M. P. Armengol Y. Comet, magistrate etc., at Barcelona, says: ‘*'1. The provisions of law which prevail in our times are insufficient in practice to enable the victim of the offense to obtain indemnity. To obtain indemnity it is necessary that in criminal trials the court should determine the amount that the con¬ demned should pay to the victim or his heirs, and to realize the same should issue a process against the person considered as responsible, as receiver or accomplice, to proceed to seize his property, personal and real. “2. On pronouncing judgment, if the condemned is solvent, enough of his goods will be sold to realize the funds necessary to pay the judgment. “3. If the condemned is insolvent, the damages will be paid out of the treasury of fines which shall be created by the minister of justice. All fines shall go into this treasury, and the state shall be reimbursed by the receipts for the prisoner’s labor.” This last suggestion is a novel one, but will seldom, if ever, be put into practice. M. Prins, inspector-general of the prisons of Belgium, was the author of a lengthy preliminary report in which he treated the subject historically and philosophically. He showed that proceedings for civil damages were provided in most ancient times by the Greeks and Romans and other ancient nations. “In England,” he says, “the system of indemnity, due to Germanic culture, existed until after the Norman invasion. It then received a special form of appli¬ cation, thanks to the organization of guilds, tithings, and hundreds, associations responsible for the conduct of their members.” “In France, in former times, the triumph of absolute monarchy rapidly marked the penal system with its strong imprint and made the element of public rights THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 687 prevail over private rights. In the meantime the only legislative monument vrorthy of attention, the only general penal law before the revolution — the criminal code of 1670 — maintained the distinction between public and private offenses, public prose¬ cution and private complaint. It decided that in case, of capital offenses the prosecu¬ tion will take place notwithstanding the transactions of the parties, while in other cases, in matter of blows without serious injuries — light misdemeanors — if the parties settle for the injuries there will be no prosecution and the settlement will be enforced. Thus even under Louis XIY it appeared oj)pressivc to prosecute in the abstract interests of society when the private interest had declared itself satisfied. li But modern penal law has reversed the more ancient rule giving preference to the public prosecution in the interest of all.” In remedies proposed, M. Prins finds little difficulty in securing indemnity from the solvent offender, but to collect from the insolvent becomes a serious problem. He proposes that for light offenses public order will be sufficiently protected by a conviction, with sentence suspended, conditioned on the obligation to repair the damage done. If the offender pays the amount fixed by the court within the time named in the judgment, then imprisonment will be avoided. For graver offenses he proposes punishment by imprisonment for a stated time, to be followed by conditional liberation under the reservation to pay in a time named the damages assessed by the court. In case of failure to pay reimprisonment for the full time is to follow. Though no remedy has been discovered which will be effective in all cases, and none will be, yet the subject is one worthy the attention of the American legislator, who, it is possible, may be able to secure the injured party further protection than ho can now obtain through civil process alone for private damages. COMPENSATION FOR PRISON LABOR. The fourth question of Section II is one that has long been considered by the prac¬ tical penologist : Has the prisoner a right to compensation for labor? This had a lengthy discussion in the section andin the general assembly. There were eleven pre¬ liminary reports from a great diversity of countries. M. Stevens, of Belgium, claimed that the prisoner owed his services to the State, and that the State owed in its turn remuneration to the prisoner. By dividing the pay into disposable and reservable the irrisoner has a notion of saving. In paying by the piece and not by the day there is established between the convicts a classification. The disposable part of his pay can be used in ameliorating his regimen and the part reserved will assist in his restoration on leaving the prison. M. Cremieux called the attention of the con¬ gress to the fact that the French code (article 41) admits explicitly the right to com¬ pensation for those sentenced to correctional punishment in these words: “The products of the work of each prisoner under correctional punishment shall be applied partly to the common expenses of the prisoners.” The majority of the section, how¬ ever, held that the prisoner had no right to compensation. M. Puibaraud considered that the prison could only care for itself, as the expenses were large and the receipts unimportant. In the general assembly the sentiment was divided, but all agreed that it was indispensable for the good government of the prison that the efforts of the prisoner should be recognized by compensation or gratuity for labor ; that prison work, to be reformatory, should be paid. Several of the most prominent speakers argued that the prison labor imposed was an element of the punishment as much as the imprisonment, and that if we admitted the convict had a right to a salary it would not be going far to recognize he had a right to indemnity for being placed in prison. Labor is a confiscation of the energies as imprisonment is a confiscation of liberty. If he has a right to a salary, then he could require that he should be paid in proportion to his work. There should be rewards for work. The State in grant¬ ing them does a liberal act, but does not execute an obligation, and this is the sub¬ stance of the conclusion of the section as indorsed by the general assembly. 688 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. This question has more importance in Europe, where m many prisons a small pay¬ ment is made or reward given, than in America, where the practice is quite limited. CUSTODY OF PRISONERS’ EARNINGS. Question 1 of the second section, important in Europe, but of less consequence here, elicited much attention from the congress: Should the discharged convict con¬ trol his earnings? There were ten preliminary reports, from Russia, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland, Norway, England, and France. All speakers deplored the squander¬ ing of their earnings by discharged prisoners. Three systems were presented. The first was obligatory patronage. This is successfully operated in the Grand Duchy of Baden. In Belgium another system is] adopted. There the burgomaster of the place where the discharged convict has his residence has charge of the earnings where they exceed 70 francs. If below that amount he can spend it freely. If a patronage society exists in the place it is to have preference in the disposition of the money. A third system is one which authorizes the discharged, with the approval of the administration, to choose a patron, who shall receive and disburse the earnings. Each system had its advocates. Several warmly indorsed the plan of intrusting the funds for disbursement to postal savings banks, claiming they could better regu¬ late the time and amounts of payments. It was objected that the distribution would be automatic and not reformatory. It was urged that the sending part of their earn¬ ings to their families should be encouraged. The conclusions show that by some of the methods named there should be a trustee for the disbursements of the sav¬ ings of the discharged prisoner. THE PRISONS IN THE UNITED STATES. The discussions in the sections and general assembly continued nine days and cov¬ ered substantially all the questions of the programme of the congress. The Amer¬ ican delegation was divided in its attendance at the various sections and attended together the general sessions in the amphitheater of the Sorbonne, occasionally tak¬ ing part in the discussions in the sections and general assembly. The American delegation had organized by making the veteran penologist, Gen. R. Brinkerlioff, of Ohio, its chairman, and the Rev. Samuel Barrows, of Massachusetts, secretary. The delegation had frequent meetings to decide on the various questions which came before it in reference to tlie congress. It was deemed proper that some one of the dele¬ gation should present briefly before the general assembly a statement of the present condition of the prison systems in the United States, and General Brinkerlioff was considered a very proper person to do this. His address before the general assembly is here given in full : “Mr. President, Ladies, and Gentlemen: The secretary-general of the congress, Dr. Guillaume, has requested me to give, in behalf of the American delegation, an abstract of the special reformatory methods in our country, and particularly the Elmira system, which is being adopted in our States. It is interesting to notice that the three great prison systems of the world have their origin in America. “1. The cellular or Pennsylvania system, which has been so eloquently defended in this congress, and which has been so largely developed in Europe, was first intro¬ duced in Philadelphia sixty years ago. This system still prevails there and is administered in an able manner, but it has been abandoned in all other prisons of our country. We do not believe in it except for prisoners awaiting trial or in other exceptional cases. “2. The system for work in common during the day and cellular separation at night had its origin in the State prison at Auburn, N. Y., fifty years ago. This system is substantially universal in America for prisoners condemned for a term of years, for life, and for recidivists and incorrigibles. THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 689 “3. The Elmira system is based on indeterminate sentence and conditional lib¬ eration. This liberation is known by the term of ‘conditional discharge,7 and is obtained by a system of good or bad marks aud a progressive classification. It is only applied to adults under 30 years of age and to those convicted for the first offense. This system was first introduced at Elmira in 1876 under the administration of that prince of prison science, Mr. Z. R. Brockway, and the results obtained have been highly satisfactory, and results, after all, are the only proofs of the excellence of a system. “The Elmira prison contains 1,200 prisoners, which is 400 more than a reforma¬ tory should have. In the last six years the prison has had on an average over 800 prisoners. It has been shown after a conscientious examination that 82 out of each 100 discharged prisoners have become honest and respectable citizens. “The prisons of the United States compare favorably with those of Europe. In the treatment of prisoners serving out short sentences, the arrested awaiting trial, and discharged prisoners, England and Ireland are in advance of us; but in other respects we do not fear comparison, and in some we are in the advance. In Europe intimidation and repression seem to be dominating ideas toward the criminal classes ; with us they are reform and prevention. We have repudiated the idea of lex tali- onis. In the time of Moses, under the conditions then existing, this system may have been better; but to-day we live inspired by the lessons of the Divine Nazarene, who said that love and not hate should be our guide. In our work with criminals we have in view the protection of society, but all punishment inflicted on a prisoner for other motives is considered as a wrong against the natural rights of man. We believe in intimidation if that alone can protect society. In the State of Ohio if a man is condemned for the third time we consider him as an habitual criminal and sentence him for life. For incorrigible drunkards we have enacted a law giving the judge authority for the first offense to sentence in his discretion ; for the second the penalty is double the first, for the third double the second, and for the fourth impris¬ onment for three years, with the privilege of conditional liberation in case of good conduct. Finally, we believe that reform and prevention are the means to employ to reduce crime. “For criminal minors we have reformatories, generally called industrial schools, from whence they go out and may become, on the average, as good citizens as those who go from the common schools. But above all we believe that it is our duty to give to our children in the public schools an education which trains the hand and heart as well as the head. The State should add to each public school a kindergarten for children below 6 years of age. Do this and the number of criminals, which increases in all countries, will greatly diminish and we will enter a better era in the history of the world.’7 The address was very cordially applauded. The Rev. Samuel Barrows, an American official delegate, addressed the general assembly and presented some interesting details on the probation system in opera¬ tion in his country, which is the origin of the conditional sentence system in vogue in Europe. The idea dates from 1870 in the State of Massachusetts, where they adopted the plan to release certain prisoners conditionally on the request of persons who interested themselves in their behalf. In 1878 the State took the place of these petitioners and enacted a law providing for a special officer attached to the city and town courts, who was named by the president of the court and paid out of the jmblic treasury. They are knoAvn as “probation officers.77 They make an inquiry when a person is arrested as to his antecedents and his family, his occupation, which inquiry is made rather in the spirit of charity. When the investigation is held the trial takes place and the judgment is p>ronounced. The sentence can be pronounced at the expiration of the probation, or even before. The officer is a true assistant to his prot6g6, the prisoner. This system is extended to habitual drunkards. The results have been excellent, not only in America, but in Belgium, where the number of conditionally convicted recidivists has fallen to 3 in 100. 1 690 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1895-96. Mr. Heyman, Mr. Ayres, and Mr. Poland, of the United States delegation, spoke at different times in Section IV, taking advanced grounds in reference to the better methods for the protection of children. Mr. Kandall, one of the United States official delegates, had presented to the con¬ gress a prelimin ary report on the subject of the u Forfeiture of parental rights,’7 especially relating to the practice in England and America in the courts, showing the general rule adopted in both countries. The subject is one of great interest in all countries, and has been considerably discussed in the Societ6 Gendrale des Prisons of Franco and in the Senate and House of Deputies of that country. Some extracts will be made from the report in the discussions of the fourth division. THE CHILDREN. As stated in one of the opening addresses of the congress, the commission, recog¬ nizing the special importance of problems relating to dependent and delinquent children, had added a new section to the programme, to be known as Section IV, relating entirely to children. The great interest in this department is shown by the number of preliminary reports, eighty in all, and more than in any other section. Among the writers were some of the most accomplished and celebrated specialists. The names of Bonjean, Beltrani-Scalia, Kouselle, Moldenhaner, Voisin, and Joly are mentioned as known to the writer, and there were many others equally distinguished. It is more and more recognized that the most fruitful field for prison reform lies in preventing pauperism and crime by the care and education of exposed dependent and delinquent children. In that field there is always hope. The reform of pris¬ oners, the supervision of discharged prisoners by patronage societies, are excellent works in their way and will always be necessary, for there always will be criminals. But the highest social science is to keep the prison population down to the lowest number by preventing the young from becoming criminals. There were seven pre¬ liminary reiiorts on the second question of Section IV. The longest report, and a very able one, was by Dr. Alex, de Moldenhauer, judge of the city court of War¬ saw, and a noted writer on various social questions. His report covers about one hundred octavo pages and was very thorough in the history, philosophy, and experi¬ ence in child saving. The whole report is most valuable reading, but only part of his conclusions can be given. In closing ho recommends congress to say that: “ The congress, in continuation of the resolutions passed by the congresses of Home and St. Petersburg, which definitely recognized it to be not only the right but the duty of the State to prevent the pernicious influence of the parents or guard¬ ians on their children or wards, is of the opinion that the right of guardianship of the State over minors should replace the guardianship of the parents or guardians during their minority.” This he applies to cases where the parents or guardians have been convicted of capital offenses, or for a long term of imprisonment, or for certain offenses against the children, or for other acts proving the parents are unworthy or incompetent to perform their duties, or for complicity with their children in crime, and, above all, when they encourage or force their children to criminal acts, and for various other and somewhat similar reasons. In one resolution he asks the congress to express its desire that for all minors who come in question and for whom the State will replace the parental authority there should be established absolutely distinct institutions for each class. Another he recommends is : 11 The congress expresses the opinion that the decision concerning the forfeiture of parental rights and the substitution of guardianship by the State of minors should be left either to the civil or criminal courts or to a court especially established for the purpose.” There is no higher authority on this subject than M. Felix Voisin, councilor of the court of appeals and member of the superior council of prisons. One of the pre- THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 691 liminary reports was by him. It is brief, but comprehends much. He calls atten¬ tion to the French statute of 1889, and says: ‘•'It is evident that parents who excite, favor, or facilitate the prostitution or corruption of their children should not retain any parental authority. It is the same if they are convicted as authors or accomplices of a crime committed on their persons, or as accomplices of a crime committed by them, or convicted for influenc¬ ing minors into debauchery; they are unworthy to retain the right of parental authority over their children and can have for them neither affection or respect.” He says further: ‘"'But in all cases where the law of July 24, 1889, declares the for¬ feiture of parental rights operative there should be given to the magistrates the right to withdraw from parents adjudged incompetent or unworthy the right of guardianship of their children and to confer it on either private persons, societies of patronage, or public assistance. This authority in the courts will have the great advantage of rendering more frequent actions against unworthy parents, an end we should seek to attain. It imports more and more the introduction of law to protect the child, to place it properly and to oppose until its majority a legal obstacle to all interference by the father and mother in the education provided by public author¬ ity In another place he says: “The right to deprive the father and mother of the guardianship of their children should not belong to the criminal or correc¬ tional courts, but to the civil courts.” In this respect he says: “My views have been modified very little. I continue to remain a partisan of the competency of the civil courts.” Dr. Louis Fuld, advocate of Mayence, was the author of a report on this question. After treating the subject at length and with ability, ho closes with these words : “1. When the parental authority is declared forfeited the legislature can estab¬ lish supervision and guardianship by tho State over the parents in all cases where they have been condemned to imprisonment for less than two months for an offense against children. “2. Upon those who have been imprisoned for a longer period for a crime not against children. “3. Upon those who by an immoral life, drunkenness, passion for gambling, bad treatment, or negligence in fulfilling their duties to their children, compromise the moral and physical good or safety of their children.” Another preliminary report on this subject was by the writer of this paper. It was a brief legal treatise on the English and American chancery practice defining under what circumstances the courts declare the parental rights forfeited and sub¬ stitute other guardianship. It is largely made up from citations of court decisions. Translation is here given of the introductory portion, with a brief statement of the English and American rule : “For a hundred years the English and American courts and societies devoted to the study of social questions have discussed few of higher importance than under what circumstances should the law interfere and remove the child from its parents. The law of nature clearly indicates that in its infancy the child should remain with its parents, receive from them its support and education, and during this time should be under parental authority. The duration of this time and the limits of this author¬ ity vary according to the laws and customs of different nations. But in general the child becomes independent at the age of reason. The civil law of Rome fixed the age at 25 years after having passed through different degrees of partial emanci¬ pation. In early times the Anglo-Saxon fixed the age at 21 years. During the period of subjection the child had the right to support, good treatment, education, and to be taught a trade or profession. The parent had also the right to the obedi¬ ence of the child, good conduct, and labor and proceeds of labor. Where we find these family relations the best and most elevated their rights and duties are a source of happiness, mutual love, obedience, and respect. Is not this mutual attachment sufficient to protect the child? Yes, with humane and affectionate parents. 692 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. “ But it is unfortunately true that many parents are so degraded "by immoral lives, their hahits and evil associations, that they have hut feeble attachment for their children, their homes, and their friends. “The love of the man and the woman for the frail being they have brought into the world by mutual love sanctified by marriage is a love which has its origin in their very existence and is strong and enduring. Those parents who are faithful to nature and whom evil has not perverted, sacrifice their time, their rest, and their pleasure for this object of their supreme affection and most tender solicitude, and for them all sacrifices are transformed to joys. If the child is in need they feel it, and will risk their health and lives. In sickness and in health, in wealth and in poverty, clothed in fine apparel or in rags, parents and children are attached to each other by indis¬ soluble affection. Such parents do not abandon to others the child given them by their Creator until they have lost all hope. The reciprocal love of parents and children forms the strongest tie which can attach them to each other during the minority of the child. When they are so attached no law is needed to protect the child. “ It is only in the abnormal family state that the law need intervene. It is only where the parents, corrupted by vice, place the child in conditions where it may fall, as they have, that the law interposes and protects the child and society. “Moreover, history has painted in vivid colors in all ages that the natural love of many parents is not sufficient to protect children against ill-treatment. There are great and irreparable wrongs against children ; evils which they suffer during life and for which the parents alone are responsible. Some bring on the forfeiture of parental rights, while others tend to it. There is bad treatment which does not come from brutal force and which affects the child in high and low conditions alike. The transmission of bad blood is one. The father whose character is low, brutal, vicious, given to drink, brings into the world malformed childen, feeble in mind, incorrigi¬ ble, with vicious tendencies to depravity and crime. In giving life to such children the father commits a crime not known to law, though his guilt is of the worst kind. “Behold the contrast. Over the fireside where reign love, labor, and happiness, law has no need to exercise control. At the other home, where vice, hatred, debauchery, and crime hold their saturnalias, is where the little children suffer. Victor Hugo, in his strong language says : 1 He who has seen the suffering of men has seen nothing; he should see the suffering of women. He who has seen the suffering of women has seen nothing. He should see the suffering of children.’ * * * “And where this suffering is caused by the parents or guardians, law comes with humanity to protect the child. It is necessary that the child should have another home and parents by adoption. It is no trifling thing to pronounce the forfeiture of parental rights — rights founded in nature, profoundly implanted in our physical, mental, and moral being. But this forfeiture does not come from bad treatment alone. In some cases the poverty of the parents renders them absolutely incapable of supporting their family. They can not for a long time supply the wants of the child, and it becomes a public charge, and is taken by the public authorities and placed until majority in another family. In this manner the forfeiture of parental rights occurs, and generally in America the forfeiture is not revoked. “The courts of appeal in England and America have often, for many years, decided many cases concerning the respective rights of parents and child. The arguments presented by the advocates and the learned opinions of the judges have shown pro¬ found researches touching the principles and precedents of law and equity, as well as a philosophic study on the natural relations of the parties. The written opinions handed down by the judges reflect the humane tendency of the age and have given credit to such judges — a credit which does honor to their spirit and sentiments. The tendencies of the courts and of the legislature have been to modify and soften the rigor of former ideas, methods, and precedents. * ' * * If we go back to the origin of the race we will find that the chief or king is as absolute in his reign over THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 693 the people as the father is absolute master in his family. The progressive sentiment of modern times has diminished absolutism in the State and family. People and children gradually but surely attain the possession of their natural rights. * * * “The English chancery courts were conservative and did not desire to interfere with the rights of the parents except in cases of their gross misconduct and where such misconduct directly affected the future of the child. If the fault did not affect the child it was not considered. If, however, this misconduct gravely affected the good, the happiness, and the future of the child, if contact with the father exposed him to moral contamination, or if the company of the father isolated the child and deprived him of his natural society, the court interfered and placed the child in charge of another. * * * Modern civilization, thanks to its elevated moral influ¬ ences and Christian spirit, and to the general diffusion of useful knowledge, has softened manners and has influenced the courts of law and chancery and the legis¬ lature.” * * * Without quoting the article in full, it will answer to include only that part giving the American rule as follows : “The right of the State to take care of its children has always been exercised with great fitness, and above all where the good of the child requires it the courts will frequently interfere to protect the young child. * * * In cases of this kind the court will inquire into all the facts and circumstances, then with a full knowl¬ edge of the case will decide which of the parties the child shall be confided to, and if it appear that neither should have it, because of incapacity for caring for it, the court will confide it to some other person who will be proper to bring it up. The court will take into consideration the interest of the child, and will place it where it will have better care than with its father and mother. * * * Following the English and American practice, but making it more certain and binding by enacting it in a statute, the State of Michigan has a radical measure. Under this law the right of custody by the father or guardian may be declared invalid in the following cases : First, by a decree of the court; second, in divorce cases, where the custody of the children is confided to the father or to the mother or to a third party; third, by the court of probate in legal proceedings on account of alleged ill-treatment ; fourth, by proceedings in the same court relative to dependent children. In either of the above instances the child may be admitted to the State public school for dependent children.” It is impossible in this limited paper to give an abstract of the discussions of even the more important questions. It is gratifying to say that the discussions showed a general progress throughout the world in prison reform and in the prevention of crime. Especial testimony in this respect came from Japan, America, Germany, Sweden, France, Great Britain, and Russia. An interesting paper was read in the general assembly showing the advance in prison construction and management and the perfection reached in Japan. In Europe there is yet much imprisonment in common, but the general sentiment of the congress favored cellular separation. The new prisons of Europe are cellular, hut mainly on the Pennsylvania system. The principle of conditional liberty was generally approved. The sentiment of the congress on the various questions can be found in the conclusions. Where there was great difference, the divisions submitted questions to a special commission which reported to the section and was then adopted. The difference in views at times was quite marked. Many of these questions related to matters more European than American, owing to the difference in conditions. But mainly they were of universal import. Charity for the feeble, education and not imprisonment for children, placing dependent and delinquent children in homes, separate and humane imprisonment for women, seeking ways to dry up the sources of crime, poverty, abandonment, occupied very much the thoughts and discussions. Pardon, reprimand, and suspension for the first offense, labor, rewards, patronage, visits, and means to prevent the squandering of earnings were very much discussed. 694 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. There was much appeal to private initiative, the guardianship of earnings, libraries for prisons, alcoholism, disposition of mendicants, etc. Indemnity to tho injured party, the forfeiture of parental rights, the identification of prisoners were also quite fully discussed. In the brief time given each question tho discussions were often hurried, and being in four divisions, when congress came into general sessions many who did not hear the first debates were unprepared. Under these circumstances it is remarkable that conclusions were reached in such good form and with such sub¬ stantial unanimity. This was effected largely by the ability of tho chairmen of the sections and their accomplished secretaries, as well as by others in the general assembly. As a whole, the ten days’ work of specialists coming from twenty-six different countries with varied ideas and customs, the conclusions of the congress are remark¬ able for the unanimity of sentiment in their adoption, for their maturity of thought, scientific correctness, and conservatism. The proceedings, when published in full, will bo a highly valuable addition to the literature of penology. It is only to be regretted that they will not appear in the English language. The Fifth Interna¬ tional Congress has done well, and we shall expect as much from the sixth in 1900 in Belgium. THE CLOSING WORDS. M. Duflos, the able chief of the French prison administration and first president of the congress, presided at the last session, and in declaring the close of the fifth congress spoke as follows : “ Ladies and Gentlemen : We have reached the close of our labors. Within ten days very much has been accomplished. Thirty questions were comprised in our programme. All have been studied with great care. They have given rise to learned and most profound discussions, not only in the sections, but also in the general assembly. Tho result is truly remarkable. Notwithstanding the visits to institu¬ tions and excursions organized for our foreign colleagues; notwithstanding the art attractions of Paris, which took away many at times from our sessions, we have had the high satisfaction to show an assiduity and tenacity for work most commendable and satisfactory. “ These results, I affirm, have exceeded our hopes.' No programme so extensive has ever been submitted to a congress. We may regret without decreasing our zeal that some of these questions should be referred to the Sixth International Congress. Theso regrets your ardor, your ability, and the clearness of the thoughts presented have reduced to a minimum. We have a right to be proud of such results, to rejoice greatly, not only because we know we have done our duty, but above all because the example given here proves the vitality and efficiency of the congress ; because this example is the shining confirmation of your power for good, for progress, for reform, justice, and peace; because, after the achievement of such work, the success of the next congress can not be doubted. You have proved yourselves gold and that nothing is impossible with men whom the love of science animates, to whom faith gives strength which overcomes obstacles with the light which radiates, warms, and vivifies. “In the meantime we must separate, after ten days devoted to labor in sessions during which an admirable exchange of ideas has taken place, with leisure moments for social conference, to revive old friendships and form new ties, and giving the gratifying spectacle of seeing men belonging to twenty-five different nations march¬ ing hand in hand, united by tho same thoughts, lighted by the same flame, defending with ardor, with vivacity, different opinions, but having only one object. “It is not without heaviness of heart that I see you about to leave us. We hope that you will carry with you a lasting memory of your sojourn here; that you go with the conviction that you leave in Paris sincere and devoted friends. At times turn your eyes toward us, listen in the direction of France and you will hear the beatings of our hearts; you will see across the space our arms extended to you as though you said, ‘ Friends, depend on us, believe in our unchangeable friendship ; we THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 695 will soon "be together again to attempt again our generous efforts. Our thoughts do not leave you. The ties which hind us are those which can not break nor loosen.7 “No, ladies and gentlemen, this is not an adieu that we utter now. The Belgian Government, by its eminent and sympathetic representative, M. de Latour, has informed the International Penitentiary Commission that it tenders its hospitality in 1900 to the Sixth International Prison Congress. The international commission has replied gratefully to this friendly and gracious appeal. This manifestation was acceptable to all the nations represented in the commission. I raised my hand with all my colleagues, regretting, as a Frenchman, that I could not vote twice for the proposition. Brussels is not too far from Paris, and we hope that the congress of Brussels will bo an occasion for our foreign friends to come to Paris to assist in the festivals of labor, industry, commerce, and the arts that the Government of the French Republic prepares for the close of the century. “An revoir, then, ladies and gentlemen. We offer for your country, your families, for all that is dear to you, our most sincere and affectionate wishes.77 Conclusions of the Congress. SECTION I. — PENAL LEGISLATION. Question 1. 1. Recidivism may be, according to the gravity of the case, general, special, or subordinate to the condition of the times. 2. Its repression should bo combined : a With the progressive increase of penalties, except 1) In the infliction of a more severe penalty for professional criminals. 3. The courts can not prejudice the first of these rules, because it recognises the existence of exceptional extenuating circumstances, by an express decision. There should be fixed by law a special minimum to avoid the abuse of short sentences. 4. In the second case the law should fix the number of convictions from which the courts could decide, according to the nature of the convictions and the degree of perversity, whether the offender is a criminal by profession. Question 2. Transportation, under its various forms, with the improvements already realized and those of which it is susceptible, has its utility, either for the execution of long punishments for great crimes or for the repression of habitual criminals and obsti¬ nate recidivists. Question 3. 1. It is desirable that the incapacity which affects an individual by reason of sen¬ tence pronounced against him for crime or misdemeanor at common law should follow him with legal effect into all countries. 2. It is desirable that the native convicted of crime or misdemeanor at common law abroad should be liable in his own country to the same forfeitures, incapacity, and prohibition as he would if convicted there. In the present state of international law the congress does not request that the forfeitures, incapacity, and prohibitions be the direct result of the foreign sentence, but that it be pronounced in consequence of a special act by the court of the country of the delinquent. 3. The judge may consider, in fixing the penalty, convictions pronounced abroad, when the new violation has been committed on the territory of the delinquent. Question 4. 1. Penal legislation should consider more than it has formerly the necessity of securing redress for the injured party. 696 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 2. When the complaint of the plaintiff in the civil action for indemnity shall be established, he can not be required to pay costs. The plaintiff who has only joined his action to that brought by the public minister could, even if it fails, be only adjudged to pay the costs arising from his intervention. 3. The aid of the court could be extended to the injured party before the proceed¬ ings on the part of the public. 4. The public minister, in case of correctional or criminal prosecutions, will be held to submit without expense to the court the request for redress for the injured party, saving the right of the public minister to take, upon the admission or rejection of the request, such conclusions as may appear to him to be correct. 5. The indemnity to the party injured will be secured by a general lien on the per¬ sonal and real estate of the person convicted, and this lien will be concurrent with that of the public treasury for the expenses of the prosecution. 6. Congress decides that it takes into very serious consideration the propositions which have been submitted in reference to allowing the party injured a portion of the earnings received by the convict during his imprisonment, or to constitute a special fund of fines out of which aid shall be accorded to the party injured ; but estimating that the congress does not have sufficient data for the present solution of these questions, it decides to postpone the more profound study of the same to the next international congress. Question 5. 1. The dual is a scientific and rational division. 2. It is not proposed to request the States which have adopted it to abandon it. 3. But it may be useful to establish a correlative between the classifications of A'iola- tions and jurisdiction. To arrive at this correlation it is necessary to subdivide the first class of violations under the names of minor misdemeanors, major misdemean¬ ors, and crimes and misdemeanors. This tripartite division has a practical character which justifies its maintenance. Question 6. 1. In penal cases the application of admonition by the judge and the suspension of sentence lead to identical results, and consequently it is useless to add the system of admonition to that of suspension of sentence. 2. Legislation which recognizes in the courts the authority to suspend sentence for first offenses in cases of short convictions contains the best known provisions. SECTION II. — PENITENTIARY QUESTIONS. Question 1. It would be of great value to reach a prompt international arrangement relative to the unification of anthropometric proceedings. Question 2. 1. It is right and necessary to provide in the regulations different prison arrange¬ ments for women and men, as much in a physical as in a moral and intellectual point of view. 2. It is necessary to provide in the regulations arrangements mitigating the dis¬ ciplinary regime and ameliorating the diet regimen for women. 3. It is necessary to institute special establishments or special quarters for mothers. Question 3. Manual labor should, as a general regulation, be made obligatory for all punish¬ ments by imprisonment. THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 697 Question 4. The prisoner has no right to compensation for labor. It is for the interest of the State to reward the prisoner for such labor. Question 5. Without discussing prison systems in this respect, the congress considers that it is not desirable that compensation to prisoners be very freely extended. Question 6. 1. A regulation posted in a prison should provide for the principal violations and indicate the different penalties. 2. The punishment should be pronounced after a thorough examination and after having heard the prisoner. 3. The sentence should state how long the punishment is to continue. Question 7. In the interest of general discipline and reformation, at first thie selection should be made from the worst. Question 8. 1. In estimating the duration of punishment for the criminal insane there should be estimated the time during which (a) They are confined in special asylums of the prison administration; (&) They are transferred to insane asylums, properly called. 2. If legislation accords a reduction of the time of imprisonment fixed by the sen¬ tence, on condition that the time be passed in a cell, the congress is of the opinion that the criminal insane should continue to have the benefit of this advantage, even though, during his insanity, he will have been remitted to the regimen in common. Question 9. Labor and not gymnastics should maintain the ability of prisoners to work. SECTION III. — PREVENTIVE MEASURES. Question 1. 1. It is desirable that the prisoner, on his discharge, should not have the free dis¬ posal of his earnings. 2. Congress expresses the view that the earnings of the discharged prisoner should be confided each time as its importance, the morality of the discharged, or other circumstances justify, either to a savings bank or an official of the place where he locates, or to a patronage society offering all the necessary guaranties, or to persons approved by the administration, to be paid to him after his presumed wants are known. 3. Congress is of opinion that preference should be given to patronage societies. Question 2. 1. Schools should be organized, to serve equally the prisoner awaiting trial, the convicted illiterate, and those who already possess limited education. This school should not only procure them the knowledge they need, but should also furnish a moral training, which, without wounding the denominational belief of any prisoner, should be imbued with religious spirit — the indispensable element of reformation. 2. The libraries, having equally for their principal object the instruction and refor¬ mation of the prisoner, should be organized in the same spirit. They should contain, 698 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. besides divers religious and moral works, interesting works — books of travel, respect¬ able stories, illustrated publications, such as pictorial magazines, etc. It is for the administration to establish the libraries. At the same time, the assistance of individuals or associations can be accepted, especially to procure for foreign convicts books written in their language. For the latter purpose the exchange of books and other publications may be recommended between other countries and the administration. 3. It is proper to put in the hands of prisoners a special weekly publication, which shall be edited by the administration. Question 3. 1. Asylums or special quarters should be provided for the confinement of the insane, in accordance with the order of the court, who have been prosecuted and acquitted by reason of their mental condition. 2. The discharge of the insane from the asylum should be authorized by the court, the administration, and the physician of the institution. Question 4. 1. Society has the right to take steps for its preservation, even coercive, against beggars and vagabonds. With this right it has the duty to organize, in a reason¬ able way, public charity, private aid, and patronage. 2. Vagabonds and beggars should be treated according to the circumstances, whether (a) Diseased or infirm paupers; (&) Beggars or accidental vagabonds; (c) Beggars or professional vagabonds. The first should bo aided if unable to earn their living. The second, relieved by public or private charity, should be placed in refuges or charity stations, well organized, where work shall bo obligatory. The third should be the object of severe repression and of a nature to prevent recidivation. 3. The most efficient measure against these professionals is prolonged imprison¬ ment, in virtue of the order of the court, in special workhouses. The prisoners should be liberated in consequence of their reformation or if, on reclassification, their detention appears to be no longer necessary. Labor in the workhouses should be supervised, not only as a means of repression, but, above all, to assist in reclass¬ ification. Question 5. 1. The congress, impressed with the increasing progress of alcoholism, of which the principal cause is in the consumption of nonrectified alcohols or artificially com¬ posed drinks, the influence of which manifests itself in the increase of crime, pre¬ sents the opinion that to combat this scourge public authority and private associa¬ tions should unite for preventive and therapeutic measures. 2. Among the preventive measures the congress recommends, on one side, the regu¬ lation of drink houses, the limitation of their number, the reduction of hygienic drinks, the rectification of alcohols; and on the other side, the organization and establishment of temperance leagues in institutions to influeiice the manners and habits of inmates. 3. In a therapeutic point of view each country should create inebriate asylums, in which labor should be largely organized, their number to be regulated by the ine¬ briate population in each section. 4. The admission to inebriate asylums should be regulated by the legislature, whether the inebriate himself applies for treatment, or has been convicted for mis¬ demeanors incited by intoxication, or because his habitual intoxication has become a peril to himself and the safety of others. The discharge from such asylums should also be regulated by law. THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL PRISON CONGRESS. 699 SECTION IV. — QUESTIONS RELATIVE TO CHILDREN. Question 1. It is proper to fix the limit of penal minority at the age of 18 years, on condition that children committed to a reformatory educational institution over 16 years of age shall not ho placed with the younger children. Question 2. 1. In cases where the courts have jurisdiction to declare the parental authority forfeited it should deprive the parents of their guardianship and substitute other guardianship in its stead. 2. The civil jurisdiction is that of the common law to decide on questions affecting the guardianship of minors. But courts of repression trying cases showing the unworthiness of the parents have power to declare the parental right of guardian¬ ship forfeited. Questions 3 and 4. 1. Children brought into court can, according to their age, the nature of the acts for which they havo been arrested, and the extent of their discernment, be sent to estab¬ lishments, public or private, having either a charitable, preservative, or reformatory character. Children under 12 years should always be sent to houses of preservation. Children convicted should be sent to institutions or special quarters. 2. It’is desirable that the name given to these establishments be not of a nature to prejudice the future of tho children. 3. It belongs to the judical authority to decide whether the child shall be placed under administrative guardianship. The selection of the regimen, if there bo any, and any alterations in it belong to the authority charged with the education of the child. 4. The response to the question of recidivism was referred to the first section of the congress. That in reference to the conditional liberation of minors was referred to tho second section. 5. A conditional discharge should be grunted in all eases where the child shall have received a school and professional education sufficient, in the opinion of the administration, and provided that it be shown that the child will be under contin¬ ued supervision, that it will be assured. of work, and that it will be provided with all material and moral needs. 6. To prevent children from becoming vagabonds or beggars, it is necessary (1) to deprive unworthy parents of tho right to bring them up and. to punish promoters of mendicity; (2) to aid respectable but incompetent parents in supervising their children sufficiently to fulfill their mission, (a) in the strict application of the school laws, (&) in instituting creches, asylums, or maternal schools; (3) to offer to orphan or abandoned youth the means to avoid vagabondage and mendicity in receiving them into special temporary work asylums without treating them as delinquents, vagabonds, or voluntary beggars. 7. If it is demonstrated that the condition of the vagabond or mendicant child is attributable to the fault or negligence of those who have authority over him, they should be prosecuted and imprisoned, with fine and the removal of their civil rights, or with one of these penalties only, but without prejudice to parental authority or removal of the guardianship. 8. In this case, and after the organization of preventive measures, the parents guilty of not having watched over the child can bo declared, in whole or in part, responsible for the expenses of guardianship and the education of the minors. 9. Lodging houses and public houses which give in a permanent or temporary manner asylum to minors for the purposes of debauchery should be condemned to correctional punishment. For the second offense the closing of the establishment should be ordered by the court, and this should be obligatory in case of recidivists. 700 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Question 5. The leading feature of a rational physical education should be professional work, and especially agricultural labor outdoors, for both sexes. Question 6. 1. When the child has been placed at the disposal of the State, or when adminis¬ trative guardianship has been ordered, such guardianship should be during minority. 2. In all cases where a minor has been convicted he should be placed under admin¬ istrative guardianship until his civil majority. 3. In both cases a decision of the court could terminate this guardianship when the authorties have ascertained that the education of the child is completed. Question 7. Children placed under administrative guardianship, or placed under the control of the State, cau only be efficiently supervised by patronage societies. Question 8. 1. The enticing away by solicitation or fraud for prostitution, the employment of the same means to compel a woman even of age to surrender herself to prostitution, should be severely repressed with increase of penalty in case of recidivists. 2. There should be requested a conference of delegates of Governments 'to take international measures against white slavery. 3. The best methods to suppress the prostitution of minors are — (a) To raise the age of consent to 15 years. (&) To increase the number of reform schools, asylums, refuges, or other establish¬ ments of the same kind for female minors who have become immoral. 4. Recognizing the influence of religious education on public morality, it is neces¬ sary to respect the important role in which it has always been held. 5. Every minor of both sexes less than 18 years of age found in a habitual state of prostitution shall be taken, after instruction or inquiry, before the court, which, according to the circumstances, will order its return to its pareuts or its committal until majority to a correctional institution, educational or reformatory, or to such resjiectable family as shall be designated. 6. The congress is of the opinion that the question of regulating prostitution should be submitted to the next congress. 7. The congress expresses the opinion that with the least delay possible there should be established between the different States, and more especially in the frontier regions of frontier States, international patronage relations for young discharged prisoners and abandoned children. 8. This international patronage should be not only to aid the young and super¬ vised children, but above all to watch over and promptly direct them to their own country and to place them with patronage societies there. CHAPTER XIY. THE LETTERS OF RABBI AKIBAH, OR THE JEWISH PRIMER AS IT WAS USED IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS TWO THOU¬ SAND YEARS AGO.1 PREFACE BY THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. This article is interesting and valuable in the history of education as showing the pains taken in Hebrew education to find a spiritual sense to all natural and artificial objects. Europeans and Americans are content to require their children to study the alphabet and master it as a mechanical affair. The Hebrew is of all peoples the one chosen by Divine Providence to ponder most carefully the spiritual sense of nature and human life. It would be expected, therefore, that an account of Hebrew education would show some of the devices by which the directive power of that wonderful people should manifest its sleepless care over the culture of the spiritual sense. The lesson of the history of education of all peoples is this demonstration of the constant alertness, so to speak, of the national spirit in looking to its own preser¬ vation. The Chinese lay immense stress upon the mere verbal memory, teaching the etiquette laid down in the books of Confucius and Mencius. The child has all of his habits of thought trained in the direction of the observance of family eti¬ quette. He learns to respect and obey his elder brother, his father and mother, and the officers of the State. He learns to protect those who depend in like manner upon him. This comes out in every phase of Chinese education. The culture peoples that have contributed to our civilization, the Greeks, the Romans, and the Jews, furnished still stronger illustrations of this principle. The Greeks contributed science and aesthetic art to modern civilization. The entire culture of the Greek people, at least of the Athenian people, has this significance. So, too, the Romans, who contributed to the world its sense of legal right, the protection of life and prop¬ erty. All that we learn about the Romans goes to give us an insight into the care which the spirit of the Roman people took to preserve in its education this insight into the human will, both the individual and the social will. The student of the philosophy of history and the philosophy of education will read with interest this excerpt from the history of the Jewish education, as showing the neglect of what is mechanical and prosaic; what, in other words, is the letter for the spirit of it— the spiritual sense which the Hebrew mind finds underlying all objects in time and space. HISTORY AND NATURE OF THE PRIMER. When I was engaged in writing the first part of my treatise on Hebrew education I discovered an ancient Jewish text-book, which was written for the public schools by the great educator Rabbi Akibah, who lived at the time of the second destruc¬ tion. When I mentioned my discovery to the well-known scholar Hon. Judge Mayer 1 Discovered and translated for the first time by Prof. Naphtali Herz Imber, 1896. 701 702 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-98. Sulzberger, of Philadelphia, he encouraged mo to examine the booklet more carefully. A careful investigation followed, and I found it to be an ancient Jewish primer. The booklet contains about sixty small printed pages, written in fine classic Hebrew. Its antiquity is soon recognized by its spiritual tendency. The composition is made on the sarno principle as that of the Alpha Bethical picture book of the ancient Jewish primary school, namely: It is built on the letters of the Hebrew Alpha Beth. While the letters of the Alpha Beth were explained to the children, the meanings of their figures, shapes, and positions, this Jewish primer endeavors to explain the let¬ ters and meanings of the terms. The tablets in the primary school correspond more to our modern picture books, while the Jewish primer has the character and poetical touch of modern readers. The booklet is divided into three parts ; the first is of a lighter matter than the second, and the second than the third. It is probable that the first part was made for the first school standard, while the second and third portions were calculated for the higher classes. The third part assumes the character of theological commentaries. In general, it breathes a deep religious, poetical, spiritual tone, and we can nowunder- derstand the psychological problem how the Hebrews, whose religion was void of the idealistic charm which characterized the religion of the Pagans, yet proved to bo better devotees to their faith in spite of its dryness and lack of inspiring motives. The answer to that problem is the Jewish primer, and the idealistic spiritual education which was implanted in the heart of the, child by it, and has inspired later the grown Hebrew to endure temptations, as well as persecution. From a historical and educational point of view the Jewish primer is of great value, bearing testimonies to the great power of education. THE TRANSLATION. First Part. Said Rabbi Akibah, those are the twenty-two letters, by and through which the “Torah” (the law) was given to all the tribes of Israel. They are engraved by a fairy pen upon the most exalted crown of the Holy One; praise to Him. When the will of the Holy One wa3 to create the universe, those letters arrayed themselves before the Lord, each desiring to be made the medium of the creative force. First appeared the Taw, the last of the letters in the Alpha Beth, and begged that the Lord would create the world with it, pleading “O Lord, create through me the world as I am the first letter of the Torah (the law).” The Lord then replied, “No.” Then the Taw asked why, and the Lord answered, “Because I will put thee as a sign of destruction upon the foreheads of the wicked.” Taw means a sign in Hebrew as it is written in Ezekiel (xvi), and the Lord said unto me, “Pass through Jerusalem, and put a sign upon the foreheads of the groaning and moaning people for the iniquities they did.” What is the meaning of the sign? When the Almighty resolved to destroy Jerusalem He called to the Angel of Death, saying unto him, “ Go through Jerusalem and divide the wicked and the good ones. FTpon the former make a Taw of blood, a sign of death, while upon the latter sign a Taw of ink, the symbol of life.” Why is the shape of the Taw peculiar from all the letters? Because the Torah saves man from all troubles. At that time the Spirit of Justieo appeared before the Lord, urging the destruction of the good ones too. The Lord asked why, and the Spirit of Justice replied, “ Because they did not warn the wicked.” The Lord replied, “It is known to mo that those wicked would not heed their warnings.” Then the Spirit of Justice said that it was their duty to warn regardless of the consequences. The Lord then declared that they should share the same fate as the wicked. At that time six destructive angels were sent upon Jerusalem to destroy her people, as it is written (Ezekiel ix), “Behold, six men were coming from the upper gate, facing the north side, each armed, and the man dressed in linen stood among them, AN ANCIENT JEWISH PRIMER. 703 and the pen of a writer on liis loins, and lie went near the copper altar.” Why the north side? Because all ill winds are blowing only from the north side, as it is written (Jeremiah i) “ And ho said unto me, from the north the ill fate will come upon the dwellers of the land.” As soon as the Taw heard it from the mouth of the Most High tho latter left tho place sorrowful. Then appeared before the Lord the letter Shin, the next to the last of the letters, praying the Lord to create with it the world, under the plea that the letter Shin is the first letter in the Holy Name of Shadi (the Almighty). Then the Lord refused to accept on the ground that Shin is the first letter of falsehood, “Sheker.” “And how,” said the Lord, “can I create the world with a letter which has no foot? and falsehood has no footing.” Tho Shin went out sorrowful, and the letter Reish appeared before the Lord with the same wish, saying, “I am tho first letter of Thy name, the Merciful and the Healer.” But the Lord said “No, as Reish is the first letter of Rashu, which means wicked.” So the Reish left sorrowful, and the K appeared before the Lord, asking that the world may be created with it, as the people will praise the Lord with that letter in saying thrice Holy, Holy, Holy, is the Lord Zebaath (Kadosh means holy). The Lord refused on the ground that curse is prepared to come over the generations of the flood, and in Hebrew curse is “Kcllala.” The K went out sorrowful, and the Zadic or Z appeared before the Lord with tho same wish as the former letters, saying, “Create with me the world, as Thou art called Zadic” (Righteous One). The Lord refused and said “No, as many troubles are to come with thee upon Israel” (Zara is trouble in Hebrew). The Z went out sorrowful, and the P came before the Lord, saying, “ Create with me the world, as tho laws will be called Pikiddim, and I am the first letter in Thy name as Redeemer” (Pode is redeemer in Hebrew). The Lord replied “No, as they will serve the idols with thee” (Peor is the famous name of a famous idol). The P went out sorrowful, and the E or Ain came before the Lord, saying, “Create with me the world, as it is written (Zachazje) the eyes of the Lord arc upon the whole universe” (Ain is eye in Hebrew). The Lord replied “No, as with thee the people watch the night, to commit crime and sin, as it is written (Job xxiv) ‘the eye of the adulterer watches tho night, and I will punish the wicked by thee,’ as it is written (Job xi) ‘the eyes of the wicked will go out.’” The E went out sorrowful, and the S or Samech came before the Lord, saying, “Create with me the world, as through me Thou art called the leaner of the fallen ones” (Samech is leaning). The Lord said “No, as with thee the pagans will destroy my city, as it is written (Psalms) ‘ they made Jerusalem the ruins of piles.’” The S went out, and the N or Nun came before the Lord, saying, “Create with me the world, as with me Thou willst resurrect the dead, and I am called the candle of the Lord, which is the soul in man” (Proverbs xx). (“Ner” is candle.) The Lord answered “No, as I will blow out the light of the wicked in the latter days to come.” The N went out sorrowful, and the M or Mim came before the Lord saying, “ Create with me the world, as with me the genera¬ tions to come will crown Thee proclaiming Thy Heavenly, Eternal Kingdom, and with me Thou art called King (Meiech).” The Lord said “No, as with thee will come a day of compassion.” The M went out sorrowful, and the L or Lamed came before the Lord, saying, “ Create with mo the world, as with me Thou wilt once give to Israel the two tablestones, and Israel will learn Thy laws.” (Lamed means study.) The Lord said “No, as the tablestones will bo broken.” The L went out sorrowful, and the Caf came before the Lord. At that hour, when the Caf went down from the Crown divine (Keter is crown), a storm arose in the celestial realm. When the Caf appeared before the glorious throne, the throne began to be shaken, and the wheels of the glorious chariot began to tremble. The Lord inquired for their uneasiness, and they said, “ For the Caf went down from the exalted glorious crown of our heads and stays before Thee, and all our glory is only called by the Caf, as it is written (Jeremiah xvii), ‘Exalted glorious throne, the glory of God is forever.’” So the Lord called to tho Caf, saying, “What is thy wish?” The Caf 704 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. said, “ O Lord of the universe, create with me the world, as with me is named Thy Ihrone, Thy Glory, and Thy Crown/’ He answered “No, as by thee I will once clutch with my hands for grief, as it is written (Ezekiel xxi) ‘ I will too clutch my hands (Caf is hand); with thee will also go out the tears of my people and I shall create with thee the world.’” The C went out sorrowful, and the Jod came before the Lord, saying, “O Lord, create with me the world, as with me Thou art named Ja the Creator of the Worlds” (Isaiah xxvi). The Lord said, “No, as with thee I will create the wicked thought in man to lure him away from the good path.” The Jod went out sorrowful, and the T or Teth came before the Lord, saying, “O Lord, create with me the world, as with me Thou willst send the Holy Ghost to those who fear Thee, and in me is hidden the good one” (Tob is good). The Lord said “No, as with thee I will once call my people ‘unclean,’ ‘Tame,’ and every leper will be so called.” The T went out sorrowful, and the Ch or Cheth came before the Lord, saying, “O Lord, create with me the world, as with me they feel Thy mercy feeling the whole uni¬ verse, and with me Thou art called merciful.” The Lord said “No, as with thee I once will engrave with an iron pen the sin of Judah.” The Ch went out sorrowful, and the S or Sain came before the Lord, saying, “OLord, create with me the world, as Thy reverence from generation to generation exists with me.” The Lord said “No, as adul¬ tery will come upon the world through thee, and as a consequence Israel will lose twenty-four thousand people, and how can I create the world with thee?” The S went out sorrowful, and the W or Waw came before the Lord, saying, “OLord, create with me the world, as with me they praise Thee, Thou Holy One in Israel.” The Lord said, “No, as I once will inflict upon Israel for their passions.” The W went out sorrowful, and the H or He came before the Lord, saying, “O Lord, create with me the world, as with me they acknowledge Thy majesty and glory.” The Lord answered, “ No, as with thee I will once in the later days of judgment make the day that of penance, burning all the wicked and evil doers.” The H went out sor¬ rowful, and the D or Dalith came before the Lord, saying, “O Lord, create with me the world, as with me the generations will exalt Thee, as it is written (Psalms cxl viii) ‘ Generation to generation will praise Thy work.’ ” The Lord answered, “ No, as with thee Israel will experience judgment among themselves, as it is written in the Scripture.” The D went out sorrowful, and the G or Gimel came before the Lord, saying, “ O Lord, create with me the world, as with me the people praise Thy greatness.” The Lord answered “No, as with thee I will pay to the enemies, as it is written (Isaiah lix) ‘as to the reward He will pay.’” The G went out sor¬ rowful, and the B or Beth came before the Lord, saying, “O Lord, create with me the world, as with me all the creation praises Thy glorious name, as it is written (Psalms Ixxxix), e Blessed be the Lord forever ; Amen. Praise the Lord all Ilis hosts. All the coming generations will say, Blessed be the Lord God of Israel and Blessed be the glorious name forever’” (Psalms lxxvi). The B is the first letter in Hebrew for blessed. As soon as the Lord heard the idea of the B he accepted, and created the world with the letter B as it is written in Genesis. “ Breishith Bara Elohim,” which meaus with B created the Lord heaven and earth. As the A or the Aleph heard and saw how the Lord had accepted the letter B it went aside meditating in silence. Then the Lord said unto the A, “ Why art thou silent? ” and the A replied, “ Because I do not count for much, as I represent, only number one, while the other letters represent much, as B, number two, C, three, D, four, and so on.” Then the Lord said, “Be not afraid, as thou art the king over ail the letters; thou art one, and I am one, and the law is one, and with thee I will give it to Israel, my people, who are called one (nation), as the first letter of the Ten Commandments is the A or Aleph in the word ‘ Anochi ’ 1 1 am thy Lord.’ ” 1 1 The pleadings of the letters in every sentence they mention is that each letter begins the respective Biblical passage. The way of its composition shows the childish spirit, yet in that most fantastic tale is hidden one thought of the most prevalent philosophy of that age— the Logos idea. AN ANCIENT JEWISH PRIMER. 705 Second Part. Why is the head of the A or Aleph upright standing on two legs as men ? Because it is second in Truth (A is the first letter of Erneth, truth) and falsehood has no legs to stand upon, since all the letters of falsehood have no foothold. Why is his hand stretched out from his side? Because he shows to the Almighty, who is Truth Him¬ self, as it is written (Psalm cxvi) “and the Truth of the Lord forever. ” Why is the B or Beth with its open face toward the G? Because the B resembles a house (Beth is house in Hebrew) open to all, and the G resembles a man who sees a poor one at the door, and goes into the house to bring out some food. Why is the foot of the G or Gimel toward the D? Because all mercy must be extended to the poor. (Dal is poor in Hebrew.) Why is the D or Dalith resembling a stick and facing the H? Because the poor man is striving only for the bliss of the material world. Why is the H or Hei resembling an open hut? Because he who wants to get out of it can do so. Why has it two doors, one small and one large ? Because he wha wants to get out goes out through the larger, and he who wants to get in must come in through the smaller. (Allegory for birth and death.) Why is the W or Waw upright like a stick facing the S? Because God has hinted through the symbols of the letters that He will once punish the wicked by messen¬ gers with fire sticks of the purgatory, from where their woe cry will be heard, as it is written (Isaiah iii) “Woe to the wicked.” Why has the S or Sain two points on its head, one toward the Waw and the other the Cheth ? Because if one goes to sin, he looks twice, once to he hidden from men, the other look is directed toward the crime. Why has the Ch or Chet no crown? Because the wicked have only shame, and they are void of good name. (Chet means sin.) Why is the hand of the T or Teth hidden inside and its head upright with a crown on? Because he who does good and helps the poor that nobody sees will calm the wrath even that of the Angel of Death, as it is written (Proverbs xxi) “A hidden gift calms the wrath.” Why is the Jod smaller than all the letters? Because he who humbles himself here will inherit the life hereafter, which was created with that letter. Why is the point of it toward its face ? Because each one gets rewarded according to his merit, and his good deeds are before him. Why resembles the Caf a throne and facing the L ? Because a throne is fit only for the kings to sit on. (Kese is throne, and Melech is king.) Why is the L or Lamed taller than all the letters ? Because it stands in the center of the twenty-two letters, and resembles a king, a throne behind and kingdom before him. Why is there an open M and a close M? (The former is used in the middle of the word as well as at the beginning, while the latter only at the end.) Because there is an open king and there is a close king. Why is the head of the open M toward the ground with the hand stretched on high ? Because it points out to Him, to whom all kingdom belongs, as it is written (Psalm xxii) “To Thee, O Lord, is the Kingdom,” and at the same time looks to the ground to show, as King David said, “From Thee is all.” The closed M points out that all is closed to us. Why is the N or Nun facing the S or Samech? Because it looks as one who falls and prays to be leaned. Why is the S or Samech closed around? Because it is a symbol to Israel, who is closed round on all the corners with divine glory, and that He will not exchange him for another nation, and his seed will not be mixed with the seed of others, as it is written “The Lord belongs to His people.” Also it is written (Zechariah) “I, the Lord, will surround thee with a fire wall.” The E or Ain is the initial of Esau the wicked, from whom Persians and Tarsians ED 96 - 23 706 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. came for tli. Why is the E in a sitting position? Because they will fall before the feet of Israel; as it is written (Obadja i) “The house of Jacob will be fire and Edom will be his inheritance.” Why is there a sitting and a standing P ? (The standing P is only used at the end of a word.) Because the month which opens the same seals. (P means mouth.) Tho idol worshipers have no open mouth in the laws and in the oral law or in prayers; only Israel alone, as it is written (Psalms cxlvii) “He told His words to Jacob. He did not so to any nation.” Why has the Z or Zadic two heads? Because there are two kinds . of righteous people ; the one plain and the other with humility. Why is the K or Kaf tall and horned? Because all tho horns of the wicked will be cut off, for they walk proudly in this life. As it is written (Psalm Ixxviii) “And all the horns of the wicked I will cut off.” He will again exalt those of Israel, as it is written (Psalm lxxv) “Exalted will be the horns of the pious ones.” Why is the face of the It or Eeish turned away from the K? Because E is the ini¬ tial of the wicked, and Iv the initial of the holy, and the wicked is always turning away from the holy. Why has the Sch or Shin three branches above and no foot or root below ? Because the Shin is the initial of falsehood, and falsehood has no foothold and the Almighty will stop the mouth of falsehood. It resembles a tree whose branches are plentiful and the roots little; the wind can easily turn it over. Why is tho foot of the Taw a little broken up? Because Taw is the initial of tho Torah, the law, and he who wants to study the law must humble and lower himself. ANOTHER EXPLANATION FOR THE ALPHA BETH. Aleph Beth means, learn wisdom. (Alepk means learn; Beth is like Bina wis¬ dom, and on that line the whole Alpha Beth is exjdained according to the meanings of their terms.) Gimmel Dalith means, be merciful to the poor. Why is the leg of the Gimel stretched forward? Because the good ones are apt after the poor to help them. Why is the back of the Dalith turned toward the Gimel? Because tho poor looks behind him expecting somebody to help him. Why is the H after D ? Because he who helps the poor will become great. Why i s the W after H ? Because of him who does not help tho poor, they say, ‘ ‘ Woe to that man who can but will not do good with his wealth,” and it is written (Proverbs xi) “'He who keeps away his wealth from charity, will lose it.” Why come after WS and S Ch? They show that if one have conquered his tem¬ per and done good, then he will find mercy at the throno of the Almighty. Why are tho letters of truth scattered and the letters of falsehood together. (A is the initial of Emcth, truth; M is the second letter, and Taw is the last letter, while Sheker, falsehood, formed from the letters Sh, k, r, are following each other.) Because truth is very rare to find, while falsehood is behind the car. As they taught in tho College of Eabbi Ismael, ho who wants to become impure, they open to him, but ho who tries to be pure, they help him. Why are the five special letters of double character? (There are five letters in the Hebrew Alpha Beth which have double ones, and they are used at the end of the words; they are M, N, Z, P, Ch.) Tho simple Caf and the closed Caf show the simple hand of Moses and the closed hand of God. The open M and the closed M show that there is an open sentence (or word) and a hidden word, and from it must be learned the good manner; that the teacher shall speak and the pupil silent and listening. Tho bowed Z and the simple Z ; the former represents the bowed pious one, the latter the simple one. Each sage must study and seek the truth of the law with AN ANCIENT JEWISH PRIMER. 707 the utmost sincerity, as it is written (Psalm cxv) “ Hail to those who keep His law ; with all their hearts they seek Iiim.1 * * * * Vl Third Part. “At” “Bash.” Aleph is Adam, who was the first creature of the world, as the creation was created by the word (logos), but he was created by the hand of the Almighty. How do I know that the world was created by the word? Then it is written (Psalm xxxiii), “He said, and it was; ” in another line ho says, “By the word of God the Heavens were made.” How do I know that Adam was made by His hand ? As it is written (Genesis) “And the Lord created the man.” What is the meaning of the passsage (Psalm cxxxix) “And Thou puttest Thy hand upon me?” The Lord made first Adam so tall that his height was from the ground to the sky. When the angels saw him they began to tremble and appeared before the Lord saying, “Are there two Lords; one in Heaven and the other on earth?” What did God? He simply put his hand on him and shortened his height 2,000 cubits. Bash, B, is the initial of animals. Shin is the initial of reptiles, which were created with Adam. Why have they been created with him? Because the Lord says, “If he gets proud, then we say to him, Behold, animals and reptiles were created as you, too.” Gar Duck- (a combination of the letter G.with R, and the letter D with K, and so goes on through the whole order of the Alpha Beth). Gar, Gimel; this represents the Garden of Eden, placing there twelve canopies of precious stones and of pearls for Adam, as it is written (Ezechiel xxv) “In Eden the Garden of the Lord thou wast; all the precious stones were thy shelter.” R means that he, Adam, went the first into Eden before all the pious ones. D, K. D means the doors of Eden, which angels opened to him, whom the Lord appointed as his servants. K means holy; these angels called him Adam, “holy.” If, Z. LI as the Almighty lulled Adam into sleep. Z means the rib which He took from him to form from it his counterpart, his wife. W, F. W means that He brought Eve to Adam, accompanied by tens of thousands of angels, who were singing and cheering. F means that the whole celestial family went down into Eden ; some of them were playing on harps and the others play instruments, playing like virgins; while sun, moon, and stars were dancing before them as girls. S, E. S means that the Lord invited them both to a banquet in Eden. E means that the Lord prepared for them tables of pearl ; each pearl was 2 cubits long and 60 cubits broad, and all sorts of food were thereon, as it is written (Psalm xxiii) “Thou preparest a table for me.” Ch, S. Clr means that the angels did servant duty, roasting his meat and cooling his wine, and the serpent saw their honor and envied them. S means that the Lord told him not to eat from the tree of knowfedge. 1 The second part was, judging from its character, probably taught in the next school standard calculated for pupils from 8 to 19 years old. The second part does not contain the childish fantasy heated by the steam of oriental imagination. It simply explains tho letters of the Alpha Beth in the line of their words and terms, while at the same time it tries to implant in the heart of the child religions, moral, and national patriotic sentiments. The third part is in quantity as well as quality far superior to the other two, for it has a homiletic character, and tries to mate the child acquainted with some of the most truly national and religious traditions and legends. A new mode of explaining the letters is, that it takes the first letter of the Alpha Beth, combines with the last Taw and forms a new word “At,” which is explained by some folklore. Then it takes the next letter B combining with tho next last letter Sh or Shin and a word ‘ ; Bash ” is formed and explained. That way was for training the child's brain to the scholastic tray of argu¬ ment among the sages of the Rabbis of the Talmud. The gradual rising of the thought in the primer indicates the great educational principle which the author had before his eyes. The third part of the primer was for pupils of the age of 10 and upward; it was calculated to prepare them for the study of the Talmud aud oral law. 708 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. F, 1ST. F means that Eve mistook the words of the serpent, and ate from the for¬ bidden fruit. N means that their eyes were opened to see that they were naked, and they covered their nakedness with fig leaves. Jod, M. Yod means that the Almighty was aware of it, and he went down to call Adam for it. M means that the Lord questioned him, “Who told you that you were naked?” C, L. C means that the Lord invited them all for judgment. First, He called aside Adam, asking him why he ate from the fruit. Adam defended himself, saying that Eve gave him to eat. The woman was questioned, and she pleaded that she did it under the temptation of the serpent. The serpent was called and cursed. When the Lord said to the serpent “ On thy belly thou shalt go,” the serpent begged, “O Lord, make me as the fish in water, which have no feet,” and the Lord said, “ Dust shall be thy food.” Then the serpent said, “ If the fish eat dust, I will eat it too.” At that moment the Lord tore his tongue in two parts, saying, “Wicked one, thou hast sinned in gossip, since I make known to the world that it is on account of thy unruly tongue.” A, Ch, S, means that God said unto the angels, I, myself, will be more merciful to Israel than to the idol worshipers, for the former crown me twice a day and pro¬ claim my kingdom morning and evening by their declarations, “Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one.” If Israel would not exist, neither glory nor exaltation would exist. B, T, E (Bata). My spirit is only calmed by Israel, for the heathen make mis¬ takes to take sun, moon, and stars as deities. And when they bow before them and before the hosts of Heaven, then the Holy One is wrath, as it is written (Psalm vii), “God is wrath every day.” The Almighty says unto the angels, “Behold, I gave unto those pagans spirit, mind, glory, and ruling power, and they bow to sun, moon, and stars, which I have created from the aureole of my face.” At that saying they tremble, those wheels in the orbits of the sun, moon, and stars, and two destructive angels go out to destroy the world on account of their wicked doings, but they give up their intention for the sake of the sages who study the law, and the public-school children who read the scripture, and for the sake of the whole of Israel who pro¬ claim morning and evening the Heavenly Kingdom. G, I, F. (Gif), do not read Gif only Guf, body, that is the body of the Torah, that the teachers of the colleges are trying to explain to Israel as It is written, “ They will teach thy laws to Jacob.” D, Ch, Z. (Dachaz), do not read Dachaz only “ Dach Kulu Chefez,” meaning the humble one is the whole longing. The pious ones are the “land of desire ” of God. Why are the pious ones called “desire?” Because they fulfill the desire of the Almighty. Ch. L. K. (Cheleck), meaning part that is Jacob, who is the property of the Lord, as the glorious name was sanctified through him and his children, and the Lord has engraved his image on his glorious throne. When the children of Jacob say thrice a day praise to God, then the Lord kisses his head, which is engraved upon His glorious throne. How do I know that Jacob is the property of God? Then it is written the property of God is his people, Jacob the property of his inheritance. K. M. R. (Nmar), meaning “ he said;” those are the seraphim and fairy angels who can not say praise to the glory of the Lord, until Israel has first sanctified his holy name, as it is written (Job xxxviii) “ The morning stars sing together and the sons of God shout for joy.” The morning stars are the children of Israel, as Moses said, and ye are as the stars of the sky. As the stars are shining, so the children of Israel are shining through the light of the law, as it is written (Proverbs vi), “ The good deed is a candle and the law is light.” S, N. (Son) Sh, T, (Shot) are the initials of the words, “He bears the Sabbath.” When God promised Israel the pleasures of life hereafter in exchange for keeping the la^ws, Israel demanded a sample of that pleasure, and the Lord gave him the Sabbath. AN ANCIENT JEWISH PRIMER. 709 When Nagrasniel, the manager of the Purgatory, asked the Lord, “Why didst thou not give me that nation of Israel as food for my flames as others?” the Lord replied, “All the pagans are written in thy hooks, with the exception of Israel, as they study the law, and I am with them.” He then asked, “Where will they live in life here¬ after?” And the Lord answered, “In the garden of Eden, full of myrrh and spices, whose fragrant air penetrates from one corner of the world to the other.” Then he wanted to know how they would enjoy their glorious time, and the Almighty will say, “With me does not dwell the wicked. Israel will once, in the later days, he void of the tempting wicked thought, and neither Satan nor the Angel of Death will approach their dwellings.” Then Nagrasniel will ask, “O Lord, Thou givest everyone his daily bread, give me also,” and the Lord will say, “I have given you all the wicked of the land, liars, and the gossipers and worshipers and the evil doers.” IX PRAISE OF MUSIC. Said Rabbi Akibah, Aleph is the initial of, Truth, learn thy mouth. Tell truth in order to have a share in life hereafter. God is truth; His throne is truth, and He receives the truth. His words are truth, His ways are truth, and His laws are truth. As it is written in the Scriptures, Jehovah Elohim is truth. (Jeremiah x.) Aleph is the initial of the words, I will open mouth and tongue. Said the Holy, praise Him ! h will open the mouths of the children of flesh and blood that they shall praise me every day, and proclaim my kingdom into all the corners of the universe. If it had not been for the sake of song and music, which they exercise for me every day, I would not have created my universe.1 How do we know that God created the world only for the sake of music and song? Then it is written (Psalm xcvi), “Majesty and beauty before Him, might and glory in His temple, and of His praise is the earth full.” That God has made the heavens only for the sake of music, as it is written (Psalm xix), “The heavens declare the glory of God.” That we know, that the earth sings since she was created, for it is written (Isaiah, xxiv), “From the corner (or border) of the earth we hear a song to the righteous, and only God is righteous,” as it is written (Psalm cxlv), “ God is righteous in all his ways.” How do we know that even seas and streams sing to the Almighty? For it is written (Psalm cxlviii), “Praise the Lord, all the heavens, and the water/' Even all the creation praises the Lord with music and song. Even Adam opened his mouth with song. (It is a Talmudical legend that Adam was the author of the ninety-second chapter of the Psalms.) I will open mouth and tongue, as among the two hundred and forty-eight parts of the human body (pretty near to our modern teaching of anatomy) with none of them is it so fit to praise the Lord as with mouth and tongue. Mouth and tongue can be compared only to the ocean and its waves. As the ocean opens ajar, so the mouth. As the ocean is full of pearls, so the mouth (alluding to the teeth). As the ocean brings forth the water, so the mouth. As the wave is lift¬ ing itself high, so the tongue. As the ocean destroys a ship, so the tongue destroys with a word. As the ocean roars, so the mouth. As the waves kill the people, so the tongue kills people. As the ocean has borders, so the mouth has borders. As the ocean is sometimes calm and sometimes stormy, so the mouth. As all fear the waves, so all fear the human tongue. As the outlet of the waters of the ocean turns to filth, so the words of the mouth turn into nothingness. God said (so runs another version), “I will open the mouth of Israel to praise my name every day, for nothing is pure in the world without Israel and music, as for their sakes the world exists, and I created Israel only for the sake of song, as it is written (Isaiah xliv), ‘My nation I created my praise to tell/” 1 Here we see plainly how the primer or its author tried to implant into the hearts of the children the love of music — The translator. 710 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. ' If tliere is no Aleph, then there is no Beth, meaning if there is no learning there is no house. If there is no G there is no D, meaning if there is no charity there is no poor, and if there is no poor there is no charity. Israel is called poor, as it is written (Psalm xviii), “Thou helpest the poor nation, and the eyes of the proud ones, those of the heathen, thou rnakest down.” Another version of the initial of the Aleph is that God says, “My truth I have deposited by Israel.” When God gave the law to Israel, he promised them the pleasuro of future life in exchange for keeping the law. Israel demanded a sample of that pleasure and the Lord gave them the Sabbath. How do we know that the Sabbath'is a prototype of future life! For it is written (Psalm xcii), “ A song to the day of Sabbath,” meaning the life hereafter which is an everlasting Sabbath. When Adam saw the Sabbath he began to sing the praise of the Holy One. At that moment the angels went down in parties, some played instruments and others different kinds of musical works, praising, singing and saying “God,” as it is written (Psalm), “ To sing to the name of the Most High, to tell at the mornings Thy mercy, and at nights Thy truth.” The mornings means future life, and nights this life, as it is written (Psalm civ), “Thou rnakest darkness and there is night, there the beasts of the forest are roam* ing.” Do the beasts only roam at night, and not at day too? But it is alluding to this life which is as dark as night, and the idol worshipers ■which resemble the beasts who roam in the forest at night. When the morning star dawns the beasts turn into their dens, so when the morning of the Messiah’s king¬ dom will dawn the heathen will turn back, never to come into life hereafter, as it is written, “God will be the King of the universe.” Aleph means thousand; five thousand gates of wisdom has the Lord opened to Moses, corresponding to his five books. Eight thousand gates of “knowledge ’’.cor¬ responding to tho eight prophets, and eleven thousand gates of higher wisdom corresponding to the eleven books of Scripture (those of Ruth and the like). As it is written (Proverbs xxi), “A desirable treasure and oil is the dwelling of tho sage.” A treasure is the law, oil is tho books of the scripture, calming man like balmy oil. Another v ersion of tho Aleph is representing the Holy One. As the Aleph is tho first of ail tho letters so is God the first of all the kings, and Ho is also the last of the nobles, as it is written (Isaiah 11) “I the Lord am first, and with the last ones, I am.” Why is it written with the last ones, and not with the last one ? From it we learn that when God renews His world Ho himself arranges the order of the last ones, the order of the pious, the order of the righteous, the order of the humble ones, the order of tho prophets, tho order of kings, of princes, of nobility, of generations, the order of every being, the order of every beast and bird, and that of every soul. Those arranged in order, He brings down Enoch, the son of Jered, whose proper name is “Mettatron,” and the four holy beasts from under the wheels of His glorious throne, and places Ills throne on one side. Then He brings up Ivorah and his gang from the depth of the purgatory. Then Ho brings forth all the living visitors of this life, placing them on their legs. Then He asks them, “Did ye ever see a God like me, either in heaven above or on earth beneath, or in any of the four corners of the world ? Be wutness unto me, and say the truth,” as it is written (Isaiah 43) “ Ye are my witness that I am God !” Then Mettatron and tho holy beasts with Korah and his gang will say in one voice, “We never saw a God like Thee, neither in Heaven above nor on earth below; Thou art the first and last, and no other God except Thee, our Lord and King,” as it is written (Psalm 86) “There is no God like Thee and none as Thy work.” At that hour the Lord will reply, “'Verily, I, I am and no God with me. I was be¬ fore I created the world and I am with the creation, and I will be a God in life here¬ after. I kill and I will resurrect, I wounded them in this life and will heal them iu future life. With the same fault with which he parts from this life, with the same ho will appear at the resurrection — the blind, the lame, the deaf, and the kindred afflicted beings. And the Lord will sit as a healer and heal them.” AN ANCIENT JEWISH PRIMER. 711 Why is Aleph written as ono letter and read as a syllable of three letters. Because it represents the Iloly One who is one, and the reading of his name is a threefold, as it is written “Hear Israel, (1) God onr, (2) Lord, (3) God is one.” His praise and sanctification is also a threefold, as it is written “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord Zchaath.” Even the song is a threefold as the song of songs of Solomon. Song is one, songs are two, here is a threefold song.1 Seventy names has the Holy One, those of the known ones, while the unknown are numberless. Aleph is the initial of “'have chosen,”’ “have taken,” “have appointed.” Said the Lord, all those are ajDplied to Mettatron my servant, who is_ sublimer than all the celestials. Have chosen him in Adam’s generation, when the generation of the flood got wicked, and took away my glory from them (in the text is “’my Shechina,” meaning the divine womanhood), and went to the heavens amid the blowing of the horns, as it is written (Psalm 47), “God went on high by the voice of the horns.” Then I selected Enoch, the son of Jered, from them, to be with me a living witness with the four holy beasts in my chariot. I appointed him on all my treasures in my celestial realm, and the keys of them I handed over to him. I made him a prince of princes to the glorious throne, a manager to four holy beasts, and to put crowns on their heads. I made his height higher than all the celestial- beings, 7, GOO miles taller. I exalted his throne from mine. I turned his body into a flame and his bones into glitter¬ ing light. I made his appearance as the appearance of lightning, his eyes as the eternal light, and the reflection of his face as the reflection of the sun, the rays of his eyes as the rays of the glorious throne, his garment of majesty and beauty. I crowned him with a crown 500 miles on 500 miles measure, and gave from my majesty to him. I called him in my name “ Jedud the Little,” who knows all the secrets and myster¬ ies which I revealed unto him in love. I placed his throne at the entrance of my palace, to do judgment among the celestial family. Seventy names I named him in order to increase his glory. Seventy princes I placed under him in order to execute through them the fates of existence, to uplift the lowly and to make low the proud ones, to smite the kings with his word and to humiliate the nobles, to alter the run of time and to reveal wisdom to the earthly kings, delivering the secrets to those who strive fer knowledge. That Mettatron sits in Heaven three hours each day, gathering round him all those souls of infants, sucklings, and of school children who died before their times. He gathers them under the glorious throne, dividing them in divisions and sections, and teaches them the law, wisdom and knowledge, and all the secrets of the Torah, as it is written (Isaiah 28), “To whom will he teach wisdom, to whom will he explain the tidings? To those who were deprived from milk, taken from off the breasts.” THE PRIXCE OF WISDOM. Sagnasel is the Prince of Wisdom. Why is his name Sagnasal? Because the treasures of wisdom are given into his hand. All those treasures were ojmned to Moses while on Mount Sinai, where Sagnasel taught him the law in seventy lan¬ guages and in seventy ways. The prophets, the oral laws, and all knowledge per¬ taining to religion he taught him in seventy ways. At the expiration of his forty days Moses forgot all in one hour, and the Holy One called upon Jefeifia, the prince of the law, and presented him as a gift to Moses, and then his memory was strength¬ ened. Those ninety-two names of the Holy One, names of the outspoken name, 1 The following chapter must have been for the last standard of the grammai school. Its mystical environment, its more completed, narratives, indicated the character and purpose of that portion of the “reader.” The so oft-cited sentences of the Scripture were probably calculated to impress the pupil with the idea that the Bible is the source of all knowledge, training him to study and to know it by heart. 712 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. which are engraved upon the glorious throne, which the Holy One gave from His name to Mettatron, and the twenty-two seals by which all the celestial orders are sealed, also the hooks of kings and of angels, of the Grim Messenger, and the hooks of fate of every nation. Said Mettatron, the prince of the interior, the prince of the law, the prince of wisdom, the prince of glory, the prince of the palace, the prince of the angels, the prince of princes above and below, that the Lord, the God of Israel is my witness, that when I revealed that secret to Moses there arose an uproar among the celestial hosts, and they protested. They said to me, “ Why do you reveal that secret to the sons of man, horn from a woman, who are full of faults, unclean, full of blood and disease? Why do you reveal that secret by which the creation was called into existence, why do you reveal to man of flesh and blood?” I replied to them, “Because I took a permit from the Holy One. Therefore I revealed to him the meanings of the names going out from light and fire.” They were not satisfied with my explanations, and the Lord said, “I want so, and 1 appointed Mettatron alone, and he can give it to Moses.” Moses delivered that to Jehoshua, and Jehoshua to the elders, and the elders to the prophets, the prophets to the men of the great synod, and the great synod to Ezra the scribe, and Ezra to Hillel the Great, and Hillel to Rab Ahluhu, and Rab Ahluhu to the men of faith (the Essenes), and the men of faith to the people of religions to take care of it, and to heal by it all the dis¬ eases, as it is written, if thou hear and keep the words of the Lord I will not bring upon thee the plagues I brought down upon Egypt, as I, thy God, am thy healer. B reads as Beth, which means a house (the initials of Beth). Said the Lord, I builded, I formed, I prepared, I builded my two palaces, one in Heaven and the other on earth. I formed all the orders of creation. I prepared the future life. Why has God created the world with the letter B ? Because the Lord knew that the world would be twice destroyed, once by the generation of the flood and once at the end of 6093 years since the creation. (The letter B is in Hebrew bTo. 2.) Another reason, as the temple will be destroyed twice. For he created two worlds, life here and life to come. For God said, I created two palaces, one for me and the other for the sons of man, as it is written (Psalms), “ Heaven belongs to the Lord, the earth he gave to the sons of man.” Said the Holy One, for the people will have two kinds of worship, Israel will wor¬ ship me, the pagans, idols. Another reason, because the people have a dual thought, one good and the other evil. Three are called “first,” the Torah, Israel, and the fear of the Lord, and for their sake the world was created. By the Torah is written (Proverbs 14), “The Lord bought me, the first of His way.” “Israel,” as it is written (Jeremiah), “holy is Israel to the Lord, the first of his fruit.” Fear of the Lord is also called “first,” as it is written (Proverbs 1), “The first of wisdom is the fear of the Lord.” B is Binda, knowledge or understanding. Without understanding the world could not exist even one hour, as it is written (Deuteronomy), “ Select from you men of wisdom and understanding.” When God requested Moses to select men of under¬ standing to make them tribal leaders, Moses went throughout all the camps of Israel to seek for men of understanding, and he could not find them. Understanding is dearer to the Almighty than the Torah ; if a man knows all the laws of the Torah, all the scripture, all the knowledge, and has not the understand¬ ing, he has nothing acquired. G is the initial of Charity. If there was no charity the world could not exist. The Lord said, If it had not been for my charity the world could not exist. What is the charity that God does to this world daily ? It consists in giving the people spirit, wisdom, understanding, thought, power, light of the eyes, hearing of the ears, motion of the feet, feeling of the hands, the opening of the mouths, and the talk of the tongue. As it is written (Psalm 33), “The charity of the Lord is full on the earth.” Spirit and soul, as it is written that the Lord blew into his nostrils a living AN ANCIENT JEWISH PRIMER. 713 "breath. Wisdom, as it is written, “The Lord gives from this mouth wisdom and knowledge.” The sense of hearing, as it is written, “And the ears of the deaf will he opened.” Walk of the legs, as it says, “Then the legs of the lame will jump as a deer.” Feeling of the hand, as it is said, “Lift ye your hands in holiness.” Open¬ ing of the mouth, as it says, “Who made a mouth to man?” Talk of the tongue, as it is written (Proverbs), “ To man is the array of heart’s feelings, but from the Lord is the reply of the tongue.” D, H. Said the Lord, “My word stands forever in Heaven.” The word represents the angel of healing, as it is written (Psalms), “He sends his word, and he heals them.” Word is the power of prophecy, as it says, “And He put His word in the mouth of Balaam.” Dalit is the initial of the Lord’s promise. 1 say to uplift the poor, as the people are not favorable to the poor, as it says, “ The wisdom of the j)oor is disregarded.” But when a poor man prays to me, I do not turn him empty, as it is written (Psalms), “God comforts the ashamed poor.” The Holy One looks every moment to the poor, and his words are sweeter to Him than the utterances of others, as it is written (Psalms), “Then the Lord listens to the poor, and makes not ashamed his prisoners,” those afflicted people, who are imprisoned by their ailments and disease. Why does the D face the H ? Because he who is poor in this life will be rich in life hereafter, like Israel who is poor here, but will be rich in future life. Again, the heathen who are rich here will be poor yonder in the future life. Why are the wicked prospering? Because God gives them their reward here for the few good deeds they do. For instance, some wicked do charitable works, not for charity’s sake, but for the sake of their name being praised, and so they are rewarded here with wealth. If a man in Israel, who is born under a favorable planet to live a good, happy life, and acknowledge the Lord with all his heart, is humble in his ways and manners, and does not treat the poor in a haughty way, and does not curse, and gives from his wealth to the poor, and to the rich in the shape of a loan, such a man will eat the fruit in this life while the main stock will remain for him in future life and he will become one of the saints on high. H, or Hei, is the sacred name of the Holy One, by which he created the world, as it is written (Genesis), “ Those are the histories of heaven and earth, when they were created.” (The initials of the words “ they were created” is H.) From it you learn that the Almighty had no trouble in creating the universe, as the medium he used was the H, the lightest of all the letters (in pronunciation). All the letters, if they are pronounced, he feels through the various organs, as tongue, lips, teeth, and the letters are accompanied by the unclean saliva, but the H, or “Hei” is pure, as when pronounced, no organ is required to help, and no saliva accompanies it. All the pronounced names of the Holy One are written with H, and with it heaven, earth, this life and life hereafter, and the messianic time, were sealed by it. The letters by which heaven and earth were sealed are twelve, corresponding to the twelve hours of the day and those of the night, to the twelve months of the year, corresponding to the twelve planets in the Zodiac. To the twelve tribes cor¬ responding to the twelve continents, bearing the twelve names of the twelve tribes, as it is written, “He placed the borders of the nations to the numbers of Israel’s tribes.” All those letters are as fire, and they glitter as lightning, and each letter measures 21,000 miles, and on each are chained crowns of glory as they are engraved by the finger of the Holy One. They are also the seals of the Lord, with which he seals all the souls on the glorious chariot. Each name has a special seal. The Lord sits on a throne of fire, surrounded by fire pillars with the sacred names thereon. By each pillar numberless angels of fire are standing. When a man knows those names, and makes use of them, all the heavens are filled with fire, and they go down to burn the earth, but * ED 96 - 23* 714 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. the heavens are linked and chained to tli6 borders of the earth, and seeing the seal of the Holy One, they are filled With the spirit of mercy and do not destroy the earth. S, or Sain, is the name of the Holy One, as Sain means “maintainer,” as the Lord is the maintainer of all. The Almighty has the key of woman, as it is written, “He opened her worn]);” the key of rain, as it is written, “He will open you his kest treasure; ” the key of maintenance, as it is written, “ Thou openest Thy hand to satisfy all with good will ;” the key of human structure; the key of manna, as it is written, “'He opened the heavens above; ” the key of kingdoms; the key of eyes, as it is written, “'Then tho eyes of the blind will he opened; ” the key of the deaf, as it is written, “ Tho cars of the deaf will he opened; ” the key of the lips, as it is written, “Tho Lord will open my lips;” the key of tho mouth, as it is written, “And the Lord opened tho mouth of the ass;” tho key of the tongue; the key of the earth, as it is written, “Tho earth shall open and flourish salvation;” the key of the prisoners, as it is written, “'The Lord makes loose the hound ones;” He has tho key of Eden, as it is written, “Opened to mo the gates of righteousness;” Ho has the key of the purga¬ tory, as it is written, “ Opened the gates and let enter the pious nations keeping the truth.” Do not read Amonim (Truth) only “Amanim, ” as for the sake of “Amen, ” which the wicked say in tho purgatory, they are redeemed from it. In the later days the Lord will sit in Eden and explain the laws while all the good ones will sit and the celestial family will he on his right, and sun and moon with all the planets to tho left, and the Lord will explain the laws of tho new Torah, which will be given through the Messiah. At the end, Zemhabel will stand up and say, “Exalted and sanctified shall he the Holy great name.” His voico will be heard from one corner of the universe to the other, and all existence will say “'Amen.” The wicked of Israel and those of tho heathen in the purgatory will also say “Amen,” and their voices will reach heforo the Lord. Tho Lord will inquire for them, and tho angels of the service will say that they are the voices of tho wicked condemned in the pur¬ gatory. At that moment the Lord will show His mercy and hand over to Michael and Gabriel tho keys of the purgatory to bring them forth from there. At that time tho two archangels will go and open the forty thousand gates of hell. Tho hell is 300 miles long, 300 miles broad, 1,000 miles thick, 1,000 deep, and when a wicked man falls into it, ho never can get out. The two archangels at that time will bring those condemned forth, they will bo washed and cleansed, their wounds healed, and they will be dressed in pure rays of garment and brought before tho glorious throne. When they will be before tho Lord, they will fall on their faces, bowing, praising the Holy name. At that moment all will join in the eternal praise of the Lord! Ch, or Chet, means sin. When the wicked are punished in tho purgatory for their sins, they repent and they are forgiven and share the future life with all the pious and good ones, and they sit near the “Schechina” (divine womanhood), as they save their broken hearts with repentance, as it is written (Psalm 31), “God is nigh to the broken hearts,” and they are dearer to the Lord than tho angels. Tho angels are distant from the “ Schechina” 36,000 miles, as it is written, “ Sera¬ phim stand above him.” “'Above” in geometrical calculation is “thirty-six thousand.” The Schechina is measurcdt wicc thirty-six times ten thousand miles, and the celestial mile is thousands of cubits; a cubit is four span and a fist, and a span measures from one corner of tho world to the other. Tho earth is only one foot long, one foot broad, and one foot high up to the first heaven, and yet, those broken-hearted through repentance are nigh to the Schechina. But those who are proud, the Lord is far from them. . Those who are proud are like idol worshipers, and if a man is like Moses, our master peace with him, and has pride, he will not escape the punishment of the hell. AN ANCIENT JEWISH PRIMER. 715 F, or Fetii. Fetli means “lime; ” tliat is, the limo from which all was created, and to which all returns, as it is written, “All was from dust and all returns to dust,” and dust is lime. Limo is the lime of the future, from which all the good ones will flourish in parties, as the grass of the field with many garments, whose perfume will fill the whole of the universe, as the perfume of “Eden,” as it is written (Psalms xlii), “ They will flourish from the city as the grass of the field. ” The city is Jerusa¬ lem, as the Lord will start the resurrection only from Jerusalem, as it is written (Ezechiel), “I will give an ornament in the land of the living.” Is there a dead land? It means Palestine, which is called “ The land of the living,” as her dead will he resurrected first. What will become of those pious ones who are dead in other lands? But at the day of resurrection the Lord will say to the angels, “Go forth and lift up the surface of the ground, and make tunnels through which to bring the good ones from foreign lands to Jerusalem.” The angels will take up the four corners of the globe, and shake the wicked from it, and the good ones will bo brought to Jerusalem through tunnels; there the Lord himself will resurrect them. How will the resurrection take idace? The Lord will take a trumpet measuring a thousand cubits, the cubits of the Lord, and will blow so that it will be heard from one corner of the world to the other. At the first blow the world will be shaken up. At the second blow the ground will be divided. At the third blow the bones will be gathered. At the fourth blow the portions of the bodies will be warmed up. At the fifth blow their skins will be shaped. At the sixth blow the soul will be returned into their respective bodies. At the seventh blow they will stand up alive with their garments on. J, or Jod, means hand and might. We learn from it that the Lord will give in the later days a might, a foothold to the pious ones, as it is written, “'I will give unto them a hand and a good name in my house and my walls.” House means the temple, as it is written, “And my house will be called the worship house of all nations.” Wall means Jerusalem, as it is written, “Upon thy walls, Jerusalem, I appointed watches ! ” Jod means also gifts, as the Lord will present gifts to all the pious ones, each one with a cup of life’s elixir in order to live forever. Name means that the Lord will reveal to them the pronounced name by which he lias created the heavens and earth, in order that they shall be able to create worlds too. Each pious one will get threo hundred and forty worlds as a reward for his good deeds. They will have an everlasting name means the pronounced sacred name, with which future life was created. Praise and exaltation that will be the light of their eyes where at one glance they will be able to see from one part of the world to the other. Kaf, or K, means the hand of swearing (as by swearing wo lift up the hand). It will bo a hand clutching of joy at the banquet which God will tender to the right¬ eous at the later days when with each one the “ Schechina” will walk, accompanied by tens of thousands of angels, around them pillars of lightning, and the elements will dance before them. Upon that time the prophet said, “O Lord, uplifted is Thy hand.” At that banquet, Isaiah will say “O Lord, uplift Thy hand, let not the wicked see the pleasures of the good ones.” The Lord will reply, “No; contrary, let them come, and be ashamed;” then the prophet will say, “No; let them not come, and not see.” The Jewish nationality will be called upon to settle that dispute. Mettatron will bring the Jewish nationality before the Lord. Then she will say, “For what am I called here ?” Then the Lord will say, “My dear daughter, I like that the wicked shall come and see the pleasures of the good ones.” “ Let them come,” she will say, “and bo ashamed/"’ At that time the wicked will come at the doors of Eden to look and behold the 716 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. pleasures of the pious ones. They will see how everyone is clad in garment accord¬ ingly, and before each is a table of pear], and before everyone there is a golden enp mounted with precious stones, while the cup is filled with life elixir, and on the table are arrayed many dishes of delicious food, and before everyone the angels are waiting. Their faces seem to reflect rays of light as that of the sun, penetrating from one end of the world to the other, while the heavens will open their doors, showering upon them a shower of perfumed dew, and its aroma will fill all the spaces in the universe, and millions of angels, harps in hand, will play and sing, while the sun, moon, and the planets will dance. When the wicked see those glorious things they will ask why is such an honor and pleasure given to those? And the angels will answer, because they kept the laws. Then the wicked will fall upon their faces praising the Lord, saying, “Hail to the nation, that such is to him ; hail to the nation, that the Lord is his God.” (Psalms cxliv.) L, or Lamed, is the initial of “Heart understands knowledge.” The heart is a reproduction of man; since man has eyes, so has the heart; man has ears, so has the heart; man has a mouth, so has the heart; man has utterances, so the heart; man roars, so the heart; man cries, so the heart; man walks, so the heart. The heart sees, as it is written (Preacher i), “My heart saw wisdom.” The heart hears, as it is written (Kings iii), “A heart to hear to judge.” The h$art talks, as it is written (Preacher iv), “I spoke with my heart.” The heart cries, as it is said (Lamentations), “Their hearts cried unto the Lord.” Man is consoled, so the heart; as it is said, “And He consoled them, and spoke with their heart.” Man legislates, so the heart ; as it is said (Judges viii), “ My heart to legislate to Israel.” Man roams, so the heart ; as it says (Psalms xlv), “My heart roams a good thing.” Man rejoices, so the heart; as it is written (Samuel ii), “My heart rejoices in the Lord.” Man is clean, so the heart; as it says (Psalms li), “A clean heart, create in me, O Lord.” Man mourns, so the heart ; as it says (Genesis), “And he mourned in his heart.” Man is awakened, so the heart ; as it is written (Song of Songs), “I slept, but my heart was awakened.” Man inquires, so the heart; as it says (Preacher i), “I turned my heart to inquire.” Man is wise, and so the heart; as it is written (Proverbs), “'The wise heart takes to good deeds.” Man is good, and the heart; as it is written (Proverbs), “ A good heart is always jolly.” All that is in man is contained in the heart, and the heart is equal to the two hun¬ dred and forty-eight portions of the body. There are twelve actions and qualities distributed to the various instruments of the body. The brain acts through thought and is the thinking machine. The mouth divides the food, the tongue smooths the ground food, the pipes of the lungs do the breath¬ ing, and so on. But hate, love, envy, dwell only in the heart; therefore it is said, “Do not hate thy brother in thy heart ; love thy God with all thy heart.” God therefore looks only into the heart; as it is written, “ Man sees with the eyes, while God looks into the heart.” M, or Mini. Why pronounced with both letters ? Because both are on the height of the glorious throne, where they chain the crowns of light. When the time for sancti¬ fication comes, and God does not step down from His height, they apjiroach each other saying, “When will I come to see the face of the Lord?” (Psalms.) When the Lord comes down then all the letters open their mouths with song of praise, the open M says, “ Thy kingdom is forever,” while the closed M says, “ And Thy realm is in all the generations.” At that time the Lord takes all the letters and kisses them, placing two crowns upon each — the one the crown of glory, the other a crown of glory. To the open M He gives two crowns, and to the closed M one of ruling and other of majesty, and places one to His right and the other letter to His left, saying, “My letters, which 1 engraved with pen of fire, my kingdom is only proclaimed through you.” AN ANCIENT JEWISH PRIMER. 717 With the open M the Lord is called ‘‘King of Kings,” "while with the closed M lie is called “ Ruler of Rulers.” When the two M’s hear it, they open their mouths in song of praise, and all the celestials come, fall, and how before the Holy One, sing¬ ing and praising the Almighty. N, or Nun. Why is the one N straight and the other in a resting attitude ? Because with them was the soul of man created, as every soul. Sometimes it rests and some¬ times it stands. When she (the soul) is in the body she is resting, and when she is out of the body she is standing. A king wanted once to enter his j)alac e, which was an unclean place, and he says to his servant, Bring the candle in. So the Lord created man from dust, blood, and gall; therefore Pie placed in him the soul in order to see what goes on in that dark, unclean place, and the soul is the candle of the Lord (Proverbs xxvi). The soul of man is the candle of the Lord, not that of the animal, as the soul of the latter has rest, while that of the former has no rest. When man dies, his soul is brought before the celestial bench, and there, all the deeds are arrayed, and the judges tell all he did on that day or on that hour and place; even the private conversation between husband and wife is recorded. If he lost his children when he was alive, they ask him, 1 ‘ Why did you lose your children ? ” If he was blinded, or became deaf in life, they ask him to account for it, as the ways of the Lord are even and only sinners are stumbling on them. They ask him why he stumbled on his sin. If he can give a reasonable answer, they accept it ; if not, he is whipped with a whip of fire and he turns into ashes. The ashes are scattered to all four corners of the world, then they are collected by four angels, an angel to each corner, and they put the ashes in the grave, to be there till judgment day. S, or Sarnech, means the leaner, and it represents the Lord, who leans the fallen ones, as it is written (Psalms cxlv), “The Lord leans the fallen ones.” He leans the heavens as well as the globes of the planets below them. Sarnech means also the Torah, which is leaned on the prophet, books of the scribes, and on the oral law, as it is witten, “The well which was dug by the princes, by the nobles of the nations.” Well means the Torah, as it says, “The well of living water.” And the law is always compared to water, as it says, “He who is thirsty, go to the water.” Why are the words of the Torah compared to water? Because as water leaves the highest and comes down, so the Torah likes only him who is humble. “Dug by princes,” they are Moses and the seventy elders who explained the laws in seventy languages. “The nobles of the nation,” they are the scribes, as David, Solomon, Ezra, who haA'e explained the law to Israel. E, or Ain, means the eye of the law, which is the eye of all eyes and the wisdom of all wisdom, as it is written (Psalms xix), “The law of the Lord enlightens the eyes.” Wisdom is only the wisdom of the law, as it is written, “Ye shall keep my laws, as they are your wisdom and understanding.” P, or Pe, means mouth, and mouth means Moses, as it is written (Exodus), “'I am a hard mouth, and a stutterer of tongue.” Moses said to the Lord, “I know Thou art the only God, and Thou hast created the world only for Thy own honor, and created man only to do Thee honor, and every portion of the body Thou hast created for some purpose to serve Thee. The head to bow before Thee, the eyes to see Thy glory, the ears to hear Thy honor, the nose to smell, the teeth to grind the food, the pipe to give in and to give out. The veins as blood vessels, the skin for complexion, hands to fight and to work, feet to wTalk, tongue to talk. Now give me talkative power.” The Lord replied, “Who made the mouth and tongue to Adam? Of course I did it.” Z, or Zadic, means the righteous of the world, God Himself, as He does right to every creature in the universe. If God had not given to man mouth and tongue the world could not exist for a moment. When Moses refused to accept the mission on account of being a stutterer the creatures of the world began to tremble, saying, “Behold Moses who once will speak with the Schechina one hundred and seventy- five times face to face and will explain every letter and law in seventy languages, 718 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. yet lie says, 'I am a stutterer ; ’ what shall we say?” For that, that Moses made him¬ self incapable oil account of his mouth, the Lord uplifted him, as it is written, “and I was standing between you and the Lord,” a position which even Mettatron can not have. For the plea that he pleaded, “'I am hard of talk,” the Lord speaks of him, “'Moses, face to face I speak with him.” God has appointed Moses as a treasury over all the creation, as it is said, “Moses, my servant, the faithful in my household.” When Moses reached the department of the future and saw the parties of sages, of the Sansechrin, of the Rabbis, explaining the law in forty-nine ways, and then he saw the college of Rabbi Akibah, who explains three hundred and sixty-five reasons for the laws, he said, “I do not want to be the messenger of the Lord.” But the Lord knew the reason of his refusal, so He sent Sagnasel, the Prince of Wisdom, to Moses, and he brought him into the colleges where the laws are taught. There Moses heard the Rabbis saying “That law, as well as this law, is delivered by Moses from Sinai.” As Moses heard this he was calm, and with satisfaction accepted the mission as a redeemer. IC, or Kof, means Moses who surrounded Pharaoh with all words of wisdom in sev¬ enty tongues. When Moses and Aaron appeared beforo the king they found there seventy writers writing the correspondence in seventy languages. As soon as they beheld the two messengers, how their faces were shining like the sun, and each word they uttered was of fire, and seeing the stick upon which was engraved the pronounced name, they began to tremble, throwing away their pens and letters, bowing in fear before Moses and Aaron. Then the king asked them, “Who has sent you to me ? ” They replied, “ The God of the Hebrews.” He asked again, “What is His name, what of nis strength, how many countries has Ho conquered, how many are the numbers of His fighting army? ” They answered him, “ His strength is full tho universe, Heaven is His throne, His word is fire and shakes up mountains, His bow is fire, His arrows are of fire, no is the cre¬ ator of all and the peacemaker between fire and water. With His word He created tho world, by utterance formed the mountains, and by wisdom He creates tho child in the womb of his mother. He clothes tho skies with clouds, and lets rain fall upon the earth to maintain the life of all.” Said the king to them, “I do notneed Him, as I created myself,” as it is written (Ezechie! xxviii) “Mine is the Nile and I created me. What you say,” tho king continued, “that He makes rain and dew; my Nile waters my land to bring forth the sweetest fruit. But wait; I will bring tho mem¬ oranda of yore, containing tho letters of ancient kings; perhaps I will find among them some letters of your God, for, so far as I know, He never has sent to mo any writings or greetings.” Ho opened his museum and called upon the seventy writers to read in seventy languages at the same time. Not finding His name, he said to Moses and Aaron, “I know neither of Him nor of His might.” He then sent word to all tho wise men in Egypt to inquire, and they said, “Yes; we heard about the name of their God ; wo heard that He is the son of wise, the son of ancient kings.” At that time tho Lord said, “ Fools, ye call yourselves fwiso ones’ and mo the son of wise, the son of kings,” as it is written (Isaiah xiv), “Only fools are the princes of Zoan; the wise counselors of Pharaoh have foolish advice; for how could you say to Pharaoh that I am the son of wise, the son of kings?” R, or Reish, is the Almighty, who is the head of the world and its end. R is tho word of tho Lord by which Ho has created the seven heavens. R is tho meaning of head, which means Israel, whom the Lord has made the head of the heathen. Sb , or Shein, means teeth ; those are the teeth of the wicked, which will be broken three times — one time here in this life, second in life hereafter, third in the Messianic time. As the Shein has three heads, so the Almighty will break the teeth of the wicked three times. The teeth of the wicked will grow out of their mouths 22 cubits long at the time of the Messiah. The people will wonder upon, and they will be informed, that is because they ate up the wealth of the pious in life. AN ANCIENT JEWISH PRIMER. 719 The Shein has three branches, symbolizing the three worlds in which man lives — this life, life hereafter, and the life of tho Messianic era. The Shein symbolizes the three sanctifications of this world — the sanctification of the Lord, the sanctification of tho Sabbath, and tho sanctification of Israel. T, or Taw, means longing; man longs for everything in this life. Man is born naked, without dress, without shoes, without knowledge, without understanding, without thought, without word, without tongue, without law, without strength, without power, without riches, without wife and children, without walk and deeds; yet as soon as ho goes out from his mother's womb he longs only to talk of the tongue, and when ho gets it ho longs to the wmlk of tho feet, and when ho gets it he desires knowledge, and his desire extends gradually to all things he sees. But when ho parts from this, he goes out empty, as it is written (Kings ii), “Tho days of David approached to their end.” Tho day of the king is not written, only of David, as there is no kingdom at tho day of death. # Rabbi Aha used to say, “The end of the best is to be killed, the end of man to die, and all are ready for death. Hail to him whose labor was in the law and did tho will of his Creator, grew with a good name, and parted from tho world with a good name. On such a man is written, A good name is better than good oil, and the day of death better than the birthday.” CHAPTER XV. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE, PARTICULARLY IN AUSTRIA, PRANCE, AND GERMANY.1 * The American Bankers’ Association has led the wav in one of the most important educational departures of this century. It is nothing less than a systematic effort to aronse public attention to the importance of providing for a more extensive and more thorough professional education of our business classes. As the first step in this work, the association appointed a committee to investigate what was being done in a systematic way in the United States toward providing for this great public need of a special education for mercantile and business life. With a full recognition of the admirable work which many of our so-called “ commercial colleges” are doing, and with the completes! acknowledgment that their founders and promoters were the first to see the need of special commercial education and were doing valuable work in supplying it so far as they could, the committee felt that there was a field of education which these institutions were not at all cultivating, and yet which needed spe -ial attention. In canvassing the educational institutions of the country, it soon appeared that the Wharton School of Finance and Economy of the University of Pennsylvania was the only inst itution of higher rank which was busying itself seriously with this educational problem. The committee, therefore, requested the author of this report to give the association an account of the work, aims, and methods of the Wharton School. In an address delivered before that body at Saratoga, in September, 1890,- the general situation of business education was discussed and an exposition of the work of the Wharton School was given. So well pleased was the association with the plan there outlined and the report of the work already accom¬ plished that it adopted resolutions recommending to the colleges and universities in the United States the establishment of similar departments as constituent parts of their organization. This action attracted much attention and the scheme received the approval of leading college and university authorities, as well as business men.3 Pursuing the same line of work, the association resolved to investigate what was being done in the field of secondary education corresponding to the work of the Wharton School of Finance and Economy in higher education. As it was generally known that the various countries of western Europe had done much work along this line, the author of the present report was invited to visit the leading centers of European education and examine their institutions for commercial education and report upon this subject. In pursuance of this invitation, he visited England, France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, and Belgium, and the following report incor¬ porates some of the results of his observation and study of this topic. The essence of the report has already been submitted to the association, at its last meeting, in an address delivered in San Francisco September 7, 1892. 4 The object in preparing the various detailed reports which constitute this work was to put the available information relating to these schools, their history, origin, development, curricula, etc., into such a form that any member of this association, or of any similar body, any teacher in the United States, any superintendent of schools, any school board, or any other body or individual who might become interested in this subject and who might wish to take the initiative in organizing such schools among us would find the assistance he needs in taking the first steps toward such an end. 1 A report made in 1893 to the American Bankers’ Association, through its committee on schools of finance and economy, by Edmund J. James, Ph. D., then professor in the ^Vharton School of Finance and Economy. University of Pennsylvania, now professor and director of University Extension Division, University of Chicago. -Education of Business Men. An address before the American Bankers' Association at Saratoga, September 3, 1890. 3 See Education of Business Men, I and II. American Bankers’ Association, Xew York, 1892. 4 Education of Business Men, III. A plea lor the establishment of commercial high schools. American Bankers’ Association, Few York, 1893. Pages 17. 721 722 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The object of this report, then, has not been to present a complete account of the system of commercial education in Europe, nor complete statistical tables a.s to num¬ ber of schools, pupils, teachers, etc., but rather to select a few typical institutions and describe them so fully that anyone who chose to do so, by making allowance for the difference in conditions, could reproduce their counterparts here. The special accounts contain many references to the burning questions of educa¬ tional policy which will prove of interest to the educational specialist. It is my opinion that the educational system of the United States would be enor¬ mously Improved by the introduction of such schools as are described in this report into our scheme of public instruction, and if the American Bankers7 Association shall have contributed, even to a small extent, to this great result it will have deserved the thanks of every American citizen. I have set forth in the two addresses delivered before the association, in consid¬ erable detail, the reasons for believing that a system of institutions of secondary and higher rank should be organized with a special view of offering facilities for a pro¬ fessional education along business and commercial lines. The schools of secondary rank would be commercial high schools, running parallel with our present literary high schools on the one hand and manual-training high schools on the other. The schools of higher rank should bo of college and university grade, and should be organized in connection with our existing colleges and universities. The commercial high schools could be established by private parties, either indi¬ viduals or corporations, much as our academies and seminaries are organized and managed now. Some of the most successful of these schools have been thus estab¬ lished in Europe, notably in Paris, Vienna, and Turin. Or they might be established by boards of trade, chambers of commerce, trades leagues, or other similar bodies. This also has been a familiar form of organization and support in Europe. Indeed, it may bo said that some of the most successful of the European schools have been managed on this plan : The School of Higher Commercial Studies at Paris, the Academy at Prague, and the Institute at Leipsic. Or they might be established by the community as integral parts of the public- school system. A start has been made along this line at Pittsburg, Cincinnati, and San Francisco, in this country ; but these schools have not been developed as they ought to be. It is undoubtedly true that in the long run we shall have to rely upon this third form to accomplish the most general and widespread results; but there is also just as little doubt that more rapid progress might be made if some private individual or corporation would tako up the matter and give us a commercial high school which could serve as a model for our city boards, for the histor3r of educa¬ tion in ibis country shows conclusively that the spirit of routine and formalism which nearly invariably prevails in any public-school system is unfavorable to rapid and thoroughgoing improvement, inasmuch as it is unfavorable to experimentation, and experimentation is necessary to progress. The systematic and steady development of commercial instruction lies in the interest of our business world, in the interest of the community in general, and in the interest of our public system of education. There is at present little oppor¬ tunity for a youth desiring to enter business life to get any systematic assistance in preparing himself for his future career, if he desires or expects to engage in any¬ thing but clerical work. The old system of training young men in the great busi¬ ness houses has almost completely disappeared, even in those places in our country where it may have existed; while it can hardly bo said ever to have existed at all in most places in this country. Even in the old countries — England, France, and Germany — it has broken down, like the apprenticeship system in the trades, and at present the only possible substitute for it seems to be the properly organized com¬ mercial school. It may bo said that the best preparation is a good general education of the literary high school and college. This has always been the answer to every proposition to organize professional or technical education. It is essentially the mediaeval idea of education, and it dies only very slowly and very hard in the face of modern progress. The best practical answer to it is the fact that practical men as a class will have nothing to do with it. Opportunities for such education have been open to the busi¬ ness classes for three centuries, and they have availed themselves of them only to a very limited extent either in Europe or America; while whenever a special educa¬ tion of high rank has been open to them they have shown their appreciation of it by patronizing the institutions which offered it. The fact seems to be that in every line of educational life the number of people who will take a very extensive course of study of a purely liberal character is very small indeed, while the number of those who will take an extensive special or professional education is large and continually growing. Indeed, if you were to cut out of our present so-called liberal courses those persons to whom the study of Latin, Greek, history, mathematics, science, etc., is not only a liberal but also a technical pursuit COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 723 in the sense of preparing them directly for their future work, viz, teachers, preach¬ ers, lawyers, physicians, the number left in these courses would he astonishingly small. We can conquer the uneducated and half educated people of this country for secondary and higher education only by offering them courses of study which, while they are of a strictly educational character in the best sense of the word, shall also have some bearing on their future every day life, shall have some direct relation to the work they are called upon to do in the world. The first aim of an educational system should undoubtedly be to offer general or liberal courses of all grades, and of the very best possible character, and get as many people to pursue these courses as possible, no matter what their future careers. It should, then, go further and offer to those youth who have gone as far as they will in these liberal courses an opportunity to pursue their education still further along lines relating to their future calling — an educat ion which, if it is based on science and be properly organized, can not but be liberalizing, no matter if it bo technical in the ordinary sense of the term. Nobody can doubt that the training- of a properly organized and managed law school is not merely technical or professional in nature, but also highly liberalizing, particularly as compared with the training of an ordinary law office. Nor will anyone deny that the work of a good manual training or trade high school maybe made educational in a very high sense. In the same way the curriculum of a commercial high school may be eminently liberalizing in all its ten¬ dencies, at the same time that it trains a youth so that he may be more useful in a business house. Such a high school may be of great advantage to the youth whose father is able to set him up in business, or by his business connections may be able to start him far up the hill that leads to business success, for it will be able to impart to him much information which he would otherwise obtain in a scrappy way and often not at all until the opportunity to use it had passed him by; and at any rate it would prepare him to acquire quickly the details of his business and help him to coordi¬ nate his knowledge so a3 to make it of the greatest use to him. It would, moreover, quicken his interest in all that relates to business, and help make his business life a source of pleasure as well as profit to him. If such a training would help the youth of fortune and good business connections, it would be of immensely greater aid to the youth who must start at the bottom and has only himself and his own efforts to rely upon. It would enable him to acquire in a much shorter time the details of any business he chooses to take up; it would open his eyes to business chances; give him a comprehensive view of the business world, and help put him in a position to profit by whatever juncture turned up. It is said that 95 per cent of those who enter business fail at some time in their career, and certainly any business man will confirm the statement that there are far more failures than successes in the business world. These failures come, of course, from many circumstances; but there is little doubt that many of them spring from causes which the proper sort of preliminary training may remove; and if sound business education would serve to turn only 10 per cent of these failures into successes, it would pay for itself many times over Of course no commercial high school and no school of finance and economy can make a successful merchant or banker. Nor docs a law school make a successful lawyer or a medical school a successful physician; but all three may so train a man that ho'will enter upon his respective career at an advantage over the man who does not havo this training, provided other things are equal. A good commercial train¬ ing will prepare a boy to- learn his business more easily and rapidly than he could have done without it. But such a commercial training must be really educational in character. What this means, in the domain of secondary education, can be seen if one will take the six-months course of the average so-called, commercial college in the United States, and compare it with the three-years course of tlie schools discussed in the second part of this volume — say of that in Vienna, or Prague, or Leipsic, or Antwerp, or of the two in Paris. It is work of this latter character which is at once practical and liberal; which educates for life while it trains for a livelihood, and which should be intro¬ duced into our scheme of public education. It will bo noted that all the schools here discussed are really of high-school grade, covering the years from 14 or 15 to 17 or 18. The only exception is to be found in such courses as the one-year course for graduates of gymnasia or lycces, like the one in Vienna and the school at Venice, which may fairly lay claim to be considered of college or university grade. These courses represent really the only attempt to pro¬ vide for higher commercial courses at all and which, therefore, could come into comparison with the work which would properly fall within the scope of schools of finance and economy. The real reason for this is to be found, in my opinion, in the general love social 724 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. estimate set on tlie business clav rs in Europe which are relegated to a distinctly lower position in the social scale than the nobility, the army, and the professional classes. Shopkeepers and artisans are classed together, and for neither class is really higher education necessary at all. Of course this state of things can not continue indefinitely, and there are many signs of its approaching change, and before long we may confidently expect to see courses in commerce in the higher schools of Europe which will compare favorably with those suitable to schools of finance and economy as discussed in this work. Attempts have been made to develop courses in business in connection with the other courses in the German polytechnic schools ; but, as will be seen in the second part of this report, they have all been so inadequately organized that they have failed of their purpose and are of value to us only as solemn examples to be avoided. One interesting thing to note is the recent remarkable increase in attendance at French commercial schools. Up to 1890 the certificate of these schools was not accepted by the war department as entitling the holders to the privileges of the one- year-service law, and so boys who attended them were compelled to pass at least a year or two more in other schools for the mere purpose of passing the military exam ination, or else they were obliged to serve the full period in the army. This con¬ stituted a serious handicap for this class of instruction and accounts largely for the slow growth in attendance for many years. As soon as the certificate of these schools was put on a par with that of other educational institutions of similar grade, the attendance went up by leaps and bounds, showing that it was this artificial barrier which kept them back. The circumstance mentioned above serves to show the necessity of considering all the facts relating to a school system before drawing concrete conclusions or compari¬ sons. It will be seen, for example, that the higher commercial schools in Germany give more time to certain subjects than the corresponding schools in France or Austria. This does not come, as one might suppose, from a difference in the ideas of the German directors of commercial schools, but simply from the fact that the war department refused to receive the certificates of these schools as entitling to the privileges of the one-year voluntary service until its prescriptions as to certain fundamental subjects were complied with. The whole matter illustrates the far- reaching influence.of the military system in Europe over every department of life, when even the schools which fit for what is preeminently a peaceful vocation must adapt their curricula to the demands of the war office. The work of the Free School of Political Science, in Paris, is not noticed in this report, because its aim is quite different from that of the other institutions discussed. It is a most admirable school and is well worth the study of educationists. Its work corresponds at certain points with a portion of the work done in the Wharton School of Finance and Economy; but as a purely private institution it stands out of rela¬ tion to the general system of public education in France, having in an official way no connection either with the secondary system on one hand, nor with what cor¬ responds to our college and university system on the other. There are some interesting commercial schools in Russia, Holland, and some of the other countries in Europe. Russia has what may perhaps be called the oldest com¬ mercial school in the world. But as I was unable to visit the other European coun¬ tries, I thought best not to attempt a description of the schools relying, as I should have been obliged to do, entirely on the accounts of others. It will be seen that but little space is given to England or English schools. The reason is plain to one who knows the facts. There is no institution in Great Britain which fairly deserves the name of commercial high school in the sense used in this report. England is beginning to wake up to the necessity of this sort of education. Boards of trade, teachers’ conventions, educational societies have all begun to agitate for its introduction. The growing displacement of English youth in the great busi¬ ness houses of London by French, German, and even Italian youth began to attract public attention more than ten years ago. Finally, some six years ago the London Chamber of Commerce took up the subject in earnest, and later the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and then many other institutions and societies. Instead of taking hold of the subject at the right end and organizing a great insti¬ tution in London, wrhich might serve as a model for such schools elsewhere, the English began their work in this field, as in many similar instances, by establishing examinations, and granting commercial certificates to all such pupils as could pass them. As there were no schools where the candidates could prepare for these examina¬ tions, they had to wait until existing classical or scientific schools could see their way to the profitable introduction of the commercial side. When a school here and there finally decided to open a commercial department, it was found that in all England there were no properly qualified teachers for this work. The outcome of the examina¬ tion has been, therefore, most unsatisfactory, and there is talk of abolishing those in connection with Oxford. The London experiment has been the most successful, and it seems likely to continue. But the chief advantage from this movement thus far COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 725 in England lias been that it lias called public attention to the great need of oppor¬ tunities for some mercantile education of English yoyitli. There is little doubt that England 'will shortly take the matter up in earnest, when we may expect excellent results. There is little doubt that an association like the American Bankers’ Association, however, could do an immense amount toward educating the general public as well as bank clerks and officials along a few special lines if it would prepare careful syllabi of courses of reading along banking and financial lines, specifying books, order of reading, etc., and then provide for examination to be held on the subjects and the granting of certificates. The Wharton School of Finance and Economy receives letters continually from young men engaged in banks throughout the country asking for aid in pursuing their education along special lines relating to banking and finance, but its circumstances do not permit it to do this work at present. This association, however, could do this service in an admirable way, and if it should undertake it, many men throughout the entire country would rise up and call it blessed. There is, at present, a special reason why we in the United States should provide facilities for adequate education along’ mercantile lines in the narrow sense of the term. We are rapidly nearing the point in our manufacturing industry when we may expect to compete with England, Germany, and France in foreign markets. In this field of enterprise England is at great advantage because of long possession; France and Germany, because of the better training and education of their youth who enter their business houses in foreign countries. If we wish to find such com¬ petition successful, we must be able to find a ready supply of trained men for foreign correspondence and service ; men who have had systematic training in foreign lan¬ guages and in the geography and industries of foreign countries. Such a training it is the business of a commercial high school to give. The curriculum of a properly organized commercial high school would contain many elements of a liberal character. The history of commerce and commercial institutions, commercial geography with the necessary preliminary work in physical geography, the study of products, the theory and practice of accounting are all subjects of general interest to every educated man, whether he is going into business or not; while the study of commercial law in all its ramifications is not inferior, in its liberalizing tendencies, to international law or general jurisprudence itself. Such a curriculum would prove, therefore, a valuable element in our general scheme of education, and would contribute powerfully toward strengthening the hold of our public high school system upon the affections and interest of the community. HIGHER COMMERCIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. HISTORIC REVIEW. The history of mercantile instruction in Austria down to the fifties in this century stands in a certain relation to the history of the real school. The oldest institution whicffhad for its purpose the promotion of instruction in modern subjects was the Real-Handlungs-Akademie in Vienna, whose foundation dates back to the reign of Empress Maria Theresa. This academy, which was intended to train not merely efficient merchants, but also high-class officials for the economic and financial depart¬ ments of the Government, as well as skillful commercial experts, developed in a most happy manner. It was well directed and corresponded completely to the wants of the time, in which lectures on mercantile subjects were delivered to the law students who attended the Theresian and Savoyan academies for nobles. Before the close of the year 1770, in which the opening of this institution took place, the Austrian Gov¬ ernment guaranteed a certain support to the institution from the public treasury, and enlarged the curriculum to a two years’ course. The plan of study of this insti¬ tution embraced all those subjects which are now taught in commercial schools, and, in addition, geometry, mechanics, moral and civil law, philosophy, and morals. The instruction in languages embraced German, French, and Italian.1 The Real-Handlungs-Akademie, in spite of the promising beginning of its activity, did not succeed in maintaining a permanent existence. With the reorganization of the entire system of education in Austria, in 1805, it lost its independent position as a professional school. Under the name of the Real-Akademie it became the first real school of Austria, which had the third and highest grade of elementary instruction, in a narrow sense of the term, joined immediately onto the fourth class of the nor¬ mal school. The object of this curriculum was the education of youth who intended to devote themselves to the higher arts, to trade, to banking, and bookkeeping. The subjects 1 This account is abridged from the Centralblatt fiir das gewerbliche Unterrichtswesen in Oester- Teich, VI. Band, Heft 3-4, page 173 and following. 726 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. which arc essential for a commercial institution were limited to the last and Mgliest class — that of the third year. This last circumstance rendered very easy the new organization which was given to the Vienna Real School in the year 1815, when the Government, following the suggestion which Bohemia had given in 1806 hy the organization of the first Ger¬ man polytechnic school in Prague, established in that year the Polytechnic School in Vienna. The first two years of the real school were converted into a general pre¬ paratory school for the Polytechnic Institute. The third year was extended to a second commercial division of technology. This arrangement was based upon the correctidea that a merchant needs for his business thorough technological knowledge, while the technologist also needs commercial knowledge. Similar commercial courses to that in Vienna were organized in the polytechnic institutes of Krakau and Lemberg. The commercial instruction in the coast lands developed along entirely independent lines from the above foundations, which were naturally adapted to the interests of the internal provinces of the Empire. In Trieste a school of navigation had been in existence since 1774, when the Austrian and Hungarian coast lines belonged to the administrative division of Inner- Austria. In 1811 a division for commerce was added to this school; from the institution thus increased was developed, in 1842, the pres¬ ent Commercial and Nautical Academy in Trieste. The commercial courses in the technical schools, however, did not succeed in obtain¬ ing the hoped-for influence in those circles whose interests they were intended to serve, nor could they correspondto the varied demands of the mercantile classes, which naturally insisted upon a training suited to their various conditions. In order to meet this want, which was naturally felt most keenly in Vienna, the Geyer Com¬ mercial School in 1840, and later the Patzelt, were organized as private undertak¬ ings, and in 1848 the Corporation Commercial School was organized by the corpora¬ tion of Vienna merchants. In the southern portion of the Empire, the private commercial school in Laibach is worthy of mention. These institutions satisfied the demand down to the middle of the century, but on account of the general revolution in political and economic life after the year 1848 — the development of the railroad and the telegraph, the establishment of great banks yrith foreign capital, etc. — it was a natural consequence that entirely different and higher demands were made in the field of commercial education than formerly. In order to answer these changed conditions, a lively agitation appeared almost contemporaneously in the leading cities of the monarchy for the purpose of estab¬ lishing higher commercial schools by private and public corporations. This led, in a short time, to the establishment of commercial academies in Prague (German, organ¬ ized in 1856), Vienna (1858),Pesth (1857). Following these new foundations came later similar institutions in Gratz (1863), Bohemian Academy in Prague (1872), the commercial academies in Linz and Chrudim (1882), and Innsbruck (1887). The curricula of these higher commercial institutions, among which should be included the Commercial and Nautical Academy at Trieste, were no more nearly uniform in Austria than were those of similar schools in other European countries. The endeavor to secure for the graduates of such schools the privileges of the one- year military service law has led, however, to a gradual assimilation of the curricula in these various institutions, with the exception of the -academy at Gratz and the higher public course for mercantile instruction at Trieste. It may be remarked here that an attempt was made by the law of February 27, 1873, to regulate the entire field of commercial instruction for that portion of Austria below the Enns. THE PRINCIPAL COMMERCIAL INSTITUTIONS. 1.— THE COMMERCIAL ACADEMY IN VIENNA. A. — First Period (from the Establishment of the Academy down to 1872). Early in the year 1856, B. TV. Ohligs, a manufacturer, made a motion in the Cham¬ ber of Commerce and Trades for lower Austria to establish in Vienna a general mer¬ cantile institute. Ho justified the motion by the exposition of the importance of commerce as one of tho leading factors of the national economy. While instruction for the technical callings was secured, to a certain extent, at least, hy various insti¬ tutions of learning, the professional training of the future merchant was on the whole neglected. This defective mercantile training was, in his opinion, a chief reason why, in spite of the great victories of Austrian industry in international expo¬ sitions, tho trade of Austria was limited almost entirely to internal commerce. The consulates needed men with mercantile training; the commerce of Austria being represented in foreign States by non -Austrian agents and middlemen. Tho remedy COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 727 must, therefore, he sought- in the establishment of commercial institutions which should he organized to answer these demands. This suggestion was warmly approved: The proposition by Ohligs was supported by Mr. Frederick Schey, Peter Murman, Theodore Hornbostle, E. Seybl, and Edward Drasche. The meeting of the founders, held on the 19th of November, 1856, showed that there was no longer any doubt of the success of the undertaking. The Govern¬ ment gave its consent on the 5th of January, 1857, to the formation of an association for the establishment of a higher commercial institution in Vienna, and for the open¬ ing of a general subscription. It was largely due to the efforts of Mr. Frederick Schey that this association, on the 27th of April, 1857, on the date of its first general meeting, showed a membership of 563, with a fund of 352,7or pupils, and therefore open to them the opportunity of entering a mercantile career. Owing to the age of the pupils and the object of the school, namely, to train effi¬ cient merchants, the most rigorous discipline is enforced in the three-form academy. For the same reason the system of final examinations was given up, which was char¬ acteristic of the former academy, and the pupils are now examined throughout the entire year. To carry out this idea more fully, reports are prepared by which the families of the pupils are kept in continuous knowledge of their school work. Corresponding to the purposes of the school, the subjects of instruction are di¬ vided into two groups, the professional subjects and the liberal subjects, between which foreign languages form a certain union, as they are learned chiefly for the purpose of mercantile correspondence. The curriculum of the new academy shows, in comparison with that of the old one, a very decided advance, in that it has not merely the training of young people for banking in view, but, owing to the changed conditions of the times, it has in view, to a for greater extent than formerly, the wants of those who expect to enter merchandising, chemistry, and chemical tech¬ nology. The study of commercial products and chemical technology are taught in the new as they were in the old academy. The application of the knowledge thus acquired to the demands of business life is, however, first made possible by the knowledge of mercantile usage and the study of products, because in this way the knowledge of tjie basis of commerce, namely, the classification of goods, freight rates, etc., is first brought home to the student. This subject completes in a certain way the instruction for merchandising. It was introduced into the high school by Dr. Sonndorfer, and was retained in the three- form academy. In the year 1880-81 tariff legislation and administration was also introduced,as an elective branch of study. The development of instruction in the knowledge of commercial products will be discussed more fully later. In the table on page 738 the number and distribution of the subjects of instruc¬ tion are given. Details will be found in the catalogue of the academy. It should be mentioned further that for those pupils of the first class that have completed the lower gymnasium, and therefore, as a rule, have no knowledge of French, a separate course in French has been organized, attendance at which, however, is not required of the pupils. That the organization of the year 1877 corresponds to the wants of the commer¬ cial world, and gives guaranty that the pupils who graduate possess the necessary 'In the school year 1877-78, of 149 pupils who were admitted to the first year’s course only 47 per ceut had completed the required preliminary studies in a recognized school.' In the year 1887-88, on the contrary, of 282 admitted to the first year’s course 209, or 90 per cent, had completed the requii'ed studies iu such a school. 2 Compare tlie organization of the same on page 733. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 733 general education, is shown by the continued and growing approval which the reor¬ ganization of the Commercial Academy has received from the public. The details concerning the various relations of the pupils are given on pages 745 and 746. It appears from them that the pupils in the three-form academy come mostly from Vienna and lower Austria; they come in considerable numbers from Hungary, Moravia, Silesia, Bohemia, and Galicia. Foreign countries send from twenty-five to forty pupils. It is plain, therefore, that the three-form academy is not by any means of merely local importance. The institution receives from Hungary and the States along the lower Danube a considerable number of pupils, who are, how¬ ever, often defective in preliminary training. As it lies in the interest of the com¬ merce of the Monarchy, and especially of Vienna, that these elements should be attracted, the academy established some years ago a special preparatory class in which such young people have an opportunity to make good the defects of their training, and especially to learn the German language. The number of hours has been fixed at twenty-eight per week.1 Special importance is given in the curriculum to instruction in German, French, and mathematics. Besides these subjects, geography, history, physics, natural his¬ tory, and penmanship are taught. The instruction is given with reference to the purpose of the professional school which the young people intend to enter in the following year. The entrance examination for the first class of the academy is held at the end of the school year. B. ONE- YEAR COURSE FOR THE GRADUATES OF THE GYMNASIA AND READ SCHOOLS. This course has developed from a small beginning into an institution which answers the demands of wide circles. It was intended originally for such youths as were at least 17 years of age and had pursued an extended course of liberal train¬ ing. At present it performs the functions of enabling those young men who, after graduation from the gymnasia or real schools, wish to pursue commercial studies to complete the course in these branches within one school year. All the subjects of study are prescribed. In order to insure success in the prosecution of the studies, attendance at the exercises is insisted upon. At the end of the year examinations are held, which every pupil must attend who wishes to obtain a certificate. Certificates of mere attendance are not given. Only those pupils are admitted to these examinations who have attended during the entire school year all the prescribed recitations. The programme of studies is given below. It will be noted that each pupil is required to learn one foreign language, and to pass an examination upon it at the end of the year. This graduate course gets, as a rule, most of its pupils from Hungary ; then come Vienna, Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, and Bohemia In some years, however, Vienna and lower Austria have stood third and fourth in the list. It is notable that between 40 and 48 per cent of the pupils are of non-German birth. This fact illustrates the position of this graduate course in the general scheme of commercial instruction in the Monarchy, and shows that the idea underlying this course is a very fruitful one for very many different classes. CURRICULUM.— ONE- YEAR COURSE EOR GRADUATES OF GYMNASIA AND REAL SCHOOLS. Prescribed subjects. Hours per week. Political economy 2 Commercial geography and statistics . 3 Commercial and industrial law . 3 Bookkeeping and correspondence . 6 Mercantile and political arithmetic . 5 Study of international trade . 2 Study of products . 2 Life insurance and insurance against damage . 1 Elective subjects , of ivhich two at least must be taken and examination passed in one. French, first course, using the German language as the medium of instruction . 3 French, second course, using the French language as the medium of instruction . 3 English . 3 Italian . 3 Optional subjects. Customs tariff legislation and administration . 2 Penmanship . 1 * Practical work in laboratory for the study of products . See p. 743 for curriculum. 734 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Synopsis op Curriculum ix the One axd Three Year Courses ix the Yiexxa Commercial Academy’. A. — ONE-YEAR COURSE. Political economy. — In tlio lectures on this subject the object kept in view is to acquaint the student, in a manner corresponding to his thorough preparation, with the laws of wealth, and especially with the influence of the same on industry and commerce. The most important facts of the history of political economy and its doctrines are discussed, and special weight is laid on the relation of these facts to contemporaneous events in the world’s history. Following this, the fundamental principles of the production, exchange, distribution, and consumption of goods are explained, and the manifestations of these laws in political economy. This is done in accordance with the object of the school, viz, special attention is given to those subjects which belong to commerce and industry ; in particular, the money standard, stocks and bonds, banking, transportation, the railroad question, and, finally, the tariff question. This course of lectures is closed by a discussion of commercial crises, their causes and phenomena. COMMERCIAL LAW, LAWS OF BILLS OF EXCHAXGE, AXD LAWS RELATING TO TRADE. When it is desired to give students a special legal training, who do not possess any previous general knowledge of jurisjirudence, one must continually strive to show how the law to be discussed and its precepts are the results of the needs of life and trade, in order to awaken a lively interest in the subject and to make pos¬ sible a correct understanding of legal decisions. The lectures begin with the regulations relating to bills of exchange, because these form a complete whole, and are acknowledged to be a masterpiece of legisla¬ tion, and consequently rapidly familiarize the students with legal forms and terms. A preliminary study of the fundamental principles of the history of bills of exchange and of laws relating to them, and also the management of institutions for dealing in bills of exchange, is followed by an explanation of the separate laws with special regard to the needs of practical life. After this is studied, in the same manner general commercial law, in the course of which reference is made to those parts of the general civil law which are of interest in this connection, as well as to those parts of commercial law and usage which are not yet codified. This course is closed by a short description of the principal laws in force relating to trades and industries. Commercial geography and statistics. — Commercial geography considers the earth as an economic unit and the single States as economic factors in the great organism of the world’s economy. It shows how production, industry, commerce, and trade of the separate peoples develop themselves on the basis of geographical, ethnograph¬ ical, and geological conditions. In the lectures on commercial geography and statistics, the European countries, as also the most important countries outside of Europe, are thoroughly treated in a manner based on the advanced preliminary preparation enjoyed by the students. Text-book; Dr. C. Zehden, Handelsgeographie. BOOKKEEPING AXD CORRESPONDENCE. Bcoklcseping. — Exact explanations and detailed illustrations in respect to form, arrangement, and object of the separate books are given. Following this, complete accounts in merchandise, commission, forwarding, manufacturing, and banking are worked out; accounts current with interest computed according to the different methods with special attention to that method of reckoning which otters the greatest advantage and convenience to a firm in any of the above businesses; private, sus¬ pense, and joint accounting in mercantile and bank business; and, finally, account¬ ing and balancing for ordinary partnerships and limited and joint stock companies. Text-book: R. Schiller, Lehrbuch der Buchhaltung. Correspondence. — The instruction iu this study has for its object the giving to stu¬ dents a correct knowledge of the varied incidents of a mercantile business, about which a written correspondence is necessary, and to acquaint them with the forms of business letters. The students are trained in the composition of letters on mercantile, consignment, and commission transactions, together with the necessary invoices and account of sales; also letters concerning insurance and forwarding goods; letters on bills of exchange, on referring to drafts for the writer’s own or other accounts; on sending drafts for acceptance, forms of indirect bills of exchange, protesting notes, collat¬ eral acceptances, lost drafts, remittances, transmitting stocks, together with notes COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 735 and bills belonging -thereto, consignments in specie, making payments, checks (or bank bills), treasury bills, mortgages, checks, rebates, indorsing bills of exchange, joint accounts and bank transactions, letters of inquiry, dunning letters, circular letters, letters of credit, advertisements, legal letters, and letters relating to bank¬ ruptcy. Text-book : A. Kleibel, Lehrbuch der Handelscorrespondenz. Commercial arithmetic. — Discussion of the most important modern measures, weights, and coins; the method of computing discount and interest; the computation of accounts current according to the different methods in practice; the calculation of the value of gold, silver, and coins. The foreign exchange and stock computations according to the usage in Vienna, Amsterdam, Berlin, Frankfort on the Main, Ham¬ burg, London, and Paris. Explanations of the stock exchange (prolongations, trans¬ actions, computation of arbitration and equivalents in foreign exchange, stocks, paper, gold, and silver). Text-book: R. Kathrein, Kanfmannische Arithmctik. Political arithmetic. — Computing compound interest and interest on public rentes with payment of interest before maturity and after maturity, computation of annui¬ ties, mortgage loans, preference and lottery loans, forming plans of sinking funds, explanation of the conversion of loans. Knowledge of international commerce. — The object of the lectures on this subject is to give the student a concept of the world’s commerce, and to equip him with such knowledge as is necessary to successfully engage in international trade. In these lectures are treated : The origin of the produce exchange, its divisions and organization : the brokers and their position on the exchange : legitimate commercial transactions on the exchange, and the exchange boards of arbitration. The legal regulation of a system of weights and measures; the metric, English, Russian, and Chinese systems of weights and measures with special regard to their position in the world’s commerce. The system of weights and measures of the Orient. The method used to determine quality iu the international grain trade: methods of determining quality of yarn and silk in international commerce (numbering yarn and silk titration); alcoholometry and number measuring (dozen, score, etc.). The systems of money of those European countries through which balances with transmarine countries are mainly adjusted; iu addition the state of the money standards, bills and currency quotations in North, Central, and South American markets; also the eastern Asiatic and Australian markets; and, finally, the money standard in the Orient. The transportation of goods by railroads and rivers, considering the traffic rules; the railroad fares and freight rates; classification of freight in Austria-Hungary, Germany, and France; the international tariff association; the international service, together with the necessary documents. Ocean transportation of freight, subdivided into registering, classifying, and meas¬ uring oeeau vessels; the manifest; the book of cargo and the bill of lading; letter of conveyance; charter party ; tonnage; fixing freight rates; the most important steamship companies, their lines and fares; the marine freight insurance. The price quotations of the most important articles of commerce (grain, flour, spirits, petroleum, cotton, coffee, sugar) on the world’s market, together with the usages in vogue for cash and time sales. The explanation and computation of equivalent prices, and the construction of equivalent price tables. The explanation of the settlement of balances by exports and imports is illustrated by a series of examples taken from actual transactions. The basis of these lectures is a book by Dr. Sonndorfer, Die Technik des Welth- andeis. Handbuch der Internationalen Handels-Kunde Wien, Alfred Holder, 1889. Knowledge of goods. — On the basis of the advanced preparatory study of the natural sciences, and after introductory remarks (system, methods of investigation, micros- copy, polarimetry, structural arrangement of organic, vegetable, and animal sub¬ stance) from the purely commercial standpoint, the products of the world’s market are considered according to their natural history and physical and chemical charac¬ teristics; after being classified their external and internal marks of genuineness and their adulteration and substitutes are considered. After this preparation the entire animal, mineral, and vegetable products are separated into their organic branches and discussed, but the Austro-Hungarian articles of export and import are given special attention (groceries, foods, luxuries, drugs, raw materials, manufactures of textile industries, and tanneries), besides organic products technically applied (coal, petroleum, and metals). In addition, special instruction on the adulteration of food and the detection of the same is also given. 736 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN THE LABORATORY FOR STUDY OF PRODUCTS. Training in the use of the microscope . — Microscopical tests are thoroughly carried out for determining raw material and manufactures. The material for these micro¬ scopical examinations is taken from the collection of products and from objects sent to the school by merchants. To aid in the lectures, demonstrations, and practical exercises there are a special laboratory for the study of goods, with a sample collec¬ tion for direct use during the teaching, a museum of merchandise, and a professional library. Insurance. — Insurance in general, insurance companies, mutual and stock compa¬ nies, granting of charters to them, the State’s control of them, laws relating to insur¬ ance, and their fees to the State. Insurance against damage. — Transportation, fire, hail, and animal insurance, also reinsurance. Life insurance . — Insurance payable at death and insurance payable at a certain age, mutual insurance, insurance against sickness or helplessness, accident insurance, computing the premium, the reserve, redemption, loans, policies, and reductions. The insurance business in its practical workings, closing accounts (profit, loss, and balance accounts). THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. As a large number of students when they enter the school possess an adequate preparation in French, the instruction in this language is divided into two courses, viz : In the first course the instruction is given in German, and in the second course the instruction is given in French. First course. — This course presupposes none, or only very little, preliminary knowl¬ edge of French. Consequently the instruction begins with the pronunciation, and along with this the elements of etymology are explained and by a series of carefully selected examples the pronunciation and etymology are practiced. In the second semester the construction of sentences in general and the most important parts of syntax are treated, and in this work continued oral and written practice is required. For practice in correct writing and in order to familiarize the students with the most important commercial expressions, mercantile letters are dic¬ tated in French. These are discussed, corrected, and translated into correct French; special weight is laid on rapid translations from French into German. Text-book: Dr. Filek Edler v. Wittinghausen, Elementarbuch der franzosischen Sprache. Second course. — Extending and supplementing the syntactical knowledge. Brief review of the entire grammar, entirely in French ; at the same time written exercises, which, through their methodical and graded arrangement as well as through their number and variety, are most suitable to familiarize the students with the ordinary forms of the language. Translation of classical selections from French into German and vice versa, with special regard to the different moods of both languages. Con¬ tinual translating of German letters into French, paying careful attention to the differ¬ ence in the commercial expressions; composition of business letters and somewhat long, independent exercises in French. Every week reading in French from the market and exchange reports. Text-book: Bechtel and Hertzog, Franzosische Conversations grammatik fur commercielle Lehranstalten. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. The instruction begins — as the students are presupposed to have no preliminary knowledge of the subject whatever — with the very rudiments of the language, viz, with the explanation of Walker’s phonetic signs, in order that the students may be able to read even before they have systematically learned the rules of orthoepy. Following this there is given a concise statement of the grammatical rules which are practically applied by means of the selections for reading and translating given in Part I of the text-book. In this manner the students acquire, even in the first semester, a complete survey of the entire etymology, together with an elementary knowledge of the grammar and syntax, as well as a large number of the ordinary forms of expression. They also acquire no inconsiderable rapidity in reading and translating. In the second semester Part II of the text-book is begun. At first the most impor¬ tant rules for reading are explained, and this is followed by a thorough treatment of the grammar and syntax, which are methodically subdivided for this purpose. In connection therewith, these theories are applied to the selections for reading and COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 737 translating. These selections treat almost exclusively of economic or commercial subjects, nov in separate sentences, nowin longer, connected selections in which the terminology used in business intercourse and commercial correspondence predomi¬ nates. This part of the instruction occupies two hours a week, while a third hour is devoted to reading some English work written in a modern conversational style. The above course sufficiently prepares the student in this subject for the first requirements of a business calling, and at the same time the directions given place him in a position that by means of further self-activity he can acquire complete knowledge of the language. Text-book: H. Berger, “Lehrbuch der englischen Sprache.” THE IT ATI AN LANGUAGE. As the students are supposed to have absolutely no knowledge of the Italian language, the instruction begins with the elementary rules of pronunciation and grammar. The first month is devoted to written exercises in the synonyms and derived words, by means of which the students acquire a vocabulary. Following this the text of the elementary grammar is taken up. In conjunction with the above, the regular and irregular verbs are begun, so that by the close of the school year the student is perfectly conversant with the most important verbs of the language. All the fundamental rules of the Italian language are thoroughly studied, and practically applied in translating suitable selections from the German into the Ital¬ ian, and vice versa. In this, special attention is paid to the Italian syntax. The syntax itself is treated in a special discussion and illustrated by means of classical selections from the Italian language, committed to memory. From this time on the students attempt to express their thoughts orally in the Italian language, paying special attention to the language of ordinary conversation, commercial terms, and the most important business correspondence — letters about exchange and letters of advice. In addition to all this it is never neglected to specify to the students books of assistance and a suitable method to pursue which will enable them successfully to continue their studies in the Italian language without assistance. Austrian regulations in regard to the customs and State monopolies and details of cus¬ toms administrations. — The bases of the lectures are: (a) Austrian regulations with regard to customs and State monopolies, especially those requirements which must be observed in import and export trade with foreign countries. (&)The general Austro-Hungarian customs tariff and the legal requirements which it is necessary to observe in applying the tariff. (c) Special directions about giving credit at the custom-house, refunding duties, liability ; authority over the details of customs administration. (d) Directions in regard to dutiable commerce on railroads, steamboats, and the railway postal system. (e) The form of bills of entry, as well as the legal punishments for false declarations. (f) The commercial and customs treaties, which are made between Austria-Hun¬ gary and foreign countries, and which are of special advantage to industry and commerce. Text-book : Franz Holzer, Praktische Darstellungder osterreichischen Zollordnung u. Zollmanipulation. % B.— THREE YEARS' COURSE. FOR PUPILS WHO HAVE FINISHED THE COURSE IN THE LOWER GYMNASIUM, TSIE REAL GYMNASIUM, OR THE LOWER REAL SCHOOL. The three-year course of the Vienna Commercial Academy, as noted above, has for its object to guarantee to the students (graduates of lower gymnasium, real gymna¬ sium, or lower real school) who wish to devote themselves to a commercial career, that higher commercial professional education, with special attention to general edu¬ cational subjects, which to-day can be rightfully demanded of every merchant. The academy has a three-year course of study, and each year’s class is divided into par¬ allel divisions according to the number of students. The students receive a cer¬ tificate for each year completed, and when they have finished the course they have the privilege of the one-year voluntary-service law. ED 96 - 24 738 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. COURSE OF STUDY. Requirt Hours First year's course : per week. German . iiimumi.i... . 3 French . 3 En glisk or Italian . 3 Commercial geography . 2 History . . . . 2 Mathematics . 4 Commercial arithmetic . 3 Commercial knowledge and work in . the model office . 3 Physics . 3 Natural history . 2 Penmanship . 2 Total . 30 Second year’s course : German . 2 French . 3 English or Italian... . 3 Commercial geography . 2 History . 2 Mathematics . 2 Commercial arithmetic . 3 Bookkeeping . 4 studies. Hours Second year’s course — Continued. per week. Letterwriting . 2 Commercial law and laws relating to hills of exchange . 2 Chemistry and chemical terms . 3 Study of products . 2 Total . 30 Third year's course: German . . . French . English or Italian . Commercial geography and statistics... General and commercial history . Commercial arithmetic . . . . Political arithmetic . 2 International trade and its usages . 2 Model office . 5 Commercial law and laws relating to trade. 2 Political economy . 3 Study of products . 2 Total . 31 Elective studies. 1. Practical work in the chemical laboratory : Four hours per week for the second and third years. Tuition, 10 florins per semester. 2. Practical work in the laboratory for study of products : For the third-year students. Tuition, 5 florins per semester. 3. Study of customs laws and practical work in details of customs administration: For study of third year, two hours per week. Gratuitous. 4. Stenography: In two one-year courses, each two hours per week. Gratuitous for all students of the academy. Distribution of the Subjects of Instruction. FIRST YEAR’S COURSE IN THE ACADEMY. German. — Review of the grammar, prosody and metrics; poetical etymology. Long selections for reading; analyzing tlieir contents. Practice in declamation. Every two weeks a composition requiring home and school preparation. Three hours per week. French. — Review of etymology together with related oral and written exercises, dictations, analytical and commentary lectures. Extension of stock of phrases and vocabulary. Every two weeks alternating home and school tasks. Three hours per week. English or Italian. — Study of pronunciation and inflection in systematic succes¬ sion. The etymology and sentences from the syntax which are necessary to ail understanding of simple selections for reading. Practice in pronunciation and ety¬ mology by dictation and simple reading exercises. Oral and written exercises, acquiring of a suitable stock of phrases and words. Every two weeks alternating home and school tasks. Three hours per week. Commercial geography. — A clear presentation of the most important ideas of math¬ ematical and physical geography, especially those ideas which concern the mercan¬ tile profession. Commercial geography of Austria, Hungary, Germany, Switzerland, taking up their geographical situation, topographical situation and configuration of the different countries, climate, fertility of the soil, commercial products, where and how they occur, condition of population, commercial ability, commercial lan¬ guage, emigration and immigration, agricultural, industrial, financial and trade systems of each country. Discussion of the most important commercial cities, sea¬ ports and manufacturing centers; transmarine means of communication, imports and exports. Two hours per week. History. — General view of the principal historical events of the world, with special attention to the history of civilization. History of the Middle Ages up to Charle¬ magne. Two hours per week. osition of merchants in relation to one another as well as to. society. The practical part is devoted to the methods of preparing notes, accounts, invoices, bills of sale, bills of cost, announcements of receipt of goods, exchange accounts cur¬ rent, etc. ; finally, the different methods of bookkeeping with errors in quantity, which are applied exclusively in a business period of one month. Three hours per week. Physics. — Introduction, general characteristics, forces, and laws. Heat, essence of the same and its sources; the three principal modes of diffusion of heat and their ap¬ plication. Magnetism : Explanation and fundamental phenomena ; earth magnetism ; production of magnets, their strength and application. Electricity and effects of accumulated electricity; origin of the electrical current; cables and batteries; strength of the electrical current and effects of tho same. Principal phenomena of thermo-electricity, thermo-electrical columns, and their use. Acoustics: Origin of sound, forms of the same; tone, musical note, pitch of tone, the musical scale, tem¬ perament, most important sound producers, resonance, loudness of a sound, trans¬ mission of sound. Mechanics: (a) Laws of equilibrium; center of gravity; modes of rest; active and passive resistance; simple machines and their uses. Laws of motion, of percussion, of freely falling bodies, of x^rojectiles, of pendulums; center of motion. (&) Fundamental characteristics of liquids; laws of equal transmission of pressure, of pressure on the bottom and side pressure ; of communication and its use. Law of Archimedes; laws of the rapidity of discharge and quantity discharged, (c) Fundamental characteristics of gases; atmospheric x>ressure and its uses; Mari- otte’slaws; diffusion; absorption; endosmosis of gases; motion of gases and its use. Natural history. — Natural history of the three kingdoms, with sx>ecial attention to such x>ortions as are necessary to enable one to recognize and test tho raw material of the world's commerce. Two hours per week. Penmanship . — German, English, and French handwriting. Two hours per week. SECOND TEAR’S COURSE IN THE ACADEMY. German . — The study of the forms of poetry in connection with the selections for reading. Most important works of German literature up to Gottsched’s death. Practice in reading and speaking. Every three weeks a written composition com¬ posed alternately at home and at school. Two hours per week. French. — The most important rules of syntax, together with the oral and written exercises belonging thereto. Readings, explanations, and memorizing business let¬ ters. Easy comx>ositions and business letters, modeled after the previously explained selections. Increasing the stock of phrases and the vocabulary. Every three weeks set tasks assigned to be done alternately at home and at school. Three hours per week. English or Italian. — Review and a further study of the etymology; thorough treat¬ ment of syntax, together with the oral and written exercises belonging thereto, 740 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Readings in narrative, descriptive, and epistolary prose, this last with special atten¬ tion to a business style. Instruction introductory to the composition of simple business letters. Increase of the stock of phrases and words. Practice in talking. Work assigned to be done alternately at home and at scboolevery three weeks. Three hours per week. Commercial geography. — Commercial geography of Holland, the three Scandinavian kingdoms, England, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy (including their colo¬ nies). Details as in the first year. Three hours per week. History. — History of the Middle Ages since Charlemagne, and modern history to the peace of Westphalia, with history in detail of Austria-Hungary. Two hours per week. Mathematics. — Algebra: Logarithms, use of logarithmic tables, solution of simple exponential equations. Arithmetical and geometrical progression. Geometry. — Computation of the contents of solids. Every two weeks a task assigned to be done at home; every four weeks a similar task assigned to be done at school. Three hours per week. Commercial arithmetic. — Computation of gold, silver, and coin; computation of exchange according to Vienna custom; computation of stocks, bonds, etc., according to the manner of the different countries, giving special attention to those cities which quote Austro-Hungarian paper. Three hours per week. Bookkeeping. — Instruction as to the manner of making out different bookkeeping forms, showing mistakes as to quantity and value. Booking of business transac¬ tions, mercantile, bank, and commission business, covering a period of several months. These are booked according to the different methods, and all letters and counting-room memoranda are carefully studied. Four hours per week. Correspondence. — Letters relating to mercantile, consignment, and commission business; letters relating to insurance and forwarding affairs, making over notes, attachments, descriptions of goods, price current, market, and weekly reports. Let¬ ters relating to exchange, drawing bills of exchange on one’s own and another’s account, transmitting drafts for acceptance, disposition of bills payable, remittances of money and bills, process of protesting, collateral acceptance, account of reex¬ changes, commission business in notes, bills, etc., lost bill of exchange, bills of exchange and sending coin, payments, bank note, treasury bill, notes on mortgage banks, checks, abatements, transfers; letters relating to partnership and bank busi¬ ness; letters of inquiry, of notice and dunning letters ; circular letters; letters of credit, written offers, advertisements, contracts, power of attorney ; letters on affairs in law and bankruptcy. Two hours per week. Laws relating to hill transactions and to commerce. Laws relating to hills of exchange. — ( a ) Introduction : Technical side of banking and exchange; explanation of technical expressions; sketch of the history of exchange, and of the laws relating thereto. ( h ) Code relating to bills of exchange: The right to sign bills of exchange; drawn bills of exchange (drafts); requirements for the same ; duty of the drawer ; indorse¬ ment; presentation for acceptance; acceptance; claims against the security; dis¬ charging a bill obligation; recourse in case of nonpayment: honor acceptance (collateral acceptance); duplicate bills; copies of bills; mislaid bills; counterfeit bills; prescription of bills; right to bring action on part of the creditor; require¬ ments of protest; time and place for the various transactions in commercial bills, insufficient signatures; relation to foreign laws; bills drawn on one's self. Special care is taken to illustrate the existing laws relating to bills of exchange by means of practical cases taken from everyday commerce. (c) Regulations relating to stamping bills. (d) Fundamental laws of legal processes concerning bills of exchange. Difference between the recent Hungarian and Austrian laws relating to bills of exchange. Commercial law. — Introduction: The necessary elementary economical ideas, espe¬ cially to concept of property, economy, commerce, products, merchant, history of the commercial law of Austria, the origin of a common German commercial code. Com¬ mercial code. Facts pertaining to the profession of merchants; what constitutes a merchant, and the branches into which merchants are divided; commercial register; commercial records; authorized agents and managers; assistants; brokers. Two hours per week. Chemistry. — First semester, inorganic chemistry; second semester, organic chem¬ istry. General view of the most important elements and their combinations, devot¬ ing as little time as possible to the purely theoretical, but giving special attention to those elements and their combinations which have an extensive application in practical life. Three hours per week. Practical exercises in the chem ial laboratory.-^- The participants in these exercises are instructed in qualitative chemical analysis during the first year ; in the second year COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 741 quantitative analysis (atomic weights and measures). The aim of the first year’s instruction is to secure exactness in the qualitative analysis of the most important minerals and inorganic commercial products. Study of commercial products. — Introduction. Classification. (a) inorganic (mineral) products: Gems, material for sculptors, carvers (meer¬ schaum), grinders and polishers. Fuels from fossilized matter and similar products (phytogeny), metallic products produced mechanically. (&) Organic products : Explanation of the methods of investigation. Microscopy; vegetable material ; organic (possessing structure). Entire plants and their parts, as leaves, tops, flowers, fruit, and seeds (starch, dextrin, sugar, woods) ; bark, fiber (spun fabrics, woven fabrics, paper) ; paying attention to their use as foods, drinks, spices, coloring matter, and matter containing tanning material or other material used in the arts. Two hours per week. THIRD YEAR’S COURSE OF THE ACADEMY. German . — Readings and explanations of certain selections from the principal poet¬ ical and prose works of our classical and modem poets in connection with literary and biographical sketches. Exercises in delivery. Once in four weeks a written composition. Two hours per week. French. — Extending and supplementing the syntactical knowledge. Brief review of the entire grammar, partly in the French language. Readings from the best specimens of French prose and poetry, with statement of contents and explanations in French. Memorizing model business letters and reading selections. Composition of business letters and comparatively long, independent essays. Every three weeks alternate home and school tasks are assigned. Three hours per week. English or Italian. — Brief review of the entire grammar, partly in English (or Italian). Readings from standard selections of prose and poetry, with statement of contents and explanations in English (or Italian). Memorizing of business letters and certain model literary selections. Practice in writing business letters and inde¬ pendent compositions. Alternate home and school tasks every three weekg. Three hours per week. Commercial geography and statistics. — Commercial geography of Turkey and the Levant, of Russia, of the United States of America, of Mexico, of Brazil, of the States of the La Plata, of Chile, of China, and Japan. (Details as in the first year’s course.) Geographical statistical survey of the world’s commerce and its principal routes at the present time. Two hours per week. General and commercial history. — History of the European countries from 1648 to the present. Commercial history from the earliest times to the present. Two hours per week. Commercial arithmetic. — Computation of commercial paper of the most important European and transmarine centers of commerce, arbitration, bills of exchange, stocks, etc. Review of the entire subject. Three hours per week. Political arithmetic. — Compound interest and computation of incomes from funded property. Introduction to the calculation of loans; construction of sinking-fund plan ; lottery loans ; the elements of the computation of probabilities ; computation of life annuities, and claims on estates in expectancy. Income from life insurance (widows’ pensions) ; insurance of capital. Two hours per week. Knowledge of international commerce. — The produce exchanges, their origin, divisions and organization; produce broker; legitimate exchange business and tbe exchange boards of arbitration. The systems of weights and measures used in international commerce and trade; the laws regulating the system of weights and measures; the metric, English, Russian and Chinese systems of weights and measures, and their position in the world’s commerce. Condition of weights and measures in the Orient. Measure of quality used in the international grain trade; measure of quality used in the international yarn and silk trade (yarn numbering and silk titration) ; deter¬ mination of quantity in the spirit trade; units of measurements; the condition of the money standard, and the quotation of bills of exchange and currency quotations of the most important transmarine cities. Forwarding goods in international trade. Railways and river boats. — The rules of management; railroad rates; method of fix¬ ing the tariff on goods ; classification of goods in Austria-Hungary, Germany, and France ; international alliances ; international service and the various papers relating thereto. Sea navigation. — Registration; measuring and classification of merchant vessels; the manifest book and bill of lading; the consignment; the charter party; tonnage of ships; fixing tariffs on goods; the steamship societies which are important for Austria-Hungary, their lines and tariffs ; the most important facts relating to mercan¬ tile insurance. 742 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-96. Ordinary conditions of sale; price quotations of tlie most important articles in international trade, namely, grain, flour, oil grain (linseed), spirits, petroleum, cot¬ ton, coffee, and sugar ; explanation and computation of equivalent prices on the basis of the quotations on the world's market, and the construction of tables of equivalent 2>rices; deductions on exports and imports, illustrated by a series of examples taken from actual practice. Accounting and correspondence ( model counting room). — Complete execution of a set of books in mercantile, commission, forwarding, manufacturing, and banking business. Bookkeeping in stock companies, together with all necessary vouchers ; comparative bookkeeping, especially in respect to mistakes in quantity and value. Five hours per week. Laics relating to commerce and industry. — Continuation of commercial law, partner¬ ships in commercial law, the study of partnerships (open commercial partnerships, limited partnerships, limited joint stock companies, stock companies, limited liability partnerships, joint partnerships). The theory of mercantile trade and at the same time a discussion of the fundamental principles of civil rights, especially the rules for winding up a business and for settling commercial transactions ; of giving securities, especially a mortgage or lien. Further, the study of indorsable paper; purchasing; commission ; forwarding and freight business (the last, in general, but specially with respect to railways). The regulation relating to trade, of December 10, 1859, together with all additions. Law relating to charters; law protecting trade-marks and patents; law relating to peddlers ; laws relating to chambers of commerce, also mercantile agents ; law con¬ cerning industrial and cooperative societies ; laws and regulations concerning dealing in promissory notes, and warehouse laws. General rules relating to insolvency proceedings, and especially the theory of mer¬ cantile insolvency and compulsory settlement voted by a majority of creditors. Two hours per week. Political economy. — History of the systems of political economy. Importance of the same and explanation of their fundamental principles. The production of wealth : (a) In general; (b) factors in production (nature, labor, capital) ; (c) cooperation of the factors in production. The distribution of wealth: (a) Inequality of the distribution (socialism, commu¬ nism); (b) income and its sources (rent, wages, interest). Circulation of wealth: (a) In general (exchange value and price); (b) money (the money standard) ; (c) credit and its aids (bills, checks, money orders, paper money); different kinds of banks, clearing houses; ( d ) means of transportation. Consumption of wealth, luxury, influence of Government on the national economy : (a) Means for furthering production in general, the question of associations ; ( b ) vari¬ ous forms of production; mining, smelting, agriculture, tree culture, manufacturing, factory laws, commerce, railroad and custom questions; (c) population and care of the poor; (d) taxes and national debt, especially the theory and history of financial crises. Three hours per week. Study of products. Vegetable substances (without structure) : Gum, rosins, balsams, volatile oils, fats, waxes, vegetable milk and extracts. Animal substances: Whole animals; milk and its products; hide and its parts (leather, hair [as animal covering] in comparison with silk, articles spun and woven from hair, wool, etc., feathers, scales, horn, tortoise shell, whalebone); bones (glue in comparison with isinglass), tusks (ivory tusks of the walrus, hippopotamus, and narwhal) ; fat and its products (soap) ; the substances produced and secreted in the animal body or substances out of which other products are made (musk, ambergris, castoreum, civet, silk, wax, guano, honey); pearls and mother-of-pearl, corals, sponges. The material above sketched is treated on a strictly scientific basis, having regard to the practical use to be made of the knowledge thus'acquired, and the character¬ istics of the most important objects in the world’s commerce and in local trade are discussed in a comparative manner by inspection of the natural products by the aid of table work and microscopical preparations. Two hours per week. C.— PREPARATORY GLASS. In order to make it possible for those pupils to attend the academy who have not taken the studies required for entrance to the three years’ course, the imperial min¬ istry for religion and instruction has permitted a preparatory class to be organized in connection with the Commercial Academy, which has. however, the character of a private course. According to the decree of the imperial ministry for religion and instruction of July, 1877 (Z. 10194), every pupil who has passed his thirteenth birth- COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 743 (lay may be admitted to this preparatory class; if the managers of the Commercial Academy iind him to he properly qualified. The pupils of the preparatory class receive no certificate, hut at the close of the second semester they must pass the examination required for entrance to the first year’s course of the Commercial Academy. The pupils receive from the managers of the academy a statement of the result of this examination. Roster. German . French . . Geography . . History . Common and special arithmetic, Hours per week. Roster. Hours per week. 5 Physics . 3 4 } Natural history . 3 3 3 | Penmanship . O — 5 I | Total . 28 DISTRIBUTION OF THE SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION. German. — Recapitulation of the grammar (inflection, parts of speech, formation of vrords, syntax) ; ortliograjiliy and punctuation. Compositions on the most important events at school and on a future career; theory of style. Exercises in reading and declamation ; grammatical and exegetical explanation of the selections read. Every two weeks a school task is assigned, and every three weeks a home task. Discussion and criticism of the latter. Five hours a week. French. — Elementary grammar. Dictations and readings. Acquiring of an ade¬ quate stock of words and phrases. Home and school tasks alternating every two weeks. Four hours per week. Geography . — Main features of general geography of the five continents, based on a careful study of the maps. Three hours per week. History. — First semester : Sketches from the history of their own country from its beginning to the close of the wars of independence. Second semester: Narrations from the life of the people of ancient times, with special reference to the legendary history of the Greeks. Three hours per week. Mathematics. — Particular arithmetic. Explanation of tho decimal system of num¬ bers. The four fundamental operations in integers and decimal fractions, with the use of practical applications of short methods. Short methods of multiplication and division. Divisibility of numbers; greatest common divisor; least common multiple; common fractions, and computation with tho same. Geometrical rela¬ tions and proportions and their applications to problems of practical life. Chain rule. Algebra. The idea of common numbers and their relation to one another. Positive and negative numbers. The four fundamental operations with universal, whole, and fractional numbers. Equations of the first degree having one unknown quantity. Every two weeks a home task; every four weeks a school task. Five hours per week. Physics. — Introduction. Resultant of several forces. Cohesion. Electricity. Mag¬ netism. Acoustics. Statics and dynamics of solids, liquids, and gases. Optics. Three hours per week. Natural history. — General natural history of the three kingdoms. Three hours per Aveek. Penmanship. — The ordinary German and English hand. Two hours per week. We turn now to the collections of the academy, and to those institutes which were established in order to supplement the theoretical instruction by practical exercises, and thus to render more easy the passage of the pupils of the school into practical life. Collection of coins. — This collection was begun upon the initiative of the present director, and contains all tho current coins, domestic and foreign, arranged by States. It is a great aid to instruction in mercantile subjects. Physical laboratory. — Instruction in physics is given in a special room assigned for this purpose. The apparatus belonging to the physical laboratory has cost, uj> to the present, over 6,000 florins, and includes the most necessary instruments for pur¬ poses of experimentation and illustration. Chemical laboratory . — Chemistry and the knowledge of commercial products open to the pupils an understanding of the technico-commercial branches. On this account great emphasis has been laid on this study from the beginning of the acad¬ emy, owing to its relation to the manufacturing classes. The chemical laboratory has been several times enlarged, and includes hot only lecture rooms, but also several working rooms, which have all the equipment necessary for accurate organic analy¬ ses. The laboratory has a large special library and a rich collection of preparations and apparatus which are used for illustration in the lectures. It not only affords the 744 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. pupils means for practical work, but also an opportunity to the director of the labora¬ tory for original investigation in every direction. The practical exercises are attended yearly by from 20 to 25 pupils. The origin of the collection of commercial products dates from tbe first years of tbe academy. There was also a natural-history collection corresponding to the wants of the preparatory classes of that period. Both collections were annually increased, but remained entirely separate until instruction in these two departments was intrusted to the same professor, when the collections were united. The instruc¬ tion in commercial products was greatly expanded by the introduction of practical exercises. These exercises are attended by pupils of all three classes and of the graduate course also. They take place in a special laboratory for the testing of commercial products, which is well equipped with the necessary apparatus, includ¬ ing microscopes, saccharometers, etc. The combined collections for natural history and commercial products are divided into three groups: The collections for instruction in natural history and commercial products; second, the collection for practical work in the commercial-product laboratory (reports are made each year from these practical exercises), and, third, the museum of products. This museum was begun at the initiative of the present director in the year 1885. It is located in the large hall, second story front, and in the room immediately con¬ nected with it. The museum has a double purpose : To aid instruction in commercial products in the academy and to promote a general knowledge of such products in the public at large. The collection is therefore open not only to pupils, but also to the general public. The specialty of this museum is the collection of adulterations of products, and it is not impossible that a considerable influence may be exercised from this laboratory upon the trade in adulterated products. The museum of prod¬ ucts embraces about 4,000 numbers and 30 groups. For the completion of the same the administrative council has given 1,000 florins a year for the past three years. It is also to be noted that in the programme of instruction in the knowledge of commercial products belongs a system of visits to collections and factories, which the pupils make under the guidance of instructors. All the pupils of the academy take part in those excursions which occur in Vienna, but in the long trip which is made each year at Easter time, and which extended in 1887 to Strasburg, a limited number of pupils only can be included. Geographical cabinet. — This cabinet is one of the most comprehensive in this special department. It includes 170 wall maps and a large collection of casts and representa¬ tions of geographical and ethnographical objects. Collection to illustrate the history of art. — This collection has just been begun ; its function is to supplement instruction in history and the history of literature, in order to compensate as far as possible for the rather meager number of hours assigned to these subjects in the programme. Library. — The collection of books at the Vienna Commercial Academy embraced, at the close of the school year 1886-87, 5,298 volumes. It is divided into two divisions, the professional library for the pupils and the general library. The latter includes important collections used as reference libraries in the individual departments of instruction. The professional library for pupils was established in order to give them the necessary aids for further study and for the essays which they must pre¬ pare. All works of merely an amusing or entertaining character are excluded from this collection. The traveling scholarship fund. — The intermediate school has completed its function at the time when it gives the graduate his final certificate. But the professional school can not avoid extending its work beyond this period and serving as an organ of communication between the young men who have completed its curriculum and those people who desire young men with such training. In this respect the Vienna Commercial Academy has from the beginning done everything it could, and it has been in the happy situation of being able to secure for its graduates good positions not only at home but also abroad. This last circumstance is of great importance to the foreign commerce of our country. Ever since the days of Maria Theresa com¬ plaints have been made continually that the monarchy has had very few national commercial houses in foreign countries, and yet these are the chief means of enlarg¬ ing the economic territory of the State. To obtain these, however, it is absolutely necessary that the citizens of the country enter business in foreign ports and thus learn to "know foreign countries thoroughly. Now, there are probably many young men who possess the necessary training, but oftentimes they are not in the place where they are most necessary, and still oftener are not in a social position to learn commercial centers in every detail and to exercise an active influence in favor of the national trade. In order to assist young merchants who have had a certain practical experience to make a careful study of foreign centers of trade, the present director of the academy proposed in a general assembly of the association of the Vienna Commercial Academy, COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 745 held on December 8, 1885, the establishment of a special traveling scholarship fund. This proposition was received with warm approval. His Majesty the Emperor gave the first subscription of 5,000 llorins to this fund. His example was followed by Prince John of Lichtenstein and a number of prominent merchants and manufac¬ turers and various commercial institutes. The director succeeded in raising for this purpose the sum of 60,000 florins. The list of the various subscribers and the regu¬ lations for the scholarships are to be found in the report of the proceedings of the administrative council, made December 12, 1886. In April, 1887, the administrative council decided to assign two scholarships of the value of 1,500 florins each, one to Salonichi and one for Barcelona. In September, 1887, both were assigned. The con¬ ditions of these scholarships are completion of the Vienna Commercial Academy with distinction and at least three years’ successful practical work at home and abroad. It remains now, in order to complete this account, to give some of the more important data relating to the school. The total attendance at the Vienna Commercial Academy, since its establishment in 1858 to the year 1888, inclusive, was 16,906 students. It is of interest to note how many students have completed the course of study and obtained the certificate of graduation. It appears that in the first period, 1858 to 1872, there were 1,714 graduates; second period, 1873 to 1877, there were 1,262 graduates; third period, 1878 to 1888, there were 2,168 graduates, making a total of 5,144 in the thirty years of the life of the academy. The success of the instruction has been a very satis¬ factory one, and in this connection it is important to note that the report of the management to the ministry of education, rendered each year since the beginning of the third period, has been uniformly accepted as eminently satisfactory. The graduates of the academy have always found employment very quickly, whether at home or abroad. Former students of the academy are to be found in all the larger centers of trade in Germany, Switzerland, France, England, and Belgium, as well as in the leading States of North and South America. At the present time there are forty foundations or scholarships established by the founders in accordance with the provision noted above. There is one Imperial scholarship of a yearly value of 300 florins, and two scholarships named after Czedik of 126 florins each. The assistance fund, established for worthy i>oor students, amounted ob June 15, 1887, to 7,061.73 florins, and aid was granted in the school year 1887, in cash, to the extent of 683.11 florins ; in paper, pencils, etc., to the extent of 246 florins ; in text-books, to the extent of 290.63 florins; in traveling expenses, to the extent of 370 florins. The students contributed to this fund 920.25 florins. The president of the society for assisting poor students, which has charge of the fund, is the director of the academy ex officio. The executive committee consists of two professors, chosen by the instructing body, and a general committee of two from each division, chosen by the students. The association of the Vienna Commercial Academy had received, from its founda¬ tion up to 1887, from its members, contributions to tiie amount of 530,642.22 florins; of this amount the State granted 40,950 florins, the city of Vienna 31,500 florins. The State made its appropriation in the form of establishing, through the ministry of religion and instruction and the ministry of finance, one scholarship (3,150 florins) a year for a series of years. In consequence, the ministry for religion and instruction controls at present seven scholarships and the ministry of finance six. Of this amount, 452,110.15 florins were used for the purchase of the ground and the erection of the building of the academy, and to cover the deficit of the early years, including also 27,000 florins assigned to the pension fund established in 1873. The rest of the sum constitutes the academy fund, which, according to the balance of August 31, 1886, amounted to 159,693.80 florins.1 The current expenses of the academy since its establishment amount to nearly 2,000,000 florins and was covered entirely by the tuition of pupils. The income of the institution from tuition and incidental fees from 1878 to 1887 amounted to nearly 900,000 florins. The administrative council of the Vienna Commercial Academy has, however, uni¬ formly observed the principle that the worthy pupil, though poor, should be enabled to attend this school. It grants, therefore, every school year to a considerable num¬ ber of pupils either entire or partial remission of tuition. These remissions repre¬ sented down to August 31, 1887, the considerable sum of 280,485 florins. The preliminary budget for the year 1886 showed the following estimate: Florins. Salaries . 58, 985 Administration . 6, 000 General expenses . 13, 200 Pension . .. . 4, 145 Incidentals . 3, 950 Total . 87,280 1 The 30th of September, 1877, at the beginning of the third period, there 'was still a mortgage upon le academy building of 15,000 florins, and no cash fund. ED 96 - 24* 746 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-9G. Tlic Vienna Commercial Academy possesses, since 1873, its own pension fund, which is managed by a separate committee. To this fund the regularly appointed profes¬ sors contribute the same rates as in the case of public educational institutions, as the provisions adopted by the State for similar pensions have been accepted as the rule for this fund. Besides this, the general assembly grants yearly a very considerable sum to this fund from its surplus income. On August 31," 1886, this fund amounted to 144,314.46 florins, and the pensions payable amounted to 4,074.96 florins. In the general assembly of December 12, 1886, 5,000 florins were granted to this fund. The Vienna Commercial Academy is located in its own building, which was form¬ ally opened on the 12th of October, 1862. It embraces an area of 1,953 square meters. Its principal front is 60 meters long; its two side fronts 31 meters each. The build¬ ing is two stories high. It cost, as noted above, 452,110.15 florins. As divided at present, it embraces 15 lecture rooms, the museum of commercial products, the lab¬ oratories for chemistry and commercial products, the physical, geographical, and natural history halls, 2 libraries, 2 faculty rooms, the office of the management and various small offices, and the residence of the director and 3 servants, and has accom¬ modation for 800 students. The arrangements for heat are so fixed that the vesti¬ bules, the great stairway, and the large corridors are warmed throughout. Water is also furnished throughout the building. The heating costs per year from 1,400 to 1,500 florins ; gas from 1,600 to 1,700 florins. We might finally mention that the Vienna Commercial Academy has the largest attendance of similar commercial schools in Austria, Germany, and France, and that of late years the management has been repeatedly requested to give detailed infor¬ mation to foreign governments as to the arrangements and organization of this school. The school also received the highest distinction at the Vienna World's Fair in the year 1873. LATER STATISTICS. Certain ^acts relating to the attendance at the various courses will undoubtedly be of interest in this connection. The one-year course for graduates of the gymnasia and real schools had an enroll¬ ment in 1889 of 115 pupils; in 1890, of 105 pupils; and in 1891, of 115 pupils. Of these there were : Tear. Catholics. Protestants. Greeks. 1 j Jews. Total. 1889 . -47 32 6 50 115 1890 . 44 10 2 49 105 1891 . 39 13 7 50 115 AGE OF STUDENTS. Age. 1889. 1890. 1891. Age.- 1889. 1890. 1891. 16 . | 1 21 . 24 11 13 17 . . 19 22 . 10 13 10 18 . 10 12 30 23 . 8 G 3 19 . 17 19 15 24 . 4 4 20 . 34 27 17 25 and over . . . 8 1 3 7 1 1 Students came from all the leading provinces of Austria and 11 of them from foreign countries. In 1889, 73 of the students were Germans, 22 were Poles, 11 were Hungarians, and the others of various other nationalities. The other two years do not show any considerable variation from this year. It will be noted that the large majority of the students were in these years over 18 years of age, and in the first two years over half were over 20. Three-year course in the academy. NUMBER IN CLASSES. Tear. First ciass. i Second class . j Third class. j Total. 1889 . 275 210 176 G61 1890 . 264 225 182 671 1891 . . . 230 220 188 G3S COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 747 In 1889 there 'were G61 pupils on the rolls at the end of the year; in 1890 thero were 671 ; and in 1891 there 'were 638. Of these thero Avcre : Year. Catholics. ; Protestants. 1 j Greeks. Jews. TTnclassed. 18S9 . 310 30 30 311 1 1890 . 305 33 17 315 1S91 . 233 43 11 301 AGE OF STUDEXTS. Age. H 1890. 1891 Age. 18S9. ; 1890. 1831. 14 . . . 24 20 11 19 . . . 47 ; 50 45 15 . 118 112 78 , 20 . 15 | 5 14 16 . 161 183 187 i 21 . 2 17 . 178 178 171 22 . 1 18 . 116 120 130 During these three years only 1 student succeeded in reaching the third year of the course at an age less than 16; and only 1 student hid succeeded in reaching the second year’s course at an age less than 15. Only one-fifth of the students in the academy in 1889 were under 16 years of age; about the same ratio held for 1890, and in 1891 less than one-seA^entli were under 16. The average age of the 2)upils appears then to he from 16 to 19. The association for aiding indigent and worthy students seems to do very real service. In 1889 it granted 922 florins in cash to various students; 270 florins in supplies; 218 florins in hooks; 500 florins in traveling expenses. The association granted in 1890 toA’arious students 898 florins in cash; 302 florins in supplies; 117 florins in hooks; 400 florins in traveling expenses. The association granted in 1891 to various students 1,041 florins in cash; 270 florins in supplies; 119 florins in hooks; 502 florins in traveling expenses. Faculty. Subjects. Director. Dr. Rudolf Sonndorfer Political arithmetic and international trade. Professors. Heinrich Binn . Eduard Bittner . Dr. Max Borowsky . Dr. Theodor Cicalek . Karl Engelhard . Dr. Otto Franckel . Eduard Hanausek . Johann Hann . Dr. Karl Hassack . Paul Hertzog . Charles Hurt . Budolf Kathrein . Anton Kleihel . . Dr. IMchard Mayr . Dr. jur Robert Meyer - D. Karl Rausch . Camillo Sandre . Rudolf Schiller . Adrian Schuster . Kicolaus Tecln . Dr. Theodor Tlieumann . . Dr. Philipp Zamboni . Dr. Karl Zehden . i j j < 1 1 ..... . Mercantile arithmetic, international trade, and office work. . Commercial arithmetic, international trade, and office work. . Physics. . | German, commercial geography, and statistics. . Stenography. . j CommercialTaw. . I Study of products, natural history. . I Mathematics, political arithmetic. . i Xatural history. . French. . English. . j Mercantile arithmetic. . ! Bookkeeping and correspondence. . \ German and history. . . Political economy. " . G erman and history. . French. . Mercantile arithmetic and bookkeeping. . Bookkeeping and correspondence. . Chemistry. . Commercial law. . Italian. . . . Commercial geography and statistics. Instructors. Dr. Thomas Fr. Hanausek. Karl Hessler . Franz Holzer . . Study of products. Insurance. Insurance tariff. 748 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-9G. ■■ Faculty. Subjects. Assistants. Leopold Bageard . Dr. Julius Dostal . Florence Henry Hedley . . . Dr. Goorg Karschulin i . Julius Melnitzky . Karl Muller . Dr. Julius Ritter Roscbmann von Hor- ' burg. ■ French. ! German, i English. German and commercial geography. Penmanship. Mathematics. Political economy. Subassistants. Heinrich Eisenkolb . Karl Kunczitzky . Commercial subjects. Stenography. Making a total of 1 director, 23 professors, 3 instructors, 7 assistants, and 2 subas¬ sistants; total, 36. 2.— COMMERCIAL ACADEMY OF PRAGUE. The foundation of the institution.1 — It is a strange fact that the very class which occupies to-day by its activity and wealth the most prominent place in our society has been neglected almost altogether «by the governments of the various States in regard to the professional training of its members. There are gymnasia for the training of the future scholar and public official, and real schools and polytechnic institutions for the technologist. The forester, the miner, the soldier, the sailor, all have their own technical schools, but the future merchant has had to content himself with the gymnasium or the real school. IVas the reason for this to be found in the fact that the merchant needs no special preliminary training for his calling ? That the special branches of knowledge appropriate to his vocation are really only facilities which the school is not able to give him; things of subordinate importance which he can easily acquire for himself by private activity and practical Avork? It would almost seem so; and it may be that this view was not unjustifiable in earlier times, but the present makes new demands upon the merchant if he wishes to rise above the lim¬ ited sphere of the small shopkeeper. He needs a greater amount of training and knowledge if he is to keep pace with the times and to occupy that place in social and economic life to which he is entitled. But where shall he obtain this training? There is no doubt that existing educational institutions are not adequate to supply this want. The solid training of the gymnasium has its great advantages, and many a merchant of to-day selects his assistants rather from the ranks of the graduates of the gymnasium than from those of the real schools. But the gymnasium can not, of course, insert the purely commercinl branches of instruction into its curriculum, and consequently it does not appear to be at all satisfactory as a preparatory school for the commercial career. The real schools would seem to be somewhat nearer, but these schools furnished a training more suitable for the manufacturer and the technologist than for the merchant, and until very lately, especially in Austria, they excluded from these schools the important element of modern languages. The purely commercial branches also are either very inadequately or are not at all represented in their cur¬ riculum. The attempt has been made here and there to unite special commercial courses with the real schools. But this is only piecework, and can be justified only where it is impossible to establish independent commercial schools. For the place of the professional school can not be even approximately supplied in this way. At the time when the thought of the establishment of the commercial school appeared for the first time in Prague the various public educational institutions were far less perfect than to-day. The unsatisfactory condition of things had been recognized first in Germany, and it was the Leipzig Merchant Guild Avhich took the first step toward the remedy. It established in the year 1831 a commercial institute, whose organization bj^ Schiebe remained for a long time in a certain sense the model for the similar establishments organized later throughout central Germany. About the same time the need for a special commercial school was felt in Prague. Mr. Johann Bachheibl, a member of the commercial council from 1831 to 1810, was the first to take up the matter, and to urge upon his colleagues the desirability of such an establishment. But many hindrances, especially the unfavorable conditions of the time, prevented them from carrying out the idea. It was not until the year 1849 that the first real step toward such an institution was taken. 1 Cp. Die Prager Handelsakademie von ilirer Griindung bis zur Gegenwart (1856-1873) , Gedenkschrift aus Anlass der Wiener Weltausstellung. Page 4 and following. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 749 The president of the commercial council in that year, Mr. Josef Halla, and a member of the corporation, Mr. Edward Pleschner, took up the idea with energy, for the need of such an institution was more and more keenly felt every day. The commercial council appointed a committee to obtain the necessary financial means, and in March, 1849, the committee published the following address to the merchants of Bohemia: “ The establishment of a commercial school in the capital city of Bohemia, a land where such a many-sided industry and trade flourish, lias been a long-felt want. But it was not possible, under previous conditions, to establish this institute so necessary and advantageous for our youth. It remains further our honorable task by uniting all the necessary intelligent and pecuniary means to establish and develop a commercial institute. It appears superfluous to dwell upon the advantage of such an institution. Everyone of us reognizes how necessary to our x>rosperity is the regular and systematic training of our youth. We have been obliged up to the present to seek such a training for our sons in foreign countries, at the cost of much money and great anxiety. In the future we should find this at home. We all recognize, moreover, how greatly such a theoretical course would aid our young people when they go into practical life, and how much more useful they are to us when they have enjoyed the training of such an institution. The commercial council, inspired with this conviction, has, therefore, resolved to establish such an institution. It proposes to cover the expenses in part by the use of its own capital, and in part by the contributions of founding and contributing members. We send, therefore, an earnest invitation to all members of the commercial and manufacturing classes of Bohemia to assist in the establishment of this useful institution, and by cooperative effort to leave this honorable memorial to our posterity. The com¬ mercial council has appointed a committee, which is not only to take charge of the new school, but to work out a curriculum upon the plan of the best existing com¬ mercial schools. The council has resolved further to make provision so that the apprentices in our shops, wrho are not able to enter the school regularly, may obtain instruction in the practical knowledge relating to commerce from the teachers in this institute. In this arrangement we rely upon the humanity of our colleagues to assist us by sending regularly their apprentices, and prove in this way that they, as well as we, desire the training of useful and skillful clerks, and that in this way the value of this sort of instruction may be fully recognized.” In answer to this invitation 12,000 florins were subscribed within a short time. As this sum, however, was not sufficient for the establishment of a higher commercial institute, the council resolved to organize a Sunday school for commercial branches. Steps were immediately taken to carry this resolution into effect. The school was opened on the 19th of April, 1850, on the birthday of the Emperor. Rooms were obtained for it in the Polytechnic Institute. This Sunday school, however, was intended only as a transition institute to the higher commercial school which was the end and aim of the efforts of the council. The year 1851 brought a decisive turn in favor of the establishment of such an institution. In that year a man was chosen as presiding officer of the commercial council who possessed in himself all the qualities which were necessary to secure the realization of the plan above mentioned. Mr. Edward Pleschner, the new president, devoted his attention in the first place to increasing the endowment fund, and to overcoming the prejudices and objections against the project, which showed themselves here and there. His efforts were soon crowned with success. The fund was increased by June, 1853, to 34,398 florins; by the year 1855 the fund had reached 44,211 florins. The necessary financial means had thus been provided. There were many different views as to the manner in which the project should be carried out. Some favored the acquisition of a separate school building and the union of the Sunday school with the proposed academy. Others proposed that the Sunday school for commercial branches should be expanded so that instruction should be given on one week day, and that this should be gradually extended by the addi¬ tion of new subjects of instruction. A third party, under the lead of the president, wished to establish an independent higher commercial school, and this view was finally adopted. On the 18th of October a final decision was made, and the commer¬ cial council unanimously voted for the establishment of the independent commercial institute. The next effort of the council was devoted to the acquisition of a building, which was purchased shortly after for the sum of 58,542 florins. On the 13th of December, 1855, the council held its first meeting in the halls of the school. On the 3d of October preceding the council had presented a petition to Count Leo Luhn, minister of religion and education, in which they expressed the convic¬ tion that the commercial classes, on account of the important position which they occupied from an economic and social point of view among the other classes in society, needed not only thorough professional knowledge, but also a higher general 750 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. training, and asked tliat tlio minister might permit tlie commercial council to estab¬ lish within the walls of Prague a new kind of institute, the like of which had not jet been established in Austria. The proposed curriculum included in the memorial embraced the following subjects : 1. German language and literature. 2. French, English, and Italian. 3. Mathematics and commercial arithmetic. 4. Commercial and maritime law, and the law relating to promissory notes. 5. Political economy. 6. Geography, history, and statistics. 7. Natural history and physics. 8. Chemistry. 9. Drawing and penmanship. 10. Practical bookkeeping and correspondence. These subjects were selected in order that the pupil might be ready immediately upon leaving the academy to enter practical commercial work. Until the permission of the Government was obtained the committee occupied itself with the necessary preparations. It issued a circular letter to business men and manufacturers of Bohemia, in which it requested the donation of suitable mate¬ rial for the museums and other collections. From all parts of the country specimens of raw materials and manufactures of every sort, natural history specimens and books poured in in such quantities that it would be difficult to find a similar wealth of collections in any other German commercial school. On the 4th of March, 1856, the committee received permission to proceed with the opening and organization of the school, and the time for opening the school was set for the autumn of 1856. After the election of Mr. Karl Arenz, of Dusseldorf, as director of the institute, it was opened in a formal manner on the 4th of October, 1856. The following quotations from the inaugural address of the director are of general interest : “ The commercial schools are a product of this century. The only one whose exist¬ ence dates back into the preceding century is that of Busch, the father of German commercial schools, which had been founded by him in Hamburg in 1768, under the name of ‘ Commercial Academy/ The school disappeared later, leaving nothing behind it but the grateful recollection of its honorable foundation and its merito¬ rious work. The commercial schools of to-day nearly all started about the same time, and are of tlio same general character. Schiebe pointed out the way in which they all thought they could prepare for the active career of the merchant. But the question as to how far these institutions were and are adapted to answer to the mighty advance of our material interests is a question which we can not further investigate on this occasion. For it is our duty to-day to consider this new institu¬ tion whose opening we celebrate. “ If wo ask for the reasons which have called it into existence, it is not difficult to find them. In the time of a growing tendency toward the independence of every individual and every class, the necessity of the declaration of independence on the part of educational institutions which serve the various practical needs of modern life becomes evident. Commercial institutions belong in the same category with the technical institutions in so far as they have the common purpose of promoting in the first instance the development of our material welfare, but they are distinguished from these by certain internal qualities, by the fundamental principles underlying their foundation. In the case of the former it is the mathematical and natural science training through which the technical training is accomplished. In the case of the latter, on the contrary, the thread which runs through the curriculum, coor¬ dinating and uniting its various parts, is not higher mathematics, is not natural science, but is that thorough general culture which embraces a complex of general social knowledge and experience relating to the knowledge of the earth, relating to the economic nature of its inhabitants and to one’s native country. The necessity and justification of the existence of commercial schools, which met so many objec¬ tions in every quarter, and which, indeed, have given rise to most serious criticisms, are to be found in the necessity of the higher scientific training of the merchant. This appears more and more imperative every day, as this alone qualifies him to work in the different branches of trade and commerce with such foresight and certainty as is rendered necessary by the advance of our social relations. “The commercial schools must answer these demands. To use an expression of the elder Blanqui, the organizer of the oldest and most important commercial school in France: 1 They must organize our trade and commerce by* training and instruc¬ tion/ “I have already said that for a long time the most severe criticisms were made upon these commercial schools, and yet this has not prevented their growth and development. Men were not willing to grant them an independent standing, and yet they gave them a certain place in the polytechnic school. This declaration of COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 751 dependence was tlie first step toward independence. For experience has shown that this union of a commercial division with a polytechnic school was an unequal one, and very disadvantageous for commercial instruction. For, on the oue hand, the natural center of gravity of commercial iustruction is not to he found in such a union, and, on the other hand, it has never been able to secure, in such a combina¬ tion, equal recognition with the other faculties of the polytechnic school. This explains the unsatisfactory results of such commercial courses both from a statistical and scientific standpoint. The union of technical and commercial courses leads, moreover, to what is, from a pedagogical point of view, a wrong treatment of the pupils, and this is the moral ground which compels us to urge a separation of the commercial schools from the technical institutions, and an independent organization of the former. The technical institutes accomplish excellent results in their own sphere, but the very excellence of this work means injury to the commercial side. ‘‘The merchant, since he belongs to the higher classes of society, must receive such a training in the school as will fit him to maintain his position. This school must be for him a technical or professional training school. It stands in the midst of all the other technical and professional schools, and utilizes them all. It has peculiar characteristics of its own, and must, therefore, be independent. I will not, however, dwell further upon this point of the independence of commercial schools for fear of exposing myself to the same ridicule as the learned scholar who wished to lecture to Hannibal upon the art of war. “ Let us consider for a moment the organization of commercial schools. If we wish for success, the plau of organization must not be a rigid one. It must not be for the school an iron frame which shall hold it within unchangeable limits. On the contrary, it must have regard to the very life of the institution itself, and must correspond to the demands of the ever-advancing development of trade and industry. “If we consider the organization of the curriculum which our scheme has accepted as the basis of the higher training of the merchant, its fundamental principle appears to be the greatest possible thoroughness, and continual reference to its practical ap¬ plicability. The theoretical and practical sciences must aid and supplement one another. The first, formulate general laws; the latter teach their application to given material. To go from theory down to practice, and to rise from practice to theory, is, and must be, the leading principle in the organization of the commercial school. It will draw everything into the circle of its activity ; it will tend to fit the merchant to occupy the position with honor and success in which he has been placed by the relations of modern society. To limit the education of the merchant to that quantity of knowledge known in ordinary life as mercantile would be to mistake his present position and his far-reaching circle of activity. The merchant is, to use the expression which the municipality of Mons employed in an address to the King of Belgium on occasion of the celebration of the constitution in July, 1856: ‘He is, so to speak, the industrial center into which all the threads run, and in which social relations cross each other aud unite: into which they lead; from which they again run out in order to establish new combinations, which again find their common point in this industrial center.’ “The merchant must have a broad view. He must be trained to be at home in all relations, for his activity is an ever-changing one; it knows neither time nor place; it enlivens, moves, and supj>orts the material interests of society. Commerce em¬ braces in its giant arms the whole world, and forces it to put all its powers at its disposal. It unites by the stroke of the pen all the countries of the world. “ The educational institution, therefore, which is destined to work out the higher training of the merchant, must, above all, take into the circle of its consideration everything which can bo made useful for its purpose, and this it can do if a reasona¬ ble pedagogical plan be followed in the division and distribution of its subjects of instruction, and if wo do not lose sight of the fact that the various sciences are not to be treated separately as in the various special and technical schools, and are not to be taught for their own sake. For it is perfectly plain that we can accomplish nothing in any science, which the higher commercial school takes up, if it is to be taught for itself alone. In technical schools, academies, and other higher j>rofessional institutions, the particular branches of science and the manner in which they are to be taught and utilized are determined and conditioned by the purpose in view. I need only mention chemistry, mechanics, and other practical sciences. “Although it is true that the merchant can never be entirely separated from the manufacturer, and that the one activity continually runs into "the other, yet it can not be our purpose to make of the merchant a technically trained manufacturer, a scientific technologist. They go together, it is true, but they are not identical; the polytechnic trains the latter, the higher commercial school the former, and we must leave to each institution its peculiar work. The scheme of instruction which is to train merchants must be an associative one; it must know how to present in a clear light that which is relative, inits relative relations; it must know how to create a whole out of the manifold elements in its curriculum. It must form an organism; 752 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. for the life of the educational system must he organic. In it all the various means of education must work toward a unity of result, and, therefore, the main thing in the commercial school is the unity of its curriculum. This attempt to secure a unity by the combination of many different elements has not always been successful. It is, however, the fundamental thought of this institution. “We have included in our curriculum three classes of educational branches: First, the really technical or professional; second, those which may be included under the head of applied sciences, and third, the purely general or liberal elements. I need not dwell upon the first, for that is the narrowly technical, the so-called mercantile training; but this will become a mere dead routine if it is not supported, supple¬ mented, and enlivened at every point by science. Clearness of vision and thorough self-control, the fundamental characteristics of the merchant, can only be acquired by science; just as a wealth of vision, freshness, vividness are to be obtained for science only from life itself. The real specific activity of the merchant is concerned with office duty, with the handling of products, and with the direction of commerce and trade. The knowledge of products considered as the combination of various kinds of knowledge necessary in dealing with commercial products is based upon natural history and chemistry, which play such an important part in the physiology of animals and plants, and has made modern mineralogy largely a chemical science. These two subjects are necessary as a means of recognizing products and of judging of their genuineness and adulteration. Technology is also an auxiliary science in the knowledge of products, for this teaches the merchant something in regard to the various branches of manufacture — spinning, -weaving, etc. The knowledge of sim¬ ple machines belongs also to this department. The limits of instruction in these subjects must be set by the extent of those products the knowledge of which is abso¬ lutely necessary to the merchant, and that instruction in this field must relate pri¬ marily to domestic, raw, and manufactured products is a matter of course. “Another side of the mercantile training which is intimately related to that just discussed is the geographico-statistical. Geography and statistics are the basis of exchange in commodities. The branches which assist in directing the course of com¬ merce are history of commerce, which teaches one the course of human civilization, and political economy based on this branch and on geography and statistics. To the narrowly mercantile training belongs also skill in arithmetic and in the various practical work belonging to the office in its various relations, also in the usages of trade and in commercial legislation, as well as fluency in the use of modern languages so far as they are commercial languages. This side of the training of the merchant must also have its center of gravity or point of combination, and this may be found in a model office, imitating an actual office; the value of which, however, it must be admitted, is often called into question. It is, however, in my opinion, so to speak, the laboratory of the future merchant, which at present is lacking in most German commercial schools, and which we must organize here. “But besides this specifically technical training, the institution must also afford its pupils a patriotic and moral training ; a training of the character, for the future posi¬ tion of our pupils demands more than an exclusively x>rofessional education, and nothing is more suitable to throw into their true light the well-known socialistic and communistic vagaries than correct conceptions of religion, patriotism, history, politi¬ cal economy, and law. One’s character gains in firmness by a consideration of the truths of science ; that indifference, which so often forces intellectual and material interests into the background and favors the development of moral and political weakness, must yield to determination and moral power. If we leave no intellectual power of the youth undeveloped, we may hope on the one hand that the pupil during his residence in this institution will gain besides the necessary knowledge for his future calling that enthusiasm for the practical work within it which will be a great source of encouragement during all his future life, and, on the other hand, that this enthusiasm will serve as the basis of a view of life which will maintain for the youth during his manhood an open eye and a ready hand to aid and assist the great material and ideal interests of our society. “These, in brief, are the principles which have led me in working out the plan of organization of this institution, which already counts in the very first hour of its formal existence a greater number of pupils than any other commercial institute of the present or former times.” Thus the institution was opened, and has continued its work from that time to this, except when it was disturbed for a short time during the summer of 1866 during the Austro-Prussian war. That the establishment of the Commercial Academy of Prague really exercised an epoch-making influence in Austria, and that all the other institutions established later have taken its organization more or less as a model, is plain from the fact that the well-known statistician, Yon Rodea, who had been chosen a member of the organizing committee of the Vienna Commercial Academy, immediately entered into correspondence with Director Arenz, in order to inform himself thoroughly as COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 753 to tlie institute in Prague. Tlie Academy for Trade and Industry at Gratz also took the institution at Prague as its model for the commercial division of its work; the Commercial School at Reichenberg likewise hasecl its curriculum upon that of the institute at Prague. The Prague Academy has also exercised a considerable influ¬ ence upon the development of similar schools in other countries. It is an interesting fact that the director at this school considers it a very unwise thing for boys to go from elementary schools first into business, and then to return to the commercial school at a later period for further education. He says that the idea that this is a good plan to follow rests upon a false educational notion. About per cent of the students of the Prague Academy, up to 1872, had followed this plan, and the experience of the school in th.6 great majority of the cases shows that it is very unwise for young people to go into a business house before they take the course of the school, and that the other plan of taking the course first and then going into a business house is the proper one. In the latter case the advanced instruction of the academy joins directly on to the general course of instruction which the pupil has had in the elementary school. The youth is, moreover, more willing to adapt himself to the necessary school discipline; it is easier for him to take up certain subjects, and he adapts himself more readily to steady work in the scientific and practical branches than when he is older. The supposed advantages of the other plan are generally bought at the expense of the great disadvantage that many important details of previous instruction slip out of the memory during the time spent in the business house, by which it becomes' more difficult for the youth to take up his course of study again. The certificate of having served an apprenticeship is not able to give the youth that tendency toward study which he loses in practical life. On the other hand, the young man who enters a business house after completing this course takes with him a riper mind, on account of which he can learn the details of the business much more easily than he otherwise could. The director is also of the opinion that the pupils who attend the academy ought not to be otherwise occupied, for this institution, like every other school, demands an absolutely undivided application, without which no systematic, coherent, and thoroughly rounded education can be obtained, If the pupil wishes for the best results from his instruction, he must, so long as he attends the academy, give his entire time to the work, and those youths who have attempted to unite practical work with instruction in the school have soon experienced the disadvantage of this combination, and have given up either one or the other. HISTORY OF THE IXSTITETIOH FROM 1856 TO 1872. The attendance at the academy at Prague was so large in the school year 1857-58 that the instruction had to be given in parallel divisions of from fifty to fifty-four pupils. The second year of the course was opened in the autumn of 1857 and the third year of the course in the autumn of 1858. The higher commercial school consisted, therefore, of a regular course of three years and of a preparatory class. The latter was abolished in 1864, as the number of students steadily decreased, and the necessary prej)aration could be obtained in other schools owing to the increase in the number of gymnasia and real schools. As the term academy was used for the commercial schools founded in Budapest in 1857, in Vienna in i858, and in Gratz in 1861, the commercial council was led to claim the right to the same title for its institution, which was granted it by an ordinance of the Government on the 14th of March, 1866, in consideration of the comprehensive curriculum of the Higher Com¬ mercial Institute in Prague, of the firm establishment of the same in pecuniary matters, and in consideration of its excellent work. In the winter of 1859-60 the popular evening lectures were established, intended for the general public, on bookkeeping, correspondence, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, French, tariff legislation, money, and banking. In the year 1860-61 a new element was introduced into the curriculum under the title of "exercises in speaking, which will be noted again later. In 1862 the relations of the professors were regulated by a set of ordinances adopted by the council relating to their rights and duties. In 1863 the council ordered that from that time on the pupils of the Commercial Academy, in cases of illness, should be treated gratis in the new Mer¬ chant Guild Hospital. On the 31st of December, 1870, the president of the commercial council, in the presence of a delegation of that body, presented Director Arenz a written address in which the council expressed its thanks to the director of the academy for his services to the institution. The following quotation seems worth noting : “On the 4th of October, 1856, the Merchant Guild of Prague held a celebration, the memory of which will long remain in the minds of those who were permitted to share in it. "We opened at that time an institute whose mission was to train and educate in the commercial sciences the rising generation of merchants, and in this 754 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. way to contribute to tbe prosperity of our national trade. If we consider the results achieved by this institute in the course of the fourteen years of its existence, wo must acknowledge that they are in every respect satisfactory. “The Commercial Academy of Prague holds to-day an honored position among the educational institutions of our beloved country, and has had an attendance, since the first year of its organization, far exceeding the expectations of its founders, and forming the most trustworthy measure of its services. Hundreds of young men who have completed the three-year course of the institute have gone out into prac¬ tical life, and are at work to-day in the various commercial and industrial houses at home and abroad, utilizing there the knowledge which they acquired in the Com¬ mercial Academy at Prague. “'That thi3 institute has been able to develop such a blessing-bringing activity is due, Mr. Director, in a large part to you, who conceived tho plan according to which the instruction in this institute should be organized. You have been since its beginning tho director of its work, and have accomplished in this capacity a work with your colleagues of the results of which the Commercial Academy may well be proud.” Tho purpose of the Prague Academy has been from the beginning to direct the activity of its pupils immediately toward the true and at the same time all-round and strictly professional training of the future merchant by subordinating every¬ thing to this end and by bringing the various branches of learning into such an internal connection that they supplement and explain one another. Its course of study, as described above, embraces three classes, each with a one-year curriculum. On account of the large number of pupils each of these classes is divided into two sections or parallel divisions Avitli the same instruction. The method of instruction has been from the beginning the catechetical, which keeps tho teacher and the pupil in unbroken relation to one another and enables the latter to have at every moment a correct judgment as to the work of the pupil, and thus to concentrate the work of the instruction upon the real work of teaching and not upon the mere preparation for the final examination. Instruction in the model office is also free from nonessentials. Its main purpose is directed toward accomplishing a clear insight and understanding of details both in themselves and in their relation to the whole, and in this Avay to develox> the pupil into a thinking merchant, combining for this purpose theoretical accounting with the other auxiliary work which belongs to it and with correspondence. A not unimportant element in the instruction is formed by the exercises in speak¬ ing mentioned above. After a brief introduction relating to the fundamental prin¬ ciples of rhetoric and the history of eloquence, tho pupils of the last year’s class arc required in turn to make speeches in the first place upon subjects which are assigned to them. Tho essays are carefully examined beforehand by the respectrre professors in order that nothing unsuitable shall be presented. The speaker then delivers his essay without reference to his manuscript. After this speech a debate is opened, in which any other pupil may take part after those regularly assigned for the work haAre deliA'ered their speeches. The debates are conducted in the presence of a x>ro- fessor, Avho, at the close, gives a general criticism of the work. The instructing body of the academy consists of a director, professors, and tho assistant teachers. The x>rofessors are ar>pointed x>ermanently after a x>robation of three years. The youth who attend the Commercial Academy are either regular or special ]wrpils. Regular purfils are those who expect to conqilete all the required subjects in the curriculum. Special students are those who wish to atteud the instruction in single branches. The pupils who Avish to enter the lowest class must be able to show that they have completed the lower real school, or a lower gymnasium, or an equivalent course. Those who present certificates of graduation from either of the above-mentioned schools are admitted without examination. The pupils Avho desire admission into the middle or upper class must show by an examination that they possess the requisite knowledge of the curriculum of the first and second years, respectively. At the close of the three-year course the final examination is held. This examination is both oral and written; it begins early in the month of July and lasts fourteen days. The final certificate, signed by the director and all the professors engaged in the work of the last year, notes the work done in each branch, giving the marks “very good,” “good,” “satisfactory,” “ hardly satisfac¬ tory,” “bad.” A final mark is given covering the entire examination, and classing the work either as “excellent,” “well done,” or “xiass.” Whoever does not succeed in obtaining at least the mark of “pass” receives no certificate, but upon demand he may receive a statement that he lias attended the work of the class during the x^ast year. The students who pass this final examina¬ tion with success are admitted into the one-year Aroluntary service in the army and into the x>ostal service and administrative service. The school endeavors to secure for its graduates x>ositions in prominent business COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. i 755 houses, industrial establishments, banks, etc. The mercantile public knows that the academy recommends only competent persons, and its candidates land, therefore, responsible and in most cases well-paying positions. As to the financial control of the academy, this is exclusively in the hands of the commercial council. The scientific and pedagogical control of the institute is entirety in the hands of the director and the faculty. Each class has its own director or dean, who has the special duty of looking after the particular class and forming a sort of intermediate grade between the other teachers and the director. The yearly tuition is 150 florins. Special students pay at the rate of 7 gulden a year for each course, of one hour a week. The administrative council of the academy may grant entire or partial remission of tuition. In 1873 about 25 per cent of the students were exempted from tuition, owing to the fact that they held scholarships or that the administrative council had exempted them from tuition. It is interesting to note that the institution has been, from the beginning, entirety dependent on its own resources, and has never been in a condition compelling it to ask for outside aid, whether in the form of Government grants or in the form of contributions from private citizens or corporations, with the exception of the endow¬ ment mentioned above. -Not only has it been able to pay its expenses out of its income, but it has been able to add from time to time a certain surplus to its endowment. In November, 1872, a course in railroading and postal and telegraph service was organized. Students desiring to enter this course were required to have passed through an upper gymnasium, an upper real school, a commercial institute, or some other equivalent school, or they were required to pass a corresponding examination. The candidates for the telegraph course must not be over 17, and these in the rail¬ road course not under 20 nor over 30. Persons actually employed in railroad service were admitted as special students. Postal cadets, stationed in Prague, were required to attend the postal-service course. The curriculum extended over one year. The courses began on the third Monday in October, and in the case of the course in telegraphy lasted four months. The lectures in the railroad courses and in the postal-service courses lasted until the middle of April. The curriculum was organ¬ ized as follows : Hours per Postal service : week. Theory of the post-office . 3 Commercial geography and statistics . 2 French language . 2 English language . 2 Railroad course : Traffic service . •. . 3 Transportation . 3 Telegraph and signal service . „ . Course in telegraphy : Theoretical work . 2 Telegraph service . 3 Practical work . *1 French language . 2 One hundred and fifteen students were enrolled in the telegraph course, 73 in the railroad course, and 69 in the postal-service course. The tuition for the telegraph course and for the railroad course was 12 florins each and for the postal service 8 florins. Those who had passed the examination in the telegraph course were eligible for appointment in the telegraph stations throughout Bohemia. According to an order of the ministry, dated January 7, 1875, these technical courses were to remain a permanent part of the Commercial Academy of Prague, and a State grant of 2,000 florins was made for three years, beginning with 1875. These courses were, however, abolished in the year 1877, and the commercial council was compelled to let them drop, owing to the fact that it could not carry them on with good financial results. The evening courses, spoken of above, owing to decreasing interest, increasing cost, and growing difficulties in the way of carrying them out, were dropped at the end of the school year 1860-61. PURPOSE AND PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF THE ACADEMY. The present purpose of the academy, as expressed in the announcements of the school, is to furnish to those young men who have a proper preliminary education a theoretical and practical training for commerce in the widest sense of that term. It Horn' per day. 756 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. is a special s Tied for tlie purpose of giving a special training, characterized by a fundamental feature running throughout the entire course of its instruction, and which aims to give its pupils the kind of training which will prepare them, upon leaving the school, for the various departments of business activity. The various subjects in its curriculum are united in a close organic connection; they complement and explain one another, and, as a whole, aim at raising the level of the general culture of the pupils at the same time that they impart the necessary special knowl¬ edge. The instruction in the mercantile subjects, in the narrow sense, is not limited eitherto purely theoretical discussions nor to the acquisition of commercialmechanical facilities. It is, on the contrary, at once theoretical and practical. It is intended that the pupils shall acquire the necessary insight into the actual conduct of trade and commerce at the same time that they acquire those external facilities which belong to this particular branch of human industry. For this latter purpose the various practical exercises in the model office are especially intended. Besides the scientific and professional training of its pupils, the Commercial Acad¬ emy lays a special emphasis upon a broad training and the moral development of its pupils, in order to secure as far as possible the desirable maturity and firmness of character appropriate to the social position of the merchant. Organization of the instruction. — The Commercial Academy conducts two distinct courses — a three-year course and a one-year course. The latter is intended for the graduates of the intermediate schools. The German language is used as the language of instruction, and the following subjects are included in the curriculum of the three-year course : German language and literature. — Exercises in grammar, in style, and in speaking, in order to train the student to a correct and fluent expression of his thought. The exercises in speaking are intended to train the pupil to self-control and clearness in expressing himself in discussions before the general public. The history of litera¬ ture makes the student acquainted with the most important products of German literature as an important element of general culture. The other important foreign languages. — French and English are required subjects; the participation of the pupils in Italian, Spanish, and Bohemian is optional. The chief weight in these languages is laid on practical instruction in speaking and writing for the mercantile career; mercantile correspondence in each of these lan¬ guages receives, therefore, special attention; at the same time the students are expected to make themselves acquainted with the most important literary works in these languages. Algebra. — Fundamental conceptions; logarithms; equations; calculations of prob¬ abilities; proportions. Mercantile and political arithmetic. — Knowledge of usage; practical training in all the various kinds of calculation useful in business life; arbitrage; calculation of funds and loans and life insurance; casting of produce and usages. Theory of trade. — Correspondence; office work; single and double entry bookkeep¬ ing with practical exercises (these last are provided for in the model office); the conduct of the model business house (the pupils are divided into several sections representing agencies or offices in the different centers of trade which carry on com¬ merce with one another. The mercantile, banking, and shipping business receive special attention. Great care is taken that each pupil shall receive training in each of these different departments without losing sight of the business as a whole. At the end of the year the operations of the house are closed and balanced. Penmanship . Mercantile and industrial geography. — Study of the Austro-Hungarian State; a care¬ ful study of the Austrian Empire in regard to its physical and technical development and its commercial importance. Industrial and commercial statistics hy the com¬ parative method. History with continual reference to commerce and trade. — General history of the world’s commerce; history of the development of domestic trade. Political economy. — Development of the fundamentaknotions for the correct concep¬ tions of economic relations; theory of production, exchange, income, and taxation. Commercial and industrial legislation. — Study of the important provisions, from a mercantile point of view, of the civil law, of commercial law, and industrial and financial legislation. Natural history. — With special reference to the relations which are most important to the knowledge of products. Physics. — The most important natural laws and phenomena in their technical and commercial applications. Knoivledge of products, chemistry, and technology. — The study of the origin and com¬ position of commercial products, and the methods of testing the same as to their constituents, quantity, genuineness, and adulteration by practical exercises. Dis¬ cussion of the most important technical and mechanical manufactures, and expla¬ nation of the machines used in such work. Third-year pupils have the opportunity, COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 757 by practical excursions, of becoming acquainted with the agriculture, trade, and industry of Bohemia. Stenography . — With special reference to the needs of the office. Means of -instruction. — In order to promote the efficiency of the instruction the academy possesses — (1) A library for the use of teachers and pupils. (2) A collection of products which is kept up to date, so that it may fairly be con¬ sidered an exposition of everything which is important for trade and commerce. (3) A natural history museum, in close connection with the collection of products. (4) A collection of physical, mechanical, and technological apparatus, so far as is necessary, to make the instruction of the school effective. (5) A collection of technological wall maps as an aid to instruction in chemistry and knowledge of products. (6) A chemical laboratory for teachers and pupils. (7) A collection of coins. A satisfactory idea of the manner in which these various subjects are treated will be found by comparing the synopsis of the subjects of instruction given in the Vienna Commercial Academy, which covers essentially the same ground.1 Privileges connected with the certificate of graduation from the academy. — The regular pupils who have completed the entire course and passed the final examination are entitled to take advantage of the one-year military service law. Distribution of hours and subjects. CURRICULUM — THREE- YEAR COURSE. Hours per week. First Second Third year. year. year. Required subjects of instruction. Theory of commerce. . Office Work and correspondence . Mercantile correspondence and bookkeeping Mercantile arithmetic . Political arithmetic . Usage and casting of produce . Algebra . Geography . History . Political economy . Commercial legislation . Natural history . Physics . Chemistry and technology . Knowledge of products and technology . German . French language and correspondence . English language and correspondence . Penmanship . Total 30 82 Optional subjects of instruction. Italian language and correspondence . 3 3 Spanish language and correspondence . 2 I Bohemian language and correspondence . 2 2 j Practical chemistry . . ; Stenography . 2 j 2 j 3 2 2 4 1 Statistics. — The report of the academy for 1891 and 1892 gives the following infor¬ mation as to students attending the three-year course: Four hundred and forty pupils attended the course. Of these, 152 were in the first year’s course; 161 were in the second; 127 were in the third. It will be observed that the number of pupils in the third year formed a very large per cent of the num¬ ber in the first year. Of the 434 whose names were on the rolls at the end of the year, 177 were Catholics; 17 were Protestants; 240 were Jews; 371 were from Bohe¬ mia, 105 being from the city of Prague alone. There were also 6 students from Ger¬ many; 3 from Russia; 2 from Roumania; 1 from France, and 1 from Egypt. 1 See account of Vienna Academy given above. 758 EDUCATION BEPOKT, 1895-96. Of the 431 pupils, 14 were 15 years of age; 81 were 16 years of age; 130 were 17 years of age; 120 were 18 years of age; 58 were 19 years oi‘ age; 24 were 20 years of age; 4 were 21 years of age; 1 was 25 years of age, and 1 was 28 years of age — showing that the great majority were between the ages of 16 and 20. Considerably more than three-fourths of the students were over 17; about one-half over 18; 191 were sons of merchants, 49 of manufacturers, 79 of Government officials, 33 of produce men, 26 of farmers, and the others of various other professions. It will bo noted that the vast majority of them were from what might be called the business classes. It is interesting to note that 106 of the pupils studied Italian; 42 Spanish; 187 stenography. Also, that 10 of the students were exempted from the payment of fees altogether; 65 received 50 per cent remission, and 12 held the various scholarshij)s. THE ONE -YEAR COURSE. The purpose of the one-year course is to offer to young men with an advanced preliminary training, in the shortest possible time, such an amount of commercial knowledge as will prepare them for a position in some business house, or as will supplement their general educational training, so as to be of assistance in some other occupation. Organization of the instruction. — The curriculum is constituted in the following manner : Honrs per week. Bookkeeping and mercantile correspondence . 6 Theory of commerce and office work . 2 Mercantile arithmetic . 4 Political arithmetic . 1 Commercial law . 2 Commercial and industrial geography . 3 Penmanship . 1 Study of important branches of domestic industry . 2 Total . 21 A synopsis of these subjects may bo fairly well understood from the similar synopsis in the case of the Commercial Academy at Vienna. Various provisions in regard to th is course. — Xo person can be admitted to this course who has not successfully completed the highest class of a domestic or foreign inter¬ mediate school. Persons are not required to have passed, however, the final exami¬ nation in this intermediate school. As no students are admitted with any different preliminary training, all the pupils are classed as regulars, and no student is admitted unless he takes all the instruction given. Only such pupils are admitted as are thoroughly at homo in the German language; foreigners must give evidence of a mastery of German before being admitted to this course. The number of pupils is limited to forty. The course begins on the 1st of October and closes the middle of July. The tuition is 150 florins a year; no remissions or reductions of tuition are granted. Statistics. — The report of the academy for 1891-92 shows that there were 16 pupils in this course at the end of the year: Catholics, 8; Protestant, 1 ; Jews, 7. All the pupils were over 18 years of age. Two were 18 years old, 1 was 19, 2 were 20, 4 were 21, 5 were 22, 1 was 23, and 1 was 25. Eleven were graduates of the gymna¬ sium and 5 of the real school. Budget of the academy. — The financial report of the Merchant Guild of Prague for the year ending December 31, 1891, shows that the income of the academy for that year was 55,522.50 florins. Of this sum 1,600 florins came from endowment, 52,512.50 florins came from tuition in the three-year course; 1,275 florins came from tuition in the one-year course ; 135 florins came from laboratory fees. Its expenses were classed as follows: Taxes, 1,124.30 florins; sinking fund and rent, 4,000 florins; salaries, 27,021.64 florins; contribution to the Merchant Guild, 2,319.98; repairs, 1,567.56 florins; heating and lighting, 1,081.79 florins; printing, 2,063.41 florins; various other expenses, 944.62 florins. Total, 40,122.40 florins. Showing a surplus of 15,400.10 florins. The estimate for the year 1892 was : Income, 53,300 florins ; expendi¬ tures, 46,000 florins. The total expenses for the academy up to December 31, 1885, amounted to 889,476,40 florins; the total income amounted to 918,905.53 florins. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE, 759 Statistics of attendance. — The statistics of attendance are given in the following list : School year, 1856- 57 1857- 58 1S58-59 1859- 60 1860- G1 1861- 62 1862- 63 1863- 64 1864- 65 1865- 66 1866- 67 1S67-G8 1888-69 1869- 70 1870- 71 1871- 72 1872- 73 1873- 74 1874- 75 1875- 76 1876- 77 1877- 78 1878- 79 1879- 80 1880- 81 1881-82 1882- 83 1883- 84 1884- 85 1885- 86 ra- iar. First i year. ( Second year. Third j year, j Total. 69 j 123 192 56 118 107 281 30 82 97 1 96 305 25 85 | 74 ! 75 259 24 87 76 ; 55 242 23 77 75 52 227 18 93 64 | 55 230 14 85 86 ! 42 227 72 89 55 216 52 63 57 l 172 46 48 43 137 64 56 34 154 73 66 37 176 97 72 57 226 112 96 60 268 143 113 81 337 158 130 ! 82 270 151 144 110 405 70 132 121 323 69 78 108 255 72 68 76 216 68 69 1 58 195 81 67 62 210 81 84 56 221 101 86 77 264 100 113 75 288 97 97 105 299 118 94 89 301 117 125 89 331 107 121 1 111 339 According to the foregoing table it appears that the attendance at the academy from 1856 to 1885 amounted to 3,234, of whom about 86 per cent were from Bohemia, and about 13 per cent from foreign countries. Of these pupils 61 per cent were sons of business men; 19 per cent were sons of officials and German officers; 14 per cent were sons of farmers, capitalists, etc.; 6 per cent were sons of professional men. Fifty -three per cent came from real schools; 31 per cent came from gymnasia; 12 per cent came from private schools; 4 per cent came from other commercial schools. It appears that of this number 2,128, or 70 per cent, of all the pupils who entered the school, completed the three-year course. Of later years the record is very much more favorable, rising in some instances as high as 95 per cent. Faculty. — The faculty for the year 1891-92 consisted of a director and 17 teachers. The names and subjects are as follows: F acuity. Subjects. Director. Herr Dr. Ernst Kaulichr Teachers. Algebra and mercantile arithmetic. Herr Ludwig Ausserwinkler . ! Herr Franz Bardachzi . Herr Eduard Deimel . ; Herr A. Fischel . I Herr Wilhelm Fischer . I Herr Josef Guelder . - . | Herr Alois Kraus . Herr Karl Leclaire . Herr Josef Odenthal . Herr Gustav Keiniger . Herr Josef Kiedl . Herr Dr. Gustav Kolin . Herr Gustav Bothbaum . Herr Dr. Anton Sc-holz . Herr Wenzel Sobek . Herr Alois Tonelli . j Herr J. IT. Dr. Albert Werunskv. . i Chemistry and knowledge of products; custodian of collections. Bohemian language, literature and correspondence. Theory of commerce, mercantile arithmetic, bookkeeping, and correspondence. Penmanship. Algebra, physics, and natural history. Stenography. Geography, "history, and German. French language, literature and correspondence. Mercantile correspondence and bookkeeping; director of the model office. English language, literature and correspondence. German language and literature. French and Spanish languages, and Spanish correspondence. Theory of commerce, office work, mercantile and political arith¬ metic and usage. Geography and history; acted as librarian. Boh emi an lan guage . Italian language, "literature and correspondence. Commercial legislation and political economy. 760 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Salaries and pensions. — It is an interesting feature in most of the European schools, -whether private or public, that some arrangement is usually made for the granting of pensioDS to teachers "who have served a certain length of time in the institution. The Merchant Guild of Prague has provided a pension fund, to he made up partly of grants made by the Merchant Guild itself, by contributions of the professors of the school, and by a certain per cent of the surplus income of the school. Every professor is entitled to a pension after serving ten consecutive years as a member of the faculty of the Commercial Academy. The pension is payable as soon as the professor, in consequence of bodily or mental disease, becomes unable to act as instructor ; in all cases upon the completion of forty years of service. The amount of the pension, after ten years of service, is 40 per cent of the salary, and rises 2 per cent every year, so that after forty years of service a professor is entitled to his full salary for the rest of his life. Tlie professors are appointed at a salary of 1,000 florins, -which is raised every five years by the sum of 200 florins, so that after twenty-five years of service the salary amounts to 2,000 florins. Every professor -who -wishes to enjoy the pension privi¬ lege must, within twelve months after his definitive appointment, contribute the third j)art of one year’s salary to the pension fund, and must further contribute a third part of each quinquennial addition to his salary. The widow of a professor who had become entitled to a pension is entitled to a pension of 350 florins a year so long as she remains a widow, and the allowance to the widow for the support" of the children of the professor who had become entitled to a pension is calculated accord¬ ing to the rule adopted by the Government for civil-service officials, provided that the pension of the mother and the allowance of the children shall not exceed the sum of 525 florins. The preceding pages contain a description of the two most important higher schools for commercial studies in Austria, but these two schools do not, by any means, repre¬ sent the only opportunity for youth who expect to enter business to acquire a special training for their future work. Indeed, it may be doubted whether any other coun¬ try has organized so complete a system of commercial instruction as Austria. The department of education has given special attention, in the last few years, to the development of this branch of instruction, and while the number of schools is not large, considering the needs of a modern industrial and commercial community, the system on which they are organized is an excellent one, and there is no doubt that it will be further extended in the near future. Professor Glasser’s book on Commercial Education in Austria1 gives full informa¬ tion as to the present state of commercial education, so far as it can be ascertained from an exposition of the laws bearing upon the subject, and by the statistics as to attendance, etc., in these schools. According to a table printed in that work, there are 13 commercial high schools of the general rank of the Commercial Academy in Vienna and the similar one in Prague, in the Austrian monarchy, excluding Hun¬ gary. About 3,000 pupils attend these schools. There are 104 other schools, which may be classed as commercial institutions, covering the ground, more or less fully, appropriated in this country by the commercial colleges, though in nearly all cases the curriculum is based upon more scientific principles and is more carefully devel¬ oped in the Austrian schools than in our own. The same experience has been met in Austria as in other countries, that the attempt to develop commercial courses side by side with other courses in the same institution has not been successful. Gener¬ ally speaking, such courses have given satisfaction to no class of people; they interfere with the healthy development of the other courses in the institution, and are uniformly neglected by the authorities of the institution with which they are connected. 1 See list of authorities used in the preparation of this report. HIGHER COMMERCIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 1.— THE SUPERIOR SCHOOL OF COMMERCE AT PARIS. I.— History of its Foundation and Development.1 In 1820 two Paris merchants, MM. Brodard and Legret, interested in the future of French commerce, conceived the project of founding a school for the purpose of pre¬ paring young men for business by special studies, supplementary to their general instruction. These men of enterprise, whose names deserve to be saved from an unjust oblivion, created for this purpose, in the Hotel des Fermes in rue de Grenelle- Saint-Honore, an establishment of a type at that time absolutely new, to which they gave the name “ Special School of Commerce.” Such an enterprise, which seems to us to-day so natural, was bold for the epoch at which our modest innovators undertook it. In fact, publi c opinion did not at that time recognize either the necessity or even the possibility of such instruction, for which practice alone up to that time had provided. If people would admit, on being pressed, that our industry needed trained assistants, capable of constructing and caring for the machines2 which it employed, byrepairing accidents which occurred in foundries and machine shops, no one thought that commerce could ever become a subject of instruction in the school, because, as every one claimed, on account of the multi¬ plicity of the specialties of which it is c.omposed. The basis of this idea, which furnishes some specious arguments of a nature very seductive to the prejudices of the superficial minds of mere routinists, will not bear examination. For if it is true that after having studied the sciences listed in the programme of commercial instruction there are still in each branch of commerce peculiar difficulties, dangers, resources — in a word, trade secrets, so to speak — it is not less true that the man who has been prepared by study will advance more surely and steadily along his chosen way, and that, circumstances being equal, he will possess after a short period of practice an undisputed superiority, thanks to the instruction which he has received. In other words, there exists an amount of commercial knowl¬ edge, at once theoretical and practical, which one can acquire in a school, and which can be taught only there. It must be added, of course, that the actual management of real business affairs can alone complete this instruction. The creation of a special school of commerce, a scientific institution up to that time without a predecessor, offered other numerous difficulties. It was not only necessary to group into one body of studies, methodically organized, all those branches of knowledge which might be useful to a merchant, but also to choose and train professors, to select and classify the studies, and, finally, to find a public, a clientele. In a word, one had to create the pupils, so to speak, and this was not the easiest thing in the world, considering the ideas of the time. Moreover, the obstacles which these innovators encountered did not come alone from the prejudices against which the schools of commerce to-day must still struggle. It was denied at that time that we possessed the qualities essential to commerce ; that our French spirit was suited to the slow continuousness of distant trade ; to the chances of long-extended speculations upon which the business of importation and exportation depends. One did not see that our spirit, because of its very impres¬ sionableness and mobility, lends itself admirably to all these forms of business. Finally, men refused to recognize that our French intelligence, so keen, so supple, so broad, contained the germs of ability which necessity on the one hand and our 1For a fall account of this branch of instruction in France consult L6autey, Ecoles de Commerce, from which the account here given is taken, partly in translation, partly in abstract. Consult list of authorities used in preparation of this report. 2 The School of Arts and Manufacture, which was to provide so well for this instruction, was not founded until later (1829). 761 762 EDUCATION REPORT, 18S5-96. high, tastes and love of riches on the other were destined to develop. In proof of this fact the industrial and commercial progression, proven by statistics, may he cited— a progression which would have been doubled and tripled by that economic instruction, the lack of which France cruelly misses to-day. In 1820 there were in addition, in the very sit uation of things, other serious obstacles. The country had just emerged from the great wars of the Republic and Empire, which had excited all its brilliant faculties, and it was very difficult for the nation to pass over quickly to the consideration of industry and commerce; to enter with¬ out hesitation upon that which men disdainfully called “a mercantile career.” The young men of the middle class of society, for whom this new establishment was specially intended, leaned toward the so-called liberal careers; they wished to be lawyers, physicians, writers; no one wished to be a merchant. These young men regarded it as a sort of derogation, an acknowledgment of inferiority^ to devote themselves to commerce — that is to say, to a specialty of the “ earth, earthy,” which did not merit serious study ; and we have seen that the university, whose classical spirit incited to the admiration of the past, has contributed no littlo to confirm our countrymen in these ideas, which have paralyzed, and still paralyze, the industrial and commercial enterprises of France. It was under these circumstances, little favorable to its development, that the new school, shortly after transferred to the Hotel Sully in the rue Saint Antoine, was organized. Some largo buildings, spacious courts, and a large garden were put at its disposal. A physical cabinet, a chemical laboratory, and collections of products were established at a large cost. A numerous personnel, too numerous perhaps, was brought together. Fiually, tho school assumed a uniform, carried a sword, and all its internal movements were carried on to the sound of a drum. But besides these features, a little ambitious for the ends of a private school, a council composed of distinguished men, members of the institute, bankers, manu¬ facturers, merchants, who comprehended and appreciated at its true value tho attempt of MM. Brodard and Legret, devoted itself to framing a programme of instruction, an organization of studies, and modifying it according to necessity and assuring its execution. Having learned by study and experience what various quali¬ ties and what various branches of knowledge are indispensable to one who would undertake a commercial career, these men, among whom we find the names of Chaptal, Jacques Lafitte, Ternau, Louis Marchand, Casimir Perier, J. B. Say, Charles Dupui, etc., sketched out with a firm and sure hand the programme and the regulations of this new institution. Their wise provisions have been preserved in the school. They have served as a model, as a point of departure, for all the attempts of the same sort which have been made in France and in foreign countries. It was as a result of their advice, for example, that the new scheme of instruction was originally distributed into three years and divided into three departments or so-called “ offices.” No student could pass from one department to another without passing an examina¬ tion. This council, which has continually maintained within the school its healthy traditions, the cause of its prosperity, is still in existence. The beginning of the school was happy; pupils began to arrive promptly. One can even say without exaggeration that they came from every part of the globe. The proportion which has always maintained itself between French pupils and that of foreigners showed itself at the beginning, in the ratio of one-third or less of foreign students and two-thirds for France. Tho faculty, well chosen, learned, and devoted, knew how to carry out in a happy way the plans adopted by the council, and during the first two years the future appeared to bo secure. However, misfortune arrived. The charges of the school were heavy, and, in fact, high in proportion to the real capital of the enterprise. The continued success of the school would have been able to meet this loss, but the current began to change before the prolonged difficulties rendered more serious by political events. Tlic faculty found it impossible to repair the losses under the circumstances. Faults of administration were added, the situation became each day more difficult, the school changed hands several times, and finally came to an end after the revolution of July. From 1820 to 1830 the Special School of Commerce was under the successive direc¬ tion of MM. Brodard and Legret, its founders; M. Monnier de3 Taillades, a former professor; M. L. Pelleport, a merchant; M. Poux-Franklin, and Adolphe Blauqui, directors of studies. *'."**-*■»-** Adolphe Blauqui, who held the chair of history, commerce, and political economy, did not fear to undertake, upon his own personal account, an enterprise which up to that time had demanded so many victims. Adolphe Blanqui was young, without wealth, already a father of a family. The times were bad and the future threatening for his enterprise. However, he accepted the heritage of ruin with a firm resolution to turn back the current of public opin¬ ion which at that time narrowly followed the so-called “ protective doctrine of national labor,” resolved not to allow an institution to perish which was consecrated COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 763 to the diffusion of the principles of political economy and to commercial liberty, to T^liich he had already devoted his life. He brought to this useful work an inde¬ fatigable activity, an inexhaustible and charming spirit, a wide experience, and the numerous and useful relations which his brilliant qualities and the gracious amenity of his character had gained for him. Adolphe Blanqui changed the name of the school and called it the “ Superior School of Commerce, 77 which name it still bears to-day. He then transferred it from the magnificent Hotel Sully to the more modest location in the Rue Neuve Saint Gilles. There, as a wide administrator, he could limit the expenses and bring thein into proportions better adapted to the resources of the moment. Followed by the pupils who loved him, surrounded by a small group of instructors faithful to the enterprise, he was an example to all of labor and devotion. He sacrificed his person and recoiled before no obstacle, and all this was done in such a way that in studying the history of this struggle, which lasted until his death, more than twenty-five years, one does not know which to admire the most — his courage, his activity, the variety of his knowledge, the fecundity of his genius, or the charming influence he exercised upon all who came near him. The reputation of the institution increased with the growing celebrity of its director. The personality of Blanqui dominated it and protected it at the same time. Deputy from Bordeaux, elected a member of the institute in 1838, a brilliant writer, a popular professor, he threw upon the school the reflection of his own repu¬ tation. He created for it connections wherever his writings were read and appre¬ ciated. He drew upon it the attention of the Government, whose aid he secured for it, and the institution was then known throughout the entire world under the name of “Ecolo Blanqui.” Another man who was also to acquire a certain celebrity, and to honor the school where he had been trained, and to contribute largely to its success was M. Joseph Gamier. Twenty years younger than its director, he became his coworker and then his partner. His lovely character, his just and kind spirit gained for him the sympathies of many by which the institution profited. He remained as a professor of the school until "his death, almost five years after. Certainly one can say that if commercial instruction had found in the numerous economists who have held power since 1820 the devotion and assistance which these two men of whom we speak had given, the destinies of this instruction and consequently the economic condition of the country would have been entirely different. It is a great misfortune that men did not understand at that time the importance of such instruction, the necessity there was of developing it, of extending it, of sustaining it, and we are paying dearly to-day for this lack of insight on the part of our governors. In 1839 the growing success of the Superior School of Commerce led Adolphe Blanqui to transfer it to the Rue Amelot, to the building which it still occupies. He could then undertake certain needed modifications which were not possible while the school was in the Hotel Sully. The institution was aga-in to go through a period of embarrassment, which, although it did not affect the instruction of the school, nevertheless created great difficulties for its director. Finally, after a quarter of a century of persevering and courageous struggle, Adolphe Blanqui died prematurely in 1854, at the age of 56 years, without seeing the results of the efforts which his profound faith in the future of economic instruction had led him to undertake. This ficole Blanqui, for one can fairly call it so since it had really become his work by virtue of all that he had done for it/ was then acquired by M. Gervais de Caen. This able administrator, who knew how to improve the financial situation of the school and make of it a good business venture, said modestly of his own term of office “that it had come like the labors of the last hour, after the greatest heat and the severest labors of the day.” He had, therefore, in his own words the easy merit of contributing to the solidity of the enterprise which had resisted so many storms. He brought to its succor financial resources and the skill of a sound, industrial, and commercial administration. M. Gervais de Caen, who directed the school for thirteen years — that is to say, until his death in 1867 — gave, at least to the pupils whom he had under his care, the future merchants and administrators, an example not to be despised, of a good, well-managed business enterprise, thanks to the order and economy of his management, showing those positive results which the labor of man ought to produce. M. Gervais de Caen, moreover, did not apply his habits of industrial and commer¬ cial administration in a way prejudicial to the instruction of the school. He resolved to maintain the traditions which he had learned in his work with Blanqui. He urged upon the instructing body the loftiness of its .mission, demanding of them to take the largest possible part in the incessant progress of science and of the special aid which it brings each day to commerce and to industry. Having outlived the storms, the Superior School of Commerce certainly achieved under his direction a normal rate of advance, reaching each year and oftentimes surpassing the figures fixed for its permanent numbers. 764 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Interested in establishing the necessary discipline for the conduct of the studies, which had heen very much relaxed under the direction of Adolphe Blanqui, Gervais de Caen has expressed the following opinion resulting from his long experience: First, that one can not carry on the instruction and education of young men from 16 to 25 years without a personal and constant supervision ; second, that in a great city like Paris with young men of this age, belonging almost always to families in easy circumstances, one can not influence efficiently the day pupils from the double point of view of instruction and education. In consequence, and although they were ele¬ ments of financial profit, M. Gervais de Caen did not hesitate to exclude day pupils from the night courses of the school, nor did he believe in the isolated work in private rooms, and he suppressed this absolutely. This last point of view, which has been enforced since that time in the Superior School, and was later adopted by the School of Higher Commercial Studies, and also the view relating to the exclusion of day pupils and to the necessity of a discipline sufficiently severe to maintain the morals of the resident pupils, have appeared to us worthy of production in this place. * ****** At his death M. Gervais de Caen, who had no natural heirs, made a will in favor of the daughter of his predecessor. The direction of the school was intrusted provi¬ sionally to Aim6-Girard, who for ten years had occupied most brilliantly the chair of chemistry in this establishment. During the last two years of the preceding admin¬ istration and the two years of the provisional administration which followed the number of pupils was not maintained; it even sensibly diminished. The only school in Paris where one could pursue commercial studies found it difficult to keep up its numbers ; in spite of its brilliant past and its reputation without a rival, it had scarcely 70 pupils in 1869. It was then that the Paris Chamber of Commerce, always solicitous for the inter¬ ests of national commerce, was impressed with the situation. Its president, M. Deniere, thinking that such a school would secure a greater prestige in the eyes of merchants if it were patronized by the chamber, proposed to his colleagus its acqui¬ sition. In the session of the 27th of January, 1869, the chamber accepted the proposition of the president and authorized him to treat with Mademoiselle Blanqui for the purchase of the school and the hiring of the building which it occupied. The purchase was made at the price of 120,000 francs, and the rent of" the buildings was fixed at 25,000 francs per year on the following 15th and 18th of February. The first task of the Paris Chamber of Commerce was to select a director of the school. It made a choice of one of the professors of the school, M. Schwaeble, a former pupil of the polytechnic school, thus showing its firm intention of maintaining the tradi¬ tions of the school and to raise, if possible, the scientific level of commercial studies, which it had just taken under its efficient and lasting protection. The chamber was happy in its choice of M. Schwaeble as director, who saw the number of its pupils increase from 70 to 92 in its first year. During the unhappy war of 1870 and the insurrection which followed the courses of the school were suspended. The building, changed into a hospital rendered very great services, and the faculty proved that it was equal to the most difficult tasks, and that it knew how to fulfill its duty on every occasion. As soon as it was at all possible the courses were opened again, and the success of the school went on increasing. The chamber, studying the interests of Paris and its commerce, and desiring that the sons of merchants of our city should benefit to a greater extent by the special instruction of this school, decided in 1873 that day pupils, taking a lunch at the school, should be admitted from that time forward. As soon as this decision was made the number of pupils increased, and the figure of 130 was quickly reached and several times passed. We should like to go into details upon this phase of the school, and its remarkable achievements would furnish us interesting descriptions under more than one head, but we must limit ourselves to absolute essentials. M. Sehwaebffi died in the month of July, 1880, some days after the close of the school year. He had been present at the distribution of the prizes, and he was said to have expressed the -wish not to die before the close of the school year. The chamber of commerce had to appoint his successor. A former pupil of the polytechnic school had served it well, and it was again a former pupil of this school which the chamber chose to replace M. Schwaeble. M. J. Grelley, professor of physics in the school and a friend of M. Schwaebffi, was appointed to succeed him. This choice was not less happy than the preceding one. For no person could have been better prepared for this difficult function than M. Grelley, nor more capable of performing it satisfactorily than he. Formerly a director of an important foundry, initiated info practical affairs, a good accountant, M. Grelley had been long familiar with administrative, industrial, and commercial questions. On the other hand, his position in the school which he was called upon to direct, the justness and amenity of his character assured him the devoted aid of his colleagues. Under the excellent direction of M. Grelley, assisted by the counsel of the members of the chamber of COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 765 commerce, and notably of M. Salmon, M. Mignon, and M. Pianlt, the school in the Rue Amelot has again seen its reputation steadily increase. To sum up. — The Superior School of Commerce, founded upon an idea the practical value of which was contested for a long time, has passed through four very different periods in its sixty-five years of existence. The first period, from 1820 to 1830. — This was the epoch of foundation, of groping in the dark, of administrative mistakes which led to a frequent change of hands and finally to a catastrophe. The second period, from 1830 to 1854. — Saved from the ruins ; it was protected and defended against all difficulties and all attacks by a powerful personality which instilled new life into it. The third period, from 1854 to 1869. — Superior to every individuality but that of the school itself, the management in a certain way impersonal rested upon its early traditions and succeeded in maintaining them and showing substantial advance. The fourth i^eriod, from 1869 to the present. — The apogee of the school — thanks to the support of the Chamber of Commerce, to the constant care of its council of administration, to the happy choice of directors, professors, and examiners, and finally, to the firmness of discipline, to the excellence of its curriculum of study and the incontestable solidity of its work. It has not been possible for us to procure the statistics of attendance at the Superior School of Commerce for every year since its organization in 1820, but we believe that the number of six thousand is not an incorrect estimate. There were 1,750 pupils from 1872 to 1885, distributed as follows : Year. Pupils. Year. Pupils. 1872 . 100 ! 1879 . 135 1873 . 105 1880 . 130 1874 . . 120 1881 . 120 1875 . . 140 1882. 115 1876 . 140 | 1883 . 122 1877 . 150 1 1884 . 115 1878 . 148 1885 . 110 This diminution in attendance of late years resulted from the competition of the School of Higher Commercial Studies, which gives essentially the same instruction. The first department is always the most numerous, and it is, consequently, divided into two sections. The table below shows the average distribution of the students during the last few years : Residents. Half residents. Total. First class : First section . 22 8 30 Second section . 22 8 30 Second class . 30 10 40 Third class . 16 4 20 Total . 90 30 120 Foreign pupils constituted, on an average, one-fourth to one-third of the attendance ; bachelors, on an average, one-twelfth. The school has received half residents, or day pupils, only since 1873. Of 1,650 pupils since 1873, 498 were day pupils, an average of 35 per year. II. — Subsidies, Scholarships, Internal Regulations of the School. Subsidy. — The Superior School of Commerce has never received any subsidy. Scholarships. — In 1838 M. Cunin-Gridaine, at that time minister of commerce, desired on one occasion to visit the final examinations of the school to form for him¬ self an idea of the value of the work done there. Being well convinced of the excellence of the instruction, he conceived the thought of assisting each year a 5ertain number of poor youth, and established some half scholarships, which were open to competition. This was the first evidence of interest shown by the Govern¬ ment in commercial instruction. Fifteen years later, on the 8th of June, 1853, M. Magne converted the half scholarships into entire scholarships. To-day the State supports twelve scholarships for pupils who pass two years in the Superior School of 766 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Commerce. In consequence, at tlie end of each school year, about the 15tli of July, six vacant scholarships are open for competition at Paris, Lyons, Marseilles, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Rouen, Nantes, Nancy, Lille, and Dijon. The sum granted by the ministry of commerce for the aid of pupils, not having varied since 1853, is to-day considerably below the sum which they actually cost the school. The latter accepts the situation, however, without complaining, for it finds a sufficent compensation for the loss which it sustains in the fact that these scholar¬ ships being open to competition, and the regulations under which they are given being administered with absolute impartiality, they are, with very rare exceptions, always held by good pupils. Conditions of admission to the competitive examination. — No one can be admitted to • the competitive examination unless he shall have shown that he is of French birth; that he is at least 16 years of age, and not more than 20, on the 1st of October of the year in which the examination occurs. No dispensation from this provision is allowed. The candidates who fulfill these conditions must register between the 1st and 15th of July, at the latest, at the prefecture of the department in which they desire to pass the examination. They must submit certificates at that time relating to the birth of the candidate — a certificate of the formalities prescribed by law — a certifi¬ cate of vaccination, and a written declaration indicating the city in which the candidate wishes to be examined, also detailed information as to the financial con¬ dition, the number of children and other charges of the parents, as well as an abstract of the taxes paid by the parents. Examinations. — The examination consists entirely of written compositions, the subjects of which are taken from the course of study indicated below (the course of the first year), and sent to the prefecture of the ministry of commerce in sealed envelopes. Tho examination of the essays and the classification of the candidates are reported to the ministry of commerce by a commission appointed for this purpose. The compositions comprise : First, a dictation intended to show that the candidate can write French correctly; second, a historical or geographical topic; third, a test in accounting; fourth, an exercise in arithmetic; fifth, elementary questions in physics or chemistry; sixth, an English or German theme; seventh, an elementary original design in black crayon. (An hour and a half is allowed for each subject.) lice] illations of the school. — Tho school receives resident and day pupils, lunching in tho dining hall, provided they are at least 15 years of age. No pupil can be admitted to the courses of tho second year until he shall have completed his sixteenth year. Admission into this division is allowed only after an examination ; bachelors in sci¬ ence and bachelors of special secondary instruction are excused from this examina¬ tion. Tho yearly price of board, tuition, and lodging is fixed at 2,000 francs for resi¬ dent pupils who are present at the opening of the year, which takes place the first Monday in October. Pupils who remain at the school during the long vacation (from the 31st of August to the 30th of September) pay a sum, based on the yearly price, of 200 francs per month. Special lessons carried on without interruption during tho months of August and September prepare tho new pupils, and the pupils who have fallen behind, for the courses of the following year. The pupils do not wear uniforms. They can have a private room by paying a supplementary fee of 100 francs per term. In return for an annual subscription of 100 francs, the pupils receive lessons in gymnastics, fencing, dancing, riding, and boxing. This subscrip¬ tion is obligatory for all resident pupils. Day pupils. — The day pupils lunch at the school. They attend the courses from 8.30 in the morning until 5 o’clock in the evening, in accordance with the programme of studies. The price for the day pupils is fixed at 1,000 francs per year for the pupils who are present at the beginning of the year. The pupils who follow the courses of the school during tho long vacation pay a fee of 100 francs for the two months ; they do not, however, receive lunch during this period. The day pupils can also profit by the various lessons in gymnastics, etc., by a payment of 100 francs a year. The pupils of all divisions, under the guidance of the management of the school and in accordance with the instructions of their family, attend the different religious denominations to which they belong. III. — Instruction, Division of Studies, Programme, Employment of Time, Excursions. First class. — The Superior School of Commerce is divided into three divisions or offices. The entire course of study lasts three years. The first office (first year) is, properly speaking, only a preparatory year for the more special studies of the following years. This first class is always more numerous COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 767 (on an average 60 pnpils), and is for this reason divided into two sections. The second section, which is preparatory to the first, comprises the most backward pnpils. The first year is given to the improvement of penmanship, study of history, geography, arithmetic, and an elementary course upon the usages of commerce, pri¬ mary notions of bookkeeping, also physics and chemistry, in which the students study the elements, vocabulary, nomenclature, and classification ; further, the ele¬ ments of ordinary legislation and of drawing. Pupils commence in this year the study of foreign languages. Foreigners study the French language, and French pupils perfect themselves in the more detailed study of the rules of their own language. The division of labor, as shown by tho detailed programme,1 implied in a certain way the necessity for the first organizers of this instruction to fix a minimum age for entrance. Intelligence and the memory suffice for certain studies; but the study of science demands power of attention, reflection, and judgment. In a word, the epoch of their development cannot be arbitrarily advanced any more than the devel¬ opment of the brain itself. The minimum age of entrance for pupils to the Superior School of Commerce was accordingly fixed at 15 years for the first class, and the school, as a result of its experience, would be rather inclined to lower than raise this age limit. a Second office or year. — The second office does not receive pupils under 16, as we have said. This provision has been maintained, though not without creating each year new difficulties. The puj)ils in general have a marked desire to enter upon the second year immediately, without troubling themselves as to whether they are in a condition to profit by the -courses. It is for them, and too often for their parents, a question of amour propre. The various directors of the Superior Sgliool of Commerce have found themselves invariably face to face with the difficulty of making those who come forth from the factories of baccalaureates understand that the science of commerce is not composed of certain formulas which it is sufficient to remember in order to be well prepared to make an excellent merchant. These young people are, astonished that they must work seriously and for a long time in order to learn that which seems to them so simple a priori. They would often like to arrive at the advanced parts of science at the very beginning; to occupy themselves with finances, with the large enterprises of the merchant, with the complicated operations of tho exchange, etc. In a word, they would like to begin at the end, and to begin with that which can only be the complement of serious studies, leading the pupils by degrees to the possession of a positive knowledge which initiates them into the life of affairs. It is easy to see, therefore, that one was obliged to fix a limit of age for entrance into the second year, and to institute an examination which all pupils who enter it directly must pass, with the exception of bachelors of science and bachelors of special secondary instruction. Tho courses pursued in the second office, as the detailed programme shows, com¬ prise the continuation of some of the preceding studies : Essays relative to com¬ mercial correspondence; the application of arithmetic and algebra to all tho opera¬ tions of commerce and banking; theoretical and practical accounting in its various branches; commercial geography and the history of commerce; the study of the commercial code of fiscal and tariff legislation ; of commercial statistics; of chemis¬ try as applied, to industry and commerce; of physics; of raw materials and com¬ mercial products, specimens of which are to be found in the museum belonging to the school, and, finally, drawing and stenography.2 Programme of the course of study in the third year. — The third office (third year) is devoted to superior instruction. This instruction, to which no pupil is admitted with¬ out having passed one year in the second office, comprises besides a review of the preceding studies, exchange and arbitrage; the mechanism of the operations of com¬ merce; the multiform applications of accounting to industry, banking, and commerce; the questions of insurance which necessitate the calculation of probabilities; chem¬ istry as applied to tho study of merchandise and the detection of adulterations; elements of mechanics as applied to the wants of commerce and industry, to the equipment of trade ports, to that of railroads, docks, etc. ; technology or the descrip¬ tion of the leading industries, applied physics, commercial and" maritime law; political economy; commercial history; the continuation of geometry and drawing, and finally, foreign languages, of which speaking knowledge is required as far as possible. A good pupil of the third year on graduation is supposed not only to understand German, English, and Italian or Spanish, but also to correspond in three of these languages. A few very bright ones— they are rarely French pupils— get so 1 For programme of first year see syllabus of courses in tbe School for Higher Commercial Studies, which are essentially the same as in the Superior School of Commerce, also table on page 768. 2For programme of second year consult syllabus of courses in School of Higher Commercial Studies (first year of the regular course) ; also table on page 768. 768 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. far as to be able to make themselves understood in speaking. The language courses in tbe third office are carried on exclusively in the language studied. In the office, where the courses of technology and raw materials have an exceptional importance, one applies the studies by means of an imitation of the real transactions of commerce ; each pupil opens and closes accounts of all sorts, he buys and sells merchandise according to the course of the day, carries on a bank, dispatches ships, corresponds in foreign languages, devotes himself, in a word, under the direction of an experi¬ enced professor, to the most difficult and varied operations of commerce.1 Such a plan as the above needs no commentary. We have not hesitated to pro¬ duce it entire in order to show that commercial instruction is not, as its detractors pretend, or those who are ignorant of it maintain, a narrow instruction 11 of the earth, earthy;” an instruction of the shop, but it is in reality a scientific instruction at once general and special, directed toward the positive studies which are of use to young men who intend to play a role in commercial, industrial, administrative, or consular careers. But if the programme speaks for itself, it will not be superfluous for us to call attention to how much devotion, intelligence, experience in practical affairs and in education have been necessary since the origin of this school to create, organize, improve, and make this programme, in its entirety, to constitute that which one has called lfthe science of commerce,” especially when one considers the difficulty of finding instructors who knew how to put together the materials in which it was their business to instruct, for the purpose of their particular training, and in which variety was not to exclude the unity of view. It would not have been sufficient for the professors to be merely learned, as those in the colleges and lyc^es; it was necessary for their lectures to bear the seal of experience, for the most of them to have been initiated into the life of affairs, for them to live or to have lived for a certain .length of time face to face with practical difficulties arising with every step, and which it was necessary to solve immediately. It was only from such men that one could demand that they should give young men a training which should lead directly to the practice of commerce. To maintain the traditions of useful education while raising its level to the height of progress realized in science and its applications; such, in brief, was the work of the various managements which have succeeded one another at the Superior School of Commerce, and this was a work of no small merit. Distribution of the time. — The working day is divided for the resident pupils in the different offices as follows: Lecture and recitations, six hours; study, four hours; recreation, five hours ; repose, nine hours ; total, twenty-four hours. There is thus an average of sixty hours of labor per week, including the study hours in the office. The day is thus divided : From 5.30 to 6 o’clock, rising and mak¬ ing the toilet in dormitories; from 6 to 8 o’clock, study in the offices; from 8 to 8.30 o’clock first breakfast and recreation; from 8.30 to 10 o’clock, lessons; from 10 to 11 o’clock, lessons ; from 11 to 12.30 o’clock, second breakfast and recreation ; from 12.30 to 2 o’clock, lessons; from 2 to 2.30 o’clock, recreation; from 3 to 4 o’clock, lessons; from 4 to 5 o’clock, lessons ; from 5 to 7 o’clock, dinner and recreation ; from 7 to 9 o’clock, study in the offices. Distribution of studies in the offices. Subjects. Hours per week for each course. First office, second section. Second office, first section. Second office. Third office. ♦ TVfttl P,Tl ,»„***- nr ■ »f •>>>•• . . . 9 44 2 Mathematics . 44 44 34 3 Accounting . 3 3 34 3 Penmanship . 2 2 24 1 Commercial correspondence _ _ _ 1 1 Physical geography 24 2 Commercial geography . 3 3 History . . 2 24 Commercial history . . . . . . 14 14 Physics . . . . . 14 14 1" 14 Chemistry . 14 3 14 14 M Aohanies _ _ _ 1 Hatnrql "history _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i Paw materials . . . 14 2 Technology . 1 1 For programme of third year, consult syllabus of courses in the School of Higher Commercial Studies (second year of the regular course) ; also table on page 000. 769 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. Distribution of studies in the offices — Continued. Hours per -week for each, courso. Subjects. First office, second section. Second office, first section. SecoDd office. Third office. Commercial law . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 If Fiscal legislation . . . . 1 Political economy . . H 3 Drawing . 3 3 3 Stenography . . . . . . . ... _ 1 German _ _ .... ...................... . . . . . . 3 4 4 3* ? Ed glish .. . 3 3 3 Spanish . . . . . . . . 1 Italian . . . 1 1 Tnrlnstrinl visits ... _ _ _ _ _ _ 34 Total . 36 36 36 36 The courses in each of the three offices are intrusted to a special professor. Each pupil must he present at all the courses of the office to which he belongs. The pupils take notes during the lectures of the professor, then study these notes in tho offices and consult the books at their disposal; write up their notes carefully, which are then collected by tho inspector to be submitted to the professor. We have estimated that the pupils in tho first office have a total of 900 lessons in the course of tho school year; those of the second, 911; those of tho third, 1,002, independent of the lessons in accomplishments, such as dancing, fencing, etc. Commercial and industrial excursions. — Just as industrial instruction can only gain by becoming commercial, so commercial instruction strengthens itself by becoming industrial ; consequently, the courses in industrial mechanics, technology, and raw materials assume considerable importance in the third office, and in order to reinforce the theoretical descriptions of the things which they have studied, the pupils in this office make frequent visits, under the conduct of an inspector, to the principal estab¬ lishments of Paris and its environs. These visits are tho themes of reports which the pupils make to their director upon each of these industries ; reports which require careful supplementary studies in technical works in order to complete the notes which they have taken on the spot. It is evident that these weekly lessons, and the studies by which they are followed, train in an excellent way the observation and judgment of the pupil, by developing at the same time his theoretical and practical knowledge. The Chamber of Commerce, always in pursuit of better things, has judged, how¬ ever, that these Thursday excursions were not sufficient for the purpose. Certain industries, and, indeed, some of them very important, are not represented in the environs of Paris at all, notably the extractive and textile industries. The chamber consequently decided that each year, beginning with 1875, tho pupils of the third office should make a commercial trip, in the month of April, under tho conduct of tho director of the school. The expenses of this trip, which amount to about 200 francs, must be defrayed by the pupils. This trip lasts about three weeks. They go ordi¬ narily into the north of Franco and into Belgium, where the students study the principal factories of cotton and wool; the important coal mines, furnaces, etc. As soon as they have returned to the school, the pupils prepare a detailed account of their trip, which must be submitted on a given day to the director. These reports are in general very carefully prepared. The Chamber of Commerce in establishing these industrial trips decided at the same time to grant to the author of the best memoir, under the name of “traveling scholarship,” the sum of 1,000 francs, which could be utilized in making a trip either in Franco or in a foreign country for the purpose of studying some questions proposed to him by the administrative council of the school. We have examined several of these essays, which were printed on account of their merit, and each of which reveals truly remarkable qualities of style, of method, and of scientific and economic observation. They give marked evidence of the solid character and excellence of the studies pursued by the young men who wrote them. The titles of a few of them follow : First, a report upon the cotton trade of England; second, a report upon the iron and steel trade in Great Britain ; third, a report upon the trade and manufacture of linens in the British Isles ; fourth, a report upon the trade and manufacture of woolens in Hamburg, Antwerp, London, and Havre; fifth, a report upon the coal trade in the north of France, Belgium, and England; sixth, a report upon tho manufacture and trade in sugar ; seventh, a report upon the silk trade and factories in France, Italv, and Switzerland. ED 96 - 25 770 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. IV. — Various Examinations. Special examiners test cacli day a certain number of tbc pupils in the three offices upon the principal branches of instruction. General examinations are held every three months for the classification of the pupils, and immediately thereafter an abstract of the marks which each pupil has reeei . edjbr his conduct and his work is sent to the parents. Reports are, moreover, sent each month to the parents. Final examinations. — The final examinations are, in general, conducted by well- known men, such as Levasseur and Frederic Passy, members of the institute ; Alfred Blanche, former councillor of the State ; Dr. Gariel, general engineer of roads and bridges and member of the Academy of Medicine; M. Le Coeuvre, professor at tho Central School, etc. The pupils are examined separately in the presence of the professor of the subject to which tho examination relates. Each examiner has generally to test one-twentieth of the pupils. He employs for this purposG about a day, from which it may be seen that tho examinations are taken in earnest. The relative importance of each subject of instruction is determined by a coeffi¬ cient by which the mark given by the examiner is to be multiplied. Tho products obtained for tho different subjects are then added together, and the pupils are classi¬ fied according to the number of points. Thoso who have obtained a sum total cor¬ responding to the average mark of 12 on the scale of 20 receive a diploma printed on parchment, signed by the minister of commerce. The average mark of 12 is not easy to obtain, as many examiners mark very low. To give an idea of the importance attached to each subject, wc reproduce a table which served to determine the classification of a pupil who obtained tho first diploma in 1881. The number of points necessary to be obtained for this diploma was 2,568, which corresponded to the average mark of 12— that is to say, that it is equal to tho product of 12 by the sum of the coefficient 214. It was tho first time, wo believe, that tho average mark of 18.81 had been reached. Subject. Mark. Coefficient. Product. German . English . a 18 16 18 16 324 356 Arithmetic and algebra . 19 20 • 380 Industrial chemistry . . . . . . 18 14 252 342 Accounting . 19 18 Drawing . . Commercial law. . . . . . 20 16 320 Political economy . . . . . . 20 14 2S0 Penmanship . . . . . . . 1 Spanish or Italian .... . . . . . . . . .......... _ . . 20 12 ! 240 nnTnmfvrrinl geography _ _ 18. 25 18 1 328. 50 Commercial history . . . . . 20 14 280 Paw materials . . . . . 19 16 | 304 Mechanics . . . . . . .... 16 10 j 160 Applied physics . . . . . 20 , 12 1 240 Technology . j 20 16 320 Total, 4,026.50; general average, 18.8111. a Signification of marks from zero to 20 as Ionov's: Zero (0) . . . ....Failure. 6,7,8 . 1,2 . V ery bad. 9, 10, 11 . 3,4,5., . . . , ..Bad. 12,13,14 . .Mediocre. Passable. Fair. 15,16, 17 . Good. 38, 19 . Very good. 20 . . . Perfect. V. — Various Rewards, Means of Discipline, Diplomas, Certificates, Medals. Diplomas. — Pupils of the third office who have completed their studies and passed with success the final examinations before the council of the school receive at tho time of the distribution of the prizes a diploma of capacity, furnished by the school and signed by tho minister of commerce, president of the council. Only good pupils pursue their studies through the third office, and their number amounts to from six¬ teen to twenty on the average. The number of pupils receiving diplomas is natu¬ rally smaller. The table below shows the number of graduates since 1869 : Tear. Num¬ ber. Tear. Num¬ ber. Tear. i Num. j ber. Tear. Num¬ ber. 1869 . 15 1873-74 . 13 1877-78 19 1881-82 . 10 1870-71 . 9 1874-75 . 16 1878-79 20 1882 83 . 14 1871-72 . 8 1875-76 . 18 1879-80 19 18S3-84 . 14 1872-73 . 17 1876-77 . 17 1880-81. 13 1884-S5 . 11 Being a total of 233 graduates out of a total of 288 candidates. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 771 ' Certificates. — Tlie pupils of tho third office who are not aide to obtain a diploma receive a certificate of studies, signed by tho president of the Chamber of Commerce. These are tho only certificates which the school recognizes as official; both certify the completion of tho course ; partial certificates are not given. Medals. — A certain number of medals are given as prizes each year to the. pupils of tho various offices by tho ministry of commerce, the Chamber of Commerce, the Association of Commercial Geography, and the alumni association of the school. Tho medals are in gold, silver, and bronze for tho third office, and in silver and bronze for the second and first offices. One of tho prizes given by tho Chamber of Com¬ merce consists of a traveling scholarship of 1,009 francs, of which we have already spoken under tho heading “Scholarships.” Besides these prizes the “Stenographic Institute of the Two Worlds” gives special diplomas to those pupils Avho are most distinguished in the study of stenography. General discipline. — The general regulations of the school are very precise: they are not severe, but they are observed with care and firmness. Even the form testi¬ fies to experience acquired in tho long history of tho school; wo may mention prohibition of reading works relating to other than the subject of studies, card playing, etc, The impils ttIio have obtained permission to bo out must return by 10 o’clock in the evening during tho winter, and half-past 10 during tho summer. They present for the signature of the inspector an exeat, upon which they indicate the name and residence of the persons whom they wish to visit, as well as the hour of arriving and departing ; this exeat must be signed by the parents of correspondents. A note is made of the exact hour of departure and tho hour of return of each pupil on each occasion that he leaves the building. No students arc permitted to leave tho build¬ ing during the working hours. Pupils who do not return at the hour prescribed are punished in the following way: For a tardiness of from five to ten minutes a half demerit; from fifteen to thirty minutes an entiro demerit. The pupil, besides this, is deprived of a certain number of possible freedoms, and can even bo expelled. Tho conversation room is open to persons authorized to visit the pupils every day from 11 in the morning until half-past 12; in the afternoon from 2 to half-past 2, and from 5 to 7 in the evening. Pupils can not bo visited except in the conversation room. There are also special rules for the studies; the various branches of work; tho movements within the building ; the policing of dormitories and other parts of tho building, to which the pupils must conform. In the regulations in regard to classes wo notice that every pupil dismissed from the room of a professor is given an entiro demerit, and the. general regulations say that formal refusal to obey incurs imme¬ diate suspension from the school. The pupils receive special blank books for the taking of notes. These blank books are inspected at each recitation by the profes¬ sors and their assistants ; the pupils write up these notes for certain courses. All bad work must be rewritten on Sunday. Any neglect of work is followed by a cor¬ responding punishment. During the term examinations every pupil caught in copy¬ ing any paper is marked and excluded from competition in the general classification. Under the regulations relating to studies we notice further some wise provisions whose rigid enforcement develops good work on tho part of the resident pupils, and assures very marked superiority over the day pupils, whose work suffers in general from the too great freedom which is allowed them outside of tho school. In the regulations concerning dormitories we note that at half-past 5 in the morn¬ ing a bell is rung once, as a signal for the pupils to rise; at 6 o’clock they report themselves for study, and every pupil coming in late incurs a punishment. They retire at 9 o’clock in the evening. The Superior School of Commerce prescribes, therefore, for its resident pupils what would be for a workingman a real day’s labor. To the credit of the resident pupils it should bo noted that tho gold medals, the great prizes, and the traveling scholarships are almost always taken by resident pupils. The regulations of the dining hall say that at tho sound of the bell which announces lunch or dinner the pupils must come into the refectory, marching two by two, in the order of the places which they occupy. Each master conducts the pupils of his office. During the meal tho inspector exercises a general supervision. The regulations in regard to study prescribe that each student while remaining in his chamber is forbidden to smoke or to read works uot relating to his studies. The regulations concerning recreation say that pupils may remain in tho office or may go into the library. They are called in turn and by groups to the gymnasium, to the dancing, fencing, and riding halls. The failure to appear in one’s place incurs a punishment. Singing, yelling, whistling, and shouting aro forbidden, and wo know from the people who reside near the school that the conduct of the pupils in this respect is good. Wo may add that the supervision of the school is intrusted to five supervising masters, an under inspector and an inspector, whose intelligent and devoted assistance aid the director in the firm, fatherly application of these vari¬ ous rules. 772 EDUCATION RETORT, 1895-96. Penalties. — The punishments which may he inflicted upon pupils are half demerits, demerits, and suspension from the school. The director and inspector are alone authorized to inflict punishments, upon the demand of the professors or supervising masters. The notebooks of the offices and the courses, the reports of conduct, with the special notes of the inspector, are submitted each evening to the eyes of the director, and give him, combined with the frequent visits in the various offices where he teaches himself, a complete knowledge of each pupil, whom he may thus guide according to his peculiarities and needs. VI. — Administration, Receipts, Expenses. The Superior School of Commerce is administered, as we have already said, by the Paris Chamber of Commerce, which delegates its powers to the council of adminis¬ tration, the actual composition of which is given below: President, Jules Piault; administrators, Fortier-Beaulieu, Jarlaud, Magnier, Mignon, Salmon, Weber ; director of the school, J. Grelley. Financial condition of the school. — Thanks to the experience, intelligence, and the constant efforts employed by the members of its council of administration and by the management, the Superior School of Commerce, famous for the solid character of the studies which are there pursued, as well as by its exemplary discipline and the comfort enjoyed by the pupils, is in an excellent financial condition. Without entering into too great detail it will be sufficient to note that the Paris Chamber of Commerce purchased the clientele and the furniture of the school for the sum of 120,000 francs, in 1869, though it has expended since that time almost 100,000 francs on buildings, and that not only has the school always paid its way, but it has extinguished the greater portion of the original outlay, while paying an annual rental of 25,000 francs to the owner of the property, and not ceasing to give excellent accommodations to its resident and day pupils. The budget of the school for 1886 is given below. This budget, which does not present any notable differences from those of the preceding years, will suffice for the purpose : Receipts : Francs. From term fees of pupils . 230, 000 Expenses : : — - — Cost of administration . 42,000 Salaries of professors . 45, 000 Food . 70, 000 Heating and lighting . 8, 500 Annual rental . 25,000 Laundry . 6, 000 Advertising . 3, 000 Maintenance and repairs . 8, 000 Taxes . 600 Payments on indebtedness . 12, 400 Y arious costs . 9, 500 Total . 230,000 PERSONNEL OF THE SCHOOL. The personnel of the Superior School of Commerce is composed of professors, exam¬ iners, physician, and instructors, including altogether some seventy persons. Such men as Levasseur, Passy, and Le Coeuvre figure in the list of examiners. VII. — General Considerations. If we cast a last glance upon the Superior School of Commerce, we shall see that this useful institution, which has served as a model not only for France, but for foreign countries as well, has never ceased to progress, without, however, leaving the line which was traced for it at the very beginning by men skilled in practical affairs, celebrated for their scientific labors, and who knew how to recognize the need of special instruction for youth destined for the commercial career. It is not unim¬ portant to note in this connection that this school, due to the initiative of MM. Bro- clard and Legret, the School Blanqui, the School Gervais de Caen, the School of the Chamber of Commerce, directed by polytechnicians, has never varied from its com¬ mercial origin. It has remained a school of commerce, reserved for the preparation of superior employees, of trained merchants, of bankers, of managers, of commercial directors for industrial establishments, etc. The school has constantly endeavored in its career, with a perseverance and unity in view, worthy of remark, to unite COMMERCIAL "EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 773 general and special instruction, to bind them one to the other in such a 'way as to constitute a homogeneous whole at onco classic and scientific, whose parts should mutually assist and complement each other, whoso distinct courses should ho defi¬ nitely related the one to the other, and form a whole like the various chapters of a book, the whole, of course, remaining always improvable. One fact which proves the intimate and systematic connection of the courses is that those pupils who come out of the first office are ordinarily better j>repared and do their work in a better way than those who, pressed by lack of time or by age, enter immediately the second course. One can easily understand that to follow with advantage the lessons of the two higher offices there is no better preparation than that of the school itself, for the reason that its programmes of instruction are com¬ bined into a single whole for the three years, of which the first parts are visibly and strongly attached to those which follow. It is in the second office that the instruction, without ceasing to be general, becomes more special by the courses which relate directly to commerce. Besides this, in the second office the pupils, while carrying on the study of our own language, perfect themselves in tho study of German and English and choose one of the southern lan¬ guages, Italian or Spanish, in such a way as to learn finally three foreign languages. This study of foreign languages (a subject to which one has certainly up to the pres¬ ent not given the attention which it deserves either in schools of commerce or other schools) is facilitated in this school of the Rue Amelot, which is in a certain sense international in character, by the number of foreign pupils who daily assist the work of the professors by their conversations with their French comrades. It is in the second office that the mathematical spirit, which must be at the basis of every calculation, commences to develop. Here reason takes the place of empir¬ ical methods which tend to arrest the development of intelligence, and the pupils treat all the questions which are submitted to them in a rational way. Advancing further, the professor must exercise them in the practice of rapid calculation and of mental calculation, whose utility in business is incontestable. The mathematical courses are excellently given at the Superior School of Commerce. What an excel¬ lent book MM. Brasilier, Margerie, or Grelley could make upon financial and com¬ mercial mathematics! Mathematics and accounting, the pencil and tho pen, complement each the other. The course in accounting advances in tho second office from elementary work to practice. Here one applies the principles of accounting to commerce, to industry, and to banking. The professor instructs in the different usages of cities and mar¬ kets ; his course becomes a course in commerce; correspondence is carried on in sev¬ eral languages. Then there is commercial geography, a science, so to speak, entirely modern, and yet of the first importance in economic instruction. Parallel with these the students learn, in the course on the history of commerce, how, under tho vigorous and fruitful influences of commerce, the natural resources, the intellectual wealth of the nations, their political existence, etc., arise and grow. At the same time that they are studying the facts in which the commercial prosper¬ ity shows itself at different epochs and at different countries, the pupils have under their eyes, in tho beautiful museum of commercial products, the natural products which are the bases of human exchanges, and tho manufactured products which sup¬ port these exchanges. In a word, it is by the combination of theoretical and practi¬ cal lessons that they study the progress of commerce and of industry, that they follow its various stages from the earliest times down to the present; in a word, that they learn to know the economic evolution of humanity. But the young merchant must have a just notion of his commercial duties and his commercial rights. He must also be instructed in the various taxes which are levied on merchandise, on exportations and importations; he must understand the mechan¬ ism of the tariff; he must be acquainted with our treaties of commerce with the great nations; finally, he can not afford to be ignorant of the organization of our system of taxes, lie must understand their purpose, their necessity, their method of assessment and distribution. The courses in commercial and maritime law, sup¬ plemented by those in fiscal and tariff legislation, commercial statistics, etc., fill this gap in his education and i>resent him admirably well prepared for the course in political economy which begins in the third office, and is the philosophic crown of the commercial sciences taught in the school. In this body of useful knowledge the physical and natural sciences have also found a place and an application. Indeed, how could one give a good course in raw materials without basing it upon courses in natural history, physics, and chemistry? In the same way, would not a course in technology require a course in industrial mechanics, if it is to be at once intelligible and fruitful? All these branches of instruction are closely related, and their practical administration must be preceded by theoretical studies. Moreover, noblesse oblige, one can not limit one’s self in a superior school to the examination, pure and simple, of raw materials and commer¬ cial products. And then, from merely practical considerations, one must teach the 774, EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. pupils in the second and third offices the chemical compositions of the leading sub¬ stances, the physical conditions under which they are produced, and the mechanical principles employed in their various transformations. The merchant of to-day, like the manufacturer, must become acquainted with the scientific methods which clear his judgment, develop his intelligence, and prepare him finally to discover adultera¬ tions either in raw materials or manufactured products. This scientific part of the instruction of the school is reenforced in tho third office by the commercial and industrial visits made every Thursday to the establishments of Paris and its envi¬ rons, as well as by the annual trip to the north of Prance and Belgium, where all tho leading industries are studied, under the experienced guidance of the director. Conclusion. — To determine upon the different courses of study, to arrange the pro¬ grammes of these studies, to improve them without ceasing by watching over their intelligent development in the classes, by choosing skilled professors adapted to the methods of instruction, and by maintaining with a firm hand the necessary disci¬ pline in every direction; all this is without doubt important. But this alone would be insufficient to realize tho ideas of the Paris Chamber of Commerce and to preserve tho ancient traditions of the sort of a school which we have been discussing. Fol¬ lowing a more elevated purpose than even this, the object of this school has always been not merely the creation of a scientific body of commercial instruction, but that of an economic education based upon moral principles. “ Get rich 77 is a motto which needs numerous corrections. A merchant must be twice honest — honest as a citizen, and honest by profession. If nothing is more difficult in the world than to get money, nothing is easier than to lose that which one has gained without labor. Fortunes which grow too rapidly disappear of themselves. Those which are tho result of patient labor and honesty are less exposed to adversity, because their pos¬ sessors, more prudent, guard them more carefully from danger. AYo find the motto of this school summed up in the simple words: “Be good, bo laborious, be persevering/7 pronounced by M. Gustavo Roy, then president of the chamber of commerce, on an occasion of distributing the prizes of the school. “Perseverance/7 ho added, “is indispensable to him who wishes to advance. Set before yourself a clear, well-defined end; let nothing turn you from it. Be honest; be led on every occasion by that iuward light which is called 1 conscience.7 Consult it, and when you ask it, if it hesitates, abstain. For in all which is right, loyal, and honest it will never, believe me, show any hesitation. In regulating your lives in this way you will find your reward in the confidence, the consideration, and the credit which you will inspire. A merchant should be honest from calculation, if not from tho sense of duty.77 To these counsels full of wisdom, to these words marked with the seal of experi¬ ence, M. Grelley, director of the school, added the following: “A condition essential to successin business, I do not fear to say it, is ambition. The merchant or tho manufacturer who desires only a modest subsistence lacks energy — lacks the great fire necessary to success. In this age of steam and electricity there is no place for the indolent. Success is for those who, to the two essential qualities of order and economy, add the love of labor and the firm resolution to succeed.77 And he added, in words not less excellent, “ I would warn you against a fault unhappily too common with young people who are just starting out in life. Many people have what I should call a ‘ clerical7 character; they arrive in the morning at their labor, do exactly that which they are directed to do, and wait patiently for that which they call the hour of ‘liberty 7 when evening comes. For these there is no such thing as success; they will remain employees throughout their lives. The employee who wishes to succeed must devote himself without ceasing to the affairs which are intrusted to him; he must treat them as his own; he must go before the hour of beginning work, and finish up in the evening that which he has not been able to do in tbo daytime. This sort of a man is sure to succeed if he adds to these qualities order and economy.77 Commerce oblige is, then, tho motto of this school. Honesty is a real force, like order, economy, and persevering labor. The commerce of France can only increase by the study and practice of probity, and it is through such a school as this that such ideas will pass into commercial life, and that an experimental demonstration will be made that probity is synonymous with skill and success. # * * * « * * To sum up the characteristics of the Superior School of Commerce: It has based commercial instruction upon solid scientific instruction. From this point of view the programmes of this school are the most complete of any which we Lave had the pleasure of seeing. A great part of the problem of commercial instruction appears, then, to us to have been solved at the Superior School of Commerce at Paris, which has had the honor of training, since its foundation, more than 6,000 financiers, man- COMMERCIAL -EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 775 ufacturers, superior employees, etc., scattered throughout all the countries of the world, and among whom we could name a large number of eminent men in various departments. Till. — The Alumni Association of the Superior. School of Commerce. Origin. — Various graduates of the Superior School of Commerce have attempted from time to time to create an association among the alumni of this ancient school. But it was very difficult to relmit the broken threads among the members of so many generations who had experienced so many different fortunes, and were scattered, since the foundation of the school in 1820, thonghout tho entire commercial world. In 1872, a year which witnessed the rise of an extremely favorable movement to schools of commerce, the students of the third office finally succeeded in forming a society. Guided by certain former graduates, among whom was the eminent econ¬ omist, Joseph Gamier, and aided by the counsel of their first president, M. Paul Lafitto, they succeeded in creating a society, the utility of whose work we are just beginning to appreciate. Services and progress. — Tho association, founded by 17 members, includes to-day more than 650 members. The following table shows the annual increase : Tear. ! Members. Tear. Members. 1872 . *. . 77 1879 . 470 1873 . 225 1880 . 499 1874 . 288 1881 . 520 1875 . 316 1882 . 575 1876 . 365 1883 . - 594 1877 . 414 1884 . 616 1878 . 454 1 1885 . 633 The original association has not undergone any notable change, but each year has marked, so to speak, a stage in the moral development of tho society. The purpose of the union is : First, to cultivate the friendly relations formed at the school ; second, to utilize the relations thus created for tho development of commerce and industry ; third, to aid former pupils by assisting them after graduation and facilitating their finding of positions ; fourth, to assist unfortunate comrades. The former pupils of the school and pupils in the third office may be members of the union. The annual fee is 10 francs ; one may become a life member by paying at one time the sum of 100 francs. Tho title of u Donor” is given to those who pay 200 francs at one time. The management is composed of twelve graduate members, and one member from the third office. It regulates the disposition of the funds, decides upon requests for assistance, and supervises the publications of the society. From the first year of its organization tho union has granted an annual prize in political economy for tho best pupil in each subject. At its instigation a traveling scholarship was founded by the Paris Chamber of Commerce, and given to a graduate of tho third year. The union also names corresponding members at important points in various parts of tho earth for the purpose of gathering commercial information. Theso corre¬ spondents also serve as patrons to those members of the society who have newly come to their respective places. In 1876 a quarterly Bulletin was established, which soon became very prosperous, and furnished to the members of the society interesting papers upon economicsubjects, as well as upon facts relating to tho society. This publication has recently become a monthly. The society has published, besides, a yearbook since it was founded. By the publication of its Bulletin the union has established connections with various learned and commercial societies, notably tho Geographical Society, the Society of Geographical Commerce at Paris, the Scientific Society of France, the Alumni Society of the School of Arts and Metiers. Tho banquet, established at the beginning of the society, assembles each year the most devoted members of the union. In 1882 its president, N. Detre, invited tho presidents of similar societies in Lyons, Rouen, and Havre, founded upon the model of that of Paris, to take part in the annual banquet of the union in Paris, or to send delegates. It was decided at this banquet to organize a syndicate of the alumni society of the superior schools of commerce in France, which furnishes a new proof that there is utility beyond the commercial in such societies. The presidency of the syndicate of the alumni society is vested in the president of the Paris union. It was in this double capacity that M. Deligny submitted in March, 1884, the demand for a new syndical grouping. Accompanied by M. Pathier, a 776 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. former president, and M. Ren6 Lo Roy, vice-president of the union, M. Deligny was called to testify before a parliamentary investigating committee, consisting of forty- four members. He insisted strongly upon the necessity of giving to commercial instruction equal advantages to those governmental schools which are endowed by the Government. Representations were also made to the ministry of marine to obtain traveling scholarships under the same conditions as the society for the encouragement of com¬ merce and industry, and M. Deligny received a formal promise that the State would subscribe a sum equal to that which should be subscribed for this purpose by the societies interested. In February, 1885, M. Rouvier, minister of commerce, accepted the presidency of the banquet of the union, and promised his high assistance to the various purposes pursued by the syndicate. Among the numerous evidences of the activity of this alumni society we cite further the foundation of the Conference Adolph Blanqui, a society for commercial and industrial study, whoso purpose is to develop among the future graduates the taste for further study and the verbal discussion of questions relating to commerce and industry. The tribunal of Paris, appreciating the good purpose of the Conference Blanqui, offered it a place of meeting, which the alumni society did not hesitate to accept on behalf of the conference. Faithful to its purpose and full of solicitude for its members, the society assists them, aids them either in their search for positions or in their commercial careers, by means of the numerous relations which arc maintained through the various reunions, by the publication of its Annual and by its Bulletin, and, finally, if misfortune over¬ takes one of its members the society is always on hand. Moreover, the last word in regard to this brotherly side of the society has not been said. M. Deligny proposed the organization of a circle which should increase still more the development of friendly and commercial relations, and M. Detre then proposed more material reun¬ ions for the same purpose. The publication of the Bulletin, as stated above, has just become a monthly. Finally, we may say that M. Rend Le Roy, the present president of the society, has submitted to the management a scheme already carried out in part — to form a sort of benefit treasury in favor of comrades who arc momentarily embarrassed in their busi¬ ness affairs. 2.— THE SCHOOL OF HIGHER COMMERCIAL STUDIES IN PARIS. I. — History of the Foundation of the School and its Subsequent Development. The first idea of the creation of this school should be ascribed to the Paris Cham¬ ber of Commerce, which as early as 1866 took up the question of organizing an estab¬ lishment of higher commercial instruction, complementary to its higher primary institution in the Avenue Trudaine. In 1867 the death of Mr. Gervais, of Caen, pro¬ prietor and director of the Superior School of Commerce, turned the attention of the chamber from the idea of establishing a school, and fixed it upon the purchase of an establishment which already enjoyed a universal reputation, and which had become a successful business enterprise in the hands of its director. We have described in the preceding pages how the Chamber of Commerce got possession of the old school of Adolph Blanqui, and with what satisfactory results. The idea of establishing a so-called li school of higher commercial studies ” was, however, simply put off by this move and not abandoned. It was a subject of con¬ sideration under the presidency of M. Houette, then under that of Guibal, but it was under the presidency of M. Gustave Roy that the Paris Chamber of Commerce under¬ took to solve all the" difficulties involved in so costly and important a foundation. Wo owe it to historical truth to say that the project of the Chamber of Commerce met only a feeble response from public opinion, a thing which should not be an occasion of surprise, considering the general feeling in respect to everything con¬ cerning commercial studies, and the marked indifference which our Governments, imbued with the old university spirit, have showed down to the very present in regard to commercial instruction. Through a learned society, the Oriental Athe- neum of Paris, an endeavor was made to stir up an interest in this question in 1875, starting from the principle that the business relations of nations are developed as a direct consequence of the elevation of their intellectual level. This society in the provincial session at St. fiteinne discussed the creation in France of an institution of higher commercial studies. Besides this tho National Society in Lyons, sharing in the same view, resolved to examine this question from all aspects by examining as fully as possible into the details of its execution. It even named a special commis¬ sion for the purpose of drawing up a set of questions to be submitted to eminent men at homo and abroad. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 777 Without entering into further details, we must limit ourselves to calling attention to the general tenor of the discussion in the Oriental Atheneum of Paris, and to cer¬ tain interesting points raised by the commission of inquiry. After having expressed the view that a superior institute of commerce ought to he founded in France for the purpose of offering to the graduates of the commercial schools, to the consulate cadets, and also to other young people of adequate prelimi¬ nary education, the complementary knowledge necessary to create and consolidate new relations with foreign merchants, the Oriental Atheneum defined more especially the following as the necessary complement to these studies : First, comparative legislation of different nations; second, instruction in the lan¬ guages most used in the great commercial centers of Asia, India, China, and Japan; third, courses of philosophy and esthetics as applied to commerce, showing the influ¬ ence of commerce upon the civilization, the ideas, manners, and power of a country, and intended to develop in the students those intellectual and moral qualities which are capable of dignifying the professional merchant. The Oriental Atheneum demanded in addition a course in the history of commerce among all peoples, ancient and modem ; a complementary course in geography, com¬ prising agricultural, industrial, mineral, and commercial statistics of all countries; a study of the present treaties of commerce; a complete study of fhe means of trans¬ portation on land and water, as also of all the means of correspondence, such as the post, telegraph, etc. It also raised the question whether one could not insist that the Government should demand of candidates for consulships the diploma of the Superior Institute of Commerce. Finally it raised the question whether this insti¬ tution ought to he organized like the Central School of Paris, which takes its pupils throughout the entire day, or whether it would not he better if the pupils were obliged to be present only at particular courses, as in the faculties of law and medi¬ cine. Also what would be the best means of controlling and stimulating the work of the pupils; how long the course should be; whether the minimum age for admis¬ sion should be fixed at 18; whether the students provided with a diploma at the Superior School should be admitted without examination, and whether the degree of bachelor should be accepted from those pupils not provided with such a diploma ; what city of France would be best adapted for the location of such a school; what capital would be required; from what source it could be drawn, etc. On the other hand the National Society of Education at Lyons proposed the fol¬ lowing questions : First, whether an institute of higher commercial studies would be a useful and timely complement to the superior schools of commerce; second, whether this insti¬ tution could assist in completing the instruction of consulate cadets and commer¬ cial agents attached to diplomatic missious; third, whether the institution should be founded on the principle of freedom of superior instruction, or whether they should demand that the State should establish it, or whether it would not be better to adopt the mixed system, in which the State should come to the aid of private initiative. This society closed its report by expressing the following view: “The National Society of Education at Lyons having heard the report of the commission upon the proposal to found in France an institute of higher commercial studies, believing that this new organ of instruction would form a happy and even necessary complement to the actual organization of superior schools of commerce; considering further that it would contribute powerfully to enlarge, elevate, and dignify the respective commercial and administrative callings; considering that the principle of the plan is not denied and that its timeliness is sufficiently well established by the facts produced in the report, and that its realization is not beyond the efforts of private initiative, hereby adopts the report of the commission, and charges its presi¬ dent with communicating the same to each of the chambers of commerce in Paris, Lyons, and Marseilles, with the request to consult upon the means of insuring the execution of the project.” The discussion of the various points raised by the members of the Oriental Athe¬ neum of Paris and those of the National Societyof Education at Lyons, each one of which threw some light upon the question, would show it to be very complex. Everything goes to show that the view expressed by the Congress of St. Etienne ; the list of questions which were prepared ; the final report upon the answers obtained to the questions, and the monograph by M. L. Desgrands, of Lyons, upon the same question, have contributed to persuade the chamber of Paris to take the initiative in the agitation and to put in execution with its own resources a project which it had considered for so long a time. FOUNDATION OF THE SCHOOL. In the sessions of the 8th of May and the 24th of July, 1878, the Paris Chamber of Commerce sketched out the plan of the School for Higher Commercial Studies, and decided upon the underlying principles. Shortly after the chamber named a ED 9 G - 25* 778 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. commission composed of Messrs. Jacques Siegfried, Focillon, and Michau, for tlie purpose of preparing plans of construction for the school, and what was still more important, its programme of studies, a function which could not havo been confided to more competent men. On the 17th of May, 1880, a decree authorized the Chamber of Commerce to borrow the necessary money for the construction of the school. Finally, the inauguration of the new establishment took place on the 4th of December, 1881, in the great amphi¬ theater of the school under the presidency of M. Gustave Roy, president of the Paris Chamber of Commerce. There were also present Messrs. Ldon Say, president of the Senate; Rouvier, minister of commerce and of the colonies, and Allain Targe, min¬ ister of finances; and the whole Paris Chamber of Commerce, justly proud of having expended over two millions with a liberal hand in constructing a school of com¬ merce, the most beautiful, the most sj>aeious, the best arranged possible ; for which school its members were happy to do the honors to the parliamentary, administra¬ tive, industrial, and commercial interest of the country. Purpose of the school. — The Paris Chamber of Commerce, it is certain, had no inten¬ tion to create a competitor to its own Superior School of Commerce in rue Amelot, but desired to found an establishment of another type, a sort of faculty or central school of commerce, to which, as M. Gustavo Roy said on the day of inauguration, the purpose was to attract young men of family who had completed their classical studies. We find, moreover, that the purpose of the foundation of this school is well defined by the Chamber of Commerce itself in the report which it presented on the 15th of February, 1879, to the ministry of agriculture and commerce, and in which it expressed itself on this point as follows : “The school is destined, in the thought of the chamber, to givo supplementary instruction to the children of the bourgeoisie, who propose upon completing the college to take up a commercial career. The purpose of the chamber is to give to such young men the practical notions of the means by which order and clearness are brought into the commercial world, whose general mechanism will have been explained to them beforehand, and to impress a lofty character upon that instruction which comprehends those modern sciences underlying the necessities of international commerce.77 According to the same report the chamber proposed to organize an establishment capable of caring for from 250 to 500 pupils. The first of these figures would permit it to cover its expenses at the price of 1,000 francs a year per pupil; the second would assure it the necessary supplementary resources for new growth, and would furnish it an excess of receipts which could be devoted to further improve¬ ments. According to these anticipations, a little optimistic, the necessary grouuds for the construction of the school were estimated to be about 5,000 square meters. Situation of the school. — The School of Higher Commercial Studies is situated at 108 Boulevard Malesherbes, and occupies a site containing 5,910.99 meters, which the chamber purchased at the price of 517,000 francs. Apropos of this action and in response to certain criticisms which have been made on the wasteful extravagance of the chamber in the purchase of such expensive grounds, it must be said that the acquisition of this site was not by any means in itself a bad stroke of business, for at the present hour it is worth at least three times that sum, and there is every reason to believe that in fifty years, the epoch at which the money borrowed must be repaid, the site will be worth at least 2,000,000 francs. It will be sufficient, then, for the school to cover its expenses during this period, for the chamber to have profited finally to the amount of two millions on this operation, and for its generous action to bo converted into a profitable stroke of business. This view is correct, in our opinion. The magnificent buildings of the school, the construction of which was open to general competition, embrace, besides the rooms of administration, the dwellings of the director, of the instructors of studies, etc., 2 grand amphitheaters, 12 study halls or offices, 10 examination halls, the museum of products, the laboratory, the library, business hall, a large refectory for 300 pupils, 24 spacious and well-ventil¬ ated chambers for resident students, a hall for sports, large courts, etc. Development of the school. — The School of Higher Commercial Studies was opened on the 3d of November, 1881. The increase in the number of students may be seen from the following table : Tear. Pupils. Bachelors, a Foreigners. French. 1881 82 . 50 37 10 40 1882-83 . 92 35 13 79 1883-84 . 308 38 10 98 1884-85 . 117 45 8 109 3885-86 . 128 51 10 118 a Graduates of lyc6es. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 779 This table indicates a steady growth, which will certainly increase, owing to the establishment of a preparatory division, a creation somewhat in contradiction, it is true, with the title of the school, bat which will certainly be favorable to an increase of attendance. It will be noticed that the number of foreigners has not increased in proportion to the growth of attendance. There may be different opinions upon this subject. We believe that the presence of foreign pupils in the French School of Commerce, while it shows that the reputation of the school is extended beyond our frontiers, is also a condition peculiarly favorable to instruction in foreign languages. The pupils for the school year 1885-86 were classified as follows : Preparatory, 15 ; first year, 67 ; second year, 46. Finally, the number of the pupils at the superior school of Rue Amelot, not having been affected by the creation of the School of Higher Commercial Studies, at least to the extent which one might have feared, we conclude that a real service has been rendered to the development of our higher commercial instruction, which was in danger of being hindered from having no place in the only superior school which the capital of France possessed. In order to judge wisely of things it is necessary to take a high point of view, and this is what the Paris Chamber of Commerce has done in showing itself resolved to waH patiently for the definite results which it pursues and which will be the work of time and of steady effort, and of the growth of ideas. II. — Scholarships— Government of the School. Besides these young people of family, who, having completed their studies, enter upon active work, preferring labor to idleness, the Chamber of Commerce desired to see in this school also those who, less favored by fortune, have the intelligence, courage, and the will to advance. It is certain that the mixture of these two ele¬ ments and the good fellowship that is the consequence of intercourse between the classes, have always produced the best results. Scholarships and semischolarships have consequently been asked for and obtained for the benefit of the new school. The founders are numerous. The ministry of commerce and the Chamber of Commerce have established ten each; one or more each have been founded by the following: Le Conseil Municipal de Paris, la Banque de France, le Credit Foncier, le Comptoir d’Escompte, la Societe Generale, le Credit Lyonnais, le Credit Industriel et Commercial, la Chambre Syndicate des Agents de change, TUnion des Banquiers de Paris et de la Province, la Compagnie Generale des Omnibus, la Compagnie Transatlantique, la Compagnie du Gaz, le Gouvernement de la Guadeloupe, le Departement de la Seine-Inferieure, la Chambre de Commerce de Phillipeville, MM. Gustave Roy, Dietz-Monnin, A. Poirier, Jacques Siegfried, Ch. Noel, Fouhl, Lebaudy, Couste, Houette, Pestel, and finally, the banking house of the Rothschild brothers and Madame Menier, who have given the capital for a perpetual scholarship, producing a yearly income of 1,000 francs. It is interesting to note that the Chamber of Commerce of Phillipeville estab¬ lished a scholarship. This is an example which we are happy to mention in this place. AVe wish that all the chambers of commerce wouldunderstand that it is their duty to encourage and assist commercial instruction by the establishment of scholar¬ ships in the existing schools of commerce, while waiting for that which would be preferable, namely, the establishment of new schools of commerce in their own cities. The various kinds of scholarships. — The school grants official scholarships, private scholarships, and remissions of tuition. The official scholarships granted by the State and the city of Paris, are so-called external scolarships, open to general com¬ petition for those young people whose parents are unable to pay the price of board. The prize scholarships are assigned by the founders to the candidates they designate. The remissions of tuition are granted by the administrators of the school; they vary from 250 to 500 francs. The price of board at the school, including tuition, is 2,800 francs for the resident students; 1,300 for the so-called “ half-residents ” or day pupils. Every pupil who has obtained an external sholarship can become a resident pupil by the payment of 1,800 francs. Every pupil who has obtained a remission of 500 francs can become a resi¬ dent pupil by the payment of 2, 300 francs, or a day pupil by the payment of 800 francs. Every pupil who has obtained a remission of 250 francs can become a resident pupil by the payment of 2,550 francs, or can pursue the studies as a day pupil by the pay¬ ment of 1,050 francs. Government or city scholarships. — Those young men, whether bachelors, i. e., gradu¬ ates of lycdes, or not, who desire to obtain a Government or city scholarship, are compelled to enter into competition. The candidates must be of French birth, and have completed their sixteenth year at the time of the examination. Candidates for the scholarships of the city of Paris must be residents of Paris. Five Government scholarships are put up each year for competition. A notice inserted in the official 780 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. journal indicates tlie date of the written examination, and is held at the following cities: Paris, Lyons, Marseilles, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Kouen, Lille, Nantes, Nancy, and Dijon. Vacations. — The vacation comprises about three months each year, from the 1st day of August to the 1st day of November. The preparatory class begins a month sooner. Work during vacations. — During vacations the pupils must prepare, according to a plan issued by the school, a paper which represents at least a month’s work, amounting to eight hours a day. This paper must he prepared from a point of view essentially commercial; technology, the description of machines, must have only a secondary place. Those papers are considered the best which indicate the sources from which the information is drawn; the geographical situation of the establishments visited; the names of the persons familiar with the subjects discussed, and those which give at the same time the figures relating to production, consumption, importation, and exportation of the raw materials or the manufactured products studied. Organization of the school. — The school receives resident and day pupils; foreigners are admitted on the same conditions as natives. The course is opened on the first Monday in November ; the length of the course, which, like that of schools at Antwerp, Havre, and Bordeaux, lias been two years up to the present, will shortly be extended to three years. Beginning with the 3d of November, 1885, a prepara¬ tory class was opened for those jiupils who wished to prepare themselves to enter the first year of the course. It is hardly necessary to say that we approve of this feature, which we have already praised in various connections in discussing the schools of Havre and Bor¬ deaux. So long as commercial instruction is not systematically organized into primary, secondary, and superior schools, the higher schools will have an interest in organizing in connection with themselves such preparatory classes as will insure for them well-prepared pupils. Such a class has long been a feature of tjie Superior School of Commerce at Paris. The cost of board and tuition has been fixed as follows : For the preparatory year the price for day pupils is 1,000 francs, plus 300 francs for lunch, which is obligatory; the price for resident pupils is 2,200 francs. In the regular course, both in the first and second year, the price for day pupils is the same as in the preparatory class; that for resident pupils is 2,800 francs. The incidental costs for both classes of pupils amount to about 120 francs a year; these are necessary expenditures, even for those pupils holding scholarships. III. — Instruction, Division of the Curriculum, Distribution of the Hours. Instruction. — The Paris Chamber of Commerce desires that the instruction at the School of Higher Commercial Studies should respond to the needs of modern busi¬ ness, which demand of the merchant a very extensive preparation as well as an edu¬ cation capable of developing in him a feeling of the elevated role devolving upon commerce in the upward movement of civilization and progress. “It has seemed to us,” said M. Gustave Roy, at that time president of the Chamber of Commerce, in his inaugural address at the opening of the school, “ that commercial instruction must be advanced in proportion as science advances. That is why we have founded the School of Higher Commercial Studies. For too long a time in France commerce has been considered as an inferior career; it is time to protest against this idea, and to show that the vocations of merchants and bankers demand as much intelligence as any other. It is time for us to impress upon the minds of our youth those truths which the previous course of their education has concealed from them. We have the faith ; we shall have the patience. Just and fruitful ideas make way slowly but surely. For our part, as the advance guards of the commerce of Paris, in which the commercial and financial life of France is centralized, let us study its wants and prepare its future. We have learned in commerce as well as in politics to have no fear of liberty, and it is in these ideas that the Chamber of Commerce asks its pro¬ fessors to train the youth.” It is worth while quoting these words of an experienced man, expressing his own opinion and that of the chamber over which he presided, upon a creation which had cost enormous sacrifices. In this case words did not precede acts; they followed them. The capital of France, endowed with a new and superior school, may now say to its friends that “the economic education of their children need never again be ignored in the difficult struggle which they must sustain. This education is as essential to the demands of modern commerce as military education is to that of war. We have no wish that you should be any longer deprived of this on account of the lack of schools and trained professors. Our former school is full; here is a still larger one. Fill it ! Show us that we have not outrun the public demand.” COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 781 We emphasize the point that the chamber of commerce, impressed with the insufficiency of the services rendered to commerce by consuls, and attributing rightly this insufficiency to their lack of economic knowledge, has opened in the direction of the consulate career a new outlet for the pupils of its schools. We find these views squarely announced in the report of M. Gustave Roy upon the programme of studies of the school. tf The chamber,’7 he said, “ wishes to fill a want of the public administration in preparing young men who shall be able to represent France in its consulates.” It is very certain that Avith this idea the instruction of the new school was reenforced by new courses in law and legislation. Programme of studies. — The programme of studies, the very title itself given to the school, shows that it was intended to be as advanced as possible. The report of M. Gustave Roy sketches very judiciously its great outlines. At every point in the detailed examination of the question and constitution of the programme itself one is forced to recognize that the programme of studies, tested since 1820 in the Superior School of Commerce and recently brought up to the level of modern knowledge and needs by M. Scliwaebld, aided by the council of administration of the school, fur¬ nished at almost every point the desiderata of an advanced course. It was, in con¬ sequence, this latter curriculum, slightly amended and strengthened upon the side of law and legislation, which was adopted. Without doubt, as M. Jacques Siegfried advised, in his “ Memoir,” it would not have been a bad idea for the committee to have studied in addition the curricula of the schools of Antwerp, Lyons, Havre, and Marseilles, but for lack of time this was not done. The result is, therefore, that the School of Higher Commercial Studies and the Superior School of Commerce at Paris instruct in almost exactly the same subjects. It is true the organization of the two establishments is different, and each one has its own particular physiognomy which distinguishes it. But that which concerns the public chiefly is results. Emulation has resulted from the rivalry, and this will certainly be a benefit. We wish, therefore, that at that time, when the schools of commerce shall be organized as parts of a single plan, that there shall be established between the pupils of these schools annual competitions upon the theory as well as upon the application of the studies to the purposes intended, competition which would permit us to j udge of the methods and value of each school to the great benefit of the progress of economic commercial instruction. But we shall touch upon this question later. Preparatory schools. — The method of instruction in the School of Higher Commer¬ cial Studies is based upon oral lessons in the class room and upon subsequent exam¬ inations relating to the subject-matter of the courses. The length of the course, as we have said, is to-day three years. Of it, one year is the preparatory class, and two years are given to the normal or higher classes. The programme of the subjects in the preparatory division is fixed by that of admis¬ sion to the first year of the normal course and embraces French, elements of one foreign language, mathematics, algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, elementary natural history, history of France, and general geography. This course is common to the candidates for admission into the first year of the normal course and to the candidates who desire to compete for the day scholarships. Normal course— first year. — The studies of the first year comprise accounting, math¬ ematics, geography, the study of merchandise, commercial analyses, political economy, the various branches of law in their relation to commerce, penmanship, and foreign languages — one southern and one northern language, at the choice of the pupils. Second year. — Pupils continue the study of the subjects begun in the first year and take up in addition the history of commerce ; budgetary, tariff, and fiscal legislation ; the study of transportation: the importance of harbors, railroads, waterways, canals, docks, etc. Below is given the programme of the studies and the number of hours given to each branch. This programme offers in its entirety the elements of excellent economico-commer- cial instruction, such as we should like to see in the near future in high honor among us. For it would quickly form a nursery of young merchants able to develop our domestic and foreign commerce at the same time that it would develop for the future a solid body of judges prepared for the work of the commercial tribunals of consuls, possessing knowledge of commercial affairs and able to render us great services in foreign countries; of properly trained teachers and of experienced accountants and administrators, of whom we foresee that France will have great need whenever we shall determine to apply resolutely a reasonable system and the principles of admin¬ istrative economy to the conduct of the affairs of the nation. Distribution of the hours. — In the preparatory class the school day begins at quarter past 8 o’clock and closes at half past 4. The day pupils may remain at the school until half past 6 to do their work upon paying a supplementary fee of 15 francs a month. 782 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The following table shows the curriculum as it was in 1886 ; the tables and synopsis on page 787 and following show the curriculum iu 1893 : PREPARATORY CLASS. Honrs • per week. French language and style . . . 4 Mathematics and practical geom¬ etry . . . 5 Physics, chemistry, and natural his¬ tory . 3 Accounting and elementary notions of law . 3 History . . . Hours per week. j Geography . 3 | English or German language . 5 I Drawing . 3 ! Penmanship . 3 | Examinations . 2 Instructive walks and visits . 4 Total . 3 6£ EEGTTLAR COURSE— FIRST AND SECOND YEARS. Accounting, 8 hours pier week in each class throughout the year. Mathematics, 3 hours per week in first class throughout the year. Mathematics, 1-J hours per week in second class throughout the year. Study of merchandise, 3 hours per week in each class throughout the year. Tests of merchandise, 2 hours per week in first class (second semester). Tests of merchandise, 1 hour per week in second class. History of commerce, 11 hours per week in second class throughout the year. Commercial geography, 11 hours per week in each class throughout the year. Civil code and civil procedure, 3 hours per week in first class throughout "first term. Commercial, industrial, and maritime law, 3 hours per week iu first class from the end of February to end of June. Commercial, industrial, and maritime law, 3 hours per week in second class through¬ out the year. Budgetary, fiscal, and tariff legislation, 3 hours per week in second class throughout first term. Commercial legislation of foreign countries, 1| hours per week in second class throughout third term. Political economy, 1^ hours per week in first class throughout the year. Study of transportation, 11 hours per week in second class throughout third term. Equipment and commercial material, 11 hours per week in second class throughout third term. English and German languages, 5 hours per week in each class throughout the year. Spanish or Italian or Portuguese, 3 hours per week in each class throughout the year. Penmanship, 30 hours per week in first class. Penmanship, 20 hours per week in second class (distributed throughout the year). Commercial visits, 4 hours per week in each class (beginning with January). IY. — Various Examinations. Preparatory class. — Candidates who have completed their fifteenth year are admit¬ ted into this division without special examinations, and at any time during the year. This class is destined to train pupils for the first year of the regular course. Begular course. — First and second year. Those young men furnished with a diploma of bachelor of letters or sciences, also the bachelor of special secondary instruction, may enter directly and without examination upon the work of the first year. No student is admitted directly to the second year’s work. The entrance examinations to the first year take place from the 15th to the 30th of October of each year in the buildings of the school. This examination is divided into two parts, written and oral. The written examination consists of the following: First, an essay (one and one- half hours); second, a mathematical subject (two hours); third, the translation, with the aid of a dictionary, of a French text into English or German at the choice of the candidate (one hour). The oral examination comprises : First, arithmetic, algebra, and geometry ; second, physics, chemistry, and natural history; third, general geography; fourth, the his¬ tory of France; fifth, explanation of an English or German text. All the subjects comprised in this programme are equally obligatory. Candidates whose knowledge upon any one of the subjects is considered insufficient can not be admitted. The topics for the written composition can be taken from any subject in the programme. A correct style, a regular and legible handwriting are essential conditions. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 783 Besides a certificate of vaccination and of certificates proving the ago (the com¬ pleted sixteenth year being the lowest year accepted) and the morality of the can¬ didate, those persons v ho wish to take part in the examination must send to the director of the school before the 15th of October a request to that effect upon stamped paper, declaring their intentions, and also stating whether or not they desire a day scholarship. After the close of the examination the list of pupils admitted is definitely fixed by the council of administration of the school upon the proposition of the examining hoard, and published in the official journal. . Foreign pupils must furnish references to their consuls. They are admitted to the school in consequence of a special examination intended to determine whether they can follow successfully the course of study. Sioecial examinations. — The method of instruction in the School of Higher Commer¬ cial Studies is based, as we have already said, upon oral lessons and very frequent examinations. A table posted in the school indicates to the pupils the dates of these special examinations, which take place at least twice a week: one upon foreign lan¬ guages, and one upon other subjects of instruction in the programme. The rules of the school prescribe that no pupil may be required to pass more than three special examinations and more than two general examinations in the same week. Two pupils enter at the same time the office of the examiner. The pupil who has just been examined goes out and informs his comrade who stands next to him upon the list that his turn has arrived. The examiner assures himself that the note books of the subject upon which it is his business to examine are kept up to date, that the graphical and statistical sketches are made with care, and he puts to the pupils who come before him such questions as are intended to ascertain whether the lessons in the school room have been studied and understood. He then gives a mark wrk’icli figures in the certificate of the pupil. Papers and reports. — Besides their examinations the pupils are required to write twice a month a paper or report upon a topic assigned by the management, and relating to some subject of instruction in the programme. The subjects assigned for these papers are posted up for eight days ; they bear the date of the day when they must be presented by the stmlent. General examinations. — The general examinations cover the entire instruction in tho course. They take place at the end of each course. Tho questions relating to each subject are drawn by the pupil by lot. The marks for the general examinations in each subject are counted individually, as well as the average of the special exami¬ nations. The general average of the student is based upon the average of the special examinations and the marks of the general examinations. Marks. — The value of the marks is fixed according to the table below: Zero (0) . Failure. I 7, 8 . Feeble. 1, 2, 3 . Very bad. 9, 10, 11 . Passable. 4,5,6 . Bad. ' 12, 13 . Fair. 14, 15,16 . Good. 17, 18, 19 . Mery good. 20 . Perfect. Classification of pupils . — Tho marks obtained in the general and special examina¬ tions servo for the classification of pupils at Easter and at the close of tho year, periods at which reports are sent to the parents. The classification at Easter is pro¬ visional; the classification of July serves to establish the passing rank from the first to the second year. No pupil can pass from the first to the second year unless he has obtained a general average of at least 9. The final classification is based upon the combined general average of the exami¬ nations of the first year, which count for one-fourth, and upon that of the examina¬ tions of the second year, which count for three-fourths. To obtain a certificate one must have reached a general minimum average of 10. To obtain a diploma one must have reached at the end of the second year a general minimum average of 13. The report of classification given to each pupil contains, in connection with the subjects of instruction, two columns of marks; the one receiving the general average of the special examinations, the other the marks of the general examinations. The marks appearing in these two columns are added together respectively, and each of the sums thus obtained is divided by the number of subjects. The quotient gives tho average of the total marks of the special and general examinations. For example: The quotient of all the special examinations of a pupil is 107 for eleven subjects; that of all the marks of his general examinations is 106 for eight subjects, thus i^ = 9.72; 1g6= 13.25. The general average obtained is the sum of 9.72 and 13.25 divided by 2, that is, 11.48. The average at the close of the second year is dimin¬ ished or increased by the average of the report of the first year. Example: (Giving the average of the first year as 10) [10 -f- (3 X 11-48)] -f- 4 = 11.11, the final mark. 784 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Y. — Various Rewards, Discipline, Diplomas, Certificates, and Penalties. The diplomas, signed by the minister of commerce, are granted those pupils, foreign or native, who have satisfied in an able manner all the tests of the final examina¬ tions at the end of the second year. In August, 1883, 40 diplomas were conferred upon a class of 46 pupils ; in August, 1884, 39 diplomas were conferred upon a class of 51 pupils ; in August, 1885, 29 diplomas were conferred upon a class of 49 pupils. It is evident that the severity of the examinations for these diplomas is steadily increasing from year to year. There is also for foreign pupils a special diploma intended to testify that they have followed the courses of the school with success. Certificates of capacity are given to pupils of the second year who, although not able to obtain a diploma, have, nevertheless, given proof of sufficient knowledge of the most essential subjects of instruction. The list of pupils graduated is published in the official journal. There is no formal distribution of these diplomas, but a simple handing over of the diplomas and cer¬ tificates on the part of the director. This lack of ceremony is not justified, in our opinion, by good reasons. Everything which can contribute to dignify the instruc¬ tion, to throw into relief the result of the combined efforts of instructors and pupils ought to be utilized for the profit of this instruction, and to increase the faith in it on the part of the public. One should have faith in superior commercial instruc¬ tion, and should show that one has faith. This instruction is destined to take an official place above secondary general instruction, of which it will be a development. For the present let us mark for it that place which it has been able to secure. General discipline. — The inspector of studies who is present at the various courses and at the examinations, devotes himself to all the details of the work of the pupils. He is charged, under the authority of the director of the school, with maintaining a careful observation of the programme of instruction, and of insuring the mainte¬ nance of discipline among the pupils. He is aided in the accomplishment of his mission by the nnder-instructors to the number of four. As a relaxation from mental fatigue the council of the school has decided that the pupils should have at their disposal a hall of sports; a billiard hall; a checkers and chess-room, as well as interesting reading. Up to the present no restrictions have been placed on the various methods of relaxation. Besides this, boxing, fencing, and dancing halls enable the pupils to amuse themselves according to their tastes. Finally, during the recreation hours, the pupils are authorized to smoke in the hall of sports and in the courtyards. Punishments. — The following punishments may bo inflicted upon the pupils: Half demerit, entire demerit, temporary expulsion, reprimand pronounced by the director, not in the presence of the council of the school; reprimand in the presence of the council, and expulsion pronounced by the council upon the recommendation of the director. The inspector of studies notes all infractions of the rules by the pupils, and the reprimands which they have incurred in consequence of negligence or irregularity in their work. The council of the school takes into consideration the disciplinary marks of each pupil when it makes changes in the divisions, or when considering applications for certificates and diplomas. VI. — Administration, Receipts, Expenses. The school is administered by the Paris Chamber of Commerce, which founded it. It receives no subsidy from the State. The most serious efforts and earnest solicitude are employed by the president, M. L. Hielard ; by the administrators, who aid him with their experience ; by the direc¬ tor, M. Jourdan; by the president of the Chamber of Commerce, M. Dietz-Monnin, who sits in the council by right of his office, and who rarely fails to be present at its sessions; and, finally, by M. Gustave Roy, in order to insure the development and the success of the School of Higher Commercial Studies. The careful study which we have made of the progress of this school shows that it has passed beyond the difficulties of its early years, and is advancing each year. Budget. — The budget of the school is very large, as the Paris Chamber of Commerce wished to do a handsome thing, and desired that no expense should be spared to call attention to its beautiful creation. Of course, experience can not fail to show reforms which it will be necessary to carry out in the modus vivendi of the various depart¬ ments, as well as in the construction of the curriculum audits application. Thanks to certain economies which were necessary and which could be carried through with¬ out inconvenience; thanks also to the steady growth of the number of pupils, which must be still more marked in consequence of the formation of the preparatory class, it is to be presumed that the financial condition of the School of Higher Commercial Studies will be sensibly improved from this time on. This, at least, is the view which we share, being persuaded that there is room in Paris for two great schools of commerce as flourishing as the rue Amelot. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 785 The following table shows the receipts and expenses for the school year 1884-85: Receipts : Francs. Term fees of the pupils . 176, 530. 00 Profits in the students’ supplies . 3, 696. 00 Total . . 180,226.00 Expenses : Of the personnel and administration . 44, 840. 00 Remuneration of professors and examiners . 90, 180. 00 Expenses of— Food . . . 58, 000, 00 Heating . 7, 231. 00 Lighting . 6,500.00 Laundry . 4, 500. 00 Advertising . 3,000.00 Library . 1, 200. 00 Laboratory . 600. 00 Maintenance and repairs . 4,500.00 General costs . 4, 500. 00 City water . . 1, 500. 00 Taxes and insurance . . . 8, 453. 00 Annuity to the credit foncier . 100, 904. 25 Total . 337,908.25 This shows a deficit of 157,682 francs, comprising, it is true, the rent of the school buildings, represented by the annuity payable to the credit foncier for interest and repayment of the loan by this useful establishment to the Chamber of Commerce. The following was the budget for the school year 1885-86 : Receipts : Francs. Term fees of pupils . 217,550.00 Profits on students’ supplies . . . 4, 067. 00 Sales of material . 2, 400. 00 Balance . 4, 763. 45 Total . . . . 228,780.45 Expenses : Payment to personnel and administration . 44, 840. 00 Professors . 58, 550. 00 Examiners . 11, 720. 00 Donations . 2, 000. 00 Food . 63, 593. 00 Heating . 7, 200. 00 Lighting.. . 6,960.00 Laundry . 5, 079. 45 Advertising . 5, 000. 00 Library . 1, 200. 00 Laboratory . 1, 600. 00 Maintenance and repairs . . 5, 900. 00 General costs . 4, 700. 00 City water . 1, 895. 00 Taxes and insurance . 8, 453. 00 Total . 228, 780. 45 This report differs essentially from the preceding one, as it shows that the school is making expenses and receipts meet, without counting, i t is remembered, the annuity to the credit foncier, which has been assumed by the Paris Chamber of Commerce in consequence of an agreement entered into between the chamber, the city, and the State, and a law relating to the construction of a bourse. By this combina¬ tion the chamber, by means of additional hundreds levied upon Parisian commerce, finds the necessary means to cover the annuity due to the credit foncier. By alienating the most certain of its revenues and by mortgaging the future for fifty years, the Paris Chamber of Commerce, consulting only the dictates of a wise patriotism, has not hesitated to extend superior commercial instruction, and to attract to it the sons of our merchants. The fortunate arrangement, of which we have just spoken, will not impoverish anyone; and Paris possesses, as a result, a 786 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. magnificent establishment of commercial instruction, the most beautiful, without doubt, in the world. We may surely say here, if ever, “All’s well that ends well.” The director, M. Jourdan, an engineer of arts and manufactures, has been at the head of the School of Higher Commercial Studies since its foundation. Ho had formerly been the director of the Commercial School in avenue Trudaine, and had there attracted the attention of the Chamber of Commerce. M. Huret, inspector of studies, was also a member of the instructing body of the Commercial School, where he had been a professor for five years. The large scheme adopted by the Chamber of Commerce for its School of Higher Commercial Studies explains the large number of professors. The faculty number forty- four, including seven examiners. The chamber intended that the equipment of the new school should fully correspond to its really grandiose plan. It has succeeded at the cost of large sacrifices, which will be appreciated and which will produce, in our opinion, the results which the chamber expects of them. VII. — Conclusion — Noblesse Oblige. But certain titles are heavy to carry, and the Paris Chamber of Commerce has furnished us a new proof of this. A part of that which has come to pass had already been forseen'in the interesting report of M. Jacques Siegfried, w’here he says: “If the Paris Chamber of Commerce should count upon a considerable number of pupils at the beginning it would run the risk of being deceived. Experience shows that if the utility of superior commercial instruction gradually makes itself felt more and more, it must, on the other hand, count upon meeting those prejudgments and settled habits of thought over which we can not triumph without much patience.” With its attention occupied in raising the level of commercial instruction, and consequently the prestige of the commercial career, the chamber cherished more illusions than M. Siegfried. In fact, M. Gustave Roy, its president, said in the inaugural address, from which we have already quoted some passages: “Wo have confidence in our work; it is proposed to draw into this school young men who have already completed their classical studies, not those who have not succeeded in the colleges, but those w'ho have distinguished themselves there.” The immediate future, however, did not justify the views of M. Gustave Roy, for the reason that classical instruction never turns the aspiration of its pupils toward the commercial career, and the college graduates, notably those who have distin¬ guished themselves, despise commerce and think that they are destined exclusively for liberal or administrative careers. Thus we see that the necessities of existence turned the school away from the strict observation of a rule which would have brought it to an early death of inani¬ tion, and the School of Higher Commercial Studies, which was intended to give only superior instruction, has been compelled, in order to replenish its classes, to devote itself to secondary instruction. It is this same reason which compelled it to create classes preparatoi-y to this latter instruction; that is to say, to introduce a primary element in the very institution ’where the secondary element was to have been excluded on principle. We have advised this last measure in the interest of the school, and we hope for its success. In order to insure homogeneity in the classes, and with a view of rais¬ ing the character of the instruction, it wrill probably be necessary to double the preparatory year for certain pupils, or to cut this division into two sections. Per¬ haps it will even be advisable to adopt the samo measure for the first year of the regular course, so that the second year may really become an advanced course. As to the rest, however, we are of the conviction that this measure will be only transitory. The future of commercial instruction is assured because necessity com¬ pels it. Under the pressure of economic events whose action on ideas and manners is powerful, as well as under that of better logic, we shall soon see a rapid trans¬ formation in our way of viewing the whole subject of education. A logical reor¬ ganization of general secondary instruction will prepare the youth for the professional instruction which they may have chosen, and the schools of commerce, considered on a par with other special schools, will not then be less advanced. VMI. — Association of the Former Graduates of the School of Higher Commercial Instruction. This association was founded on the 12th of July, 1883. Its place of meeting is at the school, 108 Boulevard Malesherbes. This association is primarily a social benefit society. It has for its purpose, first, to maintain and create amicable relations among the alumni of the School of Higher Commercial Studies; second, to come to the aid of former associates who may need assistance; third, to furnish to the vari¬ ous interests of the association information of every kind. In order to accomplish these various purposes, first, a place of meeting has been fixed, and these meetings are held every week; second, monthly economic conferences and discussions arc held by the members of the association; third, a quarterly bulletin has just been established, COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 787 consisting of four parts, (a) reports of the sessions of the general committee, (b) various studies by former pupils of the school, (c) notices of vrants, ( d ) advertise¬ ments for the benefit of the members of the association; fourth, the president can, incase of urgency, give immediate pecuniary assistance ; fifth, a committee of employ¬ ment is established, charged with aiding their former comrades in the choice and obtaining of positions; sixth, as a large number of the alumni have studied law and been enrolled as advocates before the court of appeals, a judicial council has been established. It gives advice upon all legal questions of interest to the members of the association. The idea seems to us excellent. We need lawyers who know how to analyze a balance, a liquidation, etc. Lawyers who have taken a course in tlie Superior School of Commerce can hardly fail to be successful. The association is administered by a committee composed of 11 members. OFFICIAL PROGRAMME OF THE COURSES OF THE SCHOOL OF HIGHER COMMER¬ CIAL STUDIES AXD THE PREPARATORY SCHOOL COXXECTED WITH THE SAME. [Ministerial orders of July 21, 1891, and July 27, 1832.] Programme of the course of the preparatory school. DESCRIPTION OP COURSES. Subjects of instruction. Hours per week. French . . . Arithmetic . ; . Algebra . Geometry . Accounting . Elements of ordinary legislation Physics . . . Chemistry . 5 5 1 3 1 H 3~ I Subjects of instruction. Hours per week. Historv . General geography Drawing . . Penmanship . Living languages. . Total . o 1 4 31 Preparatory School. FRENCH. Exercises in orthography, composition, and correspondence. ARITHMETIC. Preliminary definitions. — -Magnitude, numbers, measure of magnitude, unity, whole numbers, fractions, fractional numbers. Oral numeration. — Definitions, decimal numeration. Written numeration. — Definitions, absolute and relative value of a number. Operations in whole numbers. — Addition and subtraction; definitions, rules, proofs; exercises in rapid calculation, both mental and written, in addition and subtraction. Multiplication; definitions; table of multiplication of the first 15 numbers; dif¬ ferent. cases of multiplication; theory, and practical rules; theorems relative to multiplication; exercises in rapid multiplication by 4, 5, 9, 11, 15, 19, 21, 25, 29, 30, 31, 39, 41, 125, their multiples and submultiples. Division ; definitions, rules, exer¬ cises, short division, theorems relative to division; division by 25, 75, 125, their multiples and submultiples. Properties of whole numbers. — Divisibility. Preliminary theorems. Remainder in the division of the number by 2, 3, 5, 9, 11, 4, and 25. Proofs by 9 and 11 of the mul¬ tiplication and division. Exercises. Greatest common divisor. — Definition. Finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers. Fundamental theorems. Rule. Simplification. Exercises. Properties of the greatest common divisor. Greatest common devisor of several numbers. Prime numbers. — Definitions of prime numbers and of numbers prime to one another. Theorems. Formation of a table of prime numbers. Separation of a number into its prime factors. Rule. Exercises. Divisors of a number. Methods of finding them. Greatest common divisor. Least common multiple. Fractions. — Definition. Reducing fractions to their most simple form. Reducing to the same denominator. Operations in fractions. Exercises. Decimal fractions. Definitions. Numeration of decimal numbers. Operations in decimal numbers. Estimation of the quotient by means of a given decimal unit. Conversion of common fractions into decimal fractions, and vice versa. Irreducible common fraction giving rise to a circulating fraction. Circulating fractions. Definitions. Finding the generator of such fractions. Powers and roots. — Definitions and theorems. Extraction of the square root of a whole number. Extraction of the square root of a whole number or fractional num¬ ber with a certaiu approximation. Square roots of decimal numbers. Squares and 788 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. square roots of fractions. Exercises in rapid methods of extracting the square roots. Cubes and cube roots. Definitions. Extraction of the cube root of a whole number. Extraction of the cube root of a whole number or fractional number to a given approximation. Cube roots of fractions and of decimal numbers, the cube of a fraction. Positive, negative, entire, and fractional exponents. Zero exponents. Measures. — Ancient French measures and present lawful measures. Comparison. Conversion of ancient into present, and vice versa. Exercises in rapid conversion. Measures of length, of surface, of volume, of capacity, of weight. Monetary meas¬ ures. Foreign moneys. Application of rapid methods in the conversion of French money into foreign money, and vice versa. Complex numbers. — Definitions. Operations in complex numbers. Ratios. — Definitions. Proportions. Proportional magnitudes. Theorems. Appli¬ cations. Rule of three (direct, inverse, simple, and compound proportions). Method of reducing to unity. Easy questions in proportional parts, alligations, partnerships. Rule of simple interest. General formula. Methods of rapid calculation of the ordi¬ nary rates of interest. Definitions of compound interest. Discounts (foreign and domestic). Rules of partnership. Definitions of progressions (arithmetical, geomet¬ rical, increasing, and decreasing). ALGEBRA. Algebraic calculations. — Employment of letters and signs as a means of abbreviation and generalization. Similar terms. Addition and subtraction. Multiplication. Rules for the signs. Division of monomials. Division of polynomials. Introduc¬ tion and calculation of negative numbers. Negative exponents. Equations of the first degree containing one unknown quantity. — Solution: First, of the system of two equations of the first degree containing two unknown quantities; of the system of three equations of the first degree containing three unknown quantities. Brief explanation of the method of solution by the employment of indeterminate factors, of any number of equations of the first degree containing a corresponding number of unknown quantities. Problems in equations of the first degree. — Interpretation of negative results. Equations of the second degree containing one unknown quantity. — Solution of the equation ax2-|-bx-|-c=:o. Discussion. Imaginary roots. Decomposition of the tri¬ nomial ax2-j-bx-f-c into its factors of the first degree. Arithmetical and geometrical progression. — Theory of logarithms deducted from pro¬ gression. Logarithms of which the base is 10. Tables. The characteristic. Intro¬ duction of negative characteristics, for the expansion of numbers smaller than unity, of the logarithmic calculations. The use of tables. Compound interest and annuities. — Application oflogarithms to these questions. GEOMETRY. Of the straight line. — Perpendicular lines. Oblique lines. Parallel lines. Of angles. — Triangles. Polygons. Of the circumference. — The circle. Measure of angles. Arcs and cords. Tangents and secants of a circle. Measure of the circumference of a circle. Proportional lines. — Similitudes. Measure of plane surfaces. — Triangles. Quadrilaterals. Polygons. Circles. Measure of the surface and of the volume of the principal solids. — Prism. Parallel- opiped. Pyramid. Frustrum of the pyramid. Cylinder. Cone. Frustrum of the cone. Sphere. Practical applications. — Capacity of casks. Volume of a bag of sand, etc. BOOKKEEPING.— I. IDEAS OF COMMERCE AND THE STUDY OF COMMERCIAL DOCU¬ MENTS. Commerce. — Commerce in general. Wholesale commerce and semiwholesale. Retail commerce. Domestic commerce. Foreign commerce. Importation. Expor¬ tation. Persons engaged in commerce. — Manufacturers. Merchants. Bankers. Brokers. Remitters. Bucket-shop brokers. Produce brokers. Naval brokers. Commis¬ sioners. The bonder of goods. Commercial transportation. Agents. Exchanges. — Nature of exchanges. Commercial exchanges : Buying and selling for cash, with or without discount. Buying and selling on time or on account, with or without interest. The art of buying and selling: General principles. A knowledge of products. A knowledge of affairs. A knowledge of markets and seaport markets. Estimation of expected gain. Documents relating to exchanges. — Orders of sale. Orders of purchase. Invoice. Bills. Quittance. Memorandum. Goods on commission. Delivery of goods. Receipt of goods. Card of samples, etc. Regulations of exchanges. — Money. Bank bills. Paper money. Checks. Checks COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 789 made to order. Bills of exchange. Mandate. Assignment. Letters of credit. Clear¬ ing-house transactions. Rules of payment : In specie, in bank hills, in paper money, by check, by means of offsets. Transportation. — By w agon. By railroad; application of the different French and international tariffs. Transportation by canals and rivers. Transportation by sea. Packing of merchandise shipped. Formalities of shipping. Insurance. Tags. A detailed memorandum of goods shipped. Bill of lading. The different tariffs of transportation. Insurance premium. II. ELEMENTS AND GENERAL THEORY OF ACCOUNTING. Principal terms used in accounting. — Debtor. Creditor. Debit. Credit. Receipts. Expenditure. Accounts. Keeping the books. Definitions. Different sorts of agents. Accounts. — Definition of an account. Manner of disposing of an account. Account of receipts and account of payments. Cashbook taken as an example. Practical exercises. Illustrations. Fluctuations of receipts and expenses. Closing and reopening a cash account. Agreement of the receipts and expenditures. Impersonal accounts, representing the inventoried wealth of the enterprise. Personal accounts, representing the third party, debtors or creditors of the enterprise. The journal. — Definition. The use of the journal. Formula for entries in the jour¬ nal. Single journal, divided journal. Different modes of dividing the journal. Auxiliary or analytical journal of receipts or cash expenses, bills, store, factory, etc., and transactions carried on by correspondence. General or synthetical journal. Models. F ormulse for the articles recapitulating the relation of the auxiliary j ournal to the general journal. Practical exercises with actual accounts. Additional advan¬ tage of the auxiliary journal and the general journal. The ledger. — Definition. LTse of the ledger. Single ledger. Divided ledger. Gen¬ eral or synthetical ledger, auxiliary or analytical ledger. Models. Relation of the journal to the ledger. Practical exercises in opening an account, and the relation of entries in the journal to those in the ledger. Precautions to be taken in order to avoid errors. Agreement of the general journal and the general ledger. Agreement of the general ledger and the auxiliary ledger. Collective accounts. — Definition. Advantage of collective accounts for controlling the collections of accounts opened in the auxiliary ledger, and for simplifying the balancing of accounts. Balancing accounts. — Definition. Agreement of entries in the journal and the accounts in the ledger, obtained by balancing the accounts. Periodical balances. Daily balances. Advantage of frequent balances. Model of a general ledger bal¬ ance with and without collective accounts. Models of balancing the auxiliary ledger. Model of balancing the general ledger, with the methodical classification of accounts. 11 Chffrier -balance.” — Definition. Its function ; its utility for obtaining thebalances in enterprises having a large number of accounts. Daily balances obtained by means of the chiffrier-balance corresponding to the number of accounts. Division and classification of accounts. — Different species of accounts. Necessity for a classification. Mathematical expressions and commercial operations. Rational classification, which results in accounts of the nominal capital. Accounts of the wealth or means of carrying on an enterprise. Accounts of persons, debited or credited. Rate of profits. Permanence of the inventory. Analysis of the different series of accounts. — Accounts of the nominal capital of an enterprise. Capital stock. Bonds. Reserves. Different amortizations. Accounts of the wealth composing the inventory of the means of carrying on an enterprise (at the price of the net cost of the properties) : (a) Beal estate. — Commercial funds. Shares. Expenses of establishing the busi¬ ness. Licenses. Realties. Personal property. Materials. (&) Disposable property. — Money. Bills receivable. Documents. Raw materials. Warehouses of sale. (c) Fixed property. — Manufactory. Buildings. Investments. Joint accounts. Agencies. Lands, etc. Accounts of persons debited or credited (at the price of purchase or sale). Accounts of profits (debit or credit of the differences between the net price and the price of sale). Account of sales. Accidental profits and losses. Results of the different operations. General expenses. Accounts of receipts and expenditures. Inventory — Balance sheet. — The inventory of balances of the classified accounts. Balance sheet. Book of balances. Book of inventories. The elements of ordinary legislation. — Brief notions relating to matters of public and civil law, commercial law, industrial law, as prescribed in the programme of the normal courses. PHYSICS — GENERAL NOTIONS. Preliminaries. — A few notions of mechanics, work, living force. Force of gravity. — Direction of the force of gravity. Center of gravity. Weights. 790 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. Balances. Precision. Sensibility. Weights of bodies. Law of the fall of bodies. Atwood’s machine. The pendulum ; its applications. Notions regarding the differ- ent conditions of bodies. Hydrostatics. — Principal of the equality of pressure in fluids. Free surface of liquids in equilibrium. Pressure at the bottom of vessels. Hydraulic pressure. The principle of vessels in communication. Applications. Principle of Archimedes. Specific weights. Relation of the areometers to constant weight. Weight of the air. The barometer. Law of Mariotte. The manometer of free air and compressed air. Pneumatic machine. Pumps, siphons, and areostatics. Heat. — Expansion of bodies by heat. The thermometer. Coefficients of expan¬ sion. Their determination. Their use. Conductibility of bodies. Specific heat. Methods of mixture. Fusion, solidification. Latent heat. Freezing- mixtures. The formation of vapors in a vacuum. Saturated and nonsaturated vapor. Maxi¬ mum of tension. Tables. Mixture of gas and vapors. Evaporation, ebullition, distillation. The latent heat of vapors. The principle of the steam machine. Expansion. The ideas of thermo-dynamics. Notions of the equivalent of mechan¬ ical work and heat. Hygrometru. — Rain. Snow. Dew. Distribution of the temperature at the surface of the earth. Magnetism. — Magnets. Poles. Magnetization. Declination. Inclination. Com¬ pass of declination. Electricity. — Development of electricity by friction. Laws of electrical phenomena. Electricity by induction. Electroscopes. Electrophores. Electric machines. Con¬ densers. Electrometer condensers. Leyden jar3. Batteries. Atmospheric elec¬ tricity. Lightning. Lightning rods. Experiments of Galvani and Volta. The pile. Accumulators. Electrical currents. Physiological, mechanical, physical, and chemical effects. Galvanoplastic, electro-gilding, electro-silvering. Experiments of (Erstecl. Construction and the uses of galvanometers. Solenoides. Compari¬ son of a solenoide and a magnet. Magnetization by currents. The electromagnet. The telegraph. Induction. Apparatus of Clarke and Rukmkorff. Telephones. Acoustics. — Production and propagation of sound, velocity, intensity, pitch, vibration. Optics. — The propagation of light. Emission and waves of light. Umbra and penumbra. Laws of reflection. Spherical, concave, and convex mirrors. Radia¬ tion of heat. Refraction. Prisms. Lenses. Magnifying glasses. Astronomical telescopes. Compound microscopes. Newton’s telescope. Principles of photogra¬ phy. Dispersion of light. Spectrum analysis. The solar spectrum. CHEMISTRY — GENERAL NOTIONS. The general idea of chemical phenomena. — Simple and compound elements. Metal¬ loids and metals. Different states of matter. Dissolution. Crystallization. Dimorphism. Polymorphism. Isomorphism. Isomerism. Allotropy. Laws of defi¬ nite proportions. Laws of multiple proportions. Laws of Gay-Lussac. Law of specific heat. Chemical equivalents and atomic weights. Oral and written nomen¬ clature. The usage of the notation of equivalents and of atomic formulae. Oxygen. — Mode of preparation. Physical and chemical properties. Ozone. Com¬ bustion. Hydrogen. — Mode of preparation. Physical and chemical properties. Physical and chemical properties of water. Analytical and synthetical methods employed for establishing its composition. Drinking waters. Oxygenated water. Nitrogen. — Atmospheric air. The quantity of oxygen and nitrogen in atmospheric air. Protoxide and bioxide of nitrogen. Preparations, xiroperties, analysis. Nitrous acid and hyponitric acid. Nitric, anhydride and hydrate. Preparation and purifi¬ cation of nitric acid. Properties. Ammonia. Circumstances under which this compound manifests itself. Preparations, physical properties of ammoniac gas, its analysis. Phosphorus. — Preparation. Physical and chemical properties. Red phosphorus, its uses. Combination of phosphorus with oxygen. Phosphoric, anhydrite, and hydrate. Preparation and properties of the different hydrates formed by phosphoric acid. Phosphuretted hydrogen gas, liquid and solid. Arsenic. — Preparation and properties. Arsenious and arsenic acid. Arsenetted hydrogen. The apparatus of Marsh. Sulphur. — Extraction and purification of sulphur. Physical properties. Different modifications which test its action under the influence of heat. Chemical properties and usage. Sulphurous acid. Preparation. Physical and chemical properties. Sulphuric and hydride acid, of Nordhausen and of commerce. Preparation and properties of these different acids. Sulphurous anhydride acid. Preparation and properties. Bisulphur of hydrogen. Chlorine. — Preparation. Physical and chemical properties. Different applications. Oxygen compounds of chlorine. Hypochlorous acid. Hydrochloric acid. Prepara¬ tion, properties, analysis, synthesis. Aqua regia. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 791 Bromine. — Bromine, iodine, and fluorine. Hydrobromic, liydriodic, and hydrofuoric acids. Borax. — Boric acid. Silica. — Silicic acid and floor spar. Carbon. — Examination of its different varieties. Oxide of carbon and carbonic acid. Preparations. Physical and chemical properties. Composition. Combina¬ tions of carbon with hydrogen. Acetylene. Carburetted hydrogen. Bicarb nretted hydrogen. Olefiant gas. Marsh gas, fire damp, Davy’s lamp, illuminating gas, flame. Carbonic disulphide. Cyanogen. — -Cyanhydric acid. Besume. — Classification of metalloids in their natural families. Metals in general. — Their properties and classifications. Alloys, metallic oxides; general preparation of metallic oxides; potassium, soda and. lime; sulphides; chlo¬ rides ; sea salt. Brief notions concerning metallurgy. — Iron, brass, and steel. Lead and copper. Tin and zinc. Silver. Aluminium. Salts. — Their general properties. The laws of Berthollet. General notions in regard to the ordinary metals. HISTORY OF FRANCE FROM THE TIME OF HENRY IV TO 1875. Henry IT. The Edict of Nantes. Sully. Louis XIII. Richelieu. War against the Protestants and nobility. Thirty Years’ War. The peace of Westphalia. Louis XIV. Mazarin and the Fronde. The treaty of the Pyrenees. Personal government, foreign relations. Treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nimegue, Eyswick, and L'trecht. Interior government ; finances; industry; commerce, and Colbert. Military organi¬ zation ; Louvois. Yauban. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes: its political and industrial consequences. Letters, arts, and sciences in the seventeenth century. Louis XT. Law’s system. Wars of succession in Poland, of succession in Austria. The Seven Years’ War. Dupleix and Bourdonnais. Choiseul. First Division of Poland. Louis XYI. Turgot’s ministry. The Parliaments and the Royal power. The war in America. Founding of the United States. The French Revolution. The States General. The constituent and legislative assemblies. The Convention. Trial of Louis XYI. Girondins and the “Mountain.” The 9th of Thermidor. Exterior events. Valmy. Jemmapes. Fleurus. The second and third division of Poland. The Directory. Bonaparte in Italy. Campo-Formio. Expedition against Egypt. Consulate. Civil Code. Concordat. Peace of Lunevilie and of Amiens. The Empire. The European coalition. Campaigns against Germany and against Prussia. The war in Spain. Expedition against Russia. Campaign in France. The First Restoration. Louis XYIII and the Charter of 1811. The One Hundred Days. Waterloo. The Second Restoration. Charles X. Navarin. Taking of Algiers. The July ordinances and days. Louis Philippe. The February Revolu¬ tion. Second Empire. Crimean, Italian, and Mexican wars. War against Prussia. Proclamation of the Republic. Letters, arts, and science during the first half of the nineteenth century. Geographical discoveries. Progress of commerce and industry. Treaty of Frankfort. The Commune. The Presidency of M. Thiers and of Marshal MacMahon. Constitution of 1875. A thorough study is required of the treaties which have been made with foreign powers, and their economic consequences. GEOGRAPHY. Object and usefulness of this study. Geographical nome iclature. Division of the surface of the earth into land and water. Continents. Principal seas. The usefulness of map drawing in the study of geography. France. — Extent and population. Sea coast and land boundaries. Description of tho Pyrenees, Alps, and Jura. Neighboring States. Interior mountains. Cevennes, the mountains of Charolais, Cote-d’Or, plateau of Langres, mountains of Faucilles, Jura, mountains of Auvergne, and of Limousin, Morvan. Mountains of Normandy, of Brittany, of Aragon and Ardennes, and Yosges. The general outlines of the separation" of the waters, and the division of France into watersheds. Basins of the Seine, of Loire, of Garonne, and of the Rhone. Description of these rivers. Tributaries. Principal cities situated on their banks. Secondary basins. The basins of tho Scheldt, of the Meuse, and of the Rhine (French part), these studied in tho same manner as the preceding. Division of France into departments. Admin¬ istrative division. The principal railroad systems. Principal canals. Algiers. — Physical and political description, situation, boundaries, the Tell, high plateaus, the Sahara. The French colonies. — In America, in Africa, in Asia, in Oceanica. Countries under French protection. — In Africa and in Asia. 792 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Europe. — Physical and political description of the principal countries of Europe, capitals, seaports, principal cities, frontiers of British Isles, of Belgium, of the Netherlands, of the German Empire, of Switzerland, of Austria, of Russia, of Spain, of Portugal, of Italy, of Greece, of Turkey in Europe, of the Danube principalities, of Sweden, of Norway, of Denmark. Asia. — Principal countries, their boundaries, mountains, rivers, principal cities. Empire of India. China, Japan. Africa. — Principal countries, their boundaries, mountains, rivers, principal cities. North America. — United States, Canada. Central America. — Principal countries. South America. — Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, etc. Oceanica. — Australia, New Zealand, the possessions of Holland and Spain. DRAWING. Figure, decoration, flowers, landscape, animals. Studies from casts and from nature. The reproduction of different objects within a fixed space of time. Repro¬ duction of objects from memory. Linear drawing. Architectural drawing. Wash¬ coloring. PENMANSHIP. Theoretical and practical exercises in the different styles of penmanship. Numer¬ ous exercises in writing a running hand. LIVING LANGUAGES. Themes, translations, practice in conversation. PROGRAMMES OF THE REGULAR COURSES IE THE SCHOOL OF HIGHER COMMER¬ CIAL STUDIES. Tal)le of examinations held and marks to he obtained during the academic course. Number of lessons per year. a Examinations. First year. Second year. Subjects of instruction. tl Special examina¬ tions. gag a-R M Q a -s ^ Special examina¬ tions. 'e8 « g ©.2 First year. Second yea: Written. Oral. •ai? i- S 3 a 3 © E Written. Oral. CM g 'S * rt © a Total. Commerce and accounting ................. 120 120 2 6 3 2 6 10 29 First foreign language b . . 165 165 7 3 7 9 26 fipcnnd fnreiern language ft . _ . 100 100 7 2 7 g 24 Mathematics . . . 50 25 6 | 3 5 8 22 Study of merchandise . 60 40 5 I 2 4 7 18 Tests and analyses _ _ _ _ 12 13 1 3 4 Commercial geography ......... . . . 40 45 4 2 4 7 17 flnmmercial history . . __ . . 20 1 3 4 Elements of public law and of French civil law . . . . 25 1 2 2 4 Commercial, maritime, and industrial legis¬ lation . - _ - _ _ 35 50 2 2 3 6 13 Forei ern rommorpinl letrislafion _ 20 1 2 3 Political economy . . . 30 1 4 5 Labor legislation __ _ _ _ 10 2 2 Financial and customs legislation . 25 ' ' 2 3 5 Study of transportation . 16 1 3 4 Study of the means of commerce (motors, telegraph, telephone, harbors, railroads, etc.) . . - . - . . 20 1 3 4 Penmanship. . . . . . . 20 15 2 2 4 1 . ' Total . . . _ 657 684 4 1 40 18 4 42 | 80 c 188 a Each lesson, except the lessons in language and penmanship, lasts one hour and twenty minutes. b In foreign languages, the mark given on the day fixed for the special examination is tlie average of the marks on compositions and questions which have keen written since the last special examination. c Each year a mark from 0 to 20 is given for care in keeping their notebooks and bookkeeping books. The sum of the marks thus obtained comprises the marks for department intended by the ministerial order of July 27, 1891, and amounts to 198X20=3,960. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 793 MINISTERIAL INSTRUCTION. It was not the intention of the committees who revised the programme to avoid repeating all the head titles ; it is expressly intended each time that the same subject should appear in the different courses, hut should not he treated hy each professor, except from the standpoint of tho special instructions which he is to give. The same distinction should also he present in the mind of the examiners for grad¬ uation, in the questions on those subjects which are found simultaneously prescribed in the various programmes. REGULAR COURSE. Commerce and accounting. — Two years: First year, 120 lessons; second year, 120 lessons. Instruction in the ideas of commerce , of arithmetic, and of algebra applied to commerce, and of accounting should be simultaneous. — It should he at the same time theoretical and practical, and the professors should make use of numerous practical exercises. The course on the explanations of commerce places under the eyes of the pupils specimens of the different commercial documents which they are to study. In the lessons on arithmetic and algebra, as applied to commerce, one part should always he reserved for practical exercises in rapid calculation, oral and written. The theoretical explanation of accounting should he accompanied, during the first year, hy the practice of keeping a complete set of hooks, and during tho second year hy the formation of developed treatises. I. IDEAS OF COMMERCE AND THE STUDY OF COMMERCIAL DOCUMENTS FIRST YEAR. Commerce. — Of commerce in general, wholesale and semiwholesale business, retail business, domestic commerce, foreign commerce, importation, exportation. Persons engaged in commerce. — Manufacturers, merchants, hankers, brokers, bucket- shop brokers, remitters, produce brokers, naval brokers, commissioners, agents, those who give warehouse bonds, transportation of commerce, etc. Exchanges. — Nature of exchanges. Commercial exchange. Buying and selling for cash, with and without discount. Buying and selling on time or on account, with or without interest. The art of buying and selling. General principles. Knowledge of products. Knowledge of affairs. The study of markets and markets for exports. The calculation of expected gain. Documents relating to exchange. — Orders of purchase. Bills of sale. Invoice. Bill. Quittance. Memorandum. Goods on commission. Delivery of goods. Receipt of goods. Sample cards, etc. Regulations of exchange. — Of money. Of bank bills. Of paper money. Of checks. Drafts payable to order. Letters of exchange. Mandates. Assignments. Letters of credit. Offsets. Settling accounts, in specie, in bank bills, in paper money, by checks, by clearing accounts. Transportation. — Transportation by wagon, by railroads, by canals and rivers. Ocean transportation. Packing and shipping goods. Formalities of shipping. Insurance. Tags. Detailed shipping memorandum. Consignment. Different ship¬ ping tariffs. Insurance premiums. Custom-houses and internal revenue. — The method of administering the laws relating to customs duties and internal revenue. The system of taxing alcoholic drinks. Permits. Various documents. Warehouses. — Docks. Common warehouses. Their function. Warrants and re¬ ceipts. Selling in warehouses. Public selling, etc. SECOND YEAR. Bankers. — The usefulness of bankers and of banks of credit. Ordinary bank opera¬ tions. Discount and collections on commercial paper, invoices, receipts, etc. Banks of deposit. Banks of deposits, of issue, for depositing valuables. Loans on mort¬ gages, on merchandise, on various sorts of liens. Payment of coupons. Opening of credit. Issuing checks, mandates, letters of credit, ete. Bureaus of settlement. A clearing-house. Practical function. Clearing-house of London. The exchange. — Its functions. Produce exchanges. — Business conducted in them. Cash operations. Time opera¬ tions. Speculative markets. Averages. Branches; the closing up of branches; options for acceptance, options for delivery, double options, produce quotations. Produce brokers. Bureaus of settlement. Their functions. The stock exchange. — Examination of quotations, government bonds, capital stock, dividends. Bonds. Shares. Goods. Bills payable to bearer. Bills payable to order. Transfers, Conversion. 794 EDUCATION REPORT,' 1895-96. Tko different forms of investments. Permanent investments. French, bonds (rentes). Foreign public bonds. Bonds, French and foreign. Preferred stock. Investments invariable securities. Stock of loan associations, of railroads, of indus¬ trial enterprises. The investments in permanent securities and lotteries. Bonds of the Land Credit Bank (Credit Foncier) of France, municipal bonds of Paris, etc. Temporary investments. Time loans. Treasury bonds. Savings banks. Current accounts of deposits in banks. Cash operations. Time operations. Cash and time operations combined. Brisk markets, premium markets ; scale of premiums, options ; settlements; time loans; delays; discount; rate of settlement. Insurance. — A practical examination of the different methods of insurance: Life insurance, fire insurance, insurance against accident. Insurance on merchandise; maritime insurance. Business syndicates. — The grouping of capital in order to carry on commercial, finan¬ cial, industrial, or agricultural operations. FIRST YEAR. Ideas relating to commercial and industrial management. — Organization of a mercan¬ tile establishment ; order; economy. Of capital necessary for the enterprise. The necessity of carefully determining it. Fixed capital. Circulating capital. Of raw material. Of merchandise. Of production. Of marketing. Of hand labor. Gen¬ eral expenses: Constant general expenses and variable general expenses. Impor¬ tance of exact estimation of these expenses. Their influence on the net cost according to the private marks of the person engaged in manufacturing or commerce. Impor¬ tance of accounts. Knowledge and statistics which they give. Exact determination of the net cost. The permanence of an inventory which is taken. On the conduct of business. The moral and material conditions which prepare one for success. Of credit and the methods of using it. Publicity ; utility ; different methods, their advan¬ tages and disadvantages. The position of middlemen. The duties of the employee, of the person engaged in commerce or industry, of the administrator, of the silent partner, of the authorized agent, of the stockholder. II. — ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA APPLIED TO COMMERCE— FIRST YEAR. Mental calculation, rapid calculation. — Daily exercises. Study of the means of abbreviating arithmetical operations. Interest, discount, commissions. — Definitions of interest. Exercises by the method of number and divisors. Exercises by using aliquot parts. Definition of discount. Domestic discount; foreign discount. Average time of payment. Equation of pay¬ ments. Calculation of bills of discount at different rates. Of commissions. Man¬ ner of applying it and calculating it on bills of discount, and collections, and by means of the bank method. Relation of commission and interest; establishment of tables of comparison. Exercises in calculating compound interest. Accounts current and interest. — Definition of accounts current and of interest; cal¬ culation by numbers and by aliquot parts. The Hamburg method. Rule for this method. Advantages which it presents. The direct method. The rule for this method with and without interest. Advantages. Method indirect or retrograde. Rule and advantages of this method. Practical exercises in the three methods. Dif¬ ferent kinds of accounts current: (1) Accounts current calculated and determined at each change in the rate of interest; (2) accounts current calculated and determined for fixed periods and at a uniform rate of interest both on the debits and credits ; (3) accounts current calculated and determined for fixed periods at a different rate of interest for the debits and credits; (4) accounts current calculated and determined after each transaction of the debit or credit. Practical exercises with application of the different commissions and different markets. The different systems of weights, measures, and money. — Explanation of the principal systems. Comparison with the metric system. The reduction of foreign money into francs, and vice versa. The intrinsic par value, the tabulated value, and the commer¬ cial value of moneys. Employment of the chain rule. Of the net cost and of the comparison of merchandise. — Feigned accounts of purchase and of sale. The estimation of the factors of the net cost. Of the calculation of ex¬ penses. Manner of grouping them. Construction of a scale of net costs and manner of using it. Gross comparisons, net comparisons. Comparison of weights. Compari¬ sons of price. The usefulness of these comparisons in order to know whether to buy of or sell to a foreigner. Application of the different operations to merchandise. Algebra. — The application of algebra to the solution of problems of interest, of discount, of alligation, of partnership, and in the reduction of moneys. SECOND YEAR. Operations on the exchange. — Calculations of cash operations on the exchange; pur¬ chases, sales, arbitration of exchanges, calculation of these operations. Expenses of which it is necessary to take account. Calculation of time operations; purchases. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 795 sales, "brisk markets, premium markets, combined markets, scale of premiums. Cal¬ culation of operation on the produce exchange. Cash operations; purchases, sales, expenses. Time operations ; x^rchases, sales. Branches. Bank operations . — The precious metals. Calculation of alloys. Gold and silver quotations. Calculation of the value of an ingot at Paris and at London. Gold points. — Conrparisons of gold. Comparison of pound sterling, of marks, of florins, of rubles, and of dollars. Exchanges. — Definition of exchange. Lecture on quotations. Negotiable pax>er due in three months. Sight drafts. Markets giving variable and markets giving invariable quotations. Exercises in the calculation of exchanges. Theoretical methods, practical methods. Employment of the chain rule. Application of algebra. Equation of exchanges. Arbitration. — Definition. The position of the debtor; methods of settling his debt. Position of the creditor. Means of recoAmring what is due him. Of sjmculators or arbitrators of exchanges. Calculation of arbitration on the State bonds and other pax>er on the exchange. Figure quotations. — Definition. The usefulness of figure quotations. The quota¬ tions of the different markets giving figure quotations at Paris. Problems and operations on the different quotations. Figure quotations in foreign markets. Joined and compared. Calculation of feigned operations. Orders on banks. — The separation of orders on banks into two parts: First, orders on foreign banks transmitted to Paris; second, orders on the bank of Paris trans¬ mitted to foreigners. Elements of which the orders on banks are composed: First, limited; second, the juice of purchase of paper on demand; third, price of sale of drafts. Arbitration and conqiarison of these three elements. Determination of the profit or loss by the operation. Expenses of which it is necessary to take account in arbitration: Stamps, brokerage, transportation, insurance. Detailed statement of the different expenses for the jmncipal financial countries, and expenses which must be added to the price of purchase, or must be deducted from the j>rice of sale. III. — ACCOUNTING — ELEMENTS AND GENERAL THEORY OF ACCOUNTING — FIRST YEAR. Principal terms used in accounting. — Debtor. Creditor. Debit. Credit. Receipts. Expenses. Accounting. Keeping the books. Definitions. Different kinds of accountants. The account. — Definition of the account. Manner of disposing of an account. An account which receives and an account which gives out. The cash book taken as an example. Practical exercises. Illustrations of the movements of receipts and expenses. Closing and reopening of cash accounts. Agreement of the account which receives with the account which pays out. Inverse entry of the fluctuations in the respective accounts. Impersonal accounts, representing the "wealth, compos¬ ing the inventory of the enterprise. Personal accounts, representing the debtors or creditors of the enterprise. The journal. — Definition. Disposition of the journal. Formula for entries in the journal. Single journal. Divided journal. Different methods of dividing the jour¬ nal. Auxiliary or analytical journal of the cash transactions, of receijits and of exxienses, of bills, of the shop, of the manufactory, etc., and of the transactions by correspondence. Generator synthetical journals. Models. Formula of articles reca- pitulating the transactions of the auxiliary journal to the general journal. Prac¬ tical exercises with illustrations. The additional usefulness of the auxiliary journal and the general journal. The ledger. — Definition. Disposition of the ledger. Single ledger. Divided ledger. General or synthetical ledger, auxiliary or analytical ledger. Models. Relation of the journal to the ledger. Practical exercises in opening accounts and of the relation of entries of the journal in the ledger. Precautions to be taken in order to avoid errors. Agreement of the general journal and the general ledger. Agreement of the general ledger and the auxiliary ledger. Collective accounts. — Definition. The usefulness of collective accounts in order to control the collections of the ojieu accounts in the auxiliary ledger, and in order to simplify the balancing of the accounts. Balancing accounts. — Definition. Agreement of the entries in the journal and of the accounts in the ledger obtained by balancing accounts. Periodical balances. Daily balances. The advantage of frequent balances. A model for balancing the general ledger, with and without collective accounts. Models for balancing the auxiliary ledger. Models for balancing the general ledger, with methodical clas¬ sification of the accounts. “Cliiffrier-balances.” Definition. Their functions, their utility for obtaining balances in enterprises having a great number of accounts. Daily balances obtained by means of the figure balance, whatever the number of accounts. Division and classification of accounts. — The different species of accounts. Neces¬ sity of a classification. Mathematical exjmession for commercial operations. The 796 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. rational classification which results in: Accounts of nominal capital. Accounts of property by means of which the enterprises are carried on. Accounts of persons both debtors and creditors. Accounts of profits. Permanence of the inventory. Analysis of the different series of accounts. — Accounts of the nominal capital of the enterprise: Capital stock. Bonds. Reserves. Different amortizations. Accounts of property contained in the inventory by means of which the enterprises are carried on (net cost of this property) : (a) Fixed properties. — Stock in trade. Shares. Expense of settlement. Licenses. Realties. Personal property. Material. ( b ) Movable properties. — Money. Bills receivable. Various kinds of paper. Raw material. Stock on hand. (c) Property actively engaged. — Manufactures. Buildings. Speculations. Joint accounts. Joint stock companies. Agencies. Lands, etc. Debit and credit accounts of persons (at the price of sale and of purchase) . Accounts of profits (debits or credits of the differences between the net cost and the selling price). Accounts of sales. Accidental gains and losses. Results of the different operations. General expenses. Statement of the cost of management. Inventory — Balance sheet. — The inventory balance with the classification of the account. Taking an inventory of the assets. Balance sheet. Book of balances. Book of inventories. APPLICATIONS — TREATISES — SECOND YEAR. The arrangement of boohs and of accounts. — The general principles of arranging the books and accounts of capitalists, of persons engaged in commerce, industry, and agriculture. The opening of books of different societies; firms; joint stock compa¬ nies or corporations; limited joint stock companies; cooperative societies; civil societies ; mutual aid societies; partnerships. The functions of the nomenclature of the various series of accounts. The advantage of a certain order of accounts in each series. Private accounts. — An inventory giving the composition of the capital on beginning the business. Opening of accounts made to conform to this inventory and in the order of a rational classification. Operations comprising a certain period : Expenses, receipts, purchase and sale of shares, management of real estate, a business having one partner who has unlimited responsibility, etc. Inventory of the assets to deter¬ mine the condition of the capital at the close of management. Balance sheet. FIRST YEAR. Commercial accounts. — Inventory giving the composition of the capital at the begin¬ ning of the undertaking. Opening of accounts made to conform to this inventory, and in the order of a rational classification. A series of commercial operations com¬ prising purchases, sales, returns, different rules concerning cash payments, time transactions, and giving credit; consignments, partnership affairs, current account with a bank, etc. Function of the account of purchases, of account of stock, of account of sales. General expenses. Statistical abstract of these expenses, partly in the auxiliary ledger, partly by means of a synoptical table. Apportionment of the general expenses in the account of purchases. Annual amortization of the fixed capital. Inventory of accounts to determine the condition of the capital at the close of the undertaking. Balance sheet. Inventory book. SECOND YEAR. Industrial accounts. — Inventory giving the composition of the capital at the begin¬ ning of the enterprise. Opening of accounts made to conform to this inventory, and in tho order of a classical classification. Arrangement of the books and of the entries, because of the division of industrial labor, and in order to obtain in a methodical way the net cost of the manufactured objects. Purchases of raw material in France or in foreign countries. Accounts of pur¬ chases and accounts of stock of raw material debited at the average net cost of the purchases. Manufacture or successive transformation of raw material. Accounts of manu¬ facture (an account of manufactures for each step of the transformation of material.) Periodical apportionment of the raw material, of the hand labor, and of the general expenses in the account of manufacture. Determination of the coefficient of appor¬ tionment of the general expenses. Manufactured objects : Accounts of the manu¬ factured objects in the warehouse ; placing these objects in the accounts of manu¬ facture at the ultimate net cost. Sales : Account of sales, debited at the net cost, credited at the price of sale. Other accounts of profits : Accidental gains and losses, results of tho different operations, commissions, etc. Closing the undertaking: The inventory of material, of personal property, of fixed property, of the cash on COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 797 hand, of bills, of raw material, of material in the course of manufacture, and of manufactured products. The different amortizations. Inventory of the accounts. Settlements. Determination of the results and of the condition of the capital at the close of the enterprise. Balance sheet. Inventory book. Treatises. — Accounts of a bank with accounts relating to the operations of pur¬ chase and of sale of bullion, of exchanges, of arbitration, of the issuing of shares, of financial partnerships. Accounting of a commissioner. Bookkeeping of a ship¬ owner. Principles of bookkeeping of a railroad company, of an insurance company, of a savings bank. Principles of agricultural bookkeeping. Diagrams of accounting . — The execution by the pupils of synoptical tables, sum¬ ming up the classification and the function of the accounts of the different sorts of bookkeeping. Comparative study of these diagrams and of balance sheets. COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENCE (FIRST AND SECOND TEARS). The necessity of carrying on business by correspondence in order to be able to trace the different operations. Style of commercial correspondence. Exercises. Registering and classifying of mail trains. Copy of letters and a book of departure of mail trains. Book of postal rates. FOREIGN LANGUAGES (TWO TEARS). Lessons. Toum * 5 English ) First year . 165 \ German $ Second year . 165 rn i , t> j Spanish ) First year . . 100 (Italian ) Second year . 100 The pupils must give proof at the entrance examination that they are able to translate readily English, German, or Spanish. They continue in the school the studies which they have commenced, and are required to learn at least two lan¬ guages, being allowed their choice, one from each table. The lessons are given in the accounting rooms in groups of from 10 to 25 pupils. In the second year a large part of the commercial correspondence is carried on in a foreign language. MATHEMATICS (TWO TEARS) — FIRST TEAR (FIFTT LESSONS). Simple interest. — General formula. Methods of numbers and divisors, of the aliquot parts of the interest rate, of the aliquot parts of time, of the aliquot parts of capital. Separation into proportional parts. Rules of partnership. Discount. — Different kinds of discount. Solution and discussion of the different problems in discount. Discount at the Bank of France. Method of Thoyer. Im¬ provements introduced by Cauchy. Accounts current and interest. — Brief examination of the three methods: First, direct; second, indirect or retrograde; third, Hamburg, or by scale. The precious metals and monetary systems. — Alloys; problems relating to alloys. Moneys, manufacture, allowance; monetary system of France; of the Latin Union; monetary systems of those countries which do not form a part of this union. Relative value of gold and silver: First, the legal relation; second, commercial relation. Operations on the exchange. — The modes of issuing government loans. National • subscriptions. State bonds. The ledger of the public debt. Floating and consoli¬ dated debts. Treasury certificate. The budget. Amortization. Conversion. Stocks. Bonds of railroads and other companies. Dividends. The exchange of Paris. Brokers. The different paper quoted. The bank stock. The course of exchange. Bank rate. Brokerage. Guaranties. Taxes. Stamps. Cash operations. Invest¬ ments. Sales of financial paper. Arbitration of the different bills of exchange. Definite time of sales. Discount. Time sales and at a premium. Options. Settle¬ ment. Prolongation or backwardation of cash payments. Prolongation from one settlement to another. Combinations of the different operations, on short term and at a premium. Scale of premiums. The commercial exchange. Business transacted at the exchange of Paris. Branch establishments. Closing up branch establish¬ ments. Method of settlement. Options for acceptance. Options for delivery. Double options. The exchange. — Definition of the exchange. Its origin. Bills of exchange. Do¬ mestic exchange. Foreign exchange. Checks. Deposits. Long-time and short- time paper. Discount. Exchange quotations. Markets which give a fixed and markets which give a variable quotation. Explanation of the exchange quotations of Paris, and of the quotations of markets of foreign exchanges. Definition of arbitration. Direct and indirect arbitration. Explanation and application of the chain rule. The construction of comparative tables. Numerous exercises in arbitra¬ tion between the markets of Paris, London, Amsterdam, Berlin, etc. Arbitration of metals, principally between the markets of London and Paris. Arbitration of public bonds. Prolongations. 798 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. THEORY OF LONG-TIME FINANCIAL OPERATIONS. Compound interest. — Definition and fundamental formula. Study and discussion of the two conditions according to which one is able to estimate the Value of an invest¬ ment at compound interest, when the time is expressed by a fractional number. Generalization of the theory of exponents. Ideas concerning equivalent rates. Formula of exponents applicable to every case. Formula for present interest and for continued interest applied by the French and English stockholders. General solution of x>roblems in compound interest. Practical calculation. The use of log¬ arithmic tables and the numerical tables of Violeine, Pereire, etc. Rule for compu¬ tation. Investigation of the time necessary for capital to double, triple, etc., when placed at compound interest. The present" worth of capital due at a future time. Discount. Different methods of discount. Comparison and discussion. The equated time of payment of several sums maturing at different dates and reckoned at com¬ pound interest. Coiisols — Annuities — Periodical payments. — Definitions and examples. Distinction of limited or perpetual consols. Immediate or differing. Paper, due at a fixed time, and at a rate of interest determined by certain periodical payments. The settlement of a definite capital by annuities. General formula for annuities. Computation of the different elements. The special study of the difficulties which present themselves in discovering a rate in problems in annuities. Algebraic solutions and approximate practical solutions. Formula of F. Baily and Makeham, etc. The annuities or con¬ sols of indefinite maturity. Study of the principal cases. Consols varying accord¬ ing to the law of arithmetical or geometrical progression. The amortization of loans by annuities. — General relations of the capital, the annuity, rate of interest, and time. Relation of the rate of interest to the rate of amortiza¬ tion. Formula and tables. Public loans contracted by issuing bonds. Construction of tables by amortization. Study of the different complications which one must encounter in practical amortization. Numerous examples taken from the public loans contracted partly in Franco and partly in foreign countries. The choico of problems in financial operations of long-dated bills. Probabilities — Chances and risks. — The elementary ideas of the computation of chances. Public lotteries. The actual value of a sum whose payment is doubtful. Compound probabilities. Repetition and proofs. Law of great numbers. Theorem of J. Bernoulli. Application of the principles of the calculation of probabilities to the study of the laws of human mortality. Probable duration of life. Probability of living. Study of the risks of property and of merchandise. SECOND YEAR (TWENTY-FIVE LESSONS) — APPLICATION OF THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF FINANCIAL OPERATIONS. The stocks and bonds of France and of foreign countries. — Historical sketch of the public bonds of France. State consols. Issuing. Negotiation. A precise compu¬ tation of the relation of the different types of consols. Perpetual consols and con¬ sols which may be amortized. Calculation of equivalents. Study of the public bonds in foreign countries — England, Germany, America, etc. Commercial botids — Railroad companies. — The financial relation between the State and the large railroad companies. The agreements from 1859 to 1868 and ultimate modifications. The net reserve. The mechanism of the wear and tear. Guaranteed interests and subsidies allowed by the State. Agreements of 1883. Its results on the value of price of the bonds and stocks of the railroads. Capital stock and divi¬ dends. Study of the different questions relating to the dissolution of an industrial company. Lottery loans. — Special study of the loans of the city of Paris. Application of the principles of the calculation of probabilities in estimating the chances of a lottery and of the chances or risks of repayment. Analysis of the different systems of lottery loans practiced in France and in foreign countries. Financial operations on a long term of credit by the large establishments of credit. — Societies of landed credit (credit foncier). Laws and operations of the landed credit of France. Conditions of mortgage loans and of loans granted to the communes and departments. Land bonds and communal bonds. Mortgage banks in Germany, Austria, and Hungary (Renten-Rechnung bei anticipativer Verzinsung). The landed and agricultural credit of Algiers. Colonial landed credit. Study of the operations of the societies for landed credit in the other countries. Operations of the chief bank relating to the public issue of bonds. — The issue of bonds on the representation of the loans granted by the large establishments of credit. Conversion of a certain loan into another loan of which the conditions of interest and amortization are different. Distinction between nominal and real capital, between nominal and real rate of interest. The net cost of bonds and the profits to the banker contracting the loan. Average price according to a certain rate of COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 799 the bonds, stocks, etc., of a certain loan at a certain period, and taking account of all the conditions relating to the payment of interest, the price and premiums of repayment. Operations of insurance companies. — Exposition of the mathematical principles on which are based the tariffs of insurances on persons and on merchandise. Insurances against lire, against loss by transportation, and against accidents of every nature. Life annuities on one or more persons. A critical study of the ancient and of modern methods of calculation which serve as a base for fixing the tariffs. Insurances in case of death. The termination of the single premium and of the annual premium. Mixed insurances. Insurances for a definite period. Life consols. Reserves of insur¬ ance companies. Insurances guaranteed by the State. Pension banks. Special conditions and tariffs. Mutual aid societies. A brief analysis of the principal works published either in France or in foreign countries on a mathematical theory of financial operations. STUDY OF MERCHANDISE (TWO YEARS) — FIRST YEAR (SIXTY EESSOXS). Precious stones. — Diamonds and precious stones. Origin, places of production. Prospecting. Properties. Uses. Commerce. Combustible material.— Definition. Industrial importance. Combustible solids. — Natural vegetable combustibles (wood, tan bark, peat). Nat¬ ural mineral combustibles (lignite, coals, anthracite). Combustibles derived from vegetable and mineral combustibles (charcoal, peat, coal or coke, conglomerates). Combustible liquids. — Petroleum, oils of talc. Combustible gases.— Coal gas, oil gas, water gas. Subproducts : Tar and ammoniac waters, etc. Products and coloring matter derived from tar (for each of these mat¬ ters the process of extraction and manufacture is explained, the kinds, their uses, the production, and the commerce; statistics of importations and exportation, etc.). Chemical products — Paw materials.— Sulphur and pyrites. Chloride of sodium (marine and rock salt). Chloride of potassium. Nitrate of soda or saltpeter of Chile. Sodium borax. Origin. Extraction. Use. Commerce, importations, expor¬ tations, etc. Acids. — Sulphurous acid. Sulphuric acid. Nitric acid. Hydrochloric acid. Boric acid, etc. Processes of manufacture. Uses. Commerce. The alkalis. — Potassium and potassium salts. Soda and the salts of soda. Ammonia and salts of ammonia. Processes of manufacture. Use. Commerce. Other chemical products. — Alums and salts of alums. Phosphorus and products which are connected with it. Carbonic disulphide. Chloride of lime. Sulphites and hyposulphites used in bleaching. Iodine and iodides. Bromine and bromides. Explosive materials : Powders and dynamites. Processes of manufacture. Uses. Commerce. Fertilizers and means of improvement. — Definition. The theory of fertilization. Vegetable, animal, and mineral fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers. Means of improve¬ ment. Extraction. Manufacture. Commerce. Vegetable or animal products used in the arts and industry. — Essential oils and essences. Sweet-scented waters. Extracts. Preparation. Applications in perfumery. Commerce. Concrete essences. Camphor. Extraction. Commerce and use (cellu¬ loid). Soft resin or balsams. Extraction, use, commerce. Dry resins : amber, lake gum, copal gum, and damir gum. Extraction. Commercial varieties. Employment. Varnish. Resinous gums. Caoutchouc and gutta-percha. Extraction. Commercial varieties, use, commerce. Coloring matters of vegetable and animal origin. Com¬ mercial varieties. Commerce. Use. Coloring of thread and tissues. Impression. Materials used in building. — Division into natural and artificial materials. Statis¬ tics given. Building stones and stones used for ornament. — Quarries. Quarrying. Preparation. Principal varieties. Use. Bricks. — Tiles. Paving tiles. Other materials made from baked clay for building purposes. Process of manufacture. Mortars and concretes. — Lime. Cements. Preparation. Test. Plasters. — Gypsum. Qualities. Preparation and use. Stucco. Different kinds of cement. Woods. — Forest statistics. Exploitation of forests. Properties, qualities, and defects of wood. Causes of destruction and means of conservation. Different essences. Employment: In shipbuilding, timbers, constructing railroads, telegraph poles, of props for mines, lumber, fuel, carpentry and cabinetmaking, etc. Com¬ merce of wood. Metals — iron mines.— Tests and treatment. Brass. — Varieties and physical properties. Iron. — Refining and manufacturing. Steel. — Processes of manufacturing and testing. 800 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Manganese. — Natural state. Preparation. Oxide. Chromium, nickel, and cohalt. — Mines. Extraction. Uses of chromates. Nickel plating. Cobalt blue. Zinc. — Mines. Extraction and preparation of zinc. Important uses. Flowers of zinc. Tin. — Ore. Mines. Metallurgy. Properties of tbe metal. Numerous applications. Copper. — Mines. Production. Roasting and testing of tbe ore. Metallurgy. Industrial alloys. Lead. — Principal mines. Extraction. Use. Salts and oxides. White lead. Litharge. Antimonium. — Extraction and uses. Arsenic. — Extraction and uses. Cadmium. — Alloys. Applications and photography. Yellow cadmium. Bismuth. — Preparation. Properties. Fusible alloys. Magnesium. — Manufacture. Aluminium. — Extraction. Aluminium bronze. Mercury. — Mines. .Applications. Mirrors. Gildings. Silver. — Ores. Places of production. Extraction. Alloys. Tests. Importance of this metal. Gold. — Mines. Nuggets. Oriferous sand. Extraction. Monetary alloys. Platinum. — Extraction. Properties. Uses. Calculation of the value of different minerals of commerce, the estimation of tbe approximate value of a mine in tbe process of exploitation, or one which has just been discovered. SECOND YEAR (FORTY LESSONS). Oleaginous substances and industries with which they are connected — oleaginous sub¬ stances. — Definition. Production. Physical and chemical properties. Classification. Oleaginous substances of vegetable origin. — Oleaginous seeds and fruits. Extraction of fixed vegetable oils. Study of tbe principal vegetable oils. Properties. Uses. Production. Commerce. Importations, exportations. Oleaginous substances of animal origin. — Strictly animal oils, neat’s-foot oil, sea animals, fishes. Extraction, properties, uses. Commerce. Fats. Properties. Classi¬ fication. Commercial varieties. Production. Extraction. Use. Commerce. Sper¬ maceti, animal and vegetable waxes. Production. Use, commerce, manufacture of soap, varieties, commerce, importations, exportations, stearine candles, tallow can¬ dles, wax candles, etc. Manufacture. Commerce. Subproducts. Acid oils. Glyc¬ erin. Uses. Commerce. Vegetable products used as medical stimulants, condiments, or foods. — Pharmaceutic products (cinchona, quinine, opium, etc.). Method of gathering, of extraction. Employment, commerce. Tobacco. Coffee. Tea. Cocoa. Spices. Fruits and vegetables (processes of conservation). Products of mineral origin — glass making. — Raw material. Window panes. Mirrors. Decanters. Show cases. Venetian glass. Bohemian glass. Hardened glass. Glass bottles. Crystal. Lenses. Strass. Artificial stones. Manufacture and work in glass. Cutting and engraving. Economic condition; centers of productions, etc. Ceramics. — Clay; kaolin; feldspar. Porcelains. Crockery. Biscuit. Stoneware. Common pottery. Baked earth. Bricks. Tiles. Pipes. Flower pots. Ornamental tiles. Commercial varieties. Manufacture and economic condition. PRODUCTS OF THE ANIMAL CARCASS — HARD SUBSTANCES. Bone. — Treatment and utilization. Horns. — Deer, antelope, moose, etc. Horns. — Varieties. Methods of working. Hoofs. Claws, etc. Smoothing the horns. Shells. — Gathering. Working. Varieties. Animal weapons. — Ivory. Tusks of elephant, hippopotamus, walrus, and sperm whale. Articles of Paris. — Buttons, combs, toy trade, etc. SOFT SUBSTANCES. Skins. — Tanning substances. Green hides. Tanning of sole leather and of very soft leather. Currying. Commercial varieties. Tanning of Hungarian leather. Tawing. Chamois. Morocco. Special leathers: Varnished, shagreen, and shark skins. Parchment. Furriery. Leather objects. Manufacture of glues. — Material for glue. Glues of Rouen, of Flanders, of Givet, of Alsace, of Germany, of Paris, etc. English glue. Fish glue. Preparation and uses. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 801 Feathers. — Preparation. Working. Coloring. Commercial varieties. Textiles of animal origin. — Hair. Hair of the goat. Hair of rabbit and bares. Manes. Horses. Bristles of bogs and of wild bogs. Vegetable mane. Brush making. Silk. — Silkworm. Cultivation. Diseases. Winding off silk. Silk throwing. Coloring. Commercial varieties. Woolens. — Classification. French and foreign woolens. Work in woolens. Products of vegetable origin — textiles of vegetable origin. — Flax. Hemp. Retting and Stripping. Abaca. Jute. Pbormium. Cotton. Grass-cloth plant. Cultiva¬ tion. Gathering. Varieties. Spinning and weaving of the principal textiles . — Numbering of threads. Centers of production and consumption. Economic conditions. Tissues. Simple stuffs, stuffs of armorial design, of artistic design, ribbed stuff, stuff having sinuous threads, and stitched stuffs. Looms. Winding on spools. Felts. Draperies. Paper. — Raw material. Paper made of rags and straw. Chemical wood pulp, mechanical wood pulp. Preparation. Ruling. Commercial varieties. Paper money. Pasteboard, filter paper, wrapping paper, industrial varieties. Cardboard. Plain cards. Bookbinding pasteboard. Parchment paper. Painting paper. Fantastic paper. Printing paper. Engraving. Bookbinding paper. Food substances. — Cereals. Wheat, rice, corn, rye, barley, oats, sorghum, millet. Distinctive characteristics. Composition. Cultivation. Commerce. Grinding. Panification. Pastries. Legislation. Economic condition. Sugar. — Cane. Beet roots, varieties. Extraction of the sugar juice. Treatment. Raw sugar. Varieties and commercial uses. Sugar refining. Lump, fruit, sugar candy, etc. Molasses, glucose, etc. Legislation. Markets. Economic condition. Drinks — wines. — Vineyards, cultivation, diseases. Preparation of red, white, and sparkling wines, of liquors, of dried raisins, etc. Manufacturing wine. Sugaring. Anchoring. Fertilizing with plaster. Commerce, etc. Beer. — Varieties. Manufacture. Alcohol. — Distillation. Alcohol of beet roots, of grains, of potatoes, of molasses, etc. Vinegar. — Acetic acid. Legislation relating to beverages and the economic condition.1 TESTING MERCHANDISE, ANALYSIS — ADULTERATIONS — (TWO YEARS). FIRgT YEAR, TWELVE LESSONS. Test of combustibles, coals, petroleum. Test of potash, of soda and saltpeter. Testing chalks, bleaching chlorides, manganese. Testing fertilizers. Nitrogen. Phosphoric acid. Analysis of bronze, of brass, of iron ore. Determination of lead compound with tin. Testing matter containing gold with a touch-needle. Testing of matter containing silver. Analysis of drinkable and nondrinkable waters. SECOND YEAR (THIRTEEN LESSONS). Testing of oils. Determination of the amount of oil in oleaginous grains. Analysis of soap. Testing of textiles. Testing of flour, meal, etc. Testing of sugar, of bone black. Analysis and adulteration of wine, of beer. Testing of milk, of butter. Testing of coffee, chocolates, spices. CHEMICAL MANIPULATIONS— FIRST AND SECOND YEARS. The lessons on merchandise and raw material are completed by manipulations in the chemical laboratory, in order to make observations under the microscope, in order to discover the frauds to which the different commercial products are liable, as textile material, foods, fertilizers, etc. 1 All the commercial products which are not mentioned in thife brief sketch are treated along with related or derived products. ED 96 - 26 802 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY — (TWO YEARS)— CHARACTER OF THE COURSE. The course in economic geography treats of the following matters for each country : A brief conception of the territorial formation. Population. Ethnographical ideas. Languages. Religions. Political institutions. Principal administrative divisions. General configuration and nature of the soil. Climates. Agricultural products. Cattle raising. Exploitation of forests. Agricultural regions. Hunting and fishing. Mineral products. Mines and quarries. Salt mines. Mineral resources. Salt marshes. Manufactured products. Centers of industry. Their origin, raison d’etre. W ays of communication. Both small and large navigable rivers. Canals. Rail¬ road routes. Maritime navigation. Seaports. Merchant marine. Navigation com¬ panies. Postal services. Telegraph service. Foreign commerce. Principal markets. Various reasons for their prosperity. Importations and exportations. Usages of commerce. Special study of the com¬ merce of each country with France, and of the competition which French commerce encounters. Systems of customs duties. Commercial treaties. Weights and measures. Moneys. Institutions of credit. Social condition. The manners and national character. FIRST YEAR (FORTY LESSONS). Europe. — France. British Isles. German Empire. Netherlands. Belgium. Alsace- Lorraine. Switzerland. Austria-Hungary. Spain. Portugal. Italy. Danube States. Baltic peninsula. Greece. Russia. Scandinavian countries. The French in Northern Africa. Algiers. — Physical and economical geography, inhabitants, land divisions, public works, administration, budget, system of customs. Tunis. — Development of colonization, of agriculture, and commerce, system of cus¬ toms and treaties of commerce, taxes, function of the protectorate. Religious ques¬ tion and the questions indigenous to Algiers and to Tunis. SECOND YEAR (FORTY-FIVE LESSONS). Africa. — General notions. Explorations. The European conquests. Berlin Con¬ gress of 1885. Treaties of 1890. Principal lines of navigation. Region of the Atlas. Regency of Tripoli. Sahara. Islam and their religious confederates. Routes of caravans. Projects of a railroad across the Sahara. Islands of the At¬ lantic Ocean. Coast of Guinea and the Soudan. Senegal and French Soudan. The Niger and Lake Chad. English company of the Niger. French, English, and German settlements on the coast of Guinea. Basin of the Kongo and the West¬ ern Coast. French Kongo. Kongo Free State. Portuguese and West German colonies. Southern Africa. The Cape and Natal. Orange River Free State. South African Republic. Eastern Africa. Zambezi. English South African Company. Mozambique. Great lakes, the English and German companies. * Zanzibar. The Somali coast. Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea. English possessions. Obock. Ital¬ ians in Africa. Abyssinia. Valley of the Nile. Egypt. Suez Canal. Islands of the Indian Ocean. Madagascar. Comoro and Reunion islands. English possessions. Asia. — General notions, races and religions, political divisions, the main routes of land and sea communication. Western Asia. Turkey in Asia and Arabia. Iran Plateau. Persia. Afghanistan. Beloochistan. Asiatic Russia. Caucasia. Central Asia or Russian Turkestan. Siberia. English possessions. Indian Empire. Ceylon. The Straits. French India. Indo-China. Burmah. Kingdom of Siam. French Indo-China. Cochin-China. Cambodia. Annam. Tonquin. Extreme Orient. Em¬ pire of China, Korea. Japan. Oceanica. — General notions. Principal voyages of exploration. Physical divisions. Malaysia. Possessions of Holland, England, and Spain. British Australasia. Aus¬ tralia. Tasmania. New Zealand. Fiji Islands. Possessions of France. New Caledonia. French settlements in Oceanica. Germans, English, and Americans in Polynesia. Hawaiian Islands. America. — General description. Brief history of the discoveries and of the voyages to the North Pole. North America. Political divisions. Principal routes of trans¬ continental and ocean communication. British possessions in North America. Do¬ minion of Canada. Newfoundland, fisheries. St. Pierre and Miquelon islands. United States. Mexico. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 803 Central America: The fivo republics and British Honduras. Isthmus of Panama. The Antilles. South America: Venezuela. Colombia and Ecuador. Peru, Bolivia, and Chili. Argentine Republic, Paraguay, Uruguay. Brazil. The Guianas. HISTORY OF COMMERCE — SECOND YEAR (TWENTY LESSONS). Interest and usefulness of this history. Influence of commerce on the civilization and the development of human relations. Sources of commercial history. Primi¬ tive times. The Egyptians. The Phoenicians. The Assyrians. The Persians. India. .Greece. Rome and Carthage. Gaul and Germany. The world’s commerce at the fall of the Roman Empire. Methods of exchange in ancient times. Shipping of the ancients. Invasions. Commerce at the time of Charlemagne. Fairs and markets. The Arab invasion. Africa during the Middle Ages. Europe from the twelfth to the fourteenth century. Influence of the crusades on the world’s com¬ merce. Syria and Egypt. The Italian cities of the Middle Ages. Pisa. Venice. Genoa. Florence. Commerce of France from the eighth to the fifteenth century. Fairs of Champagne. Flanders. England and Germany in the thirteenth century. Hanseatic League. Method of exchange employed by commerce in the Middle Ages. Bills of exchange. Banks. Money changes. Commerce of the Orient after the fall of Constantinople. Maritime voyages toward the West. Discovery of a pas¬ sage to Asia by way of Cape of Good Hope. Discovery of America. Consequences of these two events for the commercial relations of the world. The Renaissance in Europe, Flanders, Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, England, and Germany. Set¬ tlement of Europeans in India. Phases of the conquest. Portuguese in Asia. Spanish conquests in the New World. Decadence of Spain. Organization of the conquest. Principal companies. French and English in India. Colonization of North America by the English and the French. Slavery in the countries con¬ quered by the Western nations. Results of the maritime discoveries. The gran¬ deur of Holland. The changing of commercial routes. The birth of commercial legislation. Colbert and the protective system. The colonial system. The sugar- producing colonies. Financial system of law. The loss of India and Canada. Independence of the English colonies of North America. Commercial results of the independence of the United States. The eighteenth century and its economic reforms. Quesnay, Gournay, and Turgot. Liberal tendencies in commercial affairs. Treaty of 1786. The French Revolution and its consequences from the standpoint of the development of industries and of commerce. Tariff of 1791. Commercial system of the Empire. The continental blockade and its results. The protective system under the Restoration. The corn laws and the laws relating to animals and metallurgy. The customs policy of Prussia since 1816. Organization of the cus¬ toms union (Zollverein). Its economic results. The Netherlands, Russia, and Swe¬ den. The reform of the customs in Great Britain. Cobden, Robert Peel, and the league against the corn laws. Influence of the customs reform on the commercial politics of Europe. Revolution of 1818 in France. War of the x>arties on the ground of import duties. Commercial tendency of the second Empire. The system of com¬ mercial treaties inaugurated in 1860. Results of this economic revolution. Devel¬ opment of the ways of communication. International treaties. Extension of commercial relations. The merchant marine. Suez Canal. Economic and social evolution in the countries of the extreme Orient. Commerce of China, of Japan, and of India. Australia. Java. Indo-China. America since the War of Independence. Progress of its industry, its agriculture, and of its commerce. Its commercial system. Cause of the war of secession. Economic results of this war. The actual position of the United States from the commercial point of view. Canada. Mexico. Central and South America. The commercial present and the growing importance of the traffic of this country. Panama. Commerce of Europe since 1870. Scientific and industrial discoveries. International expositions. Resources of the principal coun¬ tries. Methods employed in making payments among the nations in adjusting their commercial balances. Development of credit, of the means of communication, of financial societies. Banks of issue and of circulation. International values. Clear¬ ing houses. The exchanges. Statistics. The colonizing tendencies of the European nations, their causes. Conditions of international commerce. Its future. Resume. THE ELEMENTS OF FRENCH PUBLIC AND CIVIL LAW — FIRST YEAR (TWENTY-FIVE LESSONS). Organization of the public powers; the legislative power; the executive power; the promulgation of laws. The judicial power. Organization of the different judi¬ cial bodies, specially the commercial tribunals and the councils composed of employers and employees. Commercial representation. The Superior Council of Commerce and Industry. Chambers of commerce. The project of creating changes of naviga- 804 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. tion. Consulting chambers of art and manufacture. French and foreign chambers of commerce. Consuls. Of civil rights. On nationality. Of the position of for¬ eigners in France. Of the documents of the civil state. Of domicile. Of marriage. Of parents and of children. Of the parental power. Of minors, of guardianship, and of livery. Of disfranchisement and of legal council. Of movable and immov¬ able property. Of property and possession. Of usufruct and of services. Of the different modes of acquiring property. Of succession. Of gifts among the living and of wills and testaments. Of contracts and obligations. Of the validity of con¬ tracts. Of the contract of marriage. Of the renting of property. Of depositing property. Of security. Of transactions. Of franchises and of mortgages. Of pre¬ scriptions. COMMERCIAL, MARITIME, AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION — FIRST YEAR (THIRTY-FIVE LESSONS). Commercial law. — The general ideas of commerce and of commercial law. The sources of French commercial law. Bibliography. Commercial documents. — Reasons for discrimination (competence, validity, etc.). Persons engaged in commerce. — Competency (minors, married women). Obligations and rights. Commercial books, publicity of contract of marriage, licenses, election and eligibility to the chamber of commerce, and tribunals. Competence of the com¬ mercial tribunals. Methods of procedure. Arbitration. Societies. — General ideas. Civil and commercial societies. Copartnership societies and partnerships of limited liabilities. Joint stock companies. General ideas con¬ cerning stocks and bonds, nontransferable and transferable paper. Joint stock partnerships. Joint stock companies. Premium insurance societies and mutual insurance societies. Cooperative societies. Private copartnerships. Civil societies having a commercial form. Foreign societies in France. Agents employed by persons engaged in commerce. — Agents acting under powers of attorney. Officers and clerks. Commissioners and attorneys. Brokers. Of commercial sales. — General rules for closing a sale and its performance. Differ¬ ent species. Of security. — Civil and commercial security. Special rules relating to commercial security. General storehouses; warrants; receipts. Of transportation contracts. General rules. Of railroad transportation. Transportation through the postal system. Chambers of commerce. — Operations transacted in them. Stock agents and brokers. SECOND YEAR (FIFTY LESSONS). Of commercial paper — Of bills of exchange. — History. Theory of the French code. Of the form of a bill of exchange. Of indorsement, of its form and its performance. Of the provision. Of the acceptance. Of the rights and duties of the holder. Of checks. — Of their distinctive character. Clearing-house of Paris. Of bills payable to order. — Domestic bills. The payment of commercial paper by the postal administration in France, Germany, and in Belgium. Bills payable to bearer. Bank operations. — Loans. Discount. Opening of credit. Account current. Of the Bank of France. Of colonial banks. Of the landed credit (credit foncier). Failures, legal settlements, and bankruptcies. Maritime law. — General -ideas. Sources of maritime law. Of ships. — Shipowners and owners of privateers. The rights of the different creditors; privilege; mortgages; the right of succession. Abandoning a ship and freight. Freighting or chartering. — Of the distinction between extraordinary and ordinary damages. Of the bottomry loan. Of the maritime mortgage. Maritime insurance. — General ideas. Particular rules regarding the insurance on a body and the insurance on abilities. Appendix. — General ideas relating to fire insurance, life insurance, and insurance against accidents. Industrial law — Patents on inventions. — Of the nature of the law granting the profits from the invention to its inventor. The patent on inventions, its character, formal¬ ities, publicity. Of the patentability of inventions. Forfeitures. Duration and tax on patents. Of improvements. Of the importation of inventions patented in a foreign country. Of the right of foreigners. — Provisional protection during public exposition. Of the property in an invention and a patent. Of the different laws of which the patent may be the object. — Of the transfer of patents. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 805 Of tlie concession of licenses. Of counterfeiting. Of jurisdiction in caso of law¬ suits. Action in nullity. A suit in case of forfeiture. A suit relating to the prop¬ erty of patents. Suit in case of counterfeiting. Procedure. Repression. Of the secrets of manufacture. Of the models and designs of manufacture. — General ideas on property in works of art. Trade-marks and labels. — The character of trade-marks. Optional marks and obliga¬ tory marks. Property. Transference. Depositing. Counterfeits. Repression. Of a commercial name. — Of the names of locality (products sold to foreigners). Of dishonest competition. — The rights of foreigners in matters of industrial property. International conventions (the union of 1883, etc.). Dangerous manufactories, unhealthy or incommodious. Legal systems. System of apparatus and steam¬ heating. FOREIGN COMMERCIAL LEGISLATION — SECOND TEAR (TWENTY LESSONS). The necessity for harmonizing certain matters of commercial law. Partial results accomplished in this respect. Diplomatic conventions. Congresses of commercial law. The sketch of the actual commercial legislation in vogue in the principal countries. The codes and laws to consult. Bibliography. General ideas relating to persons engaged in commerce. Their distinctive marks and obligations in the principal mercantile nations. The organization of commercial tribunals. Of the commercial sale. Of commercial societies. The system of companies by shares. Special study of the English legislation on the subject. The condition of the law and of the fact relating to societies transacting business outside of the countries in which they originated. Of commercial paper, notably according to the German law at the change of 1848, the English law and Scandinavian legislation. Special laws relating to checks, banks of deposit, and clearing-houses. Of bankruptcy under the principal foreign laws, specially according to the German law of 1877 and of the English law of 1883. Of the bankruptcies of persons not engaged in com¬ merce. Measures to prevent bankruptcy in Belgium, Italy, Spain, etc. Of trans¬ portation by railroad. Legislation relating thereto in the great mercantile coun¬ tries, and especially in Germany. The projects for diplomatic conventions on this subject. Organization of industrial property in foreign countries. The interna¬ tional similarity respecting this subject. Nationality and transfer of ships. Freight contracts. Freight and consignment. Of marine mortgage. Of damages and their regulation. Marine insurance. Special examination of the rules of York and of Antwerp. Organization of commercial tribunals. Judicial powers of consuls. Their mission in regard to persons engaged in commerce, and especially those engaged in the merchant marine. POLITICAL ECONOMY — FIRST YEAR (THIRTY LESSONS). Matters relating to taxes, to customs, to labor questions, and to transportation have been respectively comprised in the programmes of the legislation relating to customs and the budget, of legislation relating to laborers and transportation. Preliminary knowledge. — Cursory review of economic phenomena . The science and art of political economy. The method, importance of observations, of historical criticisms, of experience, of statistics and its most important numerical and graph¬ ical processes. Production. — The three factors in production : (1) Natural agents. The land and the law of diminishing returns. (2) Labor. Division of labor. Freedom of labor. Slavery. Serfdom. Corpora¬ tions. Regulations. (3) Capital. Its formation, its role, its different forms. Machines, their effects. Classification of industries. — Large and small industries : (1) Agricultural industry; extensive and intensive cultivation; cultivation on a large and small scale; cultivation of one’s own State; renting, Metayers. (2) Extractive industries. (3) Manufacturing industries. (4) Commercial industries. (5) Carrying industries. Circulation. — Exchange and value. Current value and normal value. Competition and monopoly. The mechanism of exchange. Money. Two conditions which it must fulfill. Qualities which are necessary to good money. The principal moneys, gold, silver, copper coin. The principal facts regarding the history and price of the precious metals. Monetary systems. Legal rate of exchange. Gresham’s law. Paper money. Depreciation of silver, its causes, its effects. The American silver bill. The Latin Union. Monometallism and bimetallism . Present state of the question in the world. The effects of the depreciation of money on international commerce. 806 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96.. Credit . — Its usefulness. Advantages and guarantees offered by the borrower to the lender. Commercial credit. Fiduciary circulation. The exchanges of public and other paper. The exchange. Banks: function of bankers, discount, deposits, cur¬ rent accounts, checks, clearances. The clearing-house ; banks of issue, their relation to the State, their systems in the principal countries. Mortgage credit. Landed credit. Marine mortgage. Credit on security. Loans on deeds, warrants. On articles put in pawn. Agricultural credit. Popular banks. Different systems. Commerce. — Domestic and foreign commerce. Position of the middleman. Whole¬ sale and retail commerce. Speculation. Monopoly. Law of exportation. Crises. Theory of crises. Distribution— Individual property. How it is established. Its economic advan¬ tages. Its legitimacy. Transference: gifts, sales, inheritance. Common patrimony. Freedom of contract. — Pent. Interest. Basis of interest, its causes and effects. Pegulation of interest. Salaries. Basis of salaries. Productivity of labor. Dif¬ ferent forms of salaries, bounties, participation in the profits. Profits of the entrepreneur. Consumption. — Productive and unproductive consumption. Economy and prodi¬ gality. Luxury. Absenteeism. Public consumption. Population. — Malthus and his doctrine. Pauperism: Causes and remedies. Sav¬ ing. Insurance. Assistance. The State. — Its position in the economic order of things. Its interference. National and international regulations. Socialism. LABOR LEGISLATION — SECOND YEAR (TEN LESSONS). The contract in hiring out one’s services. — Professional syndicates. Societies cooper¬ ating for production, for consumption, for construction, and for credit. Combina¬ tions. Conciliation and arbitration. Privileges relating to salaries. Not distraint- able. Methods and times for the payment of salaries. Apprenticeship. Regulation of the work of children, of women, and of adults. Accidents in factories, responsi¬ bility; professional risks; industrial societies for the prevention of accidents. Laws or legislative questions concerning tho institutions for encouraging saving, and providing against future need (institutions for pensioning the a:ged, insurance and mutual aid societies, etc.) Principles of legislation compared. LEGISLATION RELATING TO THE BUDGET AND CUSTOMS — SECOND YEAR (TWENTY- FIVE LESSONS). Legislation relating to the budget. — Tho budget of the State. Origin and history of public finance. Preparation, voting and execution of the budget. Extraordinary and supplementary credits. Public expenses. Ministerial credits, financial admin¬ istration and public accounts. Public debt. Amortization. Conversion. Progres¬ sion of the budget. Resources of the budget. Public revenues. Public domain and the private domain of the State. Railways. Taxes. General ideas of the tax. Its nature. Its characteristic and economic result. Its influence on industry and com¬ merce. The single and the multiple tax. The proportional and the progressive tax. Tax on capital. Tax on revenue. The direct tax. The indirect tax. Cost of collection. The indirect taxes. Land tax, contribution from persons and personal proxierty, the door and window tax. License. Tax on the revenue derived from personal property. Tax on luxuries. The indirect taxes: Tax of registration and the stamp tax, the customs duties, statistics, etc. Taxes on consumption. Products of the post-office, and the duties on transportation. General organization of the postal and telegraph service. Local taxes. Budgets of the departments and of the communes. The octrois. The reduc¬ tion of taxes. Financial organization and the fiscal legislation of the principal foreign countries : England, Germany, Austro-Hungary, Italy, Russia, Turkey, United States, etc. Customs legislation. — The successive changes in customs legislation which have been made up to the present time. The actual systems. French tariffs. Tariffs of the principal foreign countries. The treaties of commerce in vogue at the present time. The administration of custom-houses. Double character of the duties col¬ lected by them. Fiscal duties. Protective duties. Theory of duties on the basis of “payment for services rendered.” General and conventional tariffs. Respective advantages of these two forms of customs legislation. “The most favored nation” clause. Methods of taxation. Specific duties. Duties ad valorem. Drawbacks. Temporary admissions. Bounties on exportation. Division of the customs duties. Duties on importation. Duties on exportation. Duties on transit. Accessory duties collected by the administration of the custom-houses. Its cooperation in recovering certain interior taxes. Police measures and measures taken to prevent fraud. Active COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 807 administration of custom houses. Extent of land and sea frontiers. Indication of the procedure of the methods of recourse in case of disputes m regard to customs. Rights of preemption, etc. Commercial statistics. General commerce. Special commerce. Customs valuations. Official values. Actual values. Influence of price. Raw material. Manufactured products. Special systems. Systems in the colonies. Customs legislation relating to the principal industries. The grain trade. Extract¬ ive and manufacturing industries. Sugars. Tax on salt. Marine fisheries, etc. Merchant marine. Differential duties. Surtaxes on the flags. Surtaxes on the warehouse. Bounties on navigation and equipment. Subsidies for construction. Commercial politics and the customs tariffs of the principal countries. STUDY OF TRANSPORTATION — SECOND YEAR (SIXTEEN LESSONS). Establishment, maintenance, and administration of routes of communication. — Of the legal status of ways of communication. Domanial rights. Establishment of ways of communication by the State, tho department or the communes. Franchises. Actual development of roads, canals, and navigable routes and seaports. The expenses of establishment and maintenance. History of the systems of French railroads. Finan¬ cial relation of the companies to the State. Railroads belonging to the State. Rail¬ roads of purely local interest. Actual condition of the French systems. Control of the State over the railroads which have been ceded. Legal character of the tariffs, and the conditions on which they are established. Economic study of transportation. — Of the value of transportation and its net cost. Influence of toils on the development of traffic, and on the utility of the routes of communication. “Baremes” and fixed price. Their advantages and their disadvan¬ tages. Price of transportation by railroad or by water. Their variations. Actual importance of the traffic. Net cost of transportation by railroads. Elements of variation in the net cost. Fixed price and “baremes.” Representation of the tariffs by curves. Of competition in matters of transportation, especially the com¬ petition between railroads and waterways. Tariffs called “Tariffs of penetration.” A special study of ra ilroad tariff’s. — General principals of railroad tariffs. Uses of “Recneil Cliaix.” “Baremes” and their graphic representation . Application of distance. Clauses relating to intermediate stations, not mentioned, and connected. Passenger rates. Classes, round-trip tickets, excursion tickets, and compartments of luxury. General tariffs of fast and slow freight. Methods of application and con¬ ditions of delay. Classification. Exceptional tariff. Accessory expenses. Special tariffs. Methods of applying these tariffs. Portage and cartage. The relation of railroad enterprises to other methods of transportation. COMMERCIAL INSTRUMENTS — SECOND YEAR (TWENTY LESSONS). The elements of mechanics. — Velocity and acceleration. Force. Quantity. Work and living force. Mechanical units. The mechanical equivalent of heat. Energy: its transformations and conservations. Sources of energy. Study of tho principal motors. Animal motors. Motors propelled by wind. Hydraulic wheels. Turbines. Detailed study of the steam engine and its latest improvements: steam generators; administrative regulation and surveillance. Gas and petroleum motors. Various motors. Instruments of transmission and transformation of motion. Dynamometers and various indicators. Telegraphy. — The principle of the electro-magnetic telegraph. Overhead and sub¬ terranean lines. Detailed study of the Morse system. Discussion of a postal tele¬ graph, lightning-rods, compass, clocks. Dial apparatus. Comparison of the two systems. The apparatus for increasing the rapidity. Monopoly and irresponsibility of the State on thejsubject of telegraphs. Constitution of the French system ; bureaus called “municipal;” semaphores; pneumatic system of Paris. Rates. Interna¬ tional communications; land and submarine lines. International union telegraph. Cipher telegrams; cryptography. Lines run in the interest of private persons. The telephone. — Description and use of Bell’s telephone. Microphone: Description and use of a micro-telephone system. Discussion of postal telephones. Effects of induction between the telegraph wires and the neighboring telephone wires ; methods of preventing it. Comparison of the respective advantages and disadvantages of the telegraph and telephone. State monopoly; its limitations. Organization of the interior telephone communications of a close jiroperty between the different parts of an industrial or commercial establishment. Telephone lines used for private interest. Urban systems and groups of urban systems. Telephonic communications at long distances. Electric lighting. — The ideas relating to Ohm’s law and the electric unities : Ohm, volt, amphre. Volt meters and ampere meters. Brief theory of Graham’s machine. Magnetic and dynamo-electric machines, with continued current and alternating 808 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. currents. Accumulators. Electric arc lamps. Regulators. Jablochkoff’s candle. Incandescent electric lamps. Choice to make between the arc lamps and the incan¬ descent lamps according to circumstances. Distribution of electric light by direct current or by transformed currents. Light¬ ing of passenger stations, of market halls, and of large industrial, commercial, or financial establishments. Domestic lighting; study of a certain number of cases of actual lighting. Various advantages resulting from the employment of the electric light. Price of electric lighting compared with that of gas. Future of electric lighting, its war with gas. Transportation by electric force. — The most satisfactory systems. Trials and appli¬ cations. Electric traction. Administrative regulations and surveillance of electric lines and factories. Lifting apparatus. — The different types of hand cranes. Timber and metallic cranes, fixed or variable. Steam cranes with or without gearing. Christian cranes. Revolv¬ ing steam cranes. The organization of transporting in the factory park of Creusot. Cranes run by water under pressure; the Armstrong system. Revolving steam derricks employed in unloading railroad cars or river boats. Inclined planes with trucks. Railroads. — Comparison between the traction of a vehicle on an ordinary road and on an iron track ; necessity for modifying the grades and curves. The numerous con¬ ditions which must be fulfilled in order to lay out a great railroad line. A normal track and a double track. Ties; iron rails and steel rails, etc. Transferring from one track to another ; switches, crosses, etc. Railroad ties. Turning tables. Rolling stock for transporting merchandise. The construction of a train of cars. Couplings. Different types of cars. Box cars, truck cars, and platform cars. The limitation of charges. Transportation of large pieces of wood. Special cars. Freight stations. Small stations. Principal stations. Quays and market halls. Stations for trans¬ shipment of goods. Special cranes employed in these stations. Large stations at junctions. Sorting cars in order to return them. Sorting and classifying acccording to weight (the inclined plane of Edge Hill). Terminal stations; their location (sta¬ tion at Batignolles, of Bercy, etc.). Detailed description of the station “la Chapelle.” Switching cars. Moving by hand and with horses. Switch engines. Hydraulic windlasses. Charcoal stations. Stations for iron and stone. Particular branches. Conditions of establishment and exploitation. Administrative formalities. Narrow gauge railroad. Facilities and economy of building the road and of material. Exam¬ ple. Stations at the j unctions with the principal systems. Their machines for trans¬ ferring merchandise. Small railroads for the special use of manufactories, of large commercial houses, and warehouses in general. Tramways. Portable railroads. Inland navigation. — Material for transportation on rivers and canals. Forms and dimensions of boats. Different methods of locomotion: Towing by hand, with horses, and attempts at towing by steam. Navigation with sails and drifting. Steam navigation. Wheel steamers. Screw steamers. Towers. Rafting loose logs and logs fastened together. The canalization of rivers; dams; locks; lateral canals. Summit level ponds. Method of feeding. Inclined plane of the Morris Canal ; inclined plane of Black Hill. Great 'Western elevator; Anderton’s elevator; elevator of Fontinettes. Landing places for inland navigation. Seaports. — War between the marine cities; the progress realized every day in the management and in the use of machinery at seaports. The different operations involved in handling merchandise from the time it leaves the hold of the vessel until it is placed in cars or in storehouses, and vice versa. The harmony necessary to establish between land and naval institutions. Ocean seaports. The tide port. Wet docks. Docks for half tide. Docks for full tide. Deep-water docks. Seaports without docks. Works on the seacoast, jetties, outer dikes. Description of a typical port according to M. Barret. Jetties affected by steamers transporting dis¬ patches, passengers, and prize merchandise. Sheds and storehouses. Iron tracks. Jetties affected exclusively by steamers carrying merchandise. Jetties for exporta¬ tion or importation of heavy and cumbersome merchandise. Wooden bottoms. Pilots: New York. Quays and the shores of docks; their management. Maritime stations. Quays and exterior embankments. Transferring from one vessel to another. The apparatus used for lifting at wharves; movable hydraulic cranes. Floating steam cranes. Derricks worked by hand, by steam, and by hydraulic pressure. The utilization of hydraulic pressure for manipulating turning bridges, windlasses, etc. Unloading of grain. Pneumatic apparatus. Floating elevators. Establishments for repairing; docks for careening, dockyards, windlasses, floating docks. Docks of transfer. Dry docks. The docks of London and of Liverpool. Docks for the expor¬ tation of coal. Northumberland and Tyne dock. Detailed description of the sea¬ ports at Trieste, Marseilles, Havre, and Antwerp. Warehouses and general storehouses. — Buildings having several stories and buildings of but one story; advantages and disadvantages of each kind. Construction and COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 809 management. Elevator apparatus; charges for hydraulic elevating or lowering goods. Buildings destined to receive special merchandise. Spirits, wines, vegetable oils, petroleum, storing grain. Pits and various granaries. PENMANSHIP (TWO YEARS) — FIRST YEAR (TWENTY LESSONS) — SECOND YEAR (FIFTEEN LESSONS). Review of the general principles relating to the different species of handwriting. Theoretical and practical exercises. The customary practice in writing and in the graphic execution of correspondence and of commercial accounts ; business letters, commercial bills, invoices. Transferring entries from the journal to the ledger; inventories; balance sheets; discount memoranda, etc. Administrative documents, synoptical tables, memoranda, etc. Foreign commercial correspondence. NOTES ON THE COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS OF FRANCE. Groups. — The French schools of commerce may be divided into two groups. The first group comprises seven higher schools, of which two are at Paris and five in the provinces. The second group comprises four primary and intermediate schools, of which three are at Paris and one in the provinces; a total of eleven schools of commerce. Constitution of the schools. — The Superior School of Commerce at Paris; the Commercial School of the Avenue Trudaine, and the School of Higher Commercial Studies are all governed by the Paris Chamber of Commerce, which purchased the first in 1869 and founded the other two in 1862 and 1881. The schools at Lyons, Marseilles, Havre, and the Commercial Institute of Paris are controlled by private corporations. The school at Rouen was also created by a cor¬ poration; its capital having been exhausted in 1882, an arrangement was made which incorporated the school into the School of Sciences and Letters of Rouen (Academy of Caen), in whoso hands it now languishes. The method of subsidies was adopted in the case of the School of Bordeaux, which was organized in 1874. This combina¬ tion permitted a reduction of the cost of tuition to 200 francs, while giving to the school a good location and an excellent equipment. The School of Reims, supported by the same method of subsidy as the School of Bordeaux, became a public establish¬ ment in 1882 under the immediate control of the ministry of public instruction, like the manual school. The Practical School of Commerce and Accounting has remained private property. If one compares the value of these different methods of support, one must recog¬ nize that they are all equally precarious. The School of Rouen has foundered for lack of capital; the school at Havre manages to exist with great difficulty; that at Lyons, founded by a private corporation which seemed to offer more permanence, has about arrived at the end of its resources. If the Paris Chamber of Commerce had been obliged to carry for the School of the Avenue Trudaine and that of the rue Amelot the same deficits as for the School of Higher Commercial Studies, it is evident it would have been obliged to have closed these establishments. As to the School of Bordeaux, it could not survive a disagreement between the three bodies which sub¬ sidized it. The school at Reims alone sees its position assured by the aid of the State, but it has lost all liberty. So far as an educational point of view is concerned, those schools governed by private corporations offer more freedom in instruction. Nevertheless, it does not assure as careful supervision as the method of subsidies, for shareholders are usually little interested in operations which do not give profits. Finally, excellent results have been obtained under all methods, so far as the instruc¬ tion is concerned, but from the administrative and financial point of view the direct control by the State would be preferable to the corporation, which is less watchful and less attentive, and the form of corporate management is, moreover, rarely fav¬ orable to enterprise. Councils. — The different schools are administered by councils, composed ordina¬ rily of the prominent merchants of the vicinity. The councils of the three schools, supported by the Paris Chamber of Commerce, are recruited from the members of that body. Besides looking after the financial administration these committees are also charged with supervising the course of study. The council of the school at Lyons is composed of thirteen members, of whom four are chosen from the Chamber of Commerce and nine from the shareholders. The council of the school at Marseilles is composed of twelve members, of whom ten are shareholders and two are members of the Chamber of Commerce, and is assisted by an educational committee founded by it, and whose members can be taken from outside the body of shareholders ; a pro¬ vision very wise and favorable to good instruction, for it permits the introduction of specialists into the council. The school at Havre is administered by a council of twelve members, composed of shareholders elected in general assembly. Besides ED 98 - 26* 810 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96.’ looking after tlie financial administration, it organizes tlie instruction of the school and supervises it. At Bordeaux the administration of the school is confided to the Philomathic Society, under the control of a committee of supervision, composed of five members of the municipal council, five members of the Chamber of Commerce, and a representative of the council general of the Gironde, also five members of the Philomathic Society. The Commercial Institute of the Chaussdo d’Antin is admin¬ istered by a council of supervision, taken from the founders and shareholders of the institute. Finally the Professional School at Eeims has a committee of patronage and supervision, composed of fourteen members. The Superior School of Commerce at Paris, besides its administrative delegation, has an educational council composed of twenty-five notabilities and presided over by the ministry of commerce. Scholarships. — In addition to the information which is found in the table pub¬ lished above, we add some remarks upon the pecuniary aid which the State has given to commercial instruction. A ministerial order, dated February 1, 1849, 1 created at the Superior School of Commerce at Paris, directed at that time by M. Blanqui, sixteen half scholarships of 500 francs each. By an order of April 23, 1853, these six¬ teen half scholarships were transformed into twelve entire scholarships of 1,200 francs each. The total expense of 14,400 francs was taken from the grant for the encouragement of industry and commerce. A special grant for the maintenance of scholarships in the schools of commerce was first inserted into tho budget for the year 1875. This grant amounted to 30,000 francs ; it was raised to 40,000 francs by tiie law of 1883. These scholarships are dis¬ tributed as follows: Date of creation. Name of school. Scholarships. Value. Number. Cost. Francs. Francs. Apr. 23, 1853 . . Superior School of Commerce of Paris . 12 1, 200 14, 400 Oct. 14, 1874 . Commercial School of Paris _ _ _ 10 240 2, 400 Law of finances of 1883 . School of Higher Commercial Studies . 10 1,000 10, 000 Feb. 22, 1875, Jan. 5, 1882, and Superior School of Commerce of Marseilles. 8 000 4,800 Dec. 15, 1884. Feb. 22, 1875 . . Superior School of Commerce of Lyons .... 4 600 2,400 Oct, 14, 1874 . ! Superior School of Commerce of Rouen . 10 300 3,000 Fob. 22, 1875 . Superior School of Commerce of Havre _ 3 600 1, 800 Do . Superior School of Commerco of Bordeaux. . 5 | 200 1, 000 Trtf.nl 39, 800 1 Subsidies. — The subsidies given to the establishments of commercial instruction were made from the grant for the encouragement of technical instruction, which figured regularly in the budgets since the year 1868. A special grant of 24,350 francs for subsidies to the establishments of commercial instruction was inscribed for the first time in the budget for the year 1884. For the year 1886 this grant was raised to 42,000 francs. These grants tv ere distributed as follows for the year 1884-85: Establishments of commercial instruction. 1884. 1885. Superier School of nnmmfiT’fifi of Lycps . . . . . . . Francs. 5. 000 2, 000 5,000 Francs. 5,000 2,000 5, 000 200 Superior School of Commerce of Rouen _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .... Superior School of Commerce 'of Havre ............. . . . . . . Commercial Softool of Paris _ _ _ _ _ _ 200 Commercial Institute of Paris . . . 1, 500 1,000 Superior School of Commerce of Paris . . . . . . - . 50 50 Philomathic Society of Bordeaux . 2, 000 3, 000 500 2, 000 Industrial Societv of Saint Quentin and of l’Aisne . . . . 3, 000 Society for the Technical Instruction of W omen . . . . - 500 Society of the Rowen for the Technical Instruction of LVomen . . 1, 000 1,000 1,000 1,100 1,000 1, 000 Superior Higher Course of Commercial Accounting lor TUomen. . . . * . . 1, 000 Society for the Technical Instruction of IVomen (foundation E. Lemonnier) . . 1, 000 Course of Accounting of tho Paris Chamber of Commerce . . - . . 1, 100 The Academic Society of Accounting, and other societies . . . 1, 000 Traveling scholarships.— The budget for the year 1885, under tho head of the ministry of commerce, contained a special grant of 9,000 francs for the establishment of traveling scholarships, in favor of the graduates of the higher schools of commerce. This grant was raised to 18,000 francs by the budget of 1886; the grant asked for at Some half scholarships had been established ten years earlier. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 811 that time was 50,000 francs. The creation of traveling scholarships answers the necessity of extending onr field of commercial activity abroad, as vrell as a just requirement from the standpoint of instruction. One must not forget the fact that in other careers — in the fine arts, in university studies — traveling scholarships have been established at great expense, and that schools have been organized in order to enable the graduates to ripen their talent by the study of the works of the great masters. In Belgium the Government created, in 1862, several traveling scholarships for the licentiates in commercial sciences graduating from the Superior School of Commerce in Antwerp. Public opinion in France has been favorably inclined to the idea of taking a similar step in favor of the graduates of our schools of commerce. M. Jacquemart, in an excellent report, has made himself the eloquent interpreter of this sentiment, and he has been fortunate enough to gain his cause. Everything points to the fact that future budgets will increase each year the grant for these scholar¬ ships. The grant in Belgium amounts to 45,000 francs. ‘“"When the French State shall decide to follow the example of Belgium, we said some time ago, it must not hesitate to increase the number of scholarships. One means of creating a large number of them without increasing the cost to the contrib¬ utors would be to transform them into temporary loans made by the treasury, and reimbursable under given conditions/’ We have on several occasions mentioned this system, which could also be adopted by commercial societies or syndicates or insurance companies. This system of loans would substitute for a beneficiary a debtor who has taken upon himself certain for¬ mal obligations. “The beginning of a commercial career, let ns add, ought not to be a gift from a society; a capital received and which is not to be repaid; a d_ebt which is not to be liquidated. The State should limit itself to making a loan, and the traveler who benefits by the advance should repay it when he shall have succeeded in making it bear fruit. This capital would then assist other travelers, who would employ it fruitfully in their turn.'*’ However it may be with these reflections, we congratulate M. Jacquemart on this happy initiative and the result accomplished. The necessary thing was to do some¬ thing. Below is appended the set of regulations relating to traveling scholarships, founded by the ministry of commerce: Article 1. A certain number of traveling scholarships will be annually opened to competition by the minstry of commerce. These scholarships, of an annual value of 3,000 francs, are granted for three years. Art. 2. To be admitted to the competition, candidates must produce a certificate of good conduct and moral character, and evidence showing, first, that they are French citizens either native or naturalized ; second, that they are at least 20 years of age and not more than 25 at the time of the competition ; third, that they are fur¬ nished with a diploma of one of the schools of commerce designated below : School of Higher Commercial Studies ; Superior School of Commerce at Paris ; Supe¬ rior School of Commerce at Lyons; Superior School of Commerce at Marseilles; Superior School of Commerce at Bordeaux; Superior School of Commerce at Rouen; Superior School of Commerce at Havre; Commercial Institute of Paris; Commercial School of the Avenue Trudaine at Paris. Art. 3. Other things being equal, the proof that the candidate has already passed one or more years in active busines is also considered. Art. 4. The competition, announced a month in advance in the official journal, occurs at Paris from the 1st to the 30th of December. Art. 5. Registrations are received at the ministry of commerce up to the 15th of November. Art. 6. The competitive examination is divided into two parts : First, a written examination; second, an oral examination. The written examination comprises, first, commercial geogra|)hy of the entire world; second, the history of French com¬ merce; third, a composition in a foreign language — English, German, Spanish, Italian, or Portuguese. The oral examination includes, first, the commercial geography of the entire world ; second, French customs legislation ; third, French commercial law ; fourth, a foreign language — English, German, Spanish, Italian, or Portuguese, at the choice of the candidate. Art. 7. These different examinations are conducted before a jury named each year by the ministry of commerce. Art. 8. The candidates judged worthy of the traveling scholarships will be asked to choose their place of residence after consultation with the minister of commerce, who will strive to render their sojourn abroad easy and pleasant, by recommending them to large French business houses and procuring for them as much as possible the assistanse of diplomatic and consular agents. Art. 9. The holders of these scholarships must address, each quarter, to the min¬ istry of commerce a study upon the commerce and industries of the region in which 812 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. they are living. They must add a certificate from the French consul in the district where they are residing, certifying that they are occupying themselves with serious studies, with business, and with commercial journeys. These regulations suggest some reflections on the diploma which one requires of the candidate, certifying that he possesses the knowledge shown in the programmes of the schools. We believe, then, that the examination is superfluous. It will certainly be judged to be so later when the State shall control the schools directly. But as long as the examination is recognized to be necessary, why have they eliminated from the test everything which relates to the science of commerce itself, which forms with modern languages the basis of the instruction in the schools of commerce? Law and legislation are only auxiliary branches in this instruction. Is not the essential rather the commercial knowledge of the sort demanded, attested either by the possession of a diploma or by an examination covering the programme of the higher schools themselves, and satisfactory statements in regard to the state of the health, character, habits of study, intellectual keenness, industry, spirit of initiative, fine sense of honor, etc., all things which escape the test of the examina¬ tion? This information could be furnished by the chambers of commerce, and espe¬ cially by the man who had employed the candidate. The regulations say further that, other things being equal, the fact that the can¬ didate has already passed one or more years in active business will be taken into serious consideration. This provision authorizes, by implication at least, the candi¬ date to present himself without having had any business experience — a thing which seems to us undesirable. We should have preferred that, other things being equal, practical experience should receive absolute preference, and as a matter of principle, considering the actual state of commercial instruction, this practical experience ought to be insisted upon in all cases, with the minimum period of one full year. At any rate, and let us emphasize this fact, if the foundation of these traveling schol¬ arships is to give the best results regard must be had to the state of health, activity, initiative, and moral character of the candidate, and more attention must be paid to commercial knowledge than to legal knowledge. The holders of traveling scholarships must address, every quarter, a report to the minister upon the commerce and industries of the countries which they are visiting. This provision is excellent. We believe, however, that one ought to profit by the experience obtained in Belgium, where the report of a scholarship holder, demanded at one time a few months after the trip, is now demanded only after a full year, so that the pupil can make a careful study of the commerce of the country where he is living. “ Since this provision was adopted,” M. Grandgaignage, director of the institute, writes us, 11 1 notice that the reports are more thorough, and merit publi¬ cation in the consular reports.” Scholarships— Appeal to the merchants.— If the State is thus so far from having encouraged commercial instruction, what shall we say of our commerce itself? With rare exceptions no person in France has understood the importance of this instruction, which must be considered as truly national as that in agriculture and industry. We have shown elsewhere in this treatise that only a few chambers of commerce — those of Paris, Lyons, Marseilles, and Bordeaux — have really made sac¬ rifices for the sake of this instruction. What have the other chambers of commerce to the number of 103 done ? Absolutely nothing. Those who have not created schools of commerce have not even founded scholarships in the establishments in which they ought to have interested themselves, because they are representatives of com¬ merce. Is it not incredible? And what have the syndical chambers of merchants and manufacturers done ? These number 167 in Paris alone, and they count members perhaps by the thousands. Alas ! They have not even founded a scholarship, nor encouraged in any way the graduates of these schools. Syndical chambers in the provinces to the number of 343 have shown the same indifference; they have given absolutely no aid to commercial instruction, as absolutely nothing as to the study of theology. How about our municipal councils, especially those of the large cities? The same indifference, except at Paris, Lyons, Havre, and Bordeaux. And the departments, the councils general? The same disregard, except the department of the Lower Seine, and that of the Bouches du Rhone." And what of the learned soci¬ eties, and especially the societies of political economy? Again nothing; absolutely nothing, except the Philomathic Society of Bordeaux and the Society for the Protec¬ tion of Commerce in Marseilles. Our economists, it would seem, ought to interest themselves in something else than the mere development of economic science. A certain number of merchants, bankers, and corporations, whose names we have men¬ tioned above, are the only individuals or bodies who have understood the advantage of assisting the instruction which aids our commerce directly. Let us then take up this good movement and aid it as much as possible. Who should assist the work of commercial instruction if not commercial corporations themselves ? One must not leave the whole burden of this work upon a few ; one must not expect everything from the State, which justly asks that you should give the example to it which it needs in order to know what one should expect of it. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 813 If we should secure one scholarship from each chamber of commerce, from the municipal council of the leading city of each district, from the council general, and from the syndical chambers we should have a total of 1,062 scholarships. This ■would not "injure any person and our commercial instruction would be immensely advanced. It would then take on an extension worthy of such a nation as ours. Duration of the studies. — In the actual state of our schools the three-year course is not too long. The School of Lyons has just extended its bourse to four years, of which two years are preparatory, although lowering, it is true, at the same time, the age of admission to 15 years. The two-year curriculum adopted by the school at Muhihausen, at Rouen, Havre, and Bordeaux is too difficult for the major¬ ity of the pupils. Foreign pupils, moreover, have too imperfect a knowledge of our language to enable them to follow the course with advantage from the beginning. Commercial instruction, very complex in its nature, must strive to develop the judgment of the pupil at the same time that it furthers his special knowledge and his professional skill. It is for this reason that it must pay some regard to the age of the pupils and to the length of the curriculum. The age of the pupils at the time devoted to work play a great role in all educational matters. "We believe, therefore, that the schools at Rouen, Bordeaux, and Havre will soon be ready to imitate the schools of higher studies and add a preparatory division. Age of admission. — At about the age of 14 the pupils in the special secondary instruction finish the studies of the intermediate grade, in consequence of which they could enter the schools of commerce, where they would find an instruction certainly more profitable for them than that of the superior grades of the special secondary instruction. In order to recruit their preparatory classes the schools of commerce would find it to their advantage to lower the age of admission to 14. In exceptional cases the pupils properly prepared at 15 might then enter the higher school. Those who could not pass the examinations with success could spend another year in the preparatory class, which would be divided into two sections, as at Lyons and the Superior School of Commerce at Paris. Bachelors. — Those holding a bachelor's degree are exempt from the examination; they may enter directly the first year of the higher school at Lyons; bachelors of science and of special secondary instruction enter the second year directly, and at Marseilles, likewise provided, they can pass an examination on the subject-matter of the first year. Number of pupils. — The number of pupils at the schools of commerce has not increased in the proportion which one would have hoped from the movement of public opinion which manifested itself in favor of commercial instruction immediately fol¬ lowing the year 1870. In 1871 the school was established at Rouen ; the following year three other schools were opened at Lyons, Marseilles, and Havre. To found these four establishments they succeeded in obtaining a capital of more than 2,000,000 francs by playing, it is true, upon the patriotic feeling then so much excited against the foreign element, and which desired to remove it forever from our offices. But no new school was established in 1873. A new one was created in Bordeaux in 1874, and with this the development stopped. The enthusiasm for the movement disappeared as the sentiment from which it grew died out. Little by little we returned to our tra¬ ditional indifference. Observation showed that it was much easier to obtain subscrib¬ ers than to create a really permanent movement in favor of commercial instruction. The habits of a nation can not be changed in a day. If money is the sinew of instruc¬ tion, it is necessary that the schools should grow in numbers in order to assure the success of this branch of education. The commercial interests of our leading cities had subscribed the capital for these schools with very good grace, but everything shows that they intended for the present to preserve their children for university instruction, counting upon we know not whom to fill the new schools which they opened. But when we count upon our neighbors we are apt to suffer cruel losses. Statistics show that each year about 450,000 young people enter upon commercial or industrial pursuits. To hop^e that one-tenth at least of this number would attend the schools of commerce of various grades was not expecting too much. But statis¬ tics show that we only reached about one-thousandth in the grades of superior instruction, and about three and thirty-seventh thousandths counting the pupils of primary and superior primary instruction. The public was not slow in grasping the situation. Even at Bordeaux, in 1874, it was no longer possible to find subscribers to establish a school under the corporate form by the sale of shares. The truth is that in all things time is necessary to prepare the public mind for action, and that in 1870 we were only superficially and, so to speak, artificially in favor of commercial instruction and schools of commerce. If the lesson of our military experience had demonstrated and borne in upon the public mind the insufficiency of our general edu¬ cation, the lessons of our economic experience were not yet sufficiently impressed in order to show us the insufficiency of our commercial instruction. The recovery of business came, moreover, very soon, thus quieting cur spirits — ending, it is true, by misleading public opinion on the subject entirely. One doubted no longer of the commercial prosperity of the country. Why should we instruct our youth in 814 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. commerce when commerce -was going on so well without it? This recovery of busi¬ ness coming so quickly, we repeated the financial follies of the Empire, which was then like a vertigo, which took possession of the nation, corrupted with the ambition of becoming rich rapidly without labor. To-day things have changed. We are paying for these follies. The lesson has been terrible ; we now have time to reflect. And as we see on every side the economic progress of neighboring nations we shall recognize that our commercial education lags far in the rear. Everything, then, points to the approaching success of the schools of commerce. ******* Of 1,488 pupils in the school at Lyons, there were 137 in the silk division of the school ; the school at Bordeaux had 230 pupils in its industrial division, leaving, therefore, a total of 7,053 pupils for higher commercial studies since 1871 and 9,238 in primary and higher primary instruction. Examination of the attendance shows a continued increase in the number of pupils in the superior schools during the years from 1872 to 1877. The growth has been sensibly slower from 1880 to tho present. However, thanks to the creation of the School of Higher Commercial Studies, the annual number exceeded 600, begin¬ ning with 1883. In 1886 it was 618, falling, howevor, to 490 if one deducts the 128 pupils in the School of Higher Commercial Studies, which would show a diminution of about 100 pupils as compared with the years 1877 and 1878. This diminution i3 certainly due to tho law relating to military exemption, which did not include in the class exempt from the examination the graduates of the schools of commerce. We should no longer cast upon these schools a discrimination so marked as it is undeserved, for the military examination does not correspond in severity even to the final examination of the first year in the higher schools of commerce, if one had wished to injure, to hamper, the growth of these excellent schools, one could not ha\re chosen a more efficient means. One can scarcely attribute so unjust a discrimination to anything else than ill will.1 In that which concerns the primary and intermediate schools, figures show a con¬ stant growth in attendance. In 1884 tho number of students in the School of the Avenue Trudainc decreased about 50 in consequence of the competition of the Com¬ mercial Institute, which was so nearly like it, but the following year this loss dis¬ appeared, and commercial instruction, in consequence of the creation of the insti¬ tute, saw the total number of the pupils increased. The Commercial School of the Avenue Trudaine has had 8,780 pupils since its creation in 1863. Foreign pupils. — At the Superior School of Commerce in Paris, an establishment whose reputation is widely extended, the foreign pupils sometimes form one-third of the total number. The School of Higher Commercial Studies had 10 foreigners in the year 1886, a total of 51 since its establishment in 1883. At the school at Lyons there is an average of 10 foreign pupils, there being 9 for tho scholastic year 1885-86. At the school at Marseilles the yearly average of foreign pupils is from 25 to 30, except during the last year or two, when the fear of cholera has reduced the number by half. At the school of Bordeaux there have been 43 foreign pupils since 1874, and 44 at Havre since 1880, 11 of whom belonged to the year 1885-86. Baccalaureate pupils. — It is a matter of interest to note the proportion in which baccalaureate students— that is, graduates of the lycees — are to be found in these schools of commerce. On an average the Higher School of Commerce at Paris has from 8 to 10 ; the School of Higher Commercial Studies has this year 51 ; 2 it has enrolled 186 since 1883. There are 15 this year at Lyons ; from 6 to 8 each year at Marseilles ; 35 at Bordeaux since 1874, and about 10 at Havre since 1880. Resident pupils, half-boarders, and day pupils. — The Higher School of Com¬ merce at Paris has received half-boarders only since 1873. Of 1,650 enrollments from 1873 to the present, 1,152 were resident pupils and 498 half-residents, being an aver¬ age of 23. The School of Higher Commercial Studies has this year 52 resident and 74 half-boarders; the school at Lyons 18 residents and 85 day pupils; that at Mar¬ seilles 15 resident and 97 day pupils. Rewards. — At the end of each year tho pupils who have passed tho examination in a satisfactory manner receive either diplomas or certificates. Gold, silver, and bronze medals are awarded in the schools of Paris and Marseilles. At Lyons at the end of the second preparatory year the pupils receive a certificate. The diplomas oi the Superior School of Commerce and those of the Higher Commercial School of Studies are signed by the minister of commerce. Traveling scholarships. — Certain schools grant prizes in the form of traveling scholarships to the best pupils, imposing upon them the condition of presenting to the director of the school a commercial report upon the countries which they have 1 This discrimination has since been removed, and in the last two years, 1892 and 1893, attendance has rapidly increased at these schools. 2“ This year,” in the discussion of French schools, means 1885-86 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 815 visited. At tlie Superior School of Commerco at Paris, where this prize was estab¬ lished by the Chamber of Commerce, a special topic is assigned to the pupil, who must make an extended study upon it. At the school of Lyons the graduate has free choice of his subject, as also at Bordeaux. At Havre the traveling scholarships have been abolished. Diplomas. — At Paris, Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, and Havre the graduates have, up to the present, remained faithful to their chosen career and without, one may say, a single exception. We believe that this record is unequaled by the pupils of any other branch of instruction, and we deduce from this the most favorable conclusions both as to the schools themselves and as to the career, which never fails those who devote themselves to it, provided they have been properly trained, and are resolved to follow the line of good conduct and of persevering labor to which they owe their diplomas. What liner eulogy could be pronounced on any branch of instruction than to say that none of its graduates have gone to swell the ranks of the discontented. There is another thing which we must not forget in regard to this commercial instruction, and that is that it has led about 18 per cent of its pupils to try their fortunes abroad. At Bordeaux, of 93 graduates 16 are in foreign countries or in the colonies. At Lyons, 86 out of 400; at Marseilles, 37 out of 230; at Havre, 18 out of 125; at Paris, 30 out of 233, being a total of 187 educated young men who are devot¬ ing themselves to the development of our foreign commerce. This is a most favor¬ able result, and speaks well for these schools of commerce, without the benefit of whose training these young men would have probably remained in France. As to the graduates who have remained at home, they have usually remunerative posts, formerly open to foreigners alone. These schools have furnished French mer¬ chants a body of employees, specially trained, whom a few years of practice make into exceptionally valuable assistants. Unhappily the number of pupils who pursue their studies up to the obtaining of a diploma is scarcely 15 per cent, being 1,132 out of 7,369 for the period from 1872 to 1886. Without doubt this number would have been considerably larger if the diploma had been accepted as a ground of exemption from the one-year military service examination. Professors . — The number of professors varies from nine at the school of Havre to thirty-two in the superior schools of Paris. The salaries are varied in proportion to the importance of the course and the number of hours which the professors give to the respective courses. As to the importance of the courses, they are subject to various estimates, according as the instruction in the various schools tends in oue direction or another. From the point of view of the specialty, it would seem that the professors of accounting, of merchandise, and of commercial geography should be found among the best paid instructors. But at the School of Higher Commercial Studies, for example, where one gives, it is true, not so much time to commercial instruction, a professor of accounting receives only one-sixth of the remuneration per hour as a professor of law. There are, moreover, many things to be said upon this complex question of instructors, which is closely connected with the definitive organization of schools of commerce. We return to this subject further on. Of the six superior schools of commerce only three — that of Paris in the rue Amelot, that of Marseilles, and that of Havre — have directors who also teach. This point will also be discussed later. Comparative table of tlis expenses of tlie various schools of commerce. Superior school budget. j Higher i studies budget. Lyons. i Marseilles. 1 Havre. j Bordeaux. Salaries . . Food . - . I Francs. 87, 000. 00 70, 000. 00 . 32,000. 00 8, 500. 00 6, 000. 00 8, 000. 00 3. 000. 00 12, 400. 00 1 Francs. 1 117,110.00 ! 63, 593. 00 8, 453. 00 14, 160. 00 5. 079. 45 5, 900. 00 5, 000. 00 Francs. 63, 167. 55 20, 321. 10 8, 274. 15 2. 197. 10 1, 525. 30 2, 073. 95 942. 50 i Francs. i 44,979.70 Francs. 18, 866. 75 | Francs. 61, 400. 00 Rent, taxes, and insurance. . Heating and lighting . Laundry . 10, 454. 12 1, 917. 52 6, 276. 40 2, 300. 00 Maintenance and repairs ... Advertising . Sinking fund . - . 1, 20o! 30 1, 091. 20 2,%400. 00 1, 400. 00 Library.. _ _ _ _ _ _ 1, 200. 00 ' 1, 600. 00 4. 700. 00 1,985.00 331.35 500. 00 Laboratory . Miscellaneous expenses . TV ater . . . 3, 100. 00 703. 75 990. 48 2,965.65 1,933.05 | 395. 90 2, 000. 00 Materials for manufacture Total of expenses . Total of receipts . Balances . 230,000.00 230,000.00 | 228,780.45 228, 780. 45 103,161.50 j 78,492.90 61, 177. 79 j 63,979.14 | 26, 630. 25 24, 013. 80 70, 000. 00 70, 000. 00 24, 668. 60 2,001.35 j 2, 616. 45 1 816 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. The budget for 1886 in the first two columns can he modified in the course of the scholastic year. They are made upon estimates based, it is true, upon the experi¬ ence of preceding years, notably for the Superior School of Commerce, whose receipts and expenses can be estimated almost exactly. It will be noticed that this school pays rent, and practically contributes to the sinking fund. In the budget of the second school the rent represented by the annuity due the credit foncier does not figure. The school of Lyons shows a loss, as also that of Havre. The school of Mar¬ seilles shows a surplus. That of Bordeaux is assisted by various subsidies. One will find the expenses of the Commercial School given on another page. These expenses amount to 120,000 francs, of which 76,000 francs are for salaries. We have no information on this point as to the Commercial Institute. The Professional School at Reims expends 61,000 francs for salaries, of which 47,000 are paid by the State, the rest by the city of Reims, which also pays for the expenses of the school buildings. The Superior School of Commerce more than balances its expenses and its receipts, and is thus enabled to contribute largely to the sinking fund. The Commercial School of the Avenue Trudaine is also in a prosperous condition. The school of Mar¬ seilles, in the provinces, after having had a deficit for many years on an average of 11,472 francs from 1872 to 1881, has seen its receipts exceed its expenses in 1882, 1884, and 1885. The schools at Lyons and Havre and the School of Higher Commercial Studies at Paris regularly show a deficit ; that at Bordeaux also ; but these losses are provided for in the latter case by the various subsidies. As to the Commercial Insti¬ tute in the Chauss^e d’Antin, it is still in the first period of its establishment, that of sacrifices, but everything leads us to hope for excellent results in the near future. Finally, the school at Rouen is suffering, the school at Reims has just begun to grow, and the Practical School of Commerce and Accounting is a profitable private venture. A COMPARISON OF THE PROGRAMMES OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS. The programmes of the superior schools of commerce possess a uniformly common basis of instruction. This is made up of accounting, arithmetic, penmanship, geog¬ raphy, and commercial history, the study of merchandise, French and foreign lan¬ guages, law and legislation relating to commerce, political economy, and the elements of the physical and natural sciences. To these general and special subjects of instruction almost all the schools have added visits to local industrial establishments, and some of them, notably the superior schools of commerce at Paris and Havre, take long trips of inspection throughout Franco and in foreign countries. Finally, to answer special wants or local exigencies, certain schools have added other branches of instruction. Such, for example, is the course of elocution at the schools at Mar¬ seilles and Havre; the course of equipment at Marseilles, Havre, and Bordeaux; the course in the physical, chemical, and mechanical sciences, and the course in drawing at the Superior School of Commerce at Paris, and numerous courses in law at the School of Higher Studies. Spirit of our commercial instruction. — The instruction, more comprehensive at the Superior School of Commerce at Paris and at the School of Higher Commercial Studies, is more limited to a narrow specialty in the schools of Lyons, Marseilles, Havre, and Bordeaux, where one devotes more time to the practical exercises in the commercial offices and less time to theoretical science. These two tendencies in fact have shown themselves in the spirit of our commer¬ cial instruction from the foundation of the school at Miihlhausen, whose pro¬ gramme taken from that of Antwerp made a departure from that of the Superior School of Commerce of Paris. It is of value to define more exactly the motives which have underlain these two contrary tendencies. Those who favor confining the instruction to the narrow specialty argue as follows : “When a school has a well-defined "end all its instruction ought to tend toward this end. Whatever departs from this is taken from the time necessary to the funda¬ mental studies. Without doubt it would be very agreeable to know everything, but as one can not study everything one must resolve to limit one’s self. In overloading the programme the only result can be that the pupils have studied a little of every¬ thing and do not know anything thoroughly.” The programmes of the school at Miihlhausen and those of the schools at Lyons, Marseilles, Rouen, Havre, and Bordeaux have been constructed in accordance with this idea. The opposite line of reasoning is as follows : “ Some have wished the commercial schools to be almost exact representations of business offices. For this purpose one has imitated a business house, and the pupils correspond with each other like true merchants. As a mere exercise this does not seem to be bad, but it is entirely insufficient as a scheme of instruction. One sacri¬ fices theory to child’s play and to a supposed reality which in fact does not exist. Is it not a strong deception to believe that you can find, even among the best pupils, young men capable of doing real business service at the time they leave school? One can certainly not instruct in all the branches of business. Which branches shall one COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 817 choose? At the Polytechnic School, for example, the purpose is to train engineers and officers for special departments. One might believe that each group should fol¬ low a course appropriate to the career chosen by its members. But this is not at all so. The pupils, without exception, follow the same courses, and in consequence these courses are absolutely theoretical. It is only on graduation from the Polytechnic School that the young men enter the schools of application, where they pass two or three years, and from which they graduate as engineers or soldiers. Why should one take up any other plan in the training of merchants? Is there any reason to complain of the results obtained at the Polytechnic School? Are not our engineers sought for throughout the entire world ? Can not one say without exaggeration that most of the railroads of Europe have been built by them? The various branches of commerce are more numerous than the careers open to young men leaving the Polytechnic School. But there is a body of knowledge common to all these branches, and their generality necessarily implies a general theoretical instruction.” The conclusion of this line of reasoning is that the schools of commerce must be made polytechnic schools, to which business houses shall stand in the relation of schools of application. *• * * * * * * These two extreme methods of regarding commercial instruction have each its own value, for they contain each a part of the truth. So far as the first line of reasoning is concerned, it is necessary to consider the very difficult circumstances under which the schools of commerce, established since 1870, were placed. It is also fair to take account of the current of opinion favorable to the practical instruction which prevails with us, especially in commerce, where one denies the efficacy of a purely theoretical commercial instruction. Finally, for the class of pupils compelled in great part to leave school for the employment of the office or the bank, is it not necessary to -attempt to communicate rapidly the knowl¬ edge by immediate use? It was, then, under the pressure of these various influences and on account of the necessity of recruiting their classes that the managers of our schools of commerce have elaborated their programmes, from which they have omitted everything which did not seem to be directly related to commerce and absolutely essential to its study. On the contrary, at the Superior School of Commerce at Paris, attended by the children of merchants in easy circumstances, one has been able to work out a three-year curriculum, less elementary, more comprehensive, more general; where theory predominates over practice, perhaps to even too great an extent, and an effort was made from the very beginning to establish a programme of studies which, carefully worked out, should not be inferior to-day, from a scientific point of view, to that of special secondary instruction. On this fact is based the charge that in this school everything is sacrificed to theory. They are, however, following a correct view of things, inasmuch as they wish that all special instruc¬ tion should be solidly based upon general instruction. Moreover, so long as the superior schools of commerce are aiming to attract graduates of secondary instruc¬ tion they must tako care that tliQ latter on entering these schools should not find themselves engaged in a course of study a degree lower than that which they have completed in the colleges or lyc£es. At Miihlhausen, and later at Marseilles, Lyons, Rouen, Havre, and Bordeaux, they preferred to model their schools after the institute at Antwerp, without noticing that the examinations for admission into the last-named institution are relatively high, and in these schools they fixed from the first the length of the curriculum at two years, though it had been established by long experience that three years, of which one may be a preparatory year, constitute the minimum period necessary to higher commercial instruction, unless the pupils are bachelors of science, or of special secondary instruction. The institute at Antwerp itself has added a preparatory class, and our schools at Lyons and Marseilles have done likewise. We believe that the instruction in our superior schools of commerce must, without distinction, follow the example of the school in the Rue Amelot in everything which relates to science. A reform of their programmes in this direction would offer the advantage of putting them in a position to receive the bachelors of special secondary instruction, when the movement of public opinion brings these last to them, a thing which will soon happen. In consequence of the assimilation of the special baccalaureates and of the classical baccalaureates, other things remaining the same, this modification of their pro¬ grammes would also give to the schools of commerce an opportunity of preparing for the examinations those of their pupils who desired to join a university degree to their diploma. * * * * * * * But in the eyes of the partisans of practical instruction a good commercial apprentice is not necessarily a college graduate ; quite the contrary. A good com¬ mercial apprentice, they say, is the man who knows how to cipher well ; to keep 818 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. books well; who has good notions of commercial geography; who has learned to recognize raw materials and manufactured products; who "can reckon up figures rapidly and transportation charges ; who knows how to cast up an account without omitting anything; and who speaks several languages. “This is our object,” they say. “Ours also,” reply the x>artisans of theoretical instruction. But instead of deceiving ourselves as to the value of pretended practice, which can never even from an empirical point of view, take the place of practice with real things, we think we ought to apply the precious time of the pupils to theoretical studies which have become essential to the epoch of scientific progress. A man, they continue, may know how to cipher well, know how to keep books well, and still be a most pitiable merchant. How often does one see good accountants, who, puffed up by the convic¬ tion that they are the chief cause of the success of the house that employs them, set up for themselves after they have made some savings, and become bankrupt in a short time. The calling of a merchant demands a complex of qualities which can not be acquired at school, and which render it ono of the most difficult of all. The most important of these qualities, which everyone thinks he possesses, but which is the rarest of all things, is clearness of judgment. The love of labor, order, economy, initiative enterprise, scrupulous honesty, commercial sense are also other indispen¬ sable qualities for the merchant. Do you pretend to teach these things? ******* Let us try to sum up the valuable points in this discussion, which dates from 1868, the time of the establishment of the school at Mulilhausen and which threatens to become eternal. For this purpose let us begin by formulating the pedagogical spirit underlying these two methods. On the one hand, one has limited the amount of time given to general instruc¬ tion for the benefit of special instruction, and of the professional instruction based upon numerous model exercises which wo have described under the head of the Institute of Antwerp. On the other hand, the endeavor is made to strengthen general and special instruc¬ tion, and the applications of the commercial theory in model offices are limited to the minimum, leaving to practical life the work of finishing, from a professional point of view, the studies commenced in the school. The first question which presents itself to us would, then, be this : Should commer¬ cial instruction give the preference to practice over theory? Upon this point, which divides the schools and the opinions of merchants, a majority of whom are favorable to practical instruction, wo believe there can be no difference of opinion in an epoch of industrial progress like ours, where the level of instruction is coming up on all sides, as to its being absolutely necessary to base com¬ mercial instruction upon a general scientific instruction as complete as possible. Certainly we must have recourse to practical applications, but one must not forget that application is simply putting into operation the principles and the rules which constitute the science itself. Theoretical instruction must, therefore, have prece¬ dence. Above everything else a commercial school must be polytechnic — that is, a liberal school. The second question : In what way and to what extent shall technical instruction, in practice, be associated with either general or special theoretical instruction ? In answer to this question wo would reply that the fictitious exercises of the model offices are insufficient. Just as one shows to the pupils who expect to be engi¬ neers, farmers, physicians, officers, true mines, true bridges, real farms, real patients, real fortifications, real cannons, in the same way one must show and lead the pupils in the commercial schools to study real business and commercial houses, real accounts, real documents, real transactions. Professional study is limited to science, but one does not prepare practitioners without practice, audit is necessary that this practice should not be simply fictitious. The school of commerce will be, then, at once a school of polytechnics and a school of application. The third question: Can commercial instruction develop the moral qualities which make a good merchant ? This third point, more delicate than the two preceding, does not, however, give us more trouble. One must demand of a good education all that which it is ablo to give. To pretend that the qualities demanded in business could not germinate and develop in the commercial school is to place commercial instruction a degree below that of our special schools, and consequently to deny the value of this instruction. The painter, singer, soldier, priest, missionary, physician follow careers which demand, besides the appropriate knowledge, special qualities which the school knows how to increase or to beget in the individual. The moral qualities which make a successful merchant are in the same way acquired by an education properly ordered and methodically pursued. Instruction must always be educative, and just as one inculcates patriotism in the soldier, humanity in the physician, self-denial in the missionary, the cultivation of science in the scholar, devotion and culture in the teacher, love of beauty in the artist, in exactly the same way the aptitude for COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 819 commercial affairs, a desire for work, tlie love of order and economy, tlie spirit of enterprise, clearness of judgment, probity — all qualities which make a good business man — can be taught in the schools of commerce. It is here a question of the direction to be given to the instruction; a question of training, of discipline. These are the results which one must try to accomplish, and the means of doing so can be found. The self-control of the priest, the bravery of the soldier, the fiery oratory of the advocate, even the skill of extemporizing in the case of the artist and the poet are the fruit of exercise properly devised and methodically and daily repeated. In the same way the qualities of order, of economy, of foresight, of judg¬ ment, of integrity, of equity can also be obtained if one knows how to develop them. The commercial sense itself, or the sense for commerce, the sense for business, would not be an exception. Besides this, each profession possesses a fund of experience, of prepared rules and precepts — of trade secrets, so to speak — which is not the exclu¬ sive possession of any one person, and which a good scheme of instruction should have and know how to i>ropagate. * # ip if Conclusion. — To sum up the matter of commercial instruction, all the efforts must be devoted to develop in the pupil the theoretical and practical knowledge and the moral qualities which a business career demands. It will be, then, at once general, special, professional, and moral.1 It will be general by its programme of the sciences ; it will be special by the direct tion given to the pupils about commercial things, by the importance given to the study of accounting; of industrial and commercial economy ; of living languages ; of penmanship; of geography; of history; of law; of legislation, and of political economy. It will be professional by the careful study of that which goes on in business, banking, and commercial houses, where one regards order and method by practical application and by the study of things. And, finally, it will be moral because the work, properly directed, impresses good habits upon the youth, and because the economic instruction results in an elevated and morality-producing philosophy. Critical examination of the actual programmes of study. — Let us take up, then, one by one the more important subjects and indicate the modifications which seem to us desirable in commercial instruction. Accounting. — In examining the programmes of the commercial schools one sees that a more and more important place has been assigned in their instruction to accounting. It is plain that in doing so they have yielded to the steady pressure of public opinion. But were they prepared to fill up the numerous hours given to this insruction in a thoroughly satisfactory way ? We do not believe that we are wrong in saying that even the directors of the commercial schools themselves con¬ sider that the enormous amount of time given to exercises in accounting is out of all proportion to the real value of this instruction, and, consequently, to its results. It is necessary, then, to make a reform at this point. Must one reduce the number of hours given to the study of accounting ? Is it not rather necessary to modify this instruction and to organize it on a different and more rational plan ? It has been accused of oscillating in an uncertain manner between theories badly formulated and practical errors upon which the professors base their courses and the fictitious books which they require their pupils to keep in the commercial bureau. We believe that instruction in accounting should strive to become at once more scientific and more practical. It must get out of the stationary state in which it is at present. We think that while studying seriously the scientific theory the schools of commerce would find it to their real advantage to turn their attention to actual practice. We should like to see their museums enriched with administrative materials, which, methodically arranged by the professors, synthesized by means of their summaries or graphical illustrations, accompanied with explanations, should constitute the mate¬ rial for lessons in things relating to accounting and administration. In consequence, the greatest effort should be made to enable the professors to carry their instruction in industry, banking, commerce, agriculture, and the great branches of adminis¬ tration into the field of practice itself, without being obliged to go outside of the school. In this way all the exercises from that of the preparatory class up to that of the third year might be based upon the materials of actual business. Moreover, during the entire course of the study the pupils should be furnished with documents of every sort, the facsimile of real papers referring to the various operations of the accountant or manager of which we have just spoken. The collection of tkesedocu- ments, their distribution in connection with the matters discussed, and the various correspondence which they have occasioned, the keeping of various books relating 1 The distinction which is here made "between special and professional instruction is not without importance. Special instruction can be given outside of the profession itself; it may ingraft itself upon the instruction given in the exercises of the model or fictitious office. Professional instruction grows out of the practice of the profession itself. 820 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. to these operations would constitute an actual lively instruction which would inter¬ est the pupils very much. There would bo, in fact, under their very eyes, the foundry, the office, the bank, the farm, the great branches of administration, etc., less the raw materials, the manufactured products, the cash, plus the demonstration of the professor. * * * * * *'* AYe believe it is not necessary to insist upon the value of such an instruction as this, at once analytic and synthetic, based upon actualities substituted for the more or less fantastic exercises of the fictitious office. After having been initiated into the first theoretical and practical notions, the pupil would be able to obtain from the programmes, well constructed, at a glance the system of accounting and the various branches of any given enterprise. He would follow the foundation and the series of operations in examining the books and correspondence relating to them. He would understand the purposes of the various documents, their relations to one another, their centralization, their results. His attention, at first concentrated upon mat¬ ters of detail, would gradually rise to a conception of the whole. Afterwards he would form, little by little, comparisons between the various branches of accounting and administration which had passed under his eyes. This study would then become an object of a distinct course in comparative accounting, in which the professor would pass in review the various methods of keeping books used in actual practice; methods whose special advantages and dis¬ advantages he would set forth and discuss from a theoretical point of view. Upon a selected topic from real transactions the pupil could be exercised in the practice of these various methods — English, German, American, synoptical, logis-mographic, etc. Here, also, the different systems of accounting, constructed in accordance with these methods, would figure in the museum of the school, and would be set forth in graphical tables which would synthesize them. Finally, the professor, arrived at this point in the course, could direct his attention to the great systems of accounting in mining, metallurgy, sugar industry, transportation companies, farms, banks, insurance, and, lastly, public accounting. Thus organized and pursued, we believe that instruction in accounting would really merit the place which is given to it at the base of economic instruction; that it would increase the favor accorded to our schools of commerce, and that our com¬ merce and even the country itself would gain considerably in the near future. Commercial and industrial economy. — This course, which we do not find figuring in any programme, ought to exist in all the commercial and industrial schools. It would find in great part its substance in the materials of the preceding course, of which it would be the development and, so to speak, the crown. The professional truths derived from the facts relating to commercial and industrial experience would complete its subject-matter. “ AVherever human industry is developed and concentrated,” says M. Courcelle- Seneui], “there a tradition is established. The founders of enterprises transmit to their successors these traditions — these devices whose truth their experience has led them to recognize, and which one may rightly consider as principles — their maxims in commerce, in manufacture, in agriculture, and in each of the subdivisions of these three great branches of human industry.” Some of these truths are purely technical in character ; others have a higher signifi¬ cance. One should teach the pupils how to become good employees, goodbuyers, good sellers, good cashiers, good accountants. But the art of buying and selling — that of paying and receiving — and that of recording these operations do not constitute the whole science of commerce. For a good purchaser, a good salesman, a good cashier, and a good accountant would not be sufficient to insure the success of any enterprise. It is also necessary that these enterprises be well organized, well administered, well directed; and the art of organizing, administering, and directing is based on eco¬ nomic science in this sense, a necessary complement to industrial and commercial science. AATthout contesting, then, the utility of courses in political economy, which con¬ tain, so to speak, the general philosophy of commercial instruction, we should like to see in the programmes of our schools of commerce a course in commercial and indus¬ trial economy, from which the pupils would derive great professional gain. We shall content ourselves here with indicating the outlines of this important course: First, of the various kinds of commercial and industrial classification ; second, the capital necessary for various enterprises, the necessity of determining this exactly, the establishment of the business, the study of the laws; third, of merchandise, of the raw materials, of the margin of the markets; fourth, of the workmanship, of general costs, of gains and losses ; fifth, commercial and industrial organization and administration; sixth, the importance of accounting in methods of control, the exact determination of the selling price, the keeping of inventories; seventh, of the conduct of the business, of the material and moral conditions necessary to its success, of credit, of the general methods of conducting it, of the means of getting rid COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 821 of middlemen; eighth, corporations — the great branches of administration — methodsof liquidation, etc. ; ninth, of the duties of the employee, of the merchant, of the agent, of the shareholder, of the manager, etc. Besides their own personal studies the professors would find excellent help for such courses in the following works: Philosophy of Commerce, by M. Stirling; The Duty of the Merchant — Conscience and the Science of Duty, by M. Oudat; Commer¬ cial Practice, by M. Devinck; Manual of Business, by M. Courcelle-Seneuil; and especially in the excellent treatise on Industrial Economy, by M. Ad. Guilbault, a very remarkable work relating to this subject. Frivate economy. — Domestic or private economy is at the base of the preceding. He who does not carry order into his personal affairs, in the management of his own house, will not find it easy to carry this principle into his business house. If it is wrong to expend too much, it is a still greater wrong to expend without keeping accounts. Whoever does not keep accounts is doing business on a venture. Who¬ ever keeps accounts reflects or will reflect. Confidence and credit desert the prodi¬ gal. Credit is the nerve of business; a house of any importance cannot sustain itself by its own resources. The future merchant must learn habits of economy and saving, which is nothing more than putting into practice the lessons which he has learned. Commercial schools have then the duty of developing these habits by obliging the pupils to save, and invest their savings, however modest they may be. These savings should be evidenced by a savings-bank book, or by the jmrehase of securities of some sort, or by the payments of specialpremiums which our companies should inaugurate for the benefit of the schools. If one should agree to this view, a coefficient of order and economy might be introduced into the examination mark, similar to that of in¬ dustry and good conduct. It is, then, by training the judgment of the pupils and by endeavoring to develop in them the professional knowledge and the moral qualities of order that schools of commerce will fulfill most completely their educative mis¬ sion and that they will do service to commerce. Arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. — Besides being indispensible to the study of science, mathematics and notably geometry exerciso a happy influence upon the reasoning power of man. Instead of desiring to limit this instruction, therefore, one must develop it without losing sight of its special application to business. Let us ask the instructors to give some time to mental arithmetic, an excellent exerciso for a future employee or merchant. In theory, arithmetic offers combinations which are infinite, a circumstance which the makers of school arithmetics have abused. In current practice one is ordinarily limited to operations of simple addition, subtrac¬ tion, multiplication, or division, or to the rule of three. One should train the pupils to perform these various calculations very rapidly, as far as possible without recourse to the pencil ; this sort of skill being very useful and much prized in practice. There is a large number of more or less practical processes of rapid calculation, a knowledge of which should be taught to all pupils. The instructor should not omit to discuss the different methods of calculating insurance used by French and foreign companies and to seize this opportunity to emphasize the advantages of insurance for the merchant. In short, we are particu¬ larly in favor of this sort of saving, and our commercial schools should convert their pupils upon this subject. We believe, also, that in return for this useful propaganda the insurance companies would not hesitate to form special combinations for the use of pupils and the instructing personnel, as well as the alumni association and the schools themselves, for which, by means of annual premiums, provided for by gifts or by legacies left by the friends of commercial instruction, one could build up a capital which would insure their future. Could not one in this way, whether by means of gifts, or insurance, or grants, create retiring fees for the personnel of these establishments ? We believe that by taking up seriously a plan of this kind the most excellent results could be achieved. “Help yourself and heaven will help you” is an adage which ought to bo in special favor in commercial schools. One accuses our insur¬ ance companies of being merely routinists in their management. Is not the fault rather in commerce in general, which by adapting itself somewhat could have com¬ pelled these companies to certain concessions of a nature to render more easy the introduction and extension of insurance? For example, why should one not pay the premiums in insurance as one pays his taxes? This usage once introduced, the com¬ panies might draw bills upon the insured parties which they could pay through the post-office or otherwise. It is easier to pay small sums than relative large annual premiums. One would popularize insurance in this way, and render it applicable from the school on. We do not care to insist on this subject at this time, contenting ourselves with calling it to the attention of the parties interested and to specialists. Beginning with the schools of commerce, the habit of insurance, facilitated and simplified, would, without doubt, get possession of our entire education. These 822 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. small insurances, subscribed by tbe boys at school, would bo later converted into large insurances, and the cause of insurance would be definitely gained in France. The professor of mathematics, as applied to commerce and finances, should also give special attention in the third year to the study of the functions of popular banks. In France, especially during the last few years, our capitalists manifested a tendency, more and more marked, to realize upon the funds invested in industry, and to employ them in mortgage loans, national securities, etc. These so-called “ father of tho family investments ” will some day cause the rate of interest on good securities to fall below 3 per cent. During this period our commerce will gradually decrease. When the obligation of entering upon business enterprises shall be again imposed by the necessity of things, even upon large fortunes on account of tho small rate of interest, we shall be obliged to return to labor, which is tho true source of wealth. But will it not then be too late? Will not our industries have perished one by one, and shall we be able to resuscitate them again? But if on account of tho lack of confidence, or indolence, or excess of prudence, tho sons of the bourgeoisie maintain an expectant attitude, there is no lack among us of men who ask only for the opportunity to work, to engage in business enterprise, and cer¬ tainly by means of farms, banks, and popular joint-stock enterprises, we should be able to create a new supply of active producers. In a word, it has become necessary to make it possible for intelligent and properly educated men of the lower and mid¬ dle classes to get out of the ranks of wage earners, and to undertake enterprises on their own account. Capital frowns upon labor, but labor does not frown upon capital. Germany has been specially benefited by its popular banks; credit has stimulated its industrial and commercial development. This question of banks is of special interest to our future. It is for this reason that we should like the schools of commerce to turn their instruction toward practical economy, and the study of the principal questions connected with it. Among these questions that of the participation of employees and laborers in the profits of the enterprises in which they are engaged, deserves to be studied in tho schools. Profit sharing has already given results which it would be useful to make known to the pupils by showing them that it satisfies the sentiment of social justice, and that it is an element of stability and prosperity. Penmanship. — One must consider penmanship at its real value, giving to it, in the eyes of the pupils, the importance which it really has in practice. Finally, penman¬ ship is necessary to the work of the accountant and of correspondents. He who possesses a beautiful handwriting — an evidence of taste, of character, and of method — possesses an almost certain means of finding speedy employment; his other quali¬ ties will do the rest. We know a number of excellent positions which began really with good handwriting. A request for employment, well written, makes a favor¬ able impression upon him to whom it is directed. The commercial schools, then, should raise the coefficient of this subject in order to favor a careful study of pen¬ manship. Stenography . — The study of stenography ought to be comprised in tho programme of the preparatory year. One would insure the pupils in this way the ability of tak¬ ing down, without mistakes, the lectures and of getting all the substance out of them. It is also of advantage to exercise the young men in expressing their thoughts easily by exercises in elocution, as is done in the schools at Marseilles and Havre, and those of the United States. But none the less important to train them in taking down rapidly the words of others. These two branches complement each other. In the United States stenography has become a very lucrative profession for both sexes. Industrial and commercial geography. — It is no longer necessary to demonstrate the advantage of instruction in geography. “ Geography, ” says M. Rauel Frary, “is the science which contributes most to make us educated men; that which procures for him who possesses it the most real distinction, the most incontestable superiority in social relations. That which enables him to obtain without pedantry the title of ‘learned man.’ Our other branches of knowledge,” says he, further, “disappear for the most part with time, but this strengthens and develops itself continually. The books which are the most widely read next to novels are books of travels. The well-managed journal is intel¬ ligible only to him who knows geography, foreign politics, colonial politics, political economy.” “Look at the English journals,” says M. Thierey-Mieg ; “they are principally geo¬ graphical cyclopedias. In each number is considered everything which occurs throughout the entire world. Why? Evidently because all this interests the English reader.” Commercial schools, we are happy to say, have always given a largo place in their programmes for the study of geography, even exceeding that in classical schools. They will perfect this instruction still more. They will see to it that their pupils COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 823 familiarize themselves with the collection and study of commercial, industrial, and political maps. Their efforts will be directed toward rendering as attractive as pos¬ sible the study of a science which has always been treated in too dry a fashion. We wish that for this purpose they would establish conferences, which might be con¬ ducted by travelers or by the former graduates and subsequent holders of traveling scholarships. These conferences might be held in the eA'ening in the lecture rooms, and they could be rendered more attractive by the use of the lantern, by maps, by prints, photographs, etc. The museum of the school should have relief maps of the principal countries, and its library should contain collections and photographs, history of travels, illustrated books, etc. Industry and commerce need to know' their field — that is to say, the whole world — to give to their efforts the most profitable direction. Geography enlarges the horizon of young men; it shows a multitude of careers where their activity can find an employment far more profitable than the clerkship or Govern¬ ment careers. M. Rauel Frary is right in saying, “Let us say to short-sighted people who claim that emigration is useless because France is not yet thickly populated, and because we have not yet the surplus population to be sent abroad : Our bourgeoisie, in spite of its voluntary sterility, is too numerous. Its children strive with one another in Government schools and in the public departments. In order to offer employment to this crowd of candidates the Government creates new positions. Far from deliv¬ ering the body social from these parasites the public is even increasing their multi¬ tude day by day. Emigration, whether to foreign countries or to the colonies, frees the soil of a useless incumbrance. It opens markets to our national labor. The success of those who go increases the welfare and stimulates the utility of those who remain.” The truth of this is proven by what occurs in Germany and Switzerland, where for a long time past the study of geography and foreign languages has been steadily developed. From this point of view the special secondary instruction of these two countries would seem to have for a chief end the training of emigrants. Study of railroads , tariffs, commercial and industrial equipment. — This course is closely connected with commercial geography. It demands special maps, indicat¬ ing the courses of the railroads, canals, the navigable portion of streams and rivers, and the small and great lines of steamboats. These maps to be useful must bo accompanied with indications of distances, points of departure, the length of the trip, the length of the voyage, etc. One would initiate in this way the student into a knowledge of the different tariffs of transportation. They would then learn to distinguish between the general, special, and international tariffs of the railroads; a point in regard to which so many merchants are in ignorance. They would study the different systems of classification of merchandise adopted by the different com¬ panies, and varying with each one of them. They would be shown the advantage which is claimed for the application of one operation in preference to another, and to direct their shipments by keeping an exact account of the differences of price according to the line adopted. A similar course closed by careful study of the cus¬ toms tariff' ought to appear in the instruction of the school in the last year at least, and be intrusted to a specialist. The postal tariffs would also be *a subject of instruction, of the practical study of which an example is already given in the instruction in the Practical School of Commerce and Accounting. Finally, to render this study of tariffs as profitable as possible it would be neces¬ sary to place under the eyes of the students all the actual documents used in prac¬ tice, and to imitate shipments of every sort to render them familiar with the subject. One will find examples of real operations in the accounting operations of which we have already spoken. In conrparing the various methods of shipment by post, by rail, or otherwise, one would set forth the exact differences. The same comparison would be made for the different methods of packing for shipment, and the study of the different methods of reshipment. In the lessons upon commercial and industrial equipment, transportation enterprises, docks, etc., present also matters of interest which it is not necessary to emphasize further here. These lessons would be sup¬ plemented to advantage by visits to the shops and factories, and during the Easter vacation by trips to foreign countries, under the guidance of a director, as is now j>racticed in the superior schools of commerce at Paris and Havre. Commercial and industrial technology. — This course constitutes at once a part of the general, special, and professional instruction. It should be given, therefore, in all three years, becoming more practical in proportion as the pupil advances, and finally ending in a comparative study of the means of transportation, tariffs, commercial and industrial equipment. Raw and manufactured products. — A preliminary knowledge of the physical and chemical qualities of products will be acquired in the laboratory and in the sample museums of the school. Theoretical study, therefore, will form the beginning of this important course. The pupils will consequently be trained to distinguish the 824 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. different types of raw materials and of manufactured products and to recognize their essential qualities, their forms of production, and their value. They will he given general explanations as to the different processes of production, extraction, and manufacture. The various adulterations will he explained to them, and they will learn to distinguish products little hy little, either hy sight, taste, touch, reac¬ tions, chemical analyses, or by microscopical investigations. In the museum of the school general graphical tables will indicate the various forms of raw products, of tho raw material, of colonial commodities classified in series. They will give general indications as to the commercial quality of the prod¬ ucts. These tables will refer to geographical maps, where will be indicated by colors the zones of production and the annual value of their exportation. Explana¬ tory remarks in the margin of these maps will complete the commercial information and give useful statistics. The tables showing the production of cotton, silk, wool, sugar, coal, various metals, seeds, cereals will be well completed by diagrams indi¬ cating the variations in prico of the most important mercantile commodities. This course, essentially practical, constituting the conclusion of the courses in physics, chemistry, mechanics, commercial and industrial geography, technology, etc., should not be limited to the explanations and manipulations in the laboratories and museums, and it is for this reason that the various schools of commerce have adopted, in a more or less intermittent form, the system of industrial visits, which, of them¬ selves, seem to us insufficient. However wise the professor of technology may be who conducts the pupils into industrial establishments, he is often obliged to con¬ tent himself with generalities. Each branch of industry has its trade secrets, which are continually modified. The encyclopedias and special treatises must constantly keep in touch with the practice. The pupil, then, after having arrived at a certain stage of knowledge, would get more advantage from conferences conducted by spe¬ cialists in the different industries. These conferences should commence in the very first year of the regular course ; they would take place in the shops and even in the factories of such manufacturers as would consent to do so. One would pass then in review the different industries— silk, ceramics, glassware, materials of construction, paper, pasteboard, chemical products, furniture, metals, leather, and hides. The art of buying and selling. — Aside from tho professional skill which is the result of the personal ability and experience of a merchant, the art of buying and selling conforms to certain principles which can be taught in the school. The various ele¬ ments of the curriculum of the commercial school should converge toward one end — to make merchants; and it would be surprising if this instruction were to stop at the very threshold of the culminating point of the science of commerce. Moreover, the operations of purchase and sale, carried on in a manner to leave a profit, a just remuneration for capital, labor, and the service which the merchant renders, pre¬ supposes a knowledge of arithmetic and accounting which enables him to fix the price at which things must be resold in order to yield a profit, as well as a knowl¬ edge of the market — its wants, its extent— and also of merchandise itself. The same operations carried on with foreign countries necessitate, moreover, tho knowledge of foreign languages, of commercial usages, and of monetary systems. All these branches of knowledge, and others also, constitute a part of the programme of com¬ mercial instruction, comprising, moreover, the mechanism of the great speculation markets. What remains, then, to teach the pupil? The art of earning money, like that of winning a battle, must be tested in the field. But to win battles it is necessary to have studied tactics and strategy, and tho various branches of knowledge relating to these subjects. We may then learn commercial tactics and strategy from former merchants who have retired from busi¬ ness and are willing to devote the substance of that which they know for the instruction of young merchants. The results of their personal observation, the experience which they have gained from others, that which they have themselves acquired, these merchants might impart in a general way, or as they relate to cer¬ tain branches of business. This course, which would not be the least interesting of those which wo have described, would form the element of a technological confer¬ ence of which we have already spoken above, as well as the course in commercial and industrial economy. Marine equipment. — This course corresponds to certain local wants. It is given at three schools — at Marseilles, Havre, and Bordeaux. One must take care that this course is not extended unduly and shall not become a course in naval architecture, which would be superfluous and could hardly be considered a part of commercial instruction. French language. — The work in the French language should be completed in the preparatory class. In the upper classes the pupils should occupy themselves with literature, history, reading, outlines of literary history, etc. This part of the instruction would relieve the minds of the pupils from the severe tension which the positive instruction requires. The merchant of to-day, moreover, ought not to be a stranger in the literary field. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 825 Another reason, based on physiology, would reqnire snch instruction as this. Man is rather formed for action and contemplation, for physical exercise or for poetry, than for analysis and scientific abstraction. For this reason wo would include gymnastics and literature in the economic curriculum, as well as music, which is a form of poetry at the same time that it is an education of the senses. Monthly literary conferences should be held in the evenings, concurrently with the conferences in commercial geography. In these might be treated especially the literature of the different nations and the more important recent additions to liter¬ ature. Finally, the study of French, besides being the occasion of numerous oral exercises, which should train the style of the students, would be a good opportunity for commercial essays or abstracts of certain courses and accounts of the Thursday visits. Each pupil should be obliged to have his book of essays relating to things done outside of the school. Foreign languages. — We have already indicated certain modifications which, in our opinion, ought to be introduced into the instruction in foreign languages in our commercial schools, an instruction which, up to the present, has been modeled too exclusively upon that of the classical languages. Is it by reading the classic authors to her child that a mother teaches it to understand the persons who speak to it and to make itself understood by them? A child of 5 years of age has no idea of rules of grammar, while it may employ fluently and correctly a large number of words and phrases to express its thought at this age; it may already speak several lan¬ guages. In Russia, Poland, Greece, Egypt, and Denmark young children converse by turn in French, English, Italian, and their mother tongue. We are acquainted with families in Paris from the colonies whose children speak five languages. Under the influence of necessity a Frenchman residing abroad or a person residing in France learns very quickly to express himself in the foreign tongue — a few weeks is sufficient; with the aid of a teacher, a complete mastery may be gained in six months, at least so far as the wants of commerce demand. This result is due to the fact that the memory, ear, and tongue are all trained at the same time. This circum¬ stance indicates the proper method to be followed. One should turn our schools of commerce into a sort of French colony. Certain days should be fixed when each of the languages to be learned should be exclusively employed in conversation, outside of the lecture room. The teachers of language, much more closely attached to the schools than they are at present, should be present at the meals, in the study rooms, and in the play rooms. The noninstructing personnel of the school should be com¬ posed entirely of foreigners, each speaking two languages besides French. One would thus surround the pupils with persons required to converse with them in the languages designated, and never in French. In a word, one would create the neces¬ sity and the obligation to learn the language just as in a foreign country. By this rational method, which demands simultaneous training of the memory, ear, and tongue, progress would be much more rapid. In the three years of the com¬ mercial curriculum the young people accustomed to study would easily master three languages, and could learn to understand a larger number. One may object to the introduction of this method, thinking it would largely increase the expense of the schools. But as the old saying goes, ‘ ‘ He who wishes the end must wish the means.” One must pause to consider the results, for it is the results which satisfy the public and secure success. We are generally divided between the desire to instruct our children in foreign languages and the conviction that one can do this successfully only by sending them abroad. But as it is painful to send one’s children away, and is, moreover, not always an easy thing to do, and finally as it may seem hardly rea¬ sonable to sacrifice a whole year for the sake of a single subject, it almost always turns out that nothing is accomplished. In this way the study of foreign languages among ns is very limited. But would not things change altogether, to the great advantage of commercial schools, if this establishment should prove by positive results the possibility of teaching foreign languages in France itself? Then, with¬ out doubt, by this fact alone, the commercial schools would attract public favor and their classrooms would soon become too small. Elocution, conferences. — The ordinary business man certainly lacks facility of speech. Is it not this fact which keeps them, to the great damage of the country" out of the public legislative halls, which are left, so to speak, almost exclusively to the politi¬ cians, while the real interests of the nation demand specially the experience of men trained in business practice and accustomed to the difficulties of administra¬ tion? Our commercial schools, then, should train their pupils to express themselves before an audience. They should accomplish this by repeated exercises in elocu¬ tionary reading; the students should accompany these readings with explanations. Finally, these exercises might be replaced by short debates upon given subjects, as is done at the schools of Marseilles and Havre. The director of the school might preside at these debates. The instructors in the office, and the teachers in geography, commercial law, industrial and commercial economy should also be present. The questions should relate to the subjects in which instruction is given. From 826 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. ten to fifteen minutes might he allowed for each speech. Each of the professors might correct the speech, both as to the style and the manner of the pupil falling within his field of instruction. The subject to be debated might be indicated at the close of each discussion for the following day, and the referees appointed. The use of notes might be allowed to the debater, but he should not be allowed to read his speech. At the end of each debate, and after the pupils have gone out, marks might be given by the director and professors present, the same as at examinations. In order to give to these conferences the importance which they merit, it would be desirable for one of the members of the council of the school, assisted by several of his colleagues, to preside at least once a month. In the course of his career the merchant is frequently called upon to defend his interests. He will certainly be able to do this in a much more efficient manner if he has been trained in public speaking. In the chambers of administration, in the syndical chambers, in the consular tribunals to which he belongs he would cer¬ tainly derive great advantages from such facility. Finally, commercial schools have also the mission to train instructors for the commercial schools, and for this purpose lessons in elocution are certainly very desirable. Commercial law, legislation. — A knowledge, at least in outline, of the code of com¬ merce and of the various systems of law is necessary to the merchant. But we must not give too much space to this study for fear that the merchant, confident of his own knowledge, should come to believe that he could later disregard the advice of specialists, which would certainly be a source of danger. One should strive to give a practical character to this course. As a complement to the theory of com¬ mercial law, each school should possess a complete collection of judicial and extra¬ judicial decisions carefully annotated, and which the professor might use to explain to the pupils the mechanism and usages of procedure, the turns to which it lends itself in skilfull hands, the contradictions of jurisprudence, the small basis there is to human justice, and finally the great advantage which even an unfavorable compro¬ mise ordinarily has over a successful lawsuit. In our opinion, the truly moral and practical side of this instruction would bo in inculcating a respect for law, for the rights of others, and to make each pupil a sworn enemy to lawsuits. It is in this spirit that one should warn them against the many inconveniences and dangers of a suit, which takes from business precious time and energy, which deprives the merchant of that tranquillity of spirit which he needs so much in order to conduct his business well, and which does not often accomplish anything else than empty satisfaction and the enrichment of lawyers. Physical and natural sciences.— The elements of these sciences form a part of the gen¬ eral instruction which the pupil has received before entering the commercial school, and which will be developed in the direction of his specialties in the preparatory year. Mechanics. — It would be an injury to abolish this course in which the student learns so many useful things, among others the value of the machines for the trans¬ mission of motion, the various forms of engines — steam, gas, water, air, electro-mag¬ netic, etc. The elementary study of mechanics is as necessary as that of physics, chemistry, or natural history. Drawing. — The same thing is true of this as of the preceding subject. The study of drawing finds its application in the construction of graphical figures, diagrams, maps, sketches, etc. Drawing exercises the eye and thehaud; it develops a taste for form; it unites positive instruction to matters of art, both pure and industrial, in whose production commerce largely deals, and which, therefore, merchants must know how to appreciate. History of commerce. — Might we not as well entitle this heading “ History of civil¬ ization?7-’ Commerce has always played a very great role in the history of the world. It is that which binds together men and nations ; it is that which supports progress in all its forms; it is the vehicle of ideas; it is the propagator of the beautiful, of the valuable, of the good and the useful. The history of commerce, connected intimately with that of humanity, gives ele¬ vated views of morals and philosophy, views which are drawn from the facts and which give to the future merchants a just idea of the economic and social importance of the career to which they have devoted themselves. Before becoming analytic the his¬ tory of commerce should, then, be treated in a general way, as is proper, moreover, in other subjects in which instruction is given. One must not lose sight of the fact that the pupil logically feels the need of knowing where one is leading him, and what purpose the subject serves in which one is instructing him. Nothing is better adapted to secure his attention than to give him in advance a general idea of the leading features of that which one wishes him to learn. Political economy. — The more carefully this subject is developed the more valuable it will be. Political economy is a matter of controversy to-day at almost all points, and the schools ought to beware of teaching their pupils disputable doctrines, whether economic or socialistic. The professor should limit himself to setting forth the COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 827 general facts of production, circulation, and consumption of wealth; the different sys¬ tems of exchanges, and the advantages and disadvantages which appear according to the zones of industry and commerce. This must suffice. Commercial instruction can not havo as its purpose the training of dialecticians, but rather of practical men, who will derive more advantage from the study of domestic, industrial, and commer¬ cial economy than from tbe generalities of political economy, which will remain matters of controversy. We have explained elsewhere that these differences upon the point of doctrine spring largely from the lack of sufficiently exact and complete statistics, a defect which one must attribute to the general insufficiency of practical accounting. From this it results that even the facts of production, circulation, and consumption of wealth have thus far escaped a complete analysis, which might set them forth in a clear light. Political and social economy is, therefore, a science still full of obscuri¬ ties and contradictions, and, consequently, a science the instruction in which should be carefully conducted in the schools. Morals . — Morals is a complex of the ideas and rules intended to direct our actions. Morals is independent of religion, and is anterior to it. Every man has an idea of justice and injustice, of that which is good and of that which is bad, of that which he ought to do and of that which he ought not to do. Even the savages have their rules of family and social morals. The courses in the history of commerce, in the various commercial and industrial branches, in political economy, and the courses in law and legislation imply morals. Higher commercial instruction should include socio¬ logical studies from which morals might be scientifically separated, and not merely by the exposition of its principles, which one knows without reasoning about them. Ethics, then, holds a large place in commercial education. It is a question of prin¬ ciple; it is also a vital question; a question of existence that our commerce should be and should remain true. German commerce, in the efforts which it is making to compete with ours, is becom¬ ing more demoralized from year to year. French commerce, on the contrary, ought to strive to secure a reputation for excellence of its products and for honesty in its transactions, where manufacturers would be convinced of the truth that honesty is a real force, just as order and as the love of labor, and that without honesty the rela¬ tions between merchants and consumers can not be permanent. Our retail commerce, jiarticularly that in cloth and food, is paying dearly at the present moment for losing sight of this truth. In fact, our shopkeepers seem to be possessed of the strange idea that they have the right to cheat because they have paid for a license. Tell them that commerce is organized robbery, and they will pro¬ test only for form’s sake, if they protest at all. They do not revolt under a sense of injury. Their conscience cries out to them: “ You rob whenever you make a sale, every day, every hour; you rob in quantity, quality, and price; you teach your wife, your children, your clerks to rob as you do. You rob the poor as well as the rich ; you would rob your own mother, and if it is necessary, in order to increase your profits, that you should adulterate and poison, you become an adulterator and a poisoner. All this, too, without courage, for you rob and poison without running any risk. Your victims greet you, thank you, and aro inclined to think that you are good, honest men because you do not rob them more. But when tired of you your patrons flee from you on the very first occasion. Then go; run after them into the galleries of the great establishments whose competition is ruining you without mercy ; into the markets, into the bazars better equipped than your shops, and where one can buy at better rates. Go, beseech your patrons; fry to excite their pity for the lot of the small shopkeeper on account of the competition to which he is exposed — you will then see how they ridicule you.” After twenty years more at this rate our small shopkeepers will have disappeared in Paris and in the large cities. See to what end piracy leads ! Let us avoid a similar fate for our wholesale trade. Let us preserve a precious reputation for thorough honesty, which will sooner or later bring back to us the con¬ sumers who for a time aro led away by the artifices of our rivals. The properly constructed programme of commercial instruction, then, condemns such piracy and constantly pleads for order, good faith, and honor. It is for this reason that accounting, a science of order in accounts, should be kept at the very head of this programme — accounting — the history of the facts of human labor in numbers; accounting, hated by the pirates who practice in the dark and do not love to face their robberies ; accounting, whose accurate practice will save our industry by spur¬ ring on its progress, still hesitating and uncertain for lack of this orderly principle. Let us go into a great factory, where we see exposed small objects cut in bone and ivory. And as we go into ecstacies over the cheapness and the fine workmanship of these objects, the merchant remarks to us : “ Here aro some made in Switzerland and Germany; I am going to astonish you. Not only are they more poorly made than ours, but they cost more. This is easy to explain; our Parisian laborers are more 828 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. stillful, do double tbe work in the same time, and you see that the workmanship is much more elegant.” Is not this a typical example ? The manufacturer adds : “ Yon have just organized a system of accounting which has enabled me to reform my system of manufacture. In consequence, I have diminished my capital, reduced my business expenses, cut down the useless general charges, increased the general productive charges, perfected my equipment, interested my personnel and my laborers in the welfare of my enterprise, etc., so that to-day I find it to my advantage to manufac¬ ture in Paris, and the foreigners purchase of me. People pretend that French man¬ ufacturers can not stand competition, and give as a reason that labor is dearer here than elsewhere. Ill will, routine, and ignorance have much more to do with our inability. The truth is, that labor equalizes itself in all industrial centers. It is to be had cheaply only where it is not in demand. “ The truth is, also, that we have accustomed ourselves to buy at high prices what¬ ever gives a large profit, without being obliged to reckon closely. The truth is, also, that whenever we wish we can sell at as low a price and as good a quality as our competitors. It occasioned great expense, I admit, to change my method of doing business, but to-day I count myself happy for having taken in time a step which saved me from ruin and transformed my industry. If other manufacturers would do likewise we should have nothing to fear from our neighbors.” “ You speak to me of commercial morality,” adds our interlocutor; “it is indeed a subject of great importance, and upon which you rightly insist. Commercial moral¬ ity is not an illusion or a myth as paradoxical as prejudiced people may pretend. There is no social department in which practice must conform to thorough honesty more than in ours. Even the soldier does not introduce greater regularity into his life than the merchant who is worthy of the name must into his. No one has more care than he to fulfill engagements once entered into and his word once given. I repeat it, we must and can carry on business in an honest way. This is to be our force; this will be our glory ! Our city is skillful in labor, it has taste, it has invent¬ iveness — this is essential. When our education in matters relating to commerce and industry shall be well organized, and when we shall conform our lives to this instruc¬ tion, we shall be invincible.” Music , bodily exercise. — Music is the education of the senses, and this reason alone would determine us to include it in professional instruction. Experience in affairs and relations of life shows, moreover, that the possession of an agreeable art is often a valuable means of success, by making the circumstances favorable to the individ¬ ual, to say nothing of the fact that it is a good preservative from the dangers of ennui and idleness. Finally, in a school where the courses of study demand a continued tension of the mind toward science and the positive subjects of commercial economy, nothing will relieve the pupil better than music, which, like drawing, like litera¬ ture, like the bodily exercises in the gymnasium and fencing hall, enters into the hygiene of a well-balanced education. A good system of instruction must respond to the various wants and aspirations of man. It must conform to the law of contrasts. Without this it would produce a destruction of the just balance in the moral and physical health of the pupil, resulting in lassitude and disgust. Lessons in vocal and instrumental music might be given in the evening after the study hour, from 9 to 10 o’clock. They could alternate with conversation hours. They should be obligatory like the other branches, and gratuitous like the lessons in gymnastics and boxing. Riding lessons, however, might be optional and extra. Commercial and industrial visits. — These visits should be made every Thursday, not only to the shops and magazines of commerce and industry, but also to the various museums and public expositions. Such lessons being a part of the professional instruction, should be provided for in the formal regulations ; and all schools, without exception, should be required to observe them. As it is not possible to give in a prof¬ itable manner lessons of this sort to a large number of pupils at once, the various classes would have to be worked in sections, going in different directions under the conduct of the special instructors. At the Commercial Institute, where this system has already been begun this year, most of the pupils are sent off each Thursday to several different places. The general application of this system would present the advantage of varying the lessons in technical things according to the previous prep¬ aration of the pupils, and by proceeding methodically by going from the simple to the complex. General considerations. — It is said that “silence is golden.” If this proverb is true, it does not apply to ideas which ought to be spoken. Our commercial schools have all rendered services which are not generally appreciated at their true value, because of the silence which one has observed in regard to it up to the present time, and which we believe it is our duty to break, if for no other purpose than to serve by our modest efforts a cause which seems to us intimately connected with the future pros¬ perity of our country. Making all due concessions, the equipment of the French schools of commerce is not inferior in any respect to that of the other schools of COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 829 general or special instruction. If one considers the efforts thus far put forth by them, the difficulties of every sort which they have surmounted, and the results which they have obtained in spite of these difficulties, one must be convinced that the evil days of commercial instruction are approaching their end, and that public favor will soon replace the indifference, as inconceivable as it is unjust. Does not superior commercial instruction answer to the wants of all social positions, except possibly the so-called “ literary profession,” aud indeed may we not say of them — l'or the lawyer, the magistrate, the public functionary, the councilor find it to their advantage to know the theory and practice of business? ThA employees in our commerce and industry, merchants, manufacturers, bankers, brokers, exchangers, farmers — that is to say, all the active personnel of our interior and foreign commerce — ought they not to have this instruction in preference to any other? As to the fami¬ lies of fortune, who do not destine their children to commercial or industrial business, what better education could they give them than that which comprises in its curric¬ ulum the science of order and economy — knowledge necessary to the preservation of a fortune. Practical arithmetic, accounting, living languages, the elements of civil and commercial law, and the many other subjects — are not these branches more necessary to the modern mind than Latin, Greek, ancient history, etc. ? What, then, is lacking in this economic education to make it in demand? It lacks only the sanction which crowns university studies. It is not sufficient to open the doors of entrance into the schools of commerce, one must also open the doors of exit. Nothing further can be done until the legitimate demands in favor of eco¬ nomic instruction shall be met and it shall be put on a par with classical instruction. HIGHER COMMERCIAL INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY. Germany has, in many respects, the most fully developed system of commercial schools of lower and higher grade in Europe. As the subject of this work relates primarily to commercial high schools, it will not be necessary to do more than men¬ tion the large number of primary and secondary schools of commercial instruction to be found within the limits of the German Empire. The work by Harry Schmitt1 * gives a very full account of the present extent of commercial education in Germany. A statistical table, referring to the same subject and published in GlassePs work,3 brings the data down to the school year 1892-93. It appears from these works that there are some fifty-five schools in the German Empire which may be classed under the head of commercial high schools, with a total of 5,681 pupils. Many of these are supported by merchant guilds, a number by the cities and a few by the State. The commercial classes and commercial courses organized in connection with the real schools are, of course, supported by the State or city, respectively. In Germany, at a very early date, the better class of commercial high schools obtained for their graduates the privileges of the one-year military exemption law. This had a very beneficial influence upon the attendance at these schools, and the fact that no discrimination in this respect is made against commercial high schools, has undoubtedly contributed very largely to the success of these institutions. TEE PUBLIC COMMERCIAL INSTITUTE AT LEIPSIC. [Oeffentliclie Handels-Leliranstalt zu Leipzig.] Of all these schools, tho Public Commercial Institute at Leipsic is, perhaps, for our purpose, the best type, and as it is the oldest of the existing schools, it presents, to a certain extent, a picture of the development of this branch of instruction in the German Empire. This celebrated institute owes its origin to the Merchant Guild of Leipsic, a cor¬ poration which has existed since the year 1479, and whose numerous special privileges were ended with the introduction of commercial liberty into the Kingdom of Saxony in 1861. In 1867 this corporation became an open society. Shortly before this time a ministerial ordinance had established the chambers of commerce for the purpose of representing commercial interests.3 Five of these chambers of commerce have been established in Saxony. There was nothing more, therefore, for this ancient Merchant Guild of Leipsic to do except to watch over the interests of the schools of commerce, to help, with the considerable fortune which it possessed, certain needy merchants, and to assist other various 111 Das kanfmannische Forfbildungs-Schulwesen Dentschlands.” Seine gegemvartige Gestaltung und Ausdelmung. Berlin, 1892. Verl ag .yon Karl Siegismund. * “ Das coiumercielle Bildungswesen in Osterreich-Ungarn.” By Franz Glasser. Wien and Leipzig, Alfred Holder. 1893. 3Leautey’s “IScoles de Commerce,” page 480. 830 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. public enterprises. It devoted itself to this useful mission, hut as no new members could be chosen the extinction of this guild was only a matter of time, and in conse¬ quence of an agreement between this guild and the Chamber of Commerce at Leipsic the school became the property of the latter body and is supported by the same, using, in the first instance, the income of the funds which belonged to the former Merchant Guild. The honor of persuading the Merchant Guild to found in 1831 a practical and theo¬ retical school of commerce belonged to Charles Lebrecht Hammer, a member of the firm of Hammer &. Schmidt. The Commercial Institute of Leipsic was not, it is true, the first school of this sort established in Germany. A man named Busch had established, at his own expense, an Academy of Commerce in Hamburg toward the close of the last century, and this academy had prospered for some time. The Mer¬ chant Guild of Gotha had a school for apprentices in commercial houses from the year 1818, and finally in several of the larger cities of Germany there were private schools of this sort. The Merchant Guild of Leipsic, then, can not claim the credit of having been the first to establish such a school, but it was the first in Germany, we believe, to open a professional school, in which they proposed to train future merchants who desired to prepare themselves for business by appropriate theoretical studies. While the common run of merchants declared at that time, as generally in France, against this sort of preparation in a school, the Merchant Guild of Leipsic recog¬ nized at that time and emphasized the necessity of raising the level of special studies for those youth who were destined for commercial pursuits, and the further necessity of preparing the way for practice by a study of the theory. Such had also been the object, as we have seen in another place, of the men who established the Superior School of Commerce in Paris in 1820. The foundation of the Institute of Leipsic was assisted by the Saxon Government. King Anthony showed himself favorable to the enterprise and contributed from his private purse. In 1835 the Chamber of Commerce granted a subsidy of 1,500 German dollars ; this subsidy is continued at present. One fortunate circumstance contributed to the rapid growth of the Commercial Institute of Leipsic. Its first director, David August Schiebe, was a man of great knowledge, of large experience, and at the same time of a very energetic character. He gave to the establishment an excellent organization. The severe discipline which ho introduced and the success which followed it gave the school a great prestige. David August Schiebe was born at Strasburg, in Alsace, on the 2d of October, 1779. He pursued his studies in the lyceum of this city, and was then entered as an apprentice in a commercial house of his native place. He was later a clerk at Stras¬ burg, and from 1804 to 1807 was employed in a banking house at Frankfort. In 1807 he returned to Strasburg and entered the house of Franck & Co. In his leisure hours he occupied himself with literary work, and gave lessons to young merchants. In 1817 he gathered a certain number of instructors about him, and his enterprise seemed upon the point of becoming a school of commerce. But the attempt was premature, and he was obliged to close the institution after two years. He then devoted himself to the direction of industrial enterprises, and acted as agent inmost varied commercial affairs. In 1819 he published, in French, his theoretical and practical treatise on Bills of Exchange, a work which was followed in 1825 by his Commercial Correspondence. Some years after this tho school at Leipsic was opened. The directorship of the school was offered to him, and Schiebe hastened to accept a position which enabled him to spread his ideas and to establish a system of instruction, the necessity of which he had been one of the first to recognize. Tho necessary text-books for this instruction were not at hand; Schiebe prepared them. His works on Commercial Arithmetic, Bookkeeping, and The Science of the Counting-House exercised a wide influence upon the development of commercial studies in Germany. They appeared in a large number of editions during his life and after his death. “Even to-day,” says Ivippenberg, formerly director of the school at Gera, “ Schiebe’s books are the best to be found in this branch of instruction.” After having directed with great success, and in what may bo called a truly prac¬ tical manner, the school of Leipsic down to the year 1850, Schiebe retired from the management and returned to Strasburg, his native city, where he died the following year. His talents, his experience, and his professional loyalty render his memory dear to all his former pupils. For his indefatigable devotion and for the didactic works which he left behind him the school at Leipsic and in general the professors of commercial instruction in Germany owe him undying gratitude. The successor of Schiebe from 1850 to 1862 was Alexander Steinhouse. After hav¬ ing been employed for twenty- seven years in the greatest commercial houses at Breslau, Venice, aud Tampico he traveled in France, Germany, America, and the Indies, and closed his career as a merchant at Biga. From that time on he devoted his activity to the study of the commercial sciences, and for ten years was professor COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 831 in various public and private schools, and at last at Moscow. Ho devoted himself to the writing of pedagogical works, and published a commercial arithmetic in Russia. Under his direction the Commercial Institute of Leipsic improved its methods of instruction, and the number of its pupils went on increasing. In -1862 Steinhouse resigned his position as director and went to establish a school of com¬ merce at Breslau. From 1863 to 1878 the director of the Commercial Institute of Leipsic was Dr. Karl Gustav Oderman. He had been professor in this school from 1839 to 1851, and was, consequently, fully acquainted with everything relating to it. He had, moreover, shown his ability for directing work by his assistance in the founding and directing of a commercial school at Dresden. Under his direction the school of Leipsic pre¬ served in general its former character, but it experienced numerous innovations in the scope of its instruction — innovations rendered necessary by the new school law of the Kingdom of Saxony and by the educational reforms in Germany. We shall describe these changes more fully below. Dr. Oderman also took up the revision of the pedagogical works by Schiebe, which remained, so to speak, the classical works in this school. In cooperation with Dr. Feller, Oderman wrote a commercial arithmetic, which has been a great success in the commercial world, and which is now* in its fifteenth edition. Oderman resigned in 1878, and left the school with the reputation of an experienced master, of a scien¬ tific trainer of youth, and an energetic director. In recognition of these services the King of Saxony, from whom he had already obtained several distinctions, accorded him the title of professor. Charles Wolfram, who succeeded him in 1878 as director of the school, had been professor of the commercial sciences at the Commercial School of Augsburg from 1851 to 1862 ; director of the school at Gotha from 1862 to 1872, and director of the School of Commerce at Augsburg from 1872 to 1878. He still holds the position of director at the Commercial Institute at Leipsic. We shall have occasion later to speak more in detail of the organization of the institute, but to give a general notion of its development it will be sufficient to note here that from 1851 to 1886 there were 5,827 pupils in the department for apprentices; 5,002 pupils in the higher department; 322 pupils in the professional course; making a total of 11,151 pupils in fifty-five years, or an average of about 202 pupils a year. The Commercial Institute of Leipsic had in 1884-85, 472 pupils ; 1885-86, 494 pupils ; 1890-91, 620 pupils; 1891-92, 662 pupils; 1892-93, 681 pupils. DIVISION OF THE INSTITUTE — GOVERNMENT- — FEES. The Commercial Institute of Leipsic, as noted above, has been, since December 21, 1886, under the control of the Leipsic Chamber of Commerce. It is under immedi¬ ate supervision of the city council of Leipsic, and under the general supervision of the royal ministry of the interior. The school board, which has immediate charge of the school, is elected by the Chamber of Commerce, and consists of six members, elected for a term of six years, one-half going out at the end of each three years. The purpose of the school, according to the statutes published in 1888, is a two¬ fold one. One is to give the commercial apprentices an opportunity to obtain the necessary general education and special training necessary for their calling; sec¬ ondly, to give the desirable scientific training to those youth who wish to devote themselves to commerce and similar careers. The school is, accordingly, divided into three divisions. First, the apprentice department, which is the continuation school for apprentices actually engaged in commercial houses, and whose pupils are relieved from the necessity of visiting the city continuation schools. Secondly, the higher department, which is authorized to grant a certificate, conferring the privileges of the one-year military service law upon those pupils who complete the course in this division. Thirdly, the professional course, the purpose of which is to acquaint young men who have already acquired by study along other lines the degree of education necessary to secure the privileges of the one-year exemption law with the general theory of commerce. PROVISIONS RELATING TO TIIE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF THE SCHOOL. First, apprentice department. — Every apprentice of a Leipsic commercial house can be admitted in the apprentice department upon showing his fitness to take up the work. Each candidate must pass an entrance examination. In order to be admitted into the third or lowest class, it is necessary that the pupil shall have completed an elementary school. To be admitted to the second class, he must show that he is acquainted with the subjects taught in the third class. Pupils can be admitted only upon the request of the head of a commercial house, who thereby becomes responsible 832 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. for the tuition of the pupil. The course of study extends over three years, includ¬ ing ten hours a week, divided as follows : Subjects. Hours per week. Subjects. Hours per week. Third class. Second class. First class. Third ^ Second 1 class. | class. First class. German . 2 1 1 Correspon rl fin re i i English . 2 2 Geography 1 ' 1 French . 2 2 2 Penmanship _ Commercial arithmetic . . 3 2 2 _ * I . Commercial science . 1 1 Total io ! 10 j 10 Office work and book¬ keeping . 1 1 The tuition is 80 marks a year. The hours of instruction are from 7 to 9 in the morning; parallel divisions attend from 2 to* 4 in the afternoon. Second, higher division. — This division has a three-year course. The year begins at Easter time ; pupils are admitted at other times, only upon showing that they can take up the work with profit by a special examination. Pupils must be at least 14 years of age. They must pass an entrance examination in German, French, geog¬ raphy, history, and arithmetic. The curriculum embraces the following subjects : Subjects. Hours per week. Subjects. Hours per week. Third class. i Second | class. First class. Third class. Second class. First class. German . 4 3 3 Commereial seienee _ 2 English . 5 4 4 Commercial law . 1 French . 5 4 4 Offi ce work _ _ _ 2 Mathematics . 3 | 3 4 Corresnondence . 2 Commercial arithmetic . . 5 I 3 2 Bookkeeping . 3 Physics . 3 2 Political economy . . . . 1 . 2 Mechanical technology . . 2 Penmanship . . 3 2 Chemistry . ... 2 2 Drawing . 2 2 Study of products . 1 Athletics . 2 2 2 Geography 2 j 2 2 History . 2 2 2 Total . 36 35 36 Instruction is also given as optional work in: Subjects. Italian . . Spanish . Stenography, Hours per week. Third Second First class. class. class. 2 2 2 2 i 1 For foreigners in all the classes of this higher division the tuition is 360 marks a year ; for natives of the Empire, 240 marks in the third class, 300 in the second, and 360 in the first. A matriculation fee of 10 marks is also required. Third, professional course. — As this is the most advanced class in the school, only those pupils are admitted who hold a certificate entitling them to the privileges of the one- year military service law, or who have completed an equivalent course. This depart¬ ment is divided into two subdivisions — an apprentice department, with ten hours a week, and a regular students’ department, with thirty-four hours a week. The course in both cases covers one year. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 833 I. REGULAR STUDENTS’ DIVISION. Curriculum : English . . . . French . Spanish . Commercial arithmetic . Commercial legislation . Bookkeeping . Correspondence . Political economy . Commercial history . Study of products . . Penmanship . . Hours per week. . 5 _ 5 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 2 _ 2 Total 34 II. APPRENTICE DIVISION. Into this course only such apprentices are admitted as hold the certificate men¬ tioned above. Hours per Curriculum : week. English correspondence French correspondence. Mercantile arithmetic . . Commercial legislation. Bookkeeping . Commercial science 2 2 2 1 2 1 Total 10 Instruction is given between the hours of 7 and 9 in the morning. It will be noted that this institution is organized so as to answer the wants of a commercial community in a most complete way. For those young men .who have had a good preliminary preparation, such as is involved in the completion of what we may call an ordinary English high school, and who have gone directly from that into business, there is found an opportunity in the apprentice division of the pro¬ fessional course to get assistance in the special or technical study of the business in which they are engaged. Those who are able to spend another year, after completing such a course as is mentioned, find in the regular students’ division of the profes¬ sional course an opportunity to spend another year in preparing themselves some¬ what more specially before entering upon a business career. This latter course corresponds very closely to the graduate course described in connection with the Prague and Vienna academies of commerce. The second or higher division of this school corresponds very closely to what we should call an ordinary commercial high school, with a course of three years. It is evident that the pupil attending this department must give his entire time to the work of the school. In the first, or apprentice department, an opportunity is offered for those clerks and apprentices in business houses who have had the advantage of an elementary school education, to carry on systematic work, suited to their age and preliminary training, at the same time that they are engaged in commercial houses. It will be noted, as stated above, that the instruction in the apprentice department, both higher and lower, is given between the hours of 7 and 9 in the morning, so that pupils are able to attend these courses while actually engaged in business. It will be interesting to note the distribution of students among the various departments. In 1892-93 out of 681 pupils 454 were in the first, or apprentice division, taking the ten hours a week course through the three years ; 155 were in the higher division; and 72 were in the professional course, of whom 37 were in the regular division and 35 in the apprentice division. The second, or higher division, corresponds to the regular course in the academies of Prague and Vienna. It will be noted that the first, or elementary division, has by far the largest number of pupils, and to judge from the growing number in this department it answers a real want in a commercial community like that of Leipsic. In the annual report of the Commercial Institute for 1892-93 the director expresses himself as follows upon one or two important matters connected with the curriculum of the school : “ Wholesale and retail trade are as different in their methods of work as the ordi¬ nary work of a mechanic and that in a large factory. In training youth, therefore, ED 96 - 27 834 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. for one or the other of these callings, the demands to he made are very different. To do good work in retail trade one needs less comprehensiveness of knowledge than skill and reliability in the operations of simple business transactions. The curricu¬ lum of an ordinary public school gives the apprentice in retail trade, therefore, a satisfactory preliminary training. If to this be added certain instruction in a prop¬ erly organized professional school the young pupil receives a scientific basis upon which the more ambitious of them can successfully build. And it will remain for experience to bring their technical skill to its highest degree. “But this course of study is very insufficient for a young man who wishes to occupy a more important position in the field of wholesale trade. It is a great fault in our commercial education that we are trying to reach by a simple supplementary course, such as that given in our first division, the same result as can be obtained only upon the basis of thorough preliminary training. This is sometimes done from ignorance and sometimes from lack of resources. The large dealer has no less important functions to perform in a community than the educated individuals of other classes, and he can fulfill them satisfactorily only if he is willing to give as much time and care to his education as the members of other classes are willing to give to theirs. We must allow to each youth an opportunity to obtain a well-rounded general education first of all, and then, before entering commercial life, a careful course in the commercial sciences and languages. Instruction of such importance can not be carried on as a mere side issue, before or after business hours. It can only accomplish its proper result in case the pupils have a satisfactory preliminary train¬ ing, are of the proper age, and devote their entire time to the school. Such supple¬ mentary or continuation instruction as is given in our first department is and can be only a temporary resource. The object of this department must remain, there¬ fore, so long as present conditions prevail, the education of the mercantile middle class for the work of'retail trade. Nothing more can be accomplished by this method of instruction. “The curriculum covers three years of ten hours a week; the subjects are indi¬ cated above. Very little is demanded of the pupils in the way of work at home. It is fortunate that the instruction can be given between the hours of 7 and 9 in the morning, or 2 and 4 in the afternoon, while body and mind are still fresh. Evening work along this line is almost useless. “The attendance in this first division has increased from year to year, a proof that its advantages are coming to be generally recognized by our mercantile classes. In consequence of this growing attendance it has been possible to divide the pupils into divisions according to their preliminary training. Those who are better pre¬ pared are put into the same divisions, and the instruction can be carried somewhat further and with better success than in the other divisions. As a rule about 70 to 75 per cent of the jmpils who enter have completed the curriculum of the public school (what we in the United States should call the grammar school), the others have attended the lower classes of higher schools. It is interesting to note that about one-fourth of the pupils who enter this department complete the three-year course. At the close of the second year most of these pupils have reached an age when they are no longer required to attend a continuation school, and it is seldom that their own desire, or the wish of parents or masters, is strong enough to persuade them to complete the course.”1 In regard to the professional course the director makes the following remarks in the same report : “It has become more and more evident every year that the business circles of our own and other cities are coming to recognize the importance of our professional course (third department of the institute). Well-known manufacturers and mer¬ chants both at home and abroad are sending their sons to this course, in consequence of the favorable opinions of former graduates. We have received, and are receiving, from day to day, very flattering letters from former graduates and from employers. Indeed, it would be a cause for surprise if a year’s earnest study of foreign languages an cl the various branches of commercial science should not have a permanent influence upon the intellectual development of the pupils. The extraordinary ability of the young German merchant, who is coming to be recognized in foreign countries, though in many cases with great unwillingness and with considerable envy, is no result of routine work. It is the consequence of careful and thorough training of our young people. Our mercantile classes should, therefore, derive new courage from this fact; they should rather make many steps forward than a single one back¬ ward. They should be careful not to save time and money at the wrong place. A nation whose commercial ralations are extending throughout all continents, whose ^ntlie Kingdom of Saxony pupils having completed the ordinary school course to the close of the fourteenth year are required to attend continuation schools, held either during the evening or on Sunday, or before or after business hours, for a longer period of two years, and as the apprentice department of the Commercial Institute of Leipsic has been accepted by the school authorities as a continuation school, one finds in this an explanation of the growing attendance in this department. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 835 mercantile and naval marine is well equipped for the very best service, whose banner waves over many colonies, needs merchants of insight, financiers of wisdom, and inventive and enterprising organizers.” PROGRAMME AND METHODS. Ldautey, in his excellent work, so frequently referred to in this report, also calls attention to the fact that the Institute of Leipsic has taken special pains to divide and subdivide its instruction so as to adapt it in the best manner possible to the wants of its pupils. The business of the retail dealer does not necessiate such special and comprehensive knowledge as that of the wholesale dealer. The small merchant can only rarely turn to a profitable purpose in his sphere of action the knowledge of foreign languages, of mathematics, of algebra, etc. He needs, how¬ ever, to be well acquainted with the goods themselves, to be versed in mercantile calculation, accounting, etc. The Institute of Leipsic has then established an ele¬ mentary training, and a more advanced training for young men who wish to enter the wholesale trade. In Germany the youth of limited means generally enter business immediately upon quitting the elementary school. Those who take up commerce as a career complete their school training in a continuation school during the three or four years of apprenticeship, through which they must pass. They are required by law to follow the courses of these schools while serving their apprenticeship. Under these condi¬ tions, it is no great disadvantage for them to enter at an early age upon business life, which trains them in the handling of goods, in the proper conduct toward their customers, in bookkeeping, and in applying the knowledge which they gain in the school. There are also the studies preparatory for more advanced positions, studies in which the Institute of Leipsic gives by far the largest share to theory, contrary to the method applied in the beginning by Schiebe. This development, a work of time, of circumstances, and of the difficulties which lay in the way of developing a suitable personnel to give the instruction, is worthy of careful study. Schiebe laid down a programme of study which shows his preference for practical work; instruc¬ tion in the science of commerce beginning in the second class, four hours a week. Schiebe himself gave this course, following the theory of commercial science by Jacob and his own works upon the subject; he thought that the pupil would arrive at a better understanding of commercial affairs if he actually went through the same process as the merchant in his office. “This method is empiric,” said Dr. Aymerick, “it offers, it is true, a certain advan¬ tage, it trains the pupils in acquiring a certain facility and external polish, but the real knowledge and training which is the essential part can not be acquired by such an unscientific method.” Certainly, we answer, practical lessons ought not to precede theoretical lessons. But after the theory has been set forth, these practical lessons may come in to com¬ plete the training of the pupil and to enable him to derive the fullest advantage from the instruction in the school. It is, however, very essential that these practical lessons shall be well given. It is this upon which we have insisted in our plan upon the reorganization of commercial instruction. (Ldautey.) “At the school at Leipsic,” continues our correspondent, “many years passed before we had text-books treating of the various branches of commercial science in a manner simple and clear. It was only as the result of long development that we came to see that the sinqde repetition of the same exercises again and again has only a very small value, if one does not penetrate into the very reason and spirit of the same. Everywhere wo endeavored to discover a common lav/ resulting from the unending variety of similar facts, and by this means to escape a useless prolixity. This is the road which scientific commercial instruction in Germany has followed to perfect itself.” Very well. But in this way has there not been a certain abuse of theory? Extremes meet, and they are ordinarily equally pernicious. We repeat what we said before, that the schools of commerce should be at once polytechnic schools and schools of application, and in order that application shall bear its best fruit it is necessary that it should be exercised not upon imaginary operations, but upon real operations properly conducted, properly systematized, and all the documents relat¬ ing to which should be methodically brought together under the eyes of the pupils.j It would be superfluous to recount here the various modifications which were made in the Institute of Leipsic from 1831 to 1868, modifications which were suggested by the experience of the school. It is sufficient to say that during this whole period the basis of the method remained the same as Schiebe had instituted in the first instance. But in the movement for educational reform from 1868 to 1871 the Insti¬ tute at Leipsic was compelled to follow the movement or lose its title of a higher school. The law relating to military service in Saxony, of December 21, 1866, had 836 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. conceded to the three schools of commerce at Dresden, Chemnitz, and Leipsic the right to give a certificate entitling to the one-year military service privileges, and it was necessary to reorganize the instruction to conform" to the requirements of this law. It was, then, at this time that the university tendency of general culture began to overbalance the purely commercial instruction of early"years both at the Institute at Leipsic, and, in general, in all the higher schools of commerce in Germany. In all these institutions it was necessary, in order ifco comply with the provisions of the military law, to reorganize their curricula from the very bottom, and to give more time to the instruction in mathematics, physical and natural sciences, history, geography, and literature. This reorganization implied the necessity of diminishing the time given to the commercial sciences, and also the importance of the practical exercises in the countinghouse. It was not until 1869 that the Institute at Leipsic declared itself ready to comply with the legal provisions, and from that time on this establishment acquired the right to give the certificate for the one-year voluntary service. This change in its instruction led it, on the other hand, to enlarge the sphere of action of the school, in order to preserve its former professional character. It was noted that a certain number of pupils from the real schools, who held the military certificate, entered immediately into business life, to spend the years which had still to elapse before they were of military age. These young men, from 16 to 17 years of age, while trained in modern languages, mathematics, history, geography, but entirely unacquainted with the commercial sciences, found themselves at a disadvantage in their practical careers on account of this lack of special knowledge. It appeared, then, to be plain that the Institute at Leipsic had here the task of creating a profes¬ sional course for those young men who had obtained the military certificate. The success of this course, opened in 1876, did not entirely meet the expectations of its founders. Three years later, in 1879, another attempt was made. By the side of the profes¬ sional course, which comprises ten lectures a week, another course was established of from thirty to thirty-two exercises per week for those youth who held the military certificate and were willing to devote an additional year to study for preparation of the commercial career. This last course was received with considerable favor, and the attendance shows a steady increase. This result, although very satisfactory, shows that in Germany, as in France, public opinion is still in doubt as to the value of commercial instruction. The director of the school expressed himself upon this point in the following manner : “It is thought,” he said, “by large classes of our population that commercial practice can fully take the place of theoretical knowledge. It is, however, true that he who has a theoretical knowledge learns more from experience than the mere empiricist, to whom he will always be superior when it comes to a matter of judg¬ ment or to execute intelligently an order, or to act with energy and decision in dif¬ ferent situations; but many years will probably pass before the value of our techni¬ cal professional instruction will be fully appreciated and before the number of our pupils increases in proportion to the advantages which professional study assures to him who follows it thoroughly.” It is not necessary to print a synopsis of the courses, as the individual subjects taught cover very much the same ground, having due regard to the greater or less proportion of time devoted to them, as in the French and Austrian schools. It will be noted from a comparison of the curriculum given above with those of the schools in France and Austria that considerably more attention is given to the nontechnical subjects in Germany. This may be explained, however, by the fact mentioned above, that in order to get the privilege of granting the military certificate, these schools were obliged to introduce general subjects more largely, rather than because of any belief that the German curriculum in its present form is better than the French or Austrian. It is not necessary to go into a more detailed discussion of questions of discipline, etc., as in this- respect the Institute of Leipsic differs but little from those already mentioned. A glance at the budget of the school may, however, be of interest. The school is carried on, under ordinary conditions, in such a way that a financial deficit regularly occurs, which is met by the chamber of commerce from the pro¬ ceeds of funds belonging to it. It is well housed in a model school building, erected in 1890. The budget for the year 1885-86 shows the following receipts and expendi¬ tures. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 837 Receipts : Tuition from the — Marks. Higher division . 32, 751. 71 Professional course . 11, 932. 15 Apprentice department . 23, 585. 27 Total . 68,269.13 Subsidy from the Government . 4, 500. 00 72, 769. 13 Expenses : Pensions and salaries . 63, 662. 61 Lighting , . 928. 62 Heating . 938.42 Printing . 1,076.50 Books for library . _ 571. 00 Chemical laboratory . 451. 78 Miscellaneous expenses . 508. 39 Rent . 9, 700. 00 Total . 77,827.32 Note. — Sections of the report relating to higher commercial instruction in Bel¬ gium, Italy, and England are omitted. In regard to the latter Professor James says : “It is not far from the truth to say that there is no such instruction given" in England at all, at least such thorough, systematic, and advanced instruction as would justify our putting it in the same category as that of France, Austria, or Ger¬ many. It is in this department as in so many others. The genius of the people — so eminently commercial — the favorable situation of the country, and the many other circumstances which have combined to put England at the very head of commercial nations, have also seemed at first to dispense with the necessity of giving time and labor to systematic school preparation for such occupations. On the other hand, the many unfavorable circumstances which have combined to prevent the growth of commerce and industry in Germany, France, and Austria have brought these nations to a recognition of the fact that thorough education along all these lines was the only hope of their being able to compete with England at all. The result has been what might have been expected. Owing to the superior education and training of her youth Germany has been steadily diminishing the disadvantages of her position, and English merchants are now awaking to the fact not only that German trade is increasing more rapidly than English but that even the trade of England herself is passing into the hands of German merchants who have settled in London.” CHAPTER XVI. EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA.1 VACATION TIME— ACADEMIES— A MANUAL-LABOR SCHOOL— THE UNIVERSITY. I. — Vacation Time. Some account has been given of society in middle Georgia during the period of occupation by immigrants from the older States, mainly from Virginia and North Carolina, Mho, despite the perils on the very border of savage existence, Mere attracted thither by the extraordinary fecundity and salubrity of that region. Therein it appeared that, on account of peculiar exigencies of situation in the beginning, patrician rule, as in all similar conditions m the past, obtained;' but that, not long afterMards, other exigencies equally important led to coalescence of the several classes of Mhites for purposes of security and Mell-being needful to all. To this coalescence, it Mas argued) Mere OMing the speedy, healthful groMth and development of a rural population Mhich in a comparatively brief Mhile helped to raise the State, the youngest of the thirteen, to a high rank among its confederates. In that account Mere mentioned some of the shifts to Mhich resort Mas compelled under the then existing conditions to obtain for the children of those immigrants instruction in the elements of learning, and sketches Mere made of Mhat came to be knoMn as “Old-field schools,” Mhich Mere, perhaps, if not the most unique, at least the most crude among the elementary schools throughout the Mhole country, yet, notMithstanding their eccentricities and jejuneness, productive of much benefit to the neM community so far distant from enlightened centers. Exuberance of health and eagerness of enterprise enabled the settlers to meet difficulties and draMbacks, make the best of opportunities, hoMever slender, turn all accidents to every possible good account, and, fully conscious of the need of better things, patiently, yet Mith energy and confidence, labor for their procurement. Boys and girls Mho got their first instruction at these schools, even those groMn afterMards to be among the most eminent and accomplished, used to recall and rehearse scenes therein enacted so grotesque and bizarre as to sound incredible, yet Mhich, even including some that Mere barbarous, Mere told not only Mithout a tittle of pain or resentment, but Mith a humor so gushing as to be thankful for things Mhose recollections inspired it. Note Mas made in that account of the intermingling of sexes both in school and in class, and some habitudes peculiar to such close relationship, including inchoate devotion of the stronger to the Meaker. Mention Mas made, also, of several things in discipline, of the games and sports indulged separately by boys and girls, and of other things attendant upon school life. In this chapter the Mriter Mill undertake to describe portions of the life of boys and girls Mhile out of school, Mithin family circles, and, Mhen groMn old enough for them, in social reunions. Field sports of boys Mill be mentioned, and such games as, during the approach toMard maturity, both sexes played in company. The chapter Mill end Mith an account of the very early ages at Mhich marriage engagements in xBy Richard Malcolm Johnston. 839 840 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-9G. general were contracted, and some of the incidents usually occurring before, during, and after their solemnization, followed by an account of the founding of academies, manual labor schools, and of the State University. In this region, as doubtless was the case in all other rural communities at that period, youth of both sexes, whatever might be their pecuniary circumstances, were required to spend a greater or less portion of the time at work. In families with narrow means this was necessary. Children when not at school worked habitually with the same regularity as negroes or hired laborers. Indeed, the two or three years’ schooling gotten by them generally was spread through twice or thrice as many on account of times and seasons when their services at home were indispen¬ sable to sufficient cultivation of crops and work within doors. Seldom one of this sort attended more than three or four months in the year. It was often as surpris¬ ing as gratifying to note the amount of learning acquired by boys and girls in cir¬ cumstances so narrow. Difficulties enhanced in their eyes the value of what they had few and limited opportunities of pursuing. Many a lad with no more than these* rose to much respectability for intelligence and some to high positions in professional life. So, too, even children of the better sort were required to work during the period of vacation from school. Few boys of any sort did not learn to handle the plow, the hoe, and the ax. While engaged on plantation work they labored never apart, but alongside of negroes, going to fields and returning at the same hours, their dinners being sent to them as to the rest. True, they were indulged in more frequent holidays, yet in many of these their friends among the poorer classes, par¬ ticularly on Saturdays, were allowed to join them in sportings with hounds, gun, and rod. A people among whom were few who dearly loved mere money getting were none the less stringent of rule that their children should grow up with just notions of the importance of work and becoming respect for it. As sons of the more pros¬ perous grew older, instead of manual labor they were gradually inducted into the knowledge of supervising and in the disposition of crops when gathered. It was the same with girls, perhaps to a degree more stringent because of their closer confinement at home and in continual presence of work which industrious mothers of families saw needed to be looked after. Vestments of every sort, for whites as well as blacks, were cut and made at home. These, except the few for special occasions, as hereinbefore mentioned, were made of the produce of the plan¬ tation — flax, wool, and cotton. This work, the whole of it, was done in the mansion under the supervision of the mistress, and mainly by herself and her daughters. When portions were assigned to negro women or girls, it was of a kind needing less of spe¬ cial painstaking, yet requiring the mistress’ continual direction, for deftness with the needle and shears always seemed difficult for them to acquire. EVENINGS AT HOME. The interval between supper and bedtime was spent by the whole family together. If lessons were not already conned, children studied by a table, rendering and receiv¬ ing assistance when needed. This seldom occupied all the space, as the lessons were not unreasonable. Afterwards, if it was in summer, they sat together on the piazza, which hardly any house was without, until the hour of evening family prayer, that was seldom omitted if the father was a church member. A Bible chapter was read, a hymn sung, and then the prayer on bended knees, sometimes the latter seeming rather long to children and such of the servants as accepted invitation to be present; this was evinced when at its close they were yet on the floor, being overcome by sleep. In winter girls assisted their mothers in sewing and knitting for the family, white and black, and the boys helped the father in rolling into balls from brooches the thread spun during the day and reeling the balls into hanks. In times before the cotton gin, all picked apart the seed and the lint. So long used to this habit some became, that even after the gin was introduced some planters, when satisfied with reading, kept it up during the evening, unwilling to be entirely idle during any EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA 841 portion of tlieir working time. During the hours of sleep doors Oftener than other¬ wise were left unlocked and windows unbarred. A man’s own negroes were trusted as his children. Domestic police, as in patriarchal times, was in the family, and it was not very far from perfect. Children when at home were often allowed to play with much freedom with their coevals among the negroes ; but only boys with boys, and girls with girls, and the latter only in daylight. In such plays the humbler indulged as much freedom as the higher, and the admission of defeat was as honest in the one case as in the other, although upon disputed points there was the same sort of wrangling or what was common to either race while contending apart. Elderly negroes who happened to be passing by took the same liberty as parents nsed in warning against extravagances of any sort, and a white child’s heedlessness to such interference, especially if attended with disrespectful words, were reported in the “ white house” whither the giver was called and made render account. These persons were usually addressed as “Uncle” or “Aunt,” titles destined to last throughout life. This freedom of intercourse between children of both races, within limitations known to be i:>rudent regarding the best welfare of all, led to benign consequences. Many of the most affectionate, long-enduring friendships existing in the South were between white men and their slaves, which began in childhood under supervision of the parents of both. It was quite common for two children, a white and a black, to become so attached, that the humbler grew up with hope of becoming that young master’s or that young miss’ slave when the time should come for the former to marry and go away with allotted portions of the estate. Not only they, but their families wished them to follow the fortunes of those who had been so . long and so well beloved. To the world outside such separations seemed hard. Far more often than not they were in accordance with long-cherish6d hopes, and they served to enhance yet more the happiness of that naturally thankful and affectionate race. boys’ field sports. Out of school, children whose parents were of whatever degree of property hold¬ ing were indulged with holidays of reasonable frequency. Almost any Saturday a boy with his fishing rod, or with his gun and two or three hounds, would meet his likes similarly attended and spend the day along the margin of a creek or within fields and woods. Lesser game for a long time continued plentiful, such as sqhirrels, rabbits, opossums, raccoons, partridges, field larks, and particularly doves by the thousands. Any family, however humble, would have been ashamed to be regarded so poor as not to afford to keep several hounds. Boys who were too young to handle guns or follow hounds afar used to resort to devices for taking birds. Traps. — Perhaps never a Georgia boy, when come to 7 or 8 years, failed to have his one or more traps for catching birds. If he was lame or an invalid, a trap must be built for him and set somewhere in a meadow or near the woodside. It was con¬ structed of laths about 3 feet in length for the four at bottom, 2 inches wide, and a quarter of an inch thick, decreasing in length for about 10 inches. It was set by three sticks called triggers, a long and two short, forming, when joined, the figure 4, placed horizontally with the stem at the bottom. Around this stem and beneath was strewn the bait — grains of corn, oats, and wheat. A very light touch sprang the trigger and the trap came down. The captive was taken out at the top by removal of the short laths in sufficient numbers to allow insertion of the hand and arm. Results from such huntings were very far from compensating for the work done in their behalf, but they were ever hoped and expected to be better the next time. They were far more satisfactory in the case of one bird in particular, the quail, called there “partridge.” Going in flocks, ingenuity was called upon to frame a trap so as to get all, which would certainly follow the getting of the first. The trap for this pur¬ pose was called a “coop.” It was similarly constructed, possibly somewhat heavier. ED 96 - 27* 842 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Instead of triggers its delusion was compassed by a tunnel, wide and horizontal at the opening, about a foot or 15 inches from the coop, and after reaching it ascend¬ ing and narrowing until it opened rather abruptly within by an aperture of size to easily admit one bird and no more. Grain was scattered in profusion about the coop, more so in the opening, and extending through the tunnel. The leader of the flock passed along the wide, gentle slope, feeding as he went, the rest eagerly fol¬ lowing. Some grains were scattered upon the ground within in order to hinder apprehension from arising until all were inside. In this condition it never occurred to them to attempt egress through the same route by which they had entered. The tunnePs opening inside being abrupt and darkened, the captive vainly strove to pass through the spaces in the sides and roof of the coop. Day hunting with hounds and gun. — The hunting of squirrels and rabbits, doubtless, was about the same as in all other regions where these animals abound. It was pursued by half-grown lads regarded not yet old enough to overcome the awkward difficulties in chasing such as could be taken only in the night; or, as in the case of the fox, at early dawn and on horseback. Many a vain petition to venture, at least upon the former, was presented to mothers, and many a boy was made happy at the coming of the time when it was deemed not too imprudent to grant it. Hunting the opossum. — A sport which boys greatly delighted in was accompanying the negroes while hunting the opossum. Its relish was the dearer because of the infrequency with which parents, especially mothers, consented to it. Of all delights to the palate of a Southern negro, and indeed of many a Southern white man, the flesh of the opossum, when baked to the proper degree of brown, is the dearest. Abounding in fat perhaps beyond any other animal, its flesh resembles much that of a sucking pig, only being more soft. It is so easily fattened that on being taken out of the woods it generally is in condition fit for the oven. Southerners regard it of all meats the least indigestible, and but for its superabundant fat it "would appear more frequently on tables of the whites. In some houses this superfluity was dis¬ posed of by placing a layer or more of oak or hickory sticks to the height of 3 or 4 inches at the bottom of the oven, and upon the latticework thus made laying the opossum. By such mode much of the oil was deposited on the bottom. The negro, when cooking for himself, never resorts to these measures, but takes his favorite as ho is, indeed preferring him writh all his imperfections on his head. At every home, whatever might be lacking for making up the full of home com¬ forts, it was never an opossum dog; seldom was it without two or three. These w’erc not of the pack of hounds — from four to eight and more — kept by the owner for the fox and the rabbit. They belonged to the negroes, and were usually well trained. The hunter, providing himself with an ax, a torch of lightwood sticks of suitable length (about 2 feet), accompanied by at least one other, bearing another ax and an armful of other sticks, sallied forth to the woods. Both he and his dog well knew the most-frequented haunts of the quarry, along skirts of wood and meadow wherein grew the persimmon, the muscadine, and the wild grape. A rabbit starting up attracted little notice from the dog, that understood well enough that that sort of game was for the day, never for the night. After the trail was found the pursuit was usually brief, as this beast is not swift of foot, and travels over an inconsiderable space. The dog barks little or none while pursuing, and so the opossum, when about to be overtaken by surprise, makes with what speed is possible to a tree. In his emergency he sometimes has to take to a small sapling, up which he can mount no higher than 6 or 8 feet without bending the top. If he is not too hotly pressed he will take to a large one, although he is not as particular in that matter as the raccoon, who, being more swift of foot and more capable in general of taking care of himself, invariably seeks the largest he can find in his flight. There was one exception, however, and that in the case of an opossum of smaller size, more slender of make, much more fleet of foot, and with preponderance of black hairs in his skin. Whenever it was a very large tree to which the hunter was called by his dog, he EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 843 was apt to suspect that it was either a raccoon or a “Blue Dick/’ as this variety was called. Whether it was of a distinct species was not known. Individuals were not often met with, and a black hunter was always disappointed when one of them took the place of its betters, as, though small and thin, it cost more to take him and to fatten him afterwards. The “ treeing ” was announced by a hark peculiar to that office, and entirely differ¬ ent from others. There was no sound of eagerness, as in those of pursuit. It was one brief utterance of mere announcement, as if the dog had finished the task assigned to him and would now lie down and rest till his owners came up. If his bark was harkened to, he gave no more. If not, he repeated it at intervals until it was. Then he sat or lay while the tree was being felled. Just before this crisis, unless the tree was very small, one of the axmen, quitting that work, repaired a short distance on the side opposite to that in which the tree was to fall and held him by the collar during the descent. This was done to secure him from being crushed by rushing too speedily among the branches. Instant upon the fall he was loosed, and, rushing forward, seized his game, nearly always before it could get to another tree. At that instant all excitement ended. A moment before the seizure, if he had it to spare, the opossum, offering no resistance, laid itself down and to all appearances died. This was regarded as an instinctive artifice to attempt escape from death by seeming to be dead already. It will fight with neither man nor dog, and at last seems to implore for pity and sparing of life to one so entirely submissive. This gave rise to the phrase “playing possum/’ apjjlied to persons suspected of making insincere ado about their own ailments or ether suffering, or pretending to be asleep. The way in which the captive was secured, if not novel, was curious, and singu¬ larly hard. A hickory stick of, say, 2 inches in thickness and 5 or 6 feet long was split at a small distance from one end, and before the wedge was withdrawn the long, hairless, thick-skinned tail was drawn about half its length through the slit, after which the wedge was withdrawn. The captor slung the stick across his shoulders, trimmed his torch, and, if not ready to return home, hied his dog to another search. Occasionally a negro would return home, not too late for rest enough for the morrow’s work, with three or four hanging from his pole. The killing was usually postponed to a Sunday. During the interval it was kept in a box set with its open side upon the ground and made firm by heavy stones laid upon the top, ventilated by auger holes. It was fed upon persimmons mainly, but with addition of bread, collards, potatoes, and other vegetables gotten from the negro’s small garden that lay behind his cabin. It was really surprising what degrees of fatness it would take on in a very short time. The killing was after a way peculiar to that animal. In all probability never since Georgia was first occupied by white people with slaves did an opossum, wlieh killed by a negro, meet death in any other. For this time-honored custom he felt respect that would have been sorely hurt even by suggestion of substitution of another. The affection he cherished for this dear object made him scrupulous that when his end was to come, as it must come inevitably according to the destiny of all beings, sentient and not, it should be decently in accord with usage handed down from the ancestors of both. And so on a fair Sunday morning, taking him tenderly, yet with sufficient firmness of grasp by the tail, he drew him from his box into the light of day, let him “go dead” for a while, after his harmlessly deceptive way, and, it may be, addressed to him some words of praise for the manner in which he had made him¬ self ready for the winding up of this his last job. Then, laying down his ax with the helve across the victim's neck and placing his foot upon it near the space of con¬ tact, while he kept it j>ressed, with his two hands he pulled his tail until his neck was broken. Already a pot of water hard by had been made hot for scalding the hair from his precious “carcass,” by this time become, as some expressed it, “as round as a butter ball.” After he was baked and set upon a tray, flanked satisfactorily with 844 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. attendant good things, it was interesting to see the rapidity with which, using a favored simile among negroes, it would “ go down de red lane.” Raccoon hunting. — Seldom was a young hoy allowed to go upon hunt of the raccoon. It is a beast of considerable fleetness, extremely wily, and combative to the last degree. Probably of all animals, if not the most cunning in devices to evade its pur¬ suers, it is the most adroit and pertinacious in fight. Not one hound in a hundred could cope with it in single combat on land, and it required three and four to do so in water. A coon hunt of several dogs (and it required a pack) gave chase often a mile or more before the quarry was compelled to tree, and this, back and forth, winding right and left through the densest thickets that the fugitive knows best on the mar¬ gin of the creek. The tearing and soiling of clothes, inevitable to close following of hounds, made parents put a ban upon sons until they were well on toward manhood. Even grown persons, on account of the expense, seldom hunted them except for the purpose of lessening their ravages upon the young corn ears in adjoining fields, and never with intent to eat them. Occasionally a negro, for lack of opossum, would cook them and try to get as much compensation as possible for such lack. Generally, however* after taking the skin the rest was thrown away. Yet occasionally a hunt was indulged in for the sake of the excitement throughout, particularly at the close. Very often several trees, seldom not more than the first, had to be felled. One of the animal’s devices was to take one tree in a thicket and, after ascending among the higher limbs that intermingle with those of other trees, pass stealthily from one to another. In such movements it was interesting to note the competition of the lower animal’s instincts with the ingenuity of man. Occasionally, by no means frequently, the quick ear of a hound detected the trick when a slender limb was bent by a pas¬ sage ; but what was more to the purpose, the hunter might be able once in a while to discover the object of his pursuit by placing himself in the fairest position and then, having the torch put. behind and lowered, peer up among the branches. The raccoon was in constant watch of its pursuers, and the glittering eyes reflecting the torchlight, betrayed its covert. When the tree fell, foreseeing it must be overtaken, it made haste for the nearest water, where a fight took place which really thrilled one to witness. Nothing could equal the celerity with which one and another of its enemies were bitten and clawed, amidst growlings of intensest desperation. The hounds howled aloud with corresponding pain and anger from repeated inflictions. On fit opportunity the raccoon, seizing one by the nose, dived beneath the stream, where it could remain considerably longer than the former. When it became neces¬ sary to rise, it loosed its hold and reappeared as far away as possible from the point of descent, and its latest adversary had to repair to the bank for a moment’s rest. From sheer exhaustion of defending against its numerous enemies it perished at last, yet often with its teeth and claws quivering in their flesh. Yet, it seems singularly noteworthy, as used to be solemnly declared by negroes, whose observations of habits among animals of the woods had extended through long periods and whose statements in that regard were in general entirely reliable, that in a combat between a raccoon and an opossum the latter, if of corresponding age and growth, invariably prevails. And it is thus: The opossum, shrinking himself into as small and round a ball as possible, makes his one bite; it may be the jaw, and it may be the shoulder, or a hind leg. Whatever it be it is a mouthful on which after fastening his teeth, jaw and all, he deliberately and with apparent entire res¬ ignation “goes dead,” and the assaults of his enemy of whatever numbers and vari¬ eties seem to have no sort of influence upon his corpse. It is as if a choice morsel had been locked within a strong box whose owner had gone away with the key in his pocket. When the raccoon becomes abjectly demoralized and by unmistakable signs shows that he is more than fully satisfied the dead comes back to life, opens his jaws, and the other makes off without unnecessary delay. This exigency is far worse when the raccoon is caught in part by a trap. If it be in a portion of his body not vital and to which he can apply his teeth, with these he cuts the rest of himself loose and leaves the other part to tell its own tale alone. EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 845 Plantation Fourth of July. — Among the yearly holidays anticipated most eagerly by children was the plantation Fourth of July. Independence Day, as many used to style it, always had its several commemora¬ tions. The principal one was held on the day itself in the villages, or, in districts too remote from those, in the meeting-house grove or near a cross-roads store. In the latter case an orator and a reader came from town, all surviving Revolutionary sol¬ diers were carried and sat in chairs in front of the audience and with women divided the eloquent praises of the peroration. Afterwards came the barbecue, for whose enjoyment juicy exhalations from pits wherein the “ carcasses ” were nearing a proper finish for some time before made all mouths ready. The other came on later, usually on the third or fourth Saturday of the month. This was the negroes’ “ Fourth of July.” By this time the small grain had been harvested, cotton and corn received their third and last plowing, and the crop was pronounced to be “laid by ” during the four weeks before the ripening. On this occasion things were put on early and kept on late. Pigs and lambs, accord¬ ing to the number in the family, were barbecued, supplemented by fowls and vege¬ tables, cakes, conserves, and other good things. Yet the scene most interesting to children was the cider beating. Apples brought in carts from the orchard were emptied into a long trough made of a poplar log, where they were beaten by men with pestles. A rude press was built and fastened to one of the trees in the grove, and on a layer of oat straw the pulp gathered in buckets was emptied, the long beam attached to the screw that pressed being drawn around by a horse or mule. The fun to children was in being allowed with long oat straws to suck the new cider from the trough. The dinner table was set in the grove. After the whites were served, the negroes sat down on their chairs and benches, when all, men, women, and children, did the best they knew how with the viands before them. When all could do no more on that line, the old foreman, called upon for a speech and unanimously denied being excused, said his say, and was followed by others among the men, who talked their talks, and by the half-grown boys and girls, who sang their songs. After dinner the aged and other adults sat around under the trees and looked on as the young, white and black, disported over the grove. Except Christmas and Christmas week, this was the whitest of all days in the year. It mattered not what had been the favorableness of the seasons and the general prospect of crops, on this day conditions, whether promising or otherwise, were jjut out of mind. Everybody was conscious that he had done his part faithfully, and knew that the same was felt by everybody else, so all gave themselves to enjoyment, willing to leave the future to the disposal of the Creator. With apparent reluctance the sun went down at last too soon. Yet often the moon at or not far from its full, or the heavens lit by starlight allowed the children to continue their sports till near the hour of 9, at which all must retire to their beds. SWIMMING. No school was very far from some sort of swimming hole. At a proper distance from the spring the boys made a dam in the spring branch, whither they very often resorted. On Saturdays in time of summer they went to the nearest mill pond. By the time one was 10 or 11 he swam as easily as the best. It is probable that not one in a thousand grew to manhood without learning this delightful art. Any¬ one felt ashamed when another said of him about this: “He can’t do anything; he can’t even swim.” It was remarkable what often could be done in diving, by long practice. Occasionally a boy remained under water so long that a stranger looking on might begin to apprehend that a serious accident had occurred, when, rising far beyond the place of immersion, his hearty exhalation gave assurance that all was right with him. Contests of endurance were very frequent. If the bathing hole was small the divers, one at a time, standing each with his back to the water, waited till a stone suitable in size was thrown in, and the bubbling that might tend to betray the spot at which it had entered subsided. Then, plunging in headforemost, they 846 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. made search for it. If it w as rather easily found a smaller was substituted. Xot very many habitually engaged in a contest that necessarily imparted such discom¬ fort. Besides, many carried oft-repeated orders from home against a practice so hazardous, on pain, in case of violation, of losing permission to go into the water at all. Another thing of a very decidedly unpleasant character, often resulting from too long indulgence in the sport when the swimming pool was not entirely within the shade of trees, was burning the shin of arms and shoulders by the double action of the sun’s heat directly and through reflection of the water. The luxury of the sport was so delightful, especially in a mill pond which could not very often be reached, that sometimes boys lingered too long in braving this danger. As long as they were in the water no sort of indication of what was insidiously coming was given. Only a partial foretaste was given when they were drying themselves on the bank. But by the time they had reached home never a boy so beset who did not sorely repent that he had gone away from home on that day, or that he had not gone in a direc_ tion leading farther and farther from that mill pond. As soon as such an one got within 50 yards of the house, his mother, if happening to look that way, discovered in his red-red face what was the matter, and at onco began to make ready for prompt dealing with the case. Sometimes, if it had been possible, he would have liked to conceal his predicament, enduring the pain, whose stinging severity none but the experienced can understand. Yet he would have sorely preferred this to the medical treatment. This was always as follows : On a bed, more frequently for greater convenience on a pallet spread upon the floor, the sufferer, after removal of his shirt, was laid flat on his front, his arms extended. Then at brief intervals during several hours the burnt surface was mopped with a goose feather dipped in a bowl of cream. The position, the silent, relentless sting, and, neither last nor least, the descent, along with feather and cream, of words of a kind most remote from such as soothes an invalid to hear, made his con¬ dition seem of all most uncomfortable. If not audibly, at least inwardly, he made, if for the third or fourth time, the resolve that never, no never while memory remained, would he be caught again in precisely that style. When children had arrived at the age approximating maturity, games conducted with animation often becoming rather noisy and boisterous were dropped, and others more quiet and subdued were substituted. In these both sexes joined, and behavior was of a kind to be expected of those who began to look forward to marriage. That period in the times now being considered came forward earlier than afterwards when travel increased, bringing larger numbers into acquaintance with one another. Country girls then often were fully grown at 15, sometimes at 14; matured by the latitude, good health, and abundant exercise. Boys were men in size generally at 18. At this stage few parents were opposed to marriages when other things seemed suited. Among the young, choice of life partners was limited mainly to the imme¬ diate neighborhood, and this was seldom protracted beyond the twentieth or twenty- first year, as often as otherwise not beyond the nineteenth. When a girl at 13 or 14 left off her pantelets and let her gown reach to her feet, the understanding among boys was that she would be apt to understand what he was hinting about when the theme was married life as compared with single blessedness. In such discussions the softer of course declared preference for the latter. Yet it was not uninteresting to listen to argument from her opponent, which being more persistent, strenuous, eager, and in time appearing more sensible, she suffered herself to become convinced by it. Marriage engagements were always brief, brought within as near limits as the suitor by prayers and tears could obtain. If the alliance was satisfactory to both families, they generally seconded his ideas. For there was no need to inquire about antecedents personal or social, nor about existing conditions. These were EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 847 already known. Perhaps never was a rural community in which were fewer secrets. Whatever occurred in neighborhood or domestic existence became known to every¬ body — beginnings of courtships, their progress, rivalries, probable results, dates of maids suffering themselves to be overtaken, engagements when to be consum¬ mated. Even rejections, although sometimes (not always) endeavoring, could not hide themselves ; it was too good an item for other enamored youths to let lie in silence. Whenever a prospective marriage was kept secret it was because the parties to it knew of or apprehended family hostility, which, if it could not be overcome, would compel to elopement. Mention has been made hereinbefore of the appreciation of leisure among the rural population of this region, adults as well as youths, married persons and single. Hospitality was regarded even a religious duty, and few were so poor as not to prac¬ tice it within, often much over the limit of their capacity. A few parties of pleasure among the young were frequent at all seasons. When dancing fell under interdict of the churches, resort was had to plays, of which there was quite a number, for mere conversation could not easily be substituted when none had read more than a. very few books, which, however interesting, could not support oft-repeated discussion. Well-grown boys, well learned in the history of brave heroes described in the half dozen romances in vogue, essayed, with various degrees of success and occasions of fitness, to imitate their language, and were laughed at by girls and rivals for appar¬ ent blunders, and so it was that very soon after meeting and exchange of usual inquiries and compliments, suggestion of plays met with favor. Descriptions of a few of the most leading of these are hereto subjoined. Criticism. — In this play one of the company, male or female, was assigned to a chair apart from tho rest to bo criticised. In the beginning, unless one volunteered or assented to suggestions to become the first subject, it was decided by lots. This however, was seldom resorted to, as more than one of the youngest boys showed wil¬ lingness to be made thus conspicuous. Then one of the company went around ask¬ ing everyone what the subject looked like, at the same time kneeling for the answer, which was whispered in the ear. After tho round was made, the interrogator stopped and, looking toward one and another, reflected several moments while fixing in rec¬ ollection the various criticisms. If he could not clearly recall every one, a partial round was made again. After that he announced them to the subject, who had to guess at the names of his critics. If he failed of all, he had to remain where he was for another ordeal. If not, the one first properly guessed took his place. Announce¬ ment of failure or success, when occurring early, was not made until a full report was rendered, for in this tho fun consisted. As a rule the critics liked to be known, par¬ ticularly w’hen the declared similitude was complimentary. Between boys this was never the case; a boy subject never thought of attributing to one of his sort any except ridiculous comparisons with his inferiors. There were several that might be called stock phrases which were seldom omitted, because younger boys were par¬ ticularly fond of them, such as “he looks like a ram goat tied to a sliavin,” a “sore¬ eyed kitten peepin’ out of a pan of buttermilk,” or “he would if he could, and if he couldn’t how would he?” Occasionally a lover hinted his feelings to his sweetheart by comparing her to the “Queen of Sheby,” when tho comparison was announced exhibiting such consciousness as would remove doubts of the author ; and it vexed him when she, dishonestly enough, guessed a small boy or a rival whom he hoped she did not care for. Girls’ comparisons, except in cases of little boys, were not usually very complimentary, nor did they aim so much at being fanny, usually employing some phrase taken from a book. If a large boy got a high compliment in that way, he would be sure that it was not sent by the one he liked best, provided she had been made aware of his feeling. Thimble. — In this game, when all except one w'ere seated about the room, she (in case of a girl) holding a thimble in her closed hands, went around, and the rest, with theirs opened only enough to receive it if dropped within them, hoped each to get the compliment. Their hands, whether successful or not, were kept closed so 848 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. that no intimation could be made of the one who held it. The carrier said to each: ( 1 Hold fast what I give you.” When the round was made, the giver demanded of the rest successively to guess who was the holder. All who missed had to forfeit something, as a fan, a pocketknife, a handkerchief, or something else. When these forfeits had accumulated to a considerable number they were redeemed in this wise : By a table on which they had been laid, one who was more often than otherwise a boy, was seated in a chair by its side. Then a girl standing behind held above his head so that he could not perceive it, one forfeit at a time, beginning with the words: “Heavy, heavy hangs over your head: What shall the owner do to redeem it?” The boy inquired: “ Is it line or superfine?” meaning is the property that of a boy or of a girl. The cost of redemption depended upon the humor of the seller and the character of the owner. Many a ridiculous thing was enjoined to boys, as to “cut the pigeon wing” — that is, jump up and crack his heels together three times before returning to the floor; “to put his face in such a shape as would hide as much of its ugliness as possible;” to “go to Miss Betty Perkins and ask her forgiveness for telling a lie on her;” to apologize to Miss Nancy Crother for saying she wasn’t nigh as pretty as she thought she was ; ” or “to bow to the prettiest, kneel to the wittiest, and kiss the one he loves best.” The last was sometimes a little embarrassing, as the debtor might not like to make public his sentiments, and if he chose, managed to conceal them by approaching indifferently the two who sat nearest for the honors. Then it was tantalizing, and so meant to be when imposed, as being sure that neither his sweetheart nor any other near her age would allow him to make payment in that wise, and so he took his kiss from one of the little girls. Yet, not always, unless he was near grown and was somewhat of a favorite among the younger sort. A half- grown boy’s advances were not seldom met with the turning her lips away or cover¬ ing them with her hands by the child he thus proposed to assault; or she might be, if only 10 or 11, big enough to wish it understood that her kisses, considering it time to dispense with mere make-believes, had decided to reserve themselves for more becoming bestowal. Hearty laughs followed such discomfiture. It was also very funny and very nice, when a little girl, after suffering herself kissed by one she liked well, ran to the one whom she knew or suspected he loved best, and turned over to her what she had received, or she might bestow it mischieviously upon one who was not so known or suspected. There might be blushes of more than one sort, but the fun was cordial and loud enough to overcome all. When such a sequence of punishment was imposed upon a girl, the only hope of a boy to get a kiss was on his smallness and generally known good behavior, particularly his deportment toward girls in general. This was one of the favorites among both sexes, especially those approaching maturity. It became so because of its freedom from boisterousness, and the oppor¬ tunities it afforded for wit and humor, not counting out those for delicate hintings of serious intents and hopes on the part of individuals who indulged ideas of turn¬ ing from childish things, and passing to housekeeping. King and Queen. — This was not often played and never in its entirety by both sexes together. Two chairs were placed near one of the walls at a distance of the breadth of another between them. The whole was covered with a sheet or counterpane, and the king and the queen occupied the chairs, arranging the covering so as to make believe there was a seat between them. Attendants were on hand to introduce strangers and subjects expressing a wish to be made known to their majesties, who, on a holiday occasion, graciously condescended to give temporary occupancy of the seat between them. Upon introduction and invitation, the one presented, with humble thankfulness, turned and seated himself. At that instant the sovereigns rose simultaneously and the guest fell to the floor. The play was indulged only when a boy present had not been made acquainted with the trick, or so pretended in order that he might be the principal figure in the denouement. It is probable that the play thus rendered was of recent origin, differing widely EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 849 from another of tlie same name recorded in English hooks, which was as follows, taken from Mrs. Valentine’s work : “The company sit in two rows facing each other. There must he an even number, as 6, 8, 10, or 12. One joav personates a range of gentlemen with a king sitting at the end. The opposite row is to consist of ladies, she at the end being queen. The king numbers all the gentlemen 1, 2, 3, 4, and they remember their number. The queen numbers the ladies, but all their numbers must be different from those of the gen¬ tlemen ; for instance, if the gentlemen are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, the ladies must be 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. When all is arranged, the king and queen each call out a number. If the king calls No. 2, he who bears that title must start up and run all around the company. The queen must at the same time call out one of her ladies, for instance, No. 8, and the lady must pursue the gentleman all around. If she catches him before he gets to the king he pays a forfeit. They then resume their seats, and it is the queen’s turn to call first. She may call No. 10 and the king No. 4. The gentleman now pursues the lady, and if he catches her before she gets to the queen she pays a forfeit. Some¬ times in this play all the odd numbers, 1, 3, 5, 7, are allotted to the gentlemen and the even numbers, 2, 4, 6, 8, are given to the ladies.” Consequences. — Not often others than grown or nearly grown persons, male and female, together played at this. A leaf of foolscap paper was cut lengthwise about 5 or 6 inches in width so as to be easily folded. The first one to whom it was handed wrote, so as not to be seen by any other, the name of a gentleman. Carefully folding underneath, it was then passed to the second, who wrote the name of a lady. After like disposal, the others, one by one, wrote brief sentences concerning relative situations and talks between the parties. The first, usually, was telling where they first met, followed by what he said to her, what she said to him, what the world said about them, and so on to the last, who told the consequences. This was quite a popular play. Incon¬ gruities, mostly absurd as possible, running through the history were often very humorous. Say the page ran thus : James Reeder. Susan Reynolds. They met in a brier patch. He said “ Did you all have waffles for breakfast ? ” “I’ll think of your proposal, and answer definitely later.” “It’s some cooler than it was yesterday.” “You are very much mistaken.” “You are handsomer than I was told.” “How this world is given to lying!” “The world said, ‘She might do well, and then again she mightn’t.’” Consequences: “A great deal of talk, but no cider.” Fishing. — In this play one, say a girl, stood in the floor holding a handkerchief by a corner, and bobbed it up and down as a fisherman does with hook and line. The others, fishes for the time being, went up and timidly touched the lower corner between thumb and finger. If he were not the one for whom she was specially angling, she jerked it away, and his disappointment, real or feigned, always begat merriment. When the favored boy bit she let the handkerchief fall into his hands and, if he were not too big, gave him a kiss. Then he whispered in her ear the name of the fish he would select. This afforded much fun for the girls and little boys, the latter especially, because of the kisses they got from the grown girls, whom they would have preferred to girls of their own age, even if these had con¬ sented. What fun to the large boys was the witness of others’ disappointment at denials. In this all the girls, big and little, heartily participated, as well as the teasing of the big by the little boys with words pretendingly compassionate, as that if they only knew or even dreamed of what they had missed they would look even more sorrowful than they looked already. A play so near being one-sided the large 850 EDUCATION REPORT, 18S5-96. "boys ere long urged to be changed to another that was more general in dispensing enjoyment. The foregoing constitute the principal games or, as they were almost always called, “plays” that obtaiued among the youth of the simple people. Those of higher-sounding names, such as “The bells of London,” “The Prussian exercise,” “'Dressing the lady,” “The throne of compliments,” and their likes in the old country were unknown to them; nor were such as dominoes, games with historical cards, educational toys, croquet, calisthenics, charades, enigmas, rebuses. The pleasure gotten from those in their circle was abundantly sufficient. Set evening parties vrere not very frequent, because of the inconvenience of carrying and fetching the guests at night and the necessary lateness of the hours of retirement of these and the families at home. Yet when come to marriageable age they vrere frequent enough. The hour of assembling was “candle light,” and they seldom lasted as long as 10 o’clock, an hour later than usual bedtime. In the frequent dinings, or rather “ spending- the-days,” children had other lesser reunions. Added to this they were sometimes allowed to “go home” with one another for a night during the period of school time. Singing schools. — A much-favored occasion for the meeting of youths of both sexes was at singing schools. Instrumental music during this period may as Avell be said to have been none or thereabout. It was before the time of the piano. Both the ruling religious denom¬ inations, in their proscription of the dance, virtually included the fiddle, its chief inspirer and indispensable concomitant. Now and then one got him a flute, but the emotion produced by the flute played by itself without other accompaniment, even when at its best, is rather negative, of a kind that suggests, even appears to yearn for something better. Of course it did never come to its best in such a society, or any¬ where within the neighborhood of it. The face of a flutist and the attitude of his upper limbs at first view seem rather pathetic, from the sad drooping of the former and the apparent beseeching of the latter. These, when the sounds produced by them are common and less than common, might excite compassion except from the fact that sense of the ridiculous gets in before it and keeps it out. Many a man and many a woman, good and pious as any, regretted that their church discipline imposed silence upon the fiddle, yet they honorably held to observance of the precept to abstain from anything likely or decided to be likely to cause others to offend. And so that rural people could not but content themselves with such music as was poured from their own and other singers’ throats, and a heartier and more spirit comforting has seldom been heard in castle or palace than in country meetinghouse and cot¬ tage. In earliest years children learned from their mothers hymns and ballad songs, which were sung often with marvelous melodiousness. Singing schools became notable institutions, being greater favorites in inverse ratio to the amount of culture in the community. Often, however, young persons, male and female, of the better sort, attended but mainly for the sake of a morning or afternoon’s recreation and willingness to help the teacher in eking out his preca¬ rious livelihood. The singing-school teacher, like the old-field schoolmaster, was unique, unpractical, and generally unfit for other employment. He made up his classes in communities extending over perhaps two or three counties, giving weekly or semiweekly lessons, twenty-four in number, at a dollar for each pupil. These were usually at the church or the schoolhouse. The pupils, of whatever ages and numbers, were all put into one class and drilled in what most of them already knew, the hymns contained in the hymn books. It was of some advantage, of course, to get the rudiments of singing by the four notes then used — mi, fa, sol, la, and to have the voice strengthened by singing in chorus; and these were about all. Trifling as the tuition fee was, it paid reasonably well for the average education gotten by it. It was amusing to note the exalted ideas held by the teacher of the greatness of his art, evinced by the solemn circumstantiality of his announcements and direc¬ tions as, with both hands high lifted, working up and down, he walked or rather EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 851 marched alternately before his three sections, treble, tenor, andbass. In t lie intervals, after mopping his face with his handkerchief, with ever-smiling countenance, he com¬ mented upon the last performance, expressing delight at the rapidity with which everybody was improving. There were always one or two who had no more of voice or ear for music than a calf or a handsaw. It might be a boy of 14 with what they called his “goslin squeal” on him, or one born without an atom of music in his soul. Yet it would not have suited in any sort of Aviso to scold or severely criticise. He might get a friendly request to try to “pearten up ” a little on his A’s or his D’s, so he could be “ unanimous ” with the rest on the last note. Ludicrous to the last degree were the efforts of such a singer, mostly serious yet occasionally out of pure desperate fun, to make satisfactory compliance with this request. At such times, of those who understood their business some would frown and stick their fingers in their ears, or pause for a few shakes of irrepressible silent laughter with handker¬ chiefs stuffed into their throats, but afterwards, intent upon decorum, make up by yet higher and more gushing strains. Not every teacher was himself possessed of voice suited to good singing. Educated musicians recognize of course that this is not at all essential to competent teaching. Yet on one occasion it served the purpose of a plea to an action in one of the courts of the State. This case used to be rehearsed with much humor many years ago in a company of gentlemen by Joseph Henry Lumpkin, late chief justice of the supreme court. It was thus: An old gentleman, close, yet meaning to be honest in all his ways of saving and increasing his very moderate estate, was persuaded, much against his will and j udgment, by three of his children, to let them enter a singing school. They were supported by their mother, a faithful church member, who took it much to heart that not even a simple hymn could be decently sung by a single member of the family. The father maintained that singing was not in the family at the start, and in his opinion if it wasn’t in them then it could never get there afterwards. But he was pre¬ vailed upon, and the children punctually attended every lesson, from beginning to end of the term, when, as the father contended, and the jioor mother had to admit, that, if anything, singing was farther off from that family than ever before, and he flatly refused to pay the teacher’s bill of $3. To the latter’s threats to sue, he answered that he might sue and welcome, just as soon as it suited him. Action was speedily brought in the court of the district justice of the peace. It seems almost a pity that not more of the rulings of those old-time judicial magistrates "were handed down. Their jurisdiction on money claims extended to $30, and issues of fact were decided by a jury of five. The office, somewhat like that of the schoolmaster, was sought by none except from that sort who were unfit for any other calling, and whose love of notoriety was quite above their learning. and capacity. It was often amusing to see what turn the judicial mind sometimes felt itself called on to take. In this particular case the defendant was aided by a young man who at odd times was reading Black- stone’s Commentaries with some hope of being a lawyer. Such men, or any others, could practice in justices’ courts without license. This one put in a plea of “failure of consideration,” in that the services rendered by the plaintiff were wholly without value to the defendant, and because the said plaintiff did not do and was not com¬ petent to do himself what he undertook and promised to teach others to do; that he did not teach defendant’s children to sing, and could not do so because he knew not how to sing himself. The plaintiff proved his case by several witnesses and submitted to the court. Defendant’s counsel, in his opening speech, announced that maxim in the law requir¬ ing that in all issues of fact the very best evidence possible to be obtained should be adduced. His honor was assured that that long-established dictum was well known to all courts, including the honorable court before which he now stood. Then in proof, in best proof, of the justice of the defendant’s plea, counsel would respectfully claim that the plaintiff be required by the honorable court to sing, if 852 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. he conlcl, any song that he might choose to undertake. The plaintiff seemed appalled and disgusted, and the bystanders looked at one another, silently asking if such as that was so or not so. After revolving the subject for a few minutes with solemnest, severest scrutiny, plaintiff was ordered to rise and do his best. In vain he pleaded to be excused, on one and another ground — absence of all expectation, incipience of cold, matter of his singing having nothing to do in the case, etc. Yet not daring to disobey the order, he lifted up what voice he had and began. Before he had gotten through the first stanza the court, putting one hand upon his ear, and with the other taking up his pen for the entry on his docket, said mournfully yet firmly : “ That’ll do. For the good Lord’s sake, that’ll do! The plaintiff has proved the case against his own self, and he is onsuited.” SUNDAY MEETING DAYS. The longer a man reflects upon it the more just and reasonable seems the remark of a great divine (Dr. Chalmers, if rightly remembered), that the vices springing out of a single campaign of a great army are more numerous than those from all other sources during a whole generation. In the beginning of war prayerful per¬ sons, including many who are not so, become more instant and earnest in invocations to the Deity to forefend or to shorten and mitigate apprehended disasters. As the struggle goes on and becomes intensified with suffering of various sorts, those least steadfast begin to suspect that Heaven either hears not or regards not their beseech- ings; and so the temptation is either to doubt the existence of any Almighty Power that takes cognizance of human affairs, or to regard it as hostile or at least indiffer¬ ent. And so in time, growing desperate, they become prone to indulgence of natural evil proclivities. Such is the case after long-continued devouring pestilences. Witness the plague in Florence in the period from 1328 out of whose desolation Boccaccio picked materials for the Decamerone. The war of Independence ended in the attainment of that for which it was waged, but it led to much license in moral conduct and indifference to religious obligations throughout the whole country. The duello for a time was frequent, as well on Boston Common as at Bladensburg and grounds farther South. Trust in an Almighty Being and Its merciful heed to continued humble supplication yet remained among women, but men in general in this region, so distant from enlightened centers, were sadly indifferent in the mat¬ ter of religious opinions and practices. In this state of things rose a set of young men, sons of devout women, whose mission, despite some extravagances natural to existing conditions, wrought speedy salutary changes. One thing that made the endeavors of those uncultured clergymen more efficacious was the partisan zeal with which they combated in support of their several forms of religious faith and dogma. In the absence of those of the Church of England, 1 1 Hostility to the British Government naturally involved the like to the Established Church. Of the few clergymen within the Province, supported as they had been by the Society for Propagating the Gospel in Forign Parts, some withdrew. In the convention of February, 1777, wherein the first constitution of the State of Georgia was ratified, one of the articles made clergymen ineligible to the legislature, another changed the names of the old parishes. The following is taken from Stevens’s History of Georgia, Yol. II, p. 299 : “ The old parish of Christ Church, in which was Savannah, and a part of the parish of St. Philip were set off as a new county and called Chatham, in honor of the elder Pitt, the venerable Earl of Chatham. The parishes of St. David and St. Patrick were created into one county and called Glynn, after the eminent counselor of that name. The parishes of St. Matthew and the upper part of St. Philip were to be known by the name of Effingham, after Lord Effingham, who had refused to employ his sword against the Americans, and resigned the colonelcy of the T wenty- second Regiment rather than serve with it in the war of the Devolution. To the parish of St. Paul, in which Augusta was situated, was given the name of Richmond, in honor of the Duke of Richmond, who had boldly advocated the cause of America in the House of Lords. The parish of St. George was named Burke, after that great commoner and wise statesman. The parishes of St. John, St. Andrew, and St. James were to form one county, under the name of Liberty, a distinction awarded to the parish of St. John for its early and steady devotion to the cause of freedom. The parishes of St. Thomas and St. Mary were to constitute another county, by the name of Camden, after the distinguished lord chancellor of England and firm friend of America. EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 853 Baptists and Methodists strenuously sought to establish each their own, the former ■wholly independent of the mother church, the other at first claiming to be a society within its fold instituted for the purpose of developing a more fervent devoutness than that which had seemed to become habitual not only among the laity but the priesthood. The Methodists at that time, following the example and the words of Wesley, claimed to be not a church, but a society in the old church. The disputa¬ tions between the two denominations were often quite acrimonious ; occasionally, when conducted by men of unusually limited education and understanding, quite ridiculous. Yet among the leaders were a few men of large abilities, as Lovick Pierce, Hope Hull, and Bishop Andrew of the Methodists, and Jesse Mercer and the Mar¬ shalls among the Baptists. In these disputations, wherein examples of pious living were necessary to the most earnest and eloquent argumentation each must so ordi¬ nate its discipline as to advance its claim to be fashioned by that set up by the disci¬ ples of our Lord. They thus became, as it were, rivals in denunciating certain habits and customs which of old time were regarded, if not entirely innocent, at least venial. But now such as dancing, card playing, horse racing, even moderate use of what they called “cuss words ” were branded as moral sins, whose last end was subjection to endless fire and brimstone. In none of this warfare was a spirit of cant. Clergymen of both parties were men who, of whatever degree of fitness for public preaching, led upright lives, earnestly desiring the weal of others and honestly believing their teachings to be in accord with the will and the instructions of the Master whom they strove to serve with all their heart. From such endeavors, helped on by such examples, blessing must always come. They served at least to moderate excesses, and, what was more, to crush out the infidelity which, among other misfortunes, the war had produced. In that later generation, if any at all, might be counted on one’s fingers the number of those who did not believe in God and the incarnation of Christ. Public religious services were held only once a month, on a stated Sunday, prefa¬ tory to which, on the day previous, church members were expected to meet their pastor at the church. After a sermon he descended from the pulpit, took a chair at its base, and, not as pastor but as presiding officer (styled moderator) of the monthly conference, called the members to order for the transaction of business. This con¬ sisted mainly in the hearing and settling of misunderstandings between individ¬ uals of the congregation, reception of new members, examination of charges against delinquents, expulsions when found guilty of conduct unchristian or otherwise violative of denominational rules. These were Baptists, who in rural districts far outnumbered the Methodists, although the latter had corresponding advantage in villages. It was curious the variety of issues that were discussed in this Saturday confer¬ ence. The denomination believed literally in the injunction against Christians going to law with one another for the settlement of business disputes, and while they did not inquire officially or interfere in those in families, yet they did not hesi¬ tate to act upon them when brought to their notice by an individual party. Even a husband or a wife was liable to be summoned, provided (otherwise not) they were both church members. Every separate congregation was an entirely independent body, and democratic in its constitution. The pastor had no power except as pre¬ siding officer. Questions were decided by vote of the male members, which in some cases, particularly in the admission of new members, must be unanimous. In cases more than ordinarily difficult of settlement, invitations were extended to other con¬ gregations to send delegates to assist in the discussion, but these were advisory only and not allowed to vote. In one of the old counties was a case of this kind, where the preliminary issue was whether a witness who was not a church member, however credible and otherwise competent, should be allowed to testify for or against one who was. After repeated meetings of conference, some of which were extended to four or five hours, and assisted by delegates from sister churches, it was decided 854 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-98. in the negative. The main issue was between a mother-in-law and a daughter-in-law. Another was of an old husband, for many years a leading member, who instituted a charge of disobedience against his old wife because, contrary to the express injunctions of the Apostle Paul upon all wives, she had flatly refused at his orders to break away from the home whereat they had lived in reasonable contentment for fifty years and follow after him, who had lately taken up the resolve to move into another county. The issue, through management of the most thoughtful among the members, was not allowed to come to trial, the complainant being dissuaded from his unreasonable demands. Singular as this court was, sometimes rather laughable for the eccentricities in both trials and judgments, it settled many disputes that otherwise might have been prolonged and ended in unhappy results. It served to make parties to business transactions more fair and circumspect, and it further served to render less wide open (occasionally to shut) the mouths of the gossip and the busybody. Young members, who were in attendance because, rather than for better reasons, they were obliged to be at roll call or render a satisfactory excuse a month hence, used to have their patience sorely tried at what to them seemed useless discussions, which their elders thought well often to prolong until the fast-descending sun gave warning that dusk was near at hand. Some of the women, young and old, although without vote or speech unless when called upon to defend themselves or testify for others, rather liked them, as it was the only opportunity extended to them of listening to speechi¬ fying of other sort than a sermon. But Sundays! Few scenes were more interesting than gatherings on Sunday meeting days. Persons dwelling within a circle of 6 and 7 miles’ radius were sure to attend unless prevented by providential or other insurmountable hindrances — men, women, children, nursing babies, all. The few who owned family carriages put their wives and youngest children in them ; the same with gigs and other humble vehicles drawn by one horse. Fathers and grown-up sons and daughters traveled on horseback. Those without any of these went on foot. But this was almost never. Carriage horses, gig horses, saddle horses, plow horses, mares with young colts, and mules bore the throngs along the highways, whose clouds of red dust in summer time busied fans all the day and brushes for many minutes after the return home. Almost none would have been content to be left out of these monthly pro¬ cessions. Even the colts and mules exhibited much interest, the former in dashing along in all conjunctions with the grown-up horses, while their dams kept up unre¬ mitting whickerings in apprehension of harm to their reckless coursings, and in occasional answering to the call, giving signs of wishing to take brief luncheons, and then, finding things not ready, dashing off again, never with idea as to whither their legs would take them; and the mules, eternally braying, their sorrowful com¬ plainings sounding as if they were inquiring what was the purpose of all this ado, and what, if anything, was to come of it. It was a sight to move a good man’s heart to see the shifts that the humblest had to make to avoid being cut out of enjoy¬ ment of the sweets of this, which, no matter of what color the others, was a white day in the month. Good women, of whatever degree of property, would have felt keenly the hardship of comjmlsory detention at home by young children or other hin¬ drances. Often a family of several made the trip in this wise : On the back of a mare, followed by her colt, rode the head of the family ; on the pommel of the saddle, his hands holding to the mane, rode the youngest but one; behind, on the saddle blanket, rode the next older. On another mare, accompanied by her offspring, sat the wife; alternately on her knee and her arm was the latest born, and behind was the oldest of the four, boy or girl, as (in the language of the law) the case might be. Bound to get to meeting somehow, they were thankful for this in absence of more convenient and showy conveyance. No housewife was without one nice gown and fit accompaniments for the occasion. Perhaps a majority owned at least one black silk, whose service was extended through many seasons. This “ Sunday EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 855 frock/’ no sooner liad the "wearer returned home, was removed, carefully dusted, scrupulously folded, and tenderly laid in a chest, wherein, from time to time, wero sprinkled fresh layers of rose petals, leaves of apple, thyme, and lavender. Its companions wero a glistening pair of prunellas, wrapped in soft paper, the long white embroidered cape, a tortoise-shell comb, elaborately hemstitched handker¬ chiefs, starched petticoats, “ bought” stockings, gloves, and ribbons. On a shelf, high above, a bandbox held the leghorn bonnet or green calash, resting upon which was a fan made from a turkey tail or two wings of the white heron. There these dwelt in silence until the next meeting day in course. Arrived at the meetinghouse, with its oak grovo of several acres spotted with horse blocks for convenience of feminine equestrians, all alighted, fastened their beasts, and then in twos or more made for the spring at the foot of the hill. By the time of returning, the preacher entered the house followed by the others. On one side of the long, broad middle aisle, to which two others somewhat narrower ran parallel, sat the women, the men on the other. Yery young boy children were allowed to sit with their mothers for the sake of more efficient care of them when overtaken by somnolence during the invariably long sermon. Nursing children were usually kept by their nurses outside in the shadow of the trees, but were brought in without hesitation to their mothers when in need of nourishment. The cry of one of them in church occasioned no surprise and little discomfort, as it was only a brief while till the mother rose, or the listening nurse came in and took it away. The congregation diminished in devotional feeling with the increase of distance from the pulpit. If the younger and more volatile was a boy, the more he was apt to make for a back seat, unless forewarned against it by parents. There they could ogle their sweethearts, take naps in less notice, and in waking moments seek immor¬ tality, at least for the initials of their names, by cutting them on the benches. Sing¬ ing was always by the congregation, the clergyman lining the hymns. Indistinct¬ ness of hearing the words made little impediment to the heartiness with which they were sung. Of singing that inspired the heart, it is not often that one was sounded more genuinely sweet and musical than this. Enjoyment was so heartfelt that more often than otherwise the two concluding lines of the last stanza were repeated. One who has long survived such scenes recalls them with much fondness ; sights and sounds, gentle waving of fans and handkerchiefs, humble, fervent prayers, sermons long, yet burning with unction, songs in multitudinous chorus of spirit and under¬ standing, among smells wafted from simply perfumed vestments all whose exquisite sweetness, seemingly a part of the worship of the Almighty, passed with his youth to return no more. It is no less than wonder to recall the benign results of these meetings conducted by unlettered men, most of them planters. Some of these, although not scholarly, were of excellent understanding. Because of this, and their good reputation and influence, they were chosen by their denominations, and the choice was ratified, inasmuch that almost always- without exception the leaders fully trusted that the “calls” which they claimed to have gotten from divine sources were sent. Yet occa¬ sionally was a curious specimen, so much so as left many to suspect that those calls to which they responded so promptly were intended for somebody else. Those men could manage to string along scripture texts and common platitudes through an hour, and an hour and a quarter, and then backdown with apparent regret that their voices and physical strength and the attention of their hearers forbade fur¬ ther elaboration of the heavenly delightful theme. Some of such men, to the last degree upright in character and blameless in deportment, wholly unconscious of their unfitness for expounding the Holy Scriptures, held on through periods of thirty, forty, fifty years, delivering about the same sermon on texts extending from the beginning of Genesis to the end of Revelations. In those periods thousands on thousands were brought into the Church, to live thereafter lives as free from reproach as could be found anywhere. Every congregation of course had its own pastor, who 856 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. generally served as many as four, giving to each one Sunday and the foregoing Sat¬ urday. The pecuniary compensation paid for such service was surprisingly small. Sometimes the clergymen were possessed of more means, as they were more intelli¬ gent than their flocks. Such men expected little if any compensation, and no assess¬ ment was had in any case ; members when contributing at all doing so according to their several degrees of liberality and sense of proper obligation. The lesser lights who had no stated engagements, at intervals, when the work on their little farms did not overpress, took their jades from the plow, and, sending to the denominational weekly paper lists of appointments, were wont to sally forth on a fortnight’s mis¬ sionary tour, taking in besides meetinghouses a few of those of prominent brethren along the way. During this journey, in which they never would have been allowed to pay out a cent if they had had one in their pockets on leaving home, small sums at each meeting were silently made up, garments newly made of domestic produce and manufacture, amounting to full suits, were bestowed by good women, their beasts got shoeing and were well fed and cared for generally, and both were happy and thankful when, with their several accretions of fat and sleek, they got back home again. Yet, however interesting these public exercises were to most of the congregation, with the younger sort they did not equal the scenes to take place when they were over and the congregation dismissed. It was many minutes before began disper¬ sion. Men, more especially women, who dwelt so far apart as to meet only on these occasions, lingered to shake hands, ask and answer questions about family and neighborhood happenings, exchange congratulations of babies’ looks, commenda¬ tions of their behavior during the services, or excuses and apologies when it had not been of the best. Yet beyond these were the opportunities, the very best of all, for courtships. Rapid and animated were the rivalries among young men and boys to become escorts of girls on the return. Permission if not granted before was quickly begged at the door. Seldom a girl rode back with her father or mother or brother. Another, a declared beau, or not, went for her and his own nags, with which, meet¬ ing her at one of the horse blocks, seating her, and mounting his own, together they started on the ride to her home, he always on the left, she on the right. The gait at which travel was made depended in some measure on the interest she felt in his soci¬ ety. They looked their best and had on their best things. It would have been gross neglect of hospitable duty on reaching her home not to invite the escort to alight and remain for dinner. It is probable that a majority of marriage engagements in rural regions three-quarters of a century ago dated from those horseback rides in couples on Sunday meeting days. In such courtships, ardent as brief, brief as ardent, lovers had the advantage which some critics ascribe to Romeo in his suit to Juliet in that the latter was not his first love. The argument is that the conquest of Juliet so quickly after first sight and approach might have subtracted from our respect for her delicacy in being too easily won. To prevent this Shakespeare gave to Romeo an experience which was of infinite service in his present suit ; this was to make him in love first with Rosaline, in pursuit of whom he had learned what of courtly words and manners do not suit, and striven to acquire those that do. After Rosaline was lost he knew better, than without her help he would have known, how to woo the daughter of Capulet. Whatever was of importance in such preliminaries, an old-time Georgia boy not more than one in a hundred times was without them. At 13 or 14, sometimes less, he imagined himself in love, and it was nearly always with a female already mar- riagable. As he grew older, and at a rate whose slowness was disgusting to himself, his aspirations became more reasonable, and he studied carefully how to talk and behave, when in fit season he became a lover in earnest. Along highways leading between those country meetinghouses and the homes of marriagable girls, lovers through several generations of long ago told their passion and pleaded their pleas. Their language was not gotten from Shakespeare and Spenser, with whom they had EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 857 not mad© acquaintance, but many a tender morsel from the Mysteries of Udolpho and Children of the Abbey was rolled under aud from the tongue. Those to whom they were addressed listened with smiles, never with chiding, and not often with answer in kindred phrase. If this did not win in one case it was sure, unless too oddly and inaptly mixed, to win somewhere else. Ludicrous to the last degree as some of these courtships were, they abounded not less in heartiness ; and whatever the results were to be, prompt were the announcements. Such things as unneces¬ sary delays suited no occasion, either in business engrossments or in romance. Among a people whose educational opportunities and the periods of using them were within such narrow limitations eaTly marriages must prevail. Two or three years’ schooling, strung along as it usually was in several installments through five and six, was, in general, the limit. After this boys of 17 and 18 and girls of 14 and 15 went to steady work on their several lines. By the time the former reached legal majority they were either married or, as was generally decided, they ought to be before very long. By this time, often two or three years before, that matter, pro¬ vided parents assented, had been settled. Indeed, silent understandings to mate were often had during school time between lads of 15 and lasses a little younger. Every boy and girl within a narrow circle knew every girl and boy therein and none besides, and so their mating, like birds in the wood, began with attainment of puberty ; and all, of whatever property condition, must have public solemnization. None other than runaway matches took place at other hour than candlelight. Cards of invitation were never or rarely ever issued. When the date was agreed upon (almost always a Tuesday or a Thursday), it became known to everybody in the neighborhood in a day or two, and the bride’s father or mother, on occasions of meeting such of their acquaintances as they wished to attend, gave verbal invita¬ tions that often included the whole family. From the date of the engagement to this the interval was brief. The universal sentiment of the community favored this. “If you are going to marry, marry,” were the words of friends and relations, even parents, with additions such as these: “Don’t be dangling along until people get tired of talking about you, and you get tired of talking about yourselves and each other.” The bridegroom was always for an early day. To the bride it often seemed more delicate to have to be persuaded. With all of the romance, all, old and young, recognized the seriousness of the business part, for the couple, no matter in what condition born and reared, were expected after thirty-six hours to go to work like other people. The wedding. — Before sunset guests commenced to assemble. Ladies after alight¬ ing went into the house, and some busied themselves with assisting the bride to robe and the mother in preparing the supper table. The men, after tying their horses to horseshoes, swinging limbs of trees, and fence corners, assembled in the front yard and discussed neighborhood topics and the prospects of the couple. Lighting of candles was the signal that the great eventful moment was approaching. Outsiders hurried in without delay, each with aim to get as nigh the couple as possible, with special intent to see how the bride was standing the “racket.” Of course they were sure the bridegroom was all right, and, as they often expressed it, “bold as a sheep.” The first to enter were two little girls bearing candles in candlesticks burnished to all possible brightness. These were for the preacher to read clearly the license author¬ izing his part of the business. As they approached they separated, turned, and he rose and stood between them. The ceremony was brief in the midst of solemnity as profound as that at a funeral. At the close the preacher bestowed a few words of counsel, generally, if he were not wholly without humor, ending about thus : “There are two times when a married woman ought to stay at home ; one is when her husband is away from home.” Waiting a moment or so for her to take this all in, he added: “The other is when her husband is at home.” Then rose laughter from all mouths, for the jeu d’esprit, although old as the oldest, was ever new for the many things it was meant to let go. All, oldest and youngest, highest and humblest, shook hands 858 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. and spoke hearty congratulations. When these, over and over again repeated, were passed, then the supper. From houses miles and miles around had been borrowed knives and forks, glasses and crockery, chairs, and syllabub stands. If tables could groan, as some poet imagined, the grief of those beneath old-time wedding suppers must have been wholly disconsolate what time they were made to stand and endure. The strongest (indeed, if it could be called strong) drink was syllabub, a froth made of sweet wine and whipped white of eggs. With those experienced in grog and sweetened dram, it required tumblers on tumblers to help down the quantities on quantities of good eatables. At furthest, by 10 o’clock guests were departed, and in a few minutes longer the family, with its new addition, retired. Ye't, in all this gay assemblage of country folk usually, at least quite often, there was one whose feeling it was touching to note, one who not always, indeed who rather seldom, appeared elsewhere than in the dining room, and not always there unless there were not another on whom with entire trust she could devolve super¬ intendence. To her the loud, merry chattings and laughter imparted sadness whose relief was silent prayer and tears. Consent to the match, however unreserved, hopes for the bride, however abounding, her prospects however bright in the seeming, the addition of the bridegroom, however welcome, were not enough for the mother in the beginning of that period of change and separation. It was inevitable, yet upon the goer and her new guide it was a benediction. Inf are. — Next day came the infare, dining (if not at convenient distance apart) of both families together at the house of the bridegroom’s parents. It was pleasant to note the ideas of the complete coalescence of the two young persons united in one according to the laws of the Creator and the State. That the union was to con¬ tinue throughout their joint life none ever had a doubt, for this was regarded as one life, ever inseparable except by the hand of Him who had ratified and consecrated it. There is yet, here and there, living a man or woman who remembers the first libel (as the suit was named in the laws) for divorce in the State, and the sentiment of awe and repugnance with which its publication was met by all classes. It was brought in another portion of the State, and even to this date has had few successors in middle Georgia. After the infare the newly married were expected to repair to the home provided for them. Henceforth the wife wore upon her head a white cap, both abroad and at home. Almost without variation her domestic work was inaugurated by cutting and making, without assistance from any other, a shirt for her husband. Any bride? however young, would have felt ashamed of incompetence for this task, preliminary to the others to come in married existence. In this and the foregoing chapter the writer has endeavored to give sketches, as faithful as possible, from his own and his elders’ reminiscences of the early school and vacation life of boyhood and girlhood in middle Georgia, and of their passing into manhood and womanhood, to be speedily followed by marriage. Brief and simple as were the preliminaries to this last consummation, it was done with sense of all its responsibility and the vicissitudes to be strewn along the unseen way before those who, with joined hands, were starting upon it, yet in cheerful hope of obtaining the goods allowed to be expected by the upright and industrious. II. — Academies. The period from the old to the new was not long. The peculiar conditions of that early society, described in the first of this series of papers, soon made apparent to the common sort — what had been all along in the minds of the upper — that educa¬ tion of a higher grade than that gotten from the old-field schools must be provided for youth. The one to give embodiment to the sentiments of the people of this and all regions of the State in that behalf was a young man newly come from Connecti¬ cut, of which he was a native — Abram Baldwin. But consideration of him and his EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 859 . work must be postponed to a subsequent part of tliis chapter, in which some account will he given of the founding of the State University. In this will he noticed the earliest academies, the rise of which was hastened by the efforts exerted by him upon a more extended field. It will appear hereafter how wise and henign were his endeavors, and that they fell short of fulfillment because of his premature death and the lack of other equally competent leadership. At the very beginning of legislative movements toward education, movements which, as will be noted hereafter, were on the wisest, most liberal scale, the country beyond the Oconee River, the western boundary of middle Georgia, was occupied by Indians. The State was without available resources, yet, foreseeing that in time these would become vast, it began to lay foundations on which to build as these should materialize. Those movements began in 1785. The following year, at a place called Shoulderbone, in Hancock County, on the hither side of the river, a treaty was made with the Creek Indians. This did not prevent an occasional mur¬ derous irruption into that and Greene, the adjoining county. Yet, thirty years later, in 1815, an academy was incorporated in the village of Powelton, about 25 miles, and not long after another at Mount Zion, in the same county, 15 miles, east of that river. Within a short while these two academies rose to a degree of success and efficiency that in some respects have not heen surpassed by any others since risen in the State. A number of planters, of well-descended ancestry in the older States, cordially joined by others who had become developed in thoughtfulness and intelli¬ gence by contact with them, having accumulated property to justify the proceeding, contributed to erect in these villages large and commodious buildings, and then, through advertising in Northern journals and by correspondence, succeeded in secur¬ ing teachers of the highest degree of competence. Several of these planters, leaving their plantations to the management of supervisors, moved their residences into the villages for the greater convenience of schooling and for supplying board to the youth who, as they foresaw, would be sent from other communities. The teachers, without exception, came from New England. More conspicuous in that regard than all others was Vermont, to which, three-quarters of a century ago, middle Georgia became bound in a debt of gratitude which it has always gratefully admitted. A series of men, all of whom, with one exception, were natives of Vermont and alumni of Middlehury College, came to these two villages wherein they put and conducted academical instruction on a scale equal to any at that period in the whole North. The one exception was Salem Town, a native of Belchertown, Mass., where he was born in 1779. For several years he was master of the Powelton Academy, which in time rose to have near 150 pupils, more in number than the inhabitants, white and black. Boys and girls in the neighborhood as far a3 3 and 4 miles outward, on foot, on horseback, some in vehicles called Jersey wagons, came from home; others from distant communities in that and other counties near and remote attended as hoarders. A very large number of those who afterwards rose to distinguished positions were educated by him. He was destined to become far more famous as an author. In answer to a work appearing in 1822 entitled System of Spec¬ ulative Masonry, he published in 1828 Reviewed in Freemasonry, Its Pretensions Exposed, etc. During the time he remained in Powelton, he taught orally the prin¬ ciples which afterwards (in 1836) were published in that well-known volume. Town’s Analysis of the Derivative Words in the English Language. Admission of this fact appears in the preface to the book, which has run through many, very many editions, and which is still used by many teachers. Before the publication, he returned to the North, and for forty years longer taught in the State of New Y"ork. Here he wrote and published other school hooks, as Grammar School Reader, a series of readers, Speller and Definer, Chart of Elementary Sounds, Speaker and Reader, and several more besides. Allibone, in his Dictionary of Authors, says : “Of the readers, more than 1,500,000, and of the Speller and Definer, nearly 150,000 copies were issued (in Boston) in three years, 1857-1860. The series is recommended 860 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. by more than 1,000 authorities.” Below this occurs the following note: “Over. 1,000,000 copies of Town and Holbrook’s Progressive Series, published by Oliver Ellsworth, of Boston, are printed yearly.” (Amer. Lit. Gaz., Sept. 15, 1864.) In this, the first academy of much note in that region, it was remarkable the interest taken by the people without distinction of class. A society democratic from the beginning, in which the humblest were made to indulge aspirations equal to the best, came forward in support of what became soon the object of its chief pride. Treated as equals in the old-field schools, and to a degree of equality in social life, youth of both sexes' changed to the academy with assurance of like enjoy¬ ment of freedom in the larger opportunities put within their reach. Even those of straitened means dwelling at a distance were able by some straining to meet the small expenses of board and tuition. The former, abundant and excellent, includ¬ ing lodging and laundering, was gotten for $8 and $10 a month. Tuition was $8, $12, and $16 for a term of twenty-two weeks, which was as sure to run through its whole length as the sun to continue to give his light by day. A little more than $100 would carry a pupil, even in classes most advanced, through the entire scholastic year of forty-four weeks. It has always seemed strange, and no less unfair, that teachers in schools among modern peoples, even those most accomplished and competent, have been paid for their services fees so little when compared with those received in other professions. Certainly, the work of a capable master of a school who has been made entirely qualified for it, who well understands all of its many duties and responsibilities, and who honorably devotes himself to the performance of them, the greatest and the least, is of very highest importance, and perhaps is of all, when thus considered, the one most exhausting to health of body, mind, and spirit. A dollar a month in the old-field schools was in most cases as much as the service therein rendered was worth, and the laborer escaped such exhaustion by never overworking himself, either in the preparation or cultivation of the one little field rented to him, and by his frequent outings, when his portion of the gathered crop was unsatisfactory to the owner, and he went away in search of another. What exhaustion was in him other than that in a natural way wrought by time coexisted with the beginning of his professional career. It was not possible for him to dwindle into a smaller com¬ pass than that in which, at his start, he was inclosed. Like some insects, he was as big at his birth as he ever became afterwards. That compensation for the services of such a man as Salem Town would seem more strangely inadequate to the work done if it had not been general throughout the whole country, and if it had not received so little increase down to this date. Workers in other professions are paid according to the comparative worth of their professional services, and the comparative importance of the ends for which they are employed, little to the untried and the ordinary, larger to the experienced and the distinguished; but teachers for the most part must be content with graded pay, beginning low, and never rising high.1 Yet, with a commuuity in a most fertile 1In ancient Athens difference between the lowest and highest grades was much. Masters of ele¬ mentary schools, besides being usually regarded with little respect, were paid next to nothing, while the rhetoricians and sophists demanded large sums. In Professor Becker's Charicles occurs the fol¬ lowing: “Advanced instruction was imparted by teachers of a higher order, the rhetoricians and sophists, whose charges only the rich could defray. Thus Aristippus demanded 1,000 drachmas (about $150 of our money) and, according to Plutarch, Isocrates required a like sum ; and when Demosthenes offered him 200, with the understanding to take only a fifth part of the course, he answered : ‘ * O Demos¬ thenes, we do not important work in pieces; as the finest fish are purchased whole, so I, if you wish to learn, must give you my full course.” That was a scene to be pictured by an artist, the poor, wheezing, stammering young Demosthenes applying for entrance into the school of the great Isocrates, whom Cicero compared to the Trojan wooden horse, because of the number of eminent G-reeks it had educated and poured out upon their country, and offering a fifth part of the fees for a fifth portion of the instruction. It was, however, a pardonable departure from the usual modesty of the illustrious rhetorician in reminding the boy by answering that the best fish in the market were not cut into slices for purchasers, but sold entire. Regarding the higher class of schools among the Romans, the same author, in Gallus, writes, “We EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 861 region, whose simple wants made comfortable living easy to he gotten, those fees were accepted by the best teachers without complaint or attempt to have them increased. Town’s successors for several years were without exception Vermonters — Baptists, and graduates of Middlebury College, Otis Smith, Lucius Whittle, and others. Of these the one to become most distinguished was the former, who was as prominent in the pulpit as at the head of the academy. Accorded the degree of doctor of divinity, he was for several years president of Mercer University, founded by the Baptists at Penfield, to which, with others of its kind, reference will be made hereafter. Lucius Whittle, perhaps as a scholar more erudite than his predecessor, unfortunately, as was believed from disappointment of his hope to marry a young lady, his country¬ woman and teacher of the classes in music, partially lost his understanding, left the school and the village, wandered to the West, and was never again heard from. Then, in 1835, came in a native Georgian, Simpson Fouche, long celebrated as a teacher and disciplinarian. For, by this time, the profession under the conduct of those New Englanders had been lifted above the repugnance created by their predecessors, the old-fielders. During all these years this school was coeducational. Boys and girls from 8 to 18 lived in the same families and recited in the same classes. In forenoons and after¬ noons they had their quarter of an hour’s recess alternately and their separate play¬ grounds. Besides occasional small gatherings at private houses, not seldom one was had for all in the long music hall of the academy, sometimes given by boys and girls alternately, and sometimes by both jointly, the former contributing bonbons pur¬ chased at the stores, and girls substantial from their mothers and hostesses. Two or three Saturdays in the spring fishing excursions made up of both sexes, with one of the townswomen for matron, were made to the Ogeechee River, a mile or so dis¬ tant, or they went nutting in the uncut woods or gathered berries in the fallowed fields. Despite the decay of the old village, lads and lasses yet repair to the same ground under the red oaks and hickories. The school has never had a blot upon the name it obtained and carried during the seasons of its greatest prosperity. From its foundation four score years ago, until now, when it is conducted by that excellent scholar and gentlemen, Prof. Samuel N. Chapman, it was never stained by a single scandal. Salutary have seemed always competitions among and between the two sexes. Associations permitted under guidance of a discipline which, both in school and in families, was no less prudent than generous, stimulated to emulation for high¬ est possible development of understanding, and for practice of best deportment among gentlemen and ladies. In the State of Georgia, and in the two States, its daughters, beyond the Chattahoochee, are to-day great numbers of descendants from happy unions, first thought of which, although not often yet put in words of solemn avowal, had their beginnings in class and other reunions at this time-honored school. About the same time, in the village of Mount Zion, 10 miles to the southwest, was begun another academy destined to become equally famous with that at Powelton, one of whose masters came to be more widely known than any other that ever taught in the State. He was Carlisle P., younger of the brothers Beman, who came to are not aware what the pay for tuition amounted to ; at all events, it varied a good deal, and in the elementary schools was very trifling.” (Juv., vii, 238.) It appears from this satire that Quintilian, the most illustrious rhetorician of his time, received what would he about $50 or $60 of our money . Quintilian gets and hardly gets ten pounds, On education all is grudged as lost, And sons are still a father’s lightest cost. Of the school of the poorer Palsemon, the poet ends his compassionate words thus: Where ropy vapours Virgil's pages soil, And Horace looks one blot, all soot and oil, Even then, the stipend thus reduced, thus small, Without a lawsuit rarely comes at all. (Gifford’s Translation.) 862 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Mount Zion, the leading citizens of which were Presbyterians. In their native State, Vermont, they were of the denomination of Congregationalists. As there were no congregations of these anywhere near by — perhaps nowhere in the State — they became affiliated with Presbyterians, from whom they differed in nowise except in the mat¬ ter of church government. The elder, Nathan, a man of highly brilliant parts, established his famous academy, but after some years returned to the North and resided for the remainder of his life in the upper portion of New York State. His second marriage was with the mother of the distinguished William L. Yancey, one of the principal leaders of the secession movement in the Southern States. The younger remained, like his brother, became a doctor of divinity, and although inferior to him as a divine, as a teacher, during more than forty years, became well known throughout the whole South. As large a number of distinguished men went out from this academy as from that in Powelton, nearly all of whom were taught by these two brothers. Carlisle for a few years was president of Oglethorpe University, founded at Midway by the Presbyterians, but, preferring to teach without super¬ intendence of trustees, he gave up this position, for some years conducted one at Lagrange, then returned to Mount Zion, where he continued to teach until he became an old man. Wherever he went pupils followed him. His school was large when he went into retirement. Like the rest of his countrymen who remained in the State, he became entirely devoted to its interests. Their descendants fought and some of them fell in the Confederate war. Within a few years afterwards Putnam County, immediately west from Hancock, with the Oconee River between, having been relieved of the Indians, another Ver¬ monter and Middlebury graduate came from Brattleboro and raised to high repute an academy just founded at Eatonton, the county seat. This was Alonzo Church. He had not been there long when he was made professor of mathematics and astronomy in the State University, afterwards its president, and so continued for thirty-five years, at the end of which advanced age and infirm health led him to resign. He was a man of commanding presence and courtly manners. He and his family were perhaps most efficacious of all in that beautiful town of Athens in imparting to its society a tone which was not surpassed by that of any village in the whole South. Its influence extended far and wide, particularly throughout the adjacent counties of middle Georgia. l"et later, about the year 1833, two academies for girls were founded and became justly famous, that of Sereno Taylor, another Vermonter, at Sparta, the county seat of Hancock, and that of Miss Brackett, a lady from Massachusetts, at Washington, the county seat of Wilkes. To these noted schools large numbers of girls came, not only from that and many other counties in the State, but from Alabama and Missis¬ sippi. Unfortunately, both of these institutions when at their highest suffered sorely from the departure of their principals — Mr. Taylor, from the pressure of debts con¬ tracted by too large expenditures in behalf of his academy, and Miss Brackett by marriage with Dr. Adams, a well-known Presbyterian divine, of Massachusetts. Neither of these schools were ever able to maintain afterwards the reputation and patronage before held by them. A rather curious circumstance served to weaken the hold of Mr. Taylor, particu¬ larly among the patrons near by, and it is another illustration of the hostility felt by both of the leading religious denominations for one musical instrument in par¬ ticular. The organ, the piano, the harp, and the seraphine had reasonably cordial welcome in the schools, and the piano in families. But the violin continued to be feared as before when the Baptist and Methodist divines first began to cry out against dancing, a sin which this instrument was suspected to have been devised by the evil spirit to encourage. Mr. Taylor, whose appointments in music, judging from the num¬ ber of excellent pianists who were educated therein, were perhaps more complete than those of any other school in the State, then and afterwards set high impor¬ tance upon the violin, which, although a Baptist clergyman, he himself played at his concerts, occasionally taking it with him even to the Baptist Church on Sunday EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 863 mornings when he was to preach. The members, few in numbers, while all of them did not approve, made little complaint, for the music was wholly of a devotional hind and of high 'excellence. Yet several rural denominations expressed serious objections, and one day a committee from some of them called at the academy and respectfully, yet seriously, remonstrated with the principal. He listened to their admonitions with his well-known amiability, made no promises, and when they were gone continued to do as he had done before. A rather unpractical person in mat¬ ters of business, the houses he built, the high salaries he paid to his assistants, and the numbers of musical instruments he purchased involved him in financial trouble, and the property holders of his own religious faith declining to come to his aid, he was obliged to suspend. Discipline in the academies of Powelton and Mount Zion in the case of girls, although firm and exacting, was regulated by moderation. The spirit of good lady¬ hood, with constant prudent oversight both of parent and teacher, aided by instinctive delicacy in shrinking from merited public exposure and censure, served to restrain the willful and excite even the indolent to emulation. The same can not be said in the case of boys. Rigor in the old fields, hard as it was sometimes, yet had inter¬ vals of respite, partly from caprice, partly from general senselessness and lack of earnestness in its inflictions, and partly from weariness in punishing, with seldom a pulsation of passion or principle, or recognition of need of its unresting continuance. But in those academies, notably at Mount Zion, Discipline (it merits a capital letter) in full armor strode along, never resting, never hasting, as Goethe says, ‘-'like a star.'7 To boys from 8 years to any number under legal majority, rules, and they were not very unreasonable, were put, punishment for violations of which when detected were as sure as from the unalterable laws of the Medes and Persians. The ferule disap¬ peared except for an accidental mild application upon the palms of little girls. But the hickory, long, sinewy, solid, keen, and wiry, was plied with vigor, understood to mean that this operation was one of pure, dutiful, solemn, indispensable business, omission or abatement of which was never to be thought of. It was meant to hurt the outside primarily, but also to push its way inside through thick and thin to whatever was or could be made sensitive to pain in the interior. Resistance was seldom offered, even by the biggest and most daring. Those masters were as intrepid as they were resolute in discharge of every tittle of what they regarded a duty which no brave, honorable man could shrink from. Besides, as in the older schools, they were sustained by parents, guardians, and the whole public. Many a youth of 17 and 18 was sent there mainly for the discipline, which was reputed to be stricter and stronger than that which he had been able to resist or parry else¬ where. Expulsions and withdrawals were almost none. The hickory was trusted to be better and more benign than the former, and when a boy betook himself away without leave and was brought back by his father its application was doubled, for the first offense and for the last. In a village with fewer inhabitants than students, this discipline was deemed necessary to extend itself outside the academy. The system tended doubtless to produce, by provoking it, unlicensed behavior, especially under cover of night. It was always surprising how little of this escaped detection, sometimes even in the midst of its perpetration. Those New Englanders seemed to have made a study of schoolboys, and found them out through and through. It was said that hardly ever a student was found able to withstand Dr. Beman’s searching examinations. Not that the mischief done was of a kind base or malevolent. It might be a game of playing cards, moderate circulating of a flask of whisky, lifting a vehicle from its running gear, a gate from its hinges, or a brace of fowls from the roost. Of these the one first named seemed to be regarded most atrocious. It seems now almost incredible how condignly this game was condemned by many, even intel¬ ligent and thoughtful persons. Struggling for leadership between the religious denominations led to anathemas of this with dancing, fiddling, chicken fighting, horse racing, and the like, that were common throughout that region thirty years before. Yet card playing, comparatively noiseless, held on to some sort of existence 864 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. in secret. Few children whose parents were church members or regular church¬ goers had ever seen a pack, and then only when wrested from the hands of an offender, white or black, for some negroes had learned the game of old 6ledge and were fond of indulging it on opportunities. Most of the merchants, from deference to general sentiment, did not keep them for sale ; the others compromised by warn¬ ing purchasers of their danger when used beyond moderation. Persons yet living can recall the awe yet also the fascination with which for the first, perhaps the only time during childhood they looked upon that long-haired, weighty-crowned, out¬ landish-vestured, bloody-eyed despot, the king, and that brazen-faced, loosely-clad female, the queen, possibly a portrait of the Scarlet Woman foretold by the holy prophets, and yet more, that flat-headed, red hatbanded, short-breeched, striped- stockinged, high-heeled-slippered monster, the jack. Surely, surely, this must be a picture of the bad man, although they could not remember ever to have been told that his name was Jack. Among crimes Jess than felonies, so to speak, yet punished with more or less severity according to frequency of recurrence and detection were the chewing and smoking of tobacco. Consequently few boys by the time they got into their teens had not learned to practice one or the other. It may seem curious that this system of espionage and unreasonable punishment obtained so long. It was practiced even in the State University, at least for a time, during the presidency of Dr. Moses P. Waddel, who had been for many years head master of the academy at Williston, S. C. In the Sketches of Athens, Ga., by Dr. Henry Hull, occurs the following : “His administration of the university was singularly successful. From the handful of students he found, the attendance increased to 100 or more, and for ten years, with wise counsel and inflexible discipline, he kept the institution ever advancing. He thought the students of the university not too good for correction, and used to whip them without compunction when he deemed the punishment needed. An entry in his diary, still extant, says: ‘Caught — chewing tobacco. Whipped him for it / ” Gen. Robert Toombs often told of his last day’s experience at the university when under Dr. Waddel. His guardian, Thomas W. Cobb, who was then a Senator of the United States, sent him to the university when he was about 14 years old. One night while he and another student were engaged in a game of cards in his room, the tutor, whose office it was to keep watch upon the occupants of the buildings, came upon them in the act. It so happened that Mr. Cobb, who lived in the adjoining county, was in Athens. Toombs knowing well that the tutor would report his find¬ ing the next day, and that at the afternoon meeting of the faculty he would be punished, repaired to Mr. Cobb’s room at the tavern near by, and reporting the cir¬ cumstances, prevailed upon him to send a letter to Dr. Waddel asking a dismissal. Next morning early he took the letter to the doctor's residence and got the desired paper. Later in the day, going forth and back during the removal of his goods, quite unexpectedly he met the doctor, who at once began to berate him for what he called “taking the advantage of him.” The boy cut him off in this wise: “Dr. Waddel, perhaps you do not know whom you are addressing in such language. I am not, as you seem to suppose, a student of this university, but a citizen of the State of Georgia.” Once, when Toombs had rehearsed the story at a village tavern in court week, one of the lawyers asked what reply was given? “I didn’t hear it,” answered Toombs, “ for I immediately turned away and made for the tavern and Mr. Cobb.” Many scenes, some of them desperate and well nigh tragic, used to be told of school and of college times in which teachers, although occasionally in great peril of life, yet Infused with intrepid resolution and supported by public opinion, prevailed. Truth is, that during that period occasionally was a youth who seemed to feel, like Achilles, that laws were not made for such as him. Such sentiments were exasperated by the existing policy. In time it passed away, and its results made people wonder that it could have continued so long. EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 865 As for the courses of studies iu those academies, they were as near being perfect as in any others in the whole country, South and North. Each pupil who was advanced beyond the first elements had three regular studies, never less, seldom more. Forenoon recitations in spelling, reading, and in grammar — English, Latin, and Greek — were not counted among these ; history, natural philosophy, and chem¬ istry were. Among the last mentioned chemistry was the favorite, and because of the peculiar way in which the text-book was constructed. There yet survive a few who recall with ease and even with fondness Mrs. Marcet’s Conversations on Chem¬ istry, of which, although an English production, more than 150,000 copies were sold in the United States. Many of the most eminent scholars gave high praise to it. Added to the accurate instruction imparted by it, much piquancy is in the conversa¬ tions themselves between the instructress, Mrs. B., and her two pupils, Emily and Caroline.1 Comstock’s Philosophy was studied by quite a number; but of the two Mrs. Marcet’s work was far above it in favor. The abundant excellence of these Vermont masters showed particularly in math¬ ematics and Latin and Greek. It was simply impossible, and no pupil more than once or twice attempted to escape detection of want of diligence in preparing reci¬ tations. With those naturally dull, who were satisfactorily industrious, they were patient and sympathetic. For the idle and negligent they had no mercy, and it was wonderful the quickness with which they were able to discern. None were allowed to advance without thorough acquaintance with whatever was to be left behind. Classes were frequently changing in numbers, because whoever could not keep up with the average was reduced to a lower, and whoever could get ahead was required to do so. Of everyone was exacted work according to capacity to per¬ form it by faithful application. In classical studies, Valpy’s Greek Grammar and Adams’s Latin Grammar, lessons in which were recited every morning, were required to be learned from cover to cover. Fifty years after that period old gentlemen together recalling the latter especially, sometimes merrily contended who could recite from it word for word the greatest number of rules, observations, exceptions, notes, etc., and tell the sides of the pages right or left wherever they occurred. Boys were prepared for the freshman, sophomore, occasionally the junior class in the university. Whenever one from either of these academies was presented by letter from the master, faculties, taking their fitness for granted, sometimes dis¬ pensed with other than partial examination, not seldom, when some not very impor¬ tant things could be made up in private, admitting to a class above the one applied for. Not all, perhaps not a majority, of those educated at these academies went to the university or the colleges; many had not taken classical studies. Yet the years spent in such as were preparatory for business purposes only, contact with those pursuing the higher, and then the experience of a lofty, exacting, yet just disci¬ pline and continued serious work of master and pupil, developed both vigor and thoughtfulness in understandings that otherwise might have gone to waste. Many a wild, willful youth, his habits being conquered, rose to be a faithful student and afterwards a steady useful man. These masters did not expel. Their settled belief was that it was better to keep and continue efforts to reform the evil-minded than to drive them out to be a curse upon society. Many such a one in after life admitted his obligations to discipline that saved him from ruin. 1 Sydney Smith was a dear friend of Mrs. Marcet. Lady Holland tells an anecdote of a conversa¬ tion between the two while at a dining party. They were discussing in a semiserions way the exist¬ ence of purgatory. Mrs. Marcet appeared to he rather in favor of the dogma, when Smith playfully said to her : “Well, Mrs. Marcet, if indeed there is a purgatory, let me tell you what in my opionion will be the punishment assigned for your greater purification. You will he everlastingly putting questions to Emily and Caroline, and they will everlastingly he giving wrong answers.” ED 96 - 28 866 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Such things as holidays might he said to he not so much as thought about, much less hoped for. Festivals like Easter, Whitsuntide, Ascension, Michaelmas ceased from people’s mouths, and not only their recurrence became unnoticed hut their meaning unknown. Once in a series of years a day of solemn fasting was set apart, in hope, by this and congregated supplication for divine deliverance, to he saved from the consequences of long-continued dry weather, hut the denial of food and drink, except such as hoys and girls could furtively get from cupboards, for fourteen working hours from sun to sun, made it seem to many a wretched sham of holiday, and they were glad when it was over. The school opened on the second Monday in January, and closed with two days’ public examination at the end of the twenty-second week. After four weeks’ vacation it reopened for a like other term. Pupils regarded it a hardship that the Fourth of July came in one and Christmas in the other. The average of daily sessions was seldom less than eight hours. Such is a running account of those academies. The blessings imparted by them were incalculably numerous and benign. If there was an exception, it was not avowed, and hardly known, to the rule, to be set down as universal, that the men who conducted them were remembered with gratitude and pride. III. — A Manual-Labor School. Noteworthy seems the fact that of those eminent New Englanders who led the earliest movements toward higher education in middle Georgia, nearly all were Middlebury College men. Some of them have been mentioned previously by this writer. There remains yet another who, although graduated from Union, spent the first three years of his college course there. This was Rev. Adiel Sherwood, born at Fort Edward, N. Y., of a family several of whom were distinguished for services rendered in colonial and Revolutionary times. In 1818 he removed to the State of Georgia, where, with the exception of a few years while holding a professorship in Columbian College, Washington, and the presidency of Sliurtleff College, he remained until after the Confederate war. In 1865 he removed to the State of Missouri, dying in St. Louis in the year 1879. He became a learned, eminent divine among the Baptists, and was much admired and honored by people of all religious demomina- tions. As soon as he had become settled within the State he began to devise schemes for the better education of the Bajitists, particularly their clergy. He was the mov¬ ing spirit in the formation in 1820 of the General Association, which afterwards became that powerful organization, the. Georgia Baptist Convention. It now seems singular that such a movement was not received with j)romptest cordiality. This was on account of the prejudice among many of that simple country folk against high education of the clergy. The argument was that the Apostles, who were the greatest preachers the Church ever produced, had little, almost no education, but became what they were by sole dependence upon the sustaining grace of their Divine Master.1 What sufficed then ought to suffice now. Indeed, it had seemed to Although an uncommonly grave person, lie put down in liis diary some rather ludicrous instances of the dense ignorance of a few of the clergy in districts where education was next to none. One of them announced from the pulpit that our Lord had been beheaded by the Pope of Rome, and another, mistaking the word meet , asked him what his opinion was about the sort of meat for repentance spoken of by St. Paul. In the history of the Baptist denomination compiled for the Christian Index, Atlanta, 1881, occurs the following : “The necessity of education among many of the early Baptist ministers of Georgia was most apparent, and this partly explains the persistency of our fathers in their determination to establish a seat of learning. * * * One of their strange arguments was, ‘If learning is to help the preacher, why not pray to learning instead of to the Lord.’ Some of them claimed to be inspired to preach, averring that as they rose in the pulpit they had given their text no consideration until that moment when they opened the Bible, and that they intended to preach just as the Lord handed out the message to them. * * * Humphrey Posy, being invited to preach for Joel Colley, who was for twenty years moderator of the Yellow Itiver Association, took for his text St. Paul’s assertion ‘I am not ashamed of the Gospel of Christ,’ and observed ‘If Paul, a learned man, was not ashamed of the Gospel, I ought EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 867 be so, for in the denomination were a few preachers with very high oratorical powers who bad bad no schooling beyond two or three years’ attendance at old-field schools and had educated themselves at home. Therefore men of education were forced to move slowly and cautiously in the formation of larger bodies wherein it was fore¬ seen that they must necessarily act the leading parts. The resolution of Dr. Sher¬ wood was offered through another. In a letter written in 1870 in answer to one lately received from a relative in Avhich was the question why he had so acted, he answered, “In the resolution for forming the Georgia Baptist Convention I do not remember any desire or end than the advancement of the cause of truth and the salvation of sinners. The resolution was handed to C. J. Jenkins,* 1 as he was popular and I was regarded an educated man, which you know was considered an impediment in the opinion of some in those early times.” The original plan of Dr. Sherwood was to found a school for the education of young men for the ministry, and have manual labor connected with it. Brought up on a farm in New York State and working upon it in the vacations from college, he had become thoroughly acquainted with farm operations and was eagerly anxious for manual labor, at least in agriculture, to be mingled with general and professional education among candidates for the Gospel ministry. In his diary for the year 1829, published in the Memoir by his daughter,2 is the following : “In that year (1829) I presented to the executive committee of the convention a plan for a manual-labor school for young ministers, but nearly to a man were they opposed to it. Perhaps Judge Stocks3 was my only fellow helper.” Not discouraged by this first failure, after waiting two years he brought forth his scheme again. Quoting from his diary again we have the following: “In 1831, at the regular session of the State convention, held at Buckhead, Burke County, I brought up my motion, deferred on the advice of the executive committee for 1829, for a manual-labor school for young ministers. Brethren Mercer, Armstrong, and Sanders, some of the most influential in the State convention, opposed the meas¬ ure, but Thomas Stocks, John Davis, and Absalom Janes,4 and others, supported me in the matter, and we carried it through.” The resolution was in the following words : “Resolved, That as soon as the funds will justify it, this. convention will establish in some central part of the State a classical and theological school which shall unite agricultural labor with study, and be opened only for those preparing for the ministry.” In the following year this last clause was altered and made to read, “admitting others besides students in divinity.” The lack of promptness in carrying out the resolution led Dr. Sherwood to begin an institution of his own, as will be seen from this extract : “A school was to have been opened in January of the following year (1832), but not to be.’ In closing the services, Joel Colley corrected a supposed error of Mr. Posy, asserting that his Bible was not like Mr. Posy’s Bible, for bis Bible, instead of being ‘brought up at the feet of Gamaliel, ’ read ‘ brought up at the foot of Gamel Hill, ’ a hill so poor it would not sprout a pea, and thereby Paul was a poor man, unable to get an education and had to learn tent making to gain a liv- f ing. * * * Another preacher, preaching from the parable of the pounds in Luke xis, claimed that an ‘austere man,’ in verse 21 proved John to be an ‘oyster man,’ who employed his time fishing for oysters. As Dr. Sherwood says, ‘ If such ignorance was ever called to preach, it brings to mind the importunity of a good Methodist brother in Milledgeville by the name of Pierson, who avowed that the Lord called to him almost every night, “Pierson, Pierson, go preach my Gospel. ” But his brethren refused to license him because of hi? destitution of qualifications. He importuned, and they at last informed him that he mistook the name, and it was Pierce whom he heard the Lord call, alluding to Dr. Lovick Pierce.’ ” (Pp. 139-140.) 1 Father of the late governor, Charles J. J enkins. 2 Memoir of Adiel Sherwood, D. D., written by his daughter, assisted by Bev. S. Boykin, Philadel¬ phia, Girard and Fares, 1884. 3 Thomas Stocks, a wealthy planter of Greene County, for many years judge of the county court and president of the State senate, was perhaps the most distinguished among the Baptist laity of those times. 4 Another wealthy layman in the same county of Greene. 868 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. in the fall no farm had been purchased, and I discovered that the committee were afraid of putting the plan into practice. I therefore purchased 160 acres of land, 1 £ miles northwest of Eatonton, from Thomas Cooper, J for $600, and advertised for 8 or 10 pupils, on the manual-labor plan. This experiment succeeded so well that the committee of the convention began to look out for a locality, and the result was the purchase of a farm from Mr. James Redd in Greene County. The committee requested me to relinquish my school in the latter part of 1832, stating that they were about to establish one of the same kind, to which I readily assented, as my undertaking had cost me some $500 out of pocket.” This experience seemed sufficient to keep him from the desire to have further per¬ sonal communion with the enterprise, for in an autobiographical sketch he wrote thus : “ In 1833 the manual-labor school of the Georgia Baptist Convention was begun on the spot now known as Penfield, a few miles from Greensboro, and which with the exception of one single log cabin was then in the woods. Mr. B. M. Sanders was chosen principal. Although requested by Jesse Mercer, James Armstrong, and Judge Stocks, I declined being a candidate for the office.” It is not easy to understand why an institution begun as this was did not come to a quicker end. To this double log cabin resorted 39 students at the opening of 1833. In the History of the Baptist Denomination is an extended account of the several matters leading to the establishment of Mercer Institute, so named from Jesse Mercer, the most eminent among the clergy in the State. The executive committee, who acted as an agent of the convention in affairs relating to the management, were expressly enjoined against making any debts. “No debts shall be contracted by the committee or trustees on the credit of the institution without funds in hand to pay, otherwise in every case it shall be on their own individual responsibility.” The following are some of the initial regulations: “The scholastic year shall be divided into two terms, first, of six months, from the second Monday in January to the second Monday in July, and the second, of five months, from the third Monday in July to the third Monday in December. The rates of tuition shall be $1.50 per month for all students in English grammar, geography, history, and common arithmetic; $2.50 per month for all m the learned languages, criticism, philosophy, mathematics, and other higher English branches of science. All over 16 years of age shall have board, room rent, and firewood for $4 a month, exclusive of their labor, and those under 16 shall pay $6 per month and have the value of their labor deducted as may be estimated by the steward and trustees; washing shall be furnished for $8 a year — all of which shall be required each term in advance. Each student shall furnish his own bedding and candles.” Despite the indisputable fact that this movement was begun with ideas not only humane but beneficent, one can not but be reminded here of the advertisement of Mr. Waxford Squeers of his famous school at Dotheboys Hall, which goes thus: “Education: At Mr. Waxford Squeers’ Academy, Dotheboys Hall, at the delight¬ ful village of Dotheboys, near Greta Bridge, in Yorkshire, youth are boarded, clothed, booked, furnished with pocket money, provided with all necessaries, instructed in all languages, living and dead, mathematics, orthography, geometry, astronomy, trigonometry, the use of the globes, algebra, single stick (if required), writing, arithmetic, fortification, and every other branch of classical literature. Terms, 20 guineas per annum. No extras, no vacations ; a diet unparalleled. * * * “N. B. — An able assistant wanted. Annual salary, 5 pounds. A master of arts would be preferred.” Of each one of the pupils to be sent there one, without great stretch of imagina¬ tion, might recall Dickens’ “ Supposititious little boy who had been left with a 1 A leading layman of the county of Putnam, father of Hon. Mark A. Cooper, long a member of Congress, and uncle of Hon. Eugenius A. Nesbit, for some years one of the justices of the State supreme court. EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 869 widowed mother who didn’t know what to do with him; the poor lady had thought, as a means of thawing the tardy compassion of his relatives in his behalf, of sending him to a Yorkshire school.” Rev. Billington M. Sanders undertook the management of this institution. In his farewell address, delivered at his retirement in December, 1839, are the following words : uThe arrangements consisted of two double cabins with a garret to each for dwelling, for dining, and for study for both teachers and students. With these limited accommodations and with one assistant I opened the institution in January, 1833, with 39 students, having 36 of them to board in my own family. Among these were 7 young men preparing for the ministry.” Yet, surprising as it seems now, the language immediately following indicates a success which was most encouraging to the hopes of its friends in the denomination. “I shall ever remember with lively emotions of pleasure the patience .and cheer¬ fulness with which the students of this year sustained the privations and trials to which they were subjected by their cramped circumstances. They may be truly said to have borne hardships like good soldiers. While living as in a camp in their midst and burdened with the charge and responsibility of the literary, theological, laboring, and boarding departments, I found no little support in all my cares and labors from witnessing that while they lived upon the cheapest fare, had no place for study but the common schoolroom, no place to retire to for rest but a garret without fire in the coldest weather, and labored diligently three hours a day, no complaint was heard, but that the most entire cheerfulness ran through all their words and actions. “ In a word, those favorable indications of the success of the enterprise soon began to inspire its friends with confidence and to animate their efforts for the extension of its advantages. An amount was soon raised to erectj another large school building with eight comfortable rooms for dormitories and a brick basement for chapel and schoolrooms. “ The second year operations were commenced with increased accommodations, with an additional teacher, and 80 students, 70 of whom boarded in common.” Such extraordinary success in circumstances extremely limited and otherwise unpromising was due, perhaps, mainly to the character of the man chosen as leader. Billington Sanders, as was seen hereinbefore, was opposed to the scheme of Dr. Sherwood to connect manual labor with education. It was with reluctance, there¬ fore, that he consented to become the principal, with the understanding that he was to be relieved whenever a suitable person could be gotten to succeed him. It had appeared that the Baptists in general desired such an institution, and he bravely made the sacrifices inseparable from the chief responsibility of its conduct. Besides being one of the most popular clergymen in the denomination, he was possessed of considerable property, upon which he lived with the liberality common to well-to-do planters. He had the entire confidence of everybody in his capacity, integrity, energy, will, resolution, and courage. His face was much like that of Gen. Andrew Jackson, and he was his equal in intrepid pursuit of aims and performance of action believed to be just and proper. Fathers who were in the habit of receiving unques¬ tioning obedience from their children at home knew that they would be required to render it as entirely to this their chosen representative. Boys well understood that they must endure, perform, and obey, and that if they came back home without leave they would be at once returned, and, after punishment for such audacity, be put to work again. The simple, plain, hard fare on which they lived was believed to be of the sort best suited to teach habits of economy such as few, perhaps none, had learned at home, where their mothers, nobody objecting, were used to set before them three excellent square meals every day. Thoreau, a leader in the noted Brook Farm, demonstrated that a man could live on $14 a year, and we have seen how far 20 guineas went at Dotheboys Hall. The experiment here was to put the education 870 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. of youtli on as economical scale as possible and combine it with labor, for the pur¬ pose, among others, of hindering book learning from puffing up to ihe degree of bringing on repugnance to "work. Fortunately this man had a wife who was perhaps as competent and loyal a helpmeet as ever stood by husband and children in exigent conditions, known by thousands of Baptists even down to this day as “ Old Mistress.” The assiduous motherly care and tenderness with which she watched and tended the youth under her keeping had tho blessing of Heaven and the ever-enduring, affectionate grati¬ tude of its recipients. Her husband whipped with the unction that was universal among his predecessors and contemporaries high and low in the profession. It was said of him that sometimes* lie wept sorely at the necessity of inflicting punishment, for ho was a man abounding in charity as in unselfish devotion to all conceived duties. Yet this weakness, as proved by oft-repeated experience, meant everything but sparing to tho culprit. Instead, it seemed to exasperate its condignness. This writer has often heard an old boy shout and make his hearers shout with laughter while telling of scenes in which this peculiarity was exhibited. “Truth is,” one of those used to say, “when a boy was called up to be whipped, he hoped that Old Master (as we called him) would not get to crying with his admonitions (sometimes as affectionate as possible in the beginning), knowing that if he did it would be so much the worse for his back. He’d begin very mildly, almost beseechingly, pointing out our errors and counseling for all sakes to quit them ; but when he got warmed up his under lip began to drop and the tears to pour down his cheeks. Then he’d suddenly rise from his chair and cry out, 1 And the fact is, in the way you are going on you are to ruin yourself and bring down the gray hairs of your parents to the gra-v-ve!’ Then he’d light on the offender just as a man, holding by his hind leg, beats with a stick a sheep -killing hound. That was a time for a fellow to run away if there was anywhere except home to go. But afterwards the mistress came along with words and tendering of blessed soothing. Many and many a prank of mischief was forefended by her admonitions, and many another’s punishment healed by her precious balm.” As for insubordination, there was next to none, since for that sufficient audacity was impossible in the face of the discipline without and within. But tricks, prac¬ tical jokes, and the like were as natural and as inevitable as physical growth in such uncommonly healthy daily exercises, amid living that, although of the plainest, was abundant and entirely sustaining. These were tho more numerous and the bolder because of that wretched system of espionage then obtaining in almost all schools, especially boarding. Occasionally one of those young men who were pre¬ paring for the ministry, called “beneficiaries,” conceived it his duty to be informant as well as divinity student, and such action as that is always attended with increase instead of diminution of wrongdoing. Orchards, chicken roosts, and fruit patches never dwelt in entire security, the less because the zest of enjoyment of their yield was enhanced by the risk in obtaining. Many a boy who never thought of such pranks when at home too easily fell into them when he found that a sycophant was sneaking after his footsteps. Perhaps it was hoped that the plan would pay expenses. If so, its friends were disappointed, yet above this was the notion that at least it would serve to promote health, economy, industry, and sense of the dignity of labor. In the matter of the first, it was eminently successful. On a farm of near 400 acres, with gentle undu¬ lations of hill and lowland in an extremely healthy region, at daily exercise which was not, and could not have been pushed beyond moderation, and which did not rise even to that degree, this work was much like that undergone in daily sports and athletics in boarding schools generally. As for the acquisition of skill, at least any considerable degree of it, few, if any, had indulged expectation. Truth is, such a thing was little among the parents of those boys. Of scientific agriculture there was next to none. The pioneers of that happy region, as was noted in a former paper in this series, cut and slashed that fecund soil which in spite of such reckless- EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 871 ness gave forth, in abundance its first fruits. If profound interest could have been felt by these lads in such work, it would have effected little good, perhaps some harm hv leading them when come to adult age to continue the havoc then in general practice by which not very many planters, although with abundant support for all, man and beast, made little above the natural accretions from increase in the number of their negroes. The thought that agriculture was a thing to be taught was in very few, if any men’s minds. Mr. Sanders was an excellent preacher and a good manager of money accounts, but as a planter he had much to learn himself. He preached, taught arithmetic, algebra, geography, grammar, theology, some Latin, a little Greek, and supervised the work of forty hands save one on the plantation. These students and these hands he lodged and fed just as himself and his family were lodged and fed, and the little sickness that occurred, he and his wife doctored and tended, as if the patients had been their own dear children. Strictly adhering to the maxims of St. Paul adopted at the beginning to “owe no man anything,” he did all that was possible to the energy and the high mindedness which he had perhaps more than any other man in the denomination, at least more than any other who was or could have been made available for the multifold responsibilities of the position. The school grew satisfactorily, new subscriptions of funds came in, other and really excellent buildings were erected, additional professors were called, and a steward with a salary was engaged to superintend the farm, and assume charge of the boarding department. This writer lately received a letter in answer to one of inquiry from a friend who had been a student at this school, and was graduated in the university, which it became afterwards. He is a gentleman of excellent attainments and for more than fifty years ail eminent minister of the gospel. Some extracts are here given. “The labor system was started to give exercise and health to the boys. It was in the place of the baseball and other athletic exercises connected with most colleges now. * * * I don’t know exactly, but I do not think it ever did pay expenses. These were light, for we ate corn bread and slept on our own beds, * * * there was great rejoicing even in anticipation over Thursday night, which was biscuit night.1 We worked two hours each day except Saturday — two long hours. The pay was a mere pittance, about bought the goose quills we used. The work was on the farm. There was a sort of mechanical department. You remember - , preacher, 30 years old, parrot-toed, a carpenter; he bossed it. For a long time I worked at the whip saw. * * * We fared hard. ‘Old Mistress ’ herself drank the stuff that old Pete made, called coffee, and lived as hard as the rest of us. She practiced self denial, and perhaps did as much as anyone to build up Mercer. * * * All the leading denominations in Georgia, you remember, tried the system. The Baptists, believiDg in perseverance, were the last to quit.” Although some of this gentleman’s recollections were not “very pleasant,” yet the system, to his view, served reasonably its purposes. It was abandoned not very long after its rise into Mercer University, for, among other reasons, because so large a number of youth refused (with their parents’ consent) to go there, and instead resorted to the State University. This particular experiment, the most extensive and long continued on that line of educational endeavor in middle Georgia, has been selected by this writer, because of his better acquaintance with it, he having been during two of its last years a student JThe old boys used to tell tilings about tbeso biscuits which might not be -wholly uninteresting to some of the numerous students of financial topics nowadays. The wide-hearted Old Mistress, if she were not allowed to give to her charge this delightful Southern plate but once a week, was resolute in her determination that they should have a plenty, and she generously turned her eyes far, far away when the large surplusage above what they could consume went into their pockets, blow, in the absence of pocket money, these became an accredited medium of exchange in what merchandising was carried on among themselves. Tops, sets of marbles, buckskin-covered balls, half-spent pocket- knives, slices of watermelon that cost nothing to the seller, and other such luxuries were bought and sold by lads of 12 and 14 in this quasi fiat money, whose commercial value varied according to its nearness to foregone or coming Thursday nights. 872 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. of the university. The most thoughtful, even among the students, foresaw that the system must come to an end. As the school rose in numbers and, when raised to a col¬ lege, was supplied with a full corps of professors competent to impart not only higher learning but love of it, that sort of outdoor exercise grew to be regarded, both by students and teachers, as becoming constantly less and less adequate to realize the hopes of its founders, at least as they witnessed and partook of its practice. In time the founders themselves became so convinced those most intelligent among them deciding that union of study and work under those particular circumstances was impracticable; that education must concern itself with principles and causes before it came to things. Quotation is made here of a few brief paragraphs from a pamphlet, Psychology of Manual Training, by Hon. William T. Harris, Commissioner of Education, The first is: “Man goes back from the fact to the producing cause. But he goes back of its producing cause to a deeper cause that unites two or more series of producing causes ; back of the oak and pine to tree in general ; back of tree, and grass, and lichen to plant in general ; back of plant and animal life to life in general. Man’s powers of thought rise from things to cause, and from cause to cause, leaving a smaller and smaller residuum of mere sense data, and yet getting nearer the under¬ lying reality which causes all these sense data * * * “This is the great point for educators to observe. We do not get at the true real¬ ity by sense perception but by thought. * * * “School studies are for the most part given to a knowledge of human nature and human combination, rather than to a knowledge of material things. * * * If the child will learn how to read and write, he may learn the experience of the race through the countless ages of its existence. He may by scientific books and period¬ icals see the world through the sense of myriads of trained specialists devoting whole lives to the inventory of nature. What is immensely more than this, he may think with their brains, and assist his feeble powers of observation and reflection by the gigantic aggregate of the mental labor of the race. This is the great mean¬ ing of school education, to give to the pupil the use of the means 'for availing him¬ self of the mental products of the race. Compared with what he receives from the race, the productions of the most original of men are a mere speck in a wide field of view. Everyone may add something to the aggregate of the world’s knowledge, but he must, if he is educated and rises above the brute, receive infinitely more than he gives. Hence, in comparing the educative effect of learning to read with the edu¬ cative effect of learning the carpenter’s trade, we must consider the difference of scope.” * * * Speaking of the school proper he says: “ Its education is followed by its greatest educative effects afterwards through life. For the person is destined to use this knowledge of reading daily as a key by which to unlock the treasures of all human learning. The school has given him the possession of the means of permanent and continuous self-education. It is the difference between a piece of baked bread which nourishes for the day and the seed corn which is the possibility of countless harvests. Education that educates the child in the art of self-education is that which the aggregate experience of mankind has chosen for the school.” In this pamphlet, suggested by the intemperate zeal of some who have before their eyes scientific physical training so closely set that they can not see the greater things beyond it, are many other unanswerable arguments. The people of middle Georgia, few of whom at that period (sixty years ago) were liberally educated, were earnestly intent that their children should become so, yet were not entirely without apprehension that much learning might tend to seduce them from a just estimate of frugality, industry, economy, and the performance or the superintendence of manual work. He was very far from being an exception, that excellent and well-to-do old farmer who, when asked if he intended to send his boys to college, answered: “No, that I aint; seem to me the mainest things them EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 873 college boys learn, is to chaw and smoke seegars, talk dictionary words, git above work, and be imp’dent to old people.” To guard against dreaded results they made them take along and use things of home life — the hoe, the plow, and the trace chain; to mingle in their thoughts of Greek and Roman those of com and cotton ; to work, to feed, and to curry horses, mules, and oxen. The experiment was made by men of several denominations, sensible and to the last degree resolute. Their sons in con¬ tact with this double existence, after a year or two of half-hearted endeavorings, saw before their fathers the incongruity; necessarily they were economical, for their pocket moneys were extremely limited, and they knew better than to make debts in the stores, which were not long in appearing in the village that rapidly formed around them. As they advanced in knowledge under the excellent teachers provided for them, while they took on no disgust for manual work in itself, their performance of it was languid and less than indifferent. Circulars following home the best students with a disgracefully low figure in labor were excused for the sake of the exalted figures obtained in their studies. These many of them pursued with great diligence, and almost all to satisfaction. What punishments were received (and they came in frequent, relentless showers 2) were mainly for other things than neglect of text-books. With these they made haste. What haste there was, when laying them aside they repaired to the field, was made while homeward bound; never when outward. If ever a laborer was unworthy of his hire, pitiful as was the wage, it was here. There was little or no complaining ever; during the last years there was none. Workers went forth loitering, yet cheerful, feeling no sort of dread of hurting themselves in the smallest particular by overwork. Often, but entirely leisurely, they looked at the descending sun, and sometimes when he seemed to be making no more haste than they were, deciding that his not being quite down was no reason why he ought not to be, they — but not too far — anticipated that inter¬ esting occasion and made for home. A good bath and a shifting of clothing made them more than ready for the good supper they knew to be preparing; for by this time a dozen or so of well-to-do planters had settled in the village, and for a sum which now would seem absurdly little gave board of the very best. The system itself, when the college was opened, foresaw its own decline ; but, apparently in tenderness toward the older brethren, so many of whose hopes had been with it from the start, it lingered to its twelfth year, when, with resignation, approximating unanimity of students, faculty, trustees, and people, it went the way of all the earth. Its very last article was preceded by the following resolution, passed by the trustees in December, 1814 : “ Whereas the manual-labor department of Mercer University has been sustained at a heavy expense — an expense which the present state of our fund will not justify — and has, in our judgment, materially retarded the growth of our institution after as favorable experience as we have been able to make of the scheme ; and “ Whereas the contributors of the university fund, so far as they have been called upon, expressed themselves with almost entire unanimity, ready to concur in any measure in reference to the system which the board of trustees may deem essential to the prosperity of the institution ; and “ Whereas the board of trustees have found themselves under all circumstances unable to accomplish to any desired extent the important and benevolent designs for which it was originally organized : Be it therefore “ Resolved , That this department be, and is hereby, indefinitely suspended.” Thus the Baptists, latest of all, noted for their perseverance, had to admit at last that even to this favorite virtue were limitations. 1 From these, however, college students and those in preparatory classes who were over 16 years old were exempt. ED 96 - 28* 874 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. IV. — The University. The situation of the State of Georgia at the several periods during the war of Independence was peculiarly exigent. Youngest and most remote of all the prov¬ inces, sparsely occupied by whites, exposed along a border of several hundred miles to Indian maraudings, its hardships, real and apprehended, were among the most try¬ ing. Discouraged by these hardships, a considerable number defected from the cause of liberty, and between these, known as Tories, and the rest many tragic scenes occurred. During the latter part of the year 1776 affairs became so embarrassing that the leaders of public opinion in South Carolina conceived the idea of annexa¬ tion, and in the general assembly of that State the following resolution was intro¬ duced and passed unanimously : “That a union between the two States of South Carolina and Georgia would tend effectually to promote their strength, wealth, and dignity, and to secure their lib¬ erty, independence, and safety.” Commissioners were sent to Georgia, but the proposal met with no favor. One of these, William Henry Drayton, after its rejection, became so persistent in private efforts toward the end for which he had been sent that Governor Treutlen, acting on the advice of the executive council, published offer of rewards for the apprehension of him and his associates. Yet in the convention called by Archibald Bulloch, governor and president of the council of safety, the first constitution was adopted, February 5, 1777, one of the articles of which required the erection of a school at the public expense in each county. From this period the State was constantly harassed by dis¬ asters and dangers. Savannah was taken, the government transferred to Augusta, and at one time such was the exigency of conditions that the governor, John Hous- toun, was invested with dictatorial powers. Eelief came not until the evacuation of the province by Sir James Wright, the royal governor, June 14, 1782. Yet it was not until the close of the war that measures could be taken in the cause of educa¬ tion, and these were recommended by Governor Lyman Hall during the three months’ session of the general assembly in the summer of 1783. In his opening message were the following : “From a view of the profligate and wicked lives of many in the community, it appears that some laws to restrain vice and encourage virtue are of the highest importance to the welfare of the State, it being certain that almost all the evils of government originate from men of corrupt principles and abandoned manners. In addition, therefore, to wholesome laws restraining vice, every encouragement ought to be given to introduce religion, and learned clergy to perform divine worship in honor to God, and to cultivate principles of religion and virtue among our citizens. For this purpose it will bo your wisdom to lay an early foundation for endowing seminaries of learning ; nor can you, I conceive, lay a better than by a grant of a sufficient tract of land that may, as in other governments, hereafter, by lease or otherwise, raise a revenue sufficient to support such valuable institutions.”1 There is something pathetic in the patriotic and wise endeavors of a small number of men, one of whom was the full equal of any in his generation, to found a uni¬ versity in the State, and their failure because of the early death of the chief among their great leaders. Lyman Hall, born in Connecticut, removed to Georgia in 1752, and became one of the bravest and most influential patriots. He was a signer of the Declaration of Independence, a Eepresentative in Congress, was made governor of Georgia, and while thus acting, supported and guided mainly by another from the same State, originated those endeavors. In Stevens’s History of Georgia (p. 353) occurs the following: “In the midst, however, of the troubles incident to the unsettled state of a fron¬ tier province in that transition period, when military law had ceased and civil law was but imperfectly established, the legislature, with a forecast which reflects the Stevens’s History of Georgia, Vol. II, p. 344. EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 875 highest character upon their 'wisdom, took measures for tho establishment of a State institution of learning. On tho 25th of February, 1784, a committee of the legisla¬ ture was sent to the executive council bearing a resolution requesting his honor the governor to grant land warrants for 5,000 acres each in the name of John Houstoun, James Habersham, William Few, Joseph Clay, Abram Baldwin, William Houstoun, and Nathan Brownson, esqrs., or their successors in office, in trust for the college that is to be established in this State, that one or more of tho said trustees be requested to proceed immediately, with a surveyor or surveyors, and superintend the survey¬ ing of the said land in each county agreeable to the act for that purpose made,” etc. In the next section the land thus provided was to be exempted from taxation. The act to which reference was made by appointment of the committee was an act for laying out the two counties of Franklin and Washington, the eleventh section of which is given as follows : “And whereas the encouragement of religion and learning is an object of great importance to any community and must tend to the prosperity, happiness, and advan¬ tage of the same : “Be it enacted by the authority aforesaid , That the county surveyors, immediately after the passing of this act, shall proceed to lay out in each county 20,000 acres of land of the first quality, in separate tracts of 5,000 acres each, for the endowment of a col¬ lege or seminary of learning, and which said lands shall be vested in and granted to his honor the governor for the time being.” 1 Thence followed appointment of the trustees hereinbefore named, who were e empowered to do all such things as to them shall appear requisite and necessary, o forward the establishment and progress of the same; and all vacancies shall be filled up by the said trustees. And the said county surveyors shall in six months after tho passing of this act make returns to the trustees, hereinbefore mentioned, of all regular plats of all such tracts as they shall have laid out and surveyed by virtue of this act.” On the 27th of January, 1785, an act in pursuance of the plans thus started was passed, being entitled “An act for the more full and complete establishment of a public seat of learning in this State.” The preamble to this act is so excellent of its kind that it is given in full herein: “As it is the distinguishing happiness of free governments that civil order should be the result of choice, and not necessity, and the common wishes of the people become tho laws of the land, their public prosperity, and even existence, very much depends irpon suitably forming the minds and morals of their citizens. When the minds of the people in general are viciously disposed and unprincipled, and their conduct disorderly, a free government will be attended with greater confusions and evils more horrid than the wild, uncultivated state of nature. It can only be happy where the public principles and opinions are jmoperly directed and their manners regulated. This is an influence beyond the reach of laws and punishments and can be claimed only by religion and education. It should therefore be among the first objects of those who wish well to the national prosi>erity to encourage and support the principles of religion and morality and early to place the youth under the form¬ ing hand of society that, by instruction, they may be molded to the love of virtue and good order. Sending them abroad to other countries for their education will not answer these purposes ; it is too humiliating an acknowledgment of the igno¬ rance or infirmity of our own, and will always be the cause of so great foreign attachments that upon principles of policy it is inadmissible. “This country, in the times of our danger and distress, found security in the principle and abilities which wise regulations had before established in the minds of our countrymen, that our present happiness, joined to the pleasing prospects, should conspire to make us feel ourselves under the strongest obligations to form Stevens's History of Georgia, Tol. II, p. 353. 876 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. the youth, the rising hope of our land, to render the like glorious and essential services to our country.” 1 A noble beginning for higher education was made in this session of the general assembly, led by one whose name and memory from the people of Georgia merit more gratitude than those of any other in its history; one who but for having been over¬ taken of death in his prime would have placed education upon a level with that in the State of which he was native, with whose polity he had become thoroughly acquainted, and had eager desire to extend it. Abram Baldwin, born in Guilford, Conn., in the year 1754, was graduated at Yale College in 1772, and for four years — from 1775 to 1778 — was a tutor there. Having studied divinity with view to become a clergyman, he was invited, in the year 1781, to become professor of divinity and college pastor, but declined the offer and served as chaplain in one of the regiments of his native State. Here he made acquaintance with Gen. Nathanael Greene. At the close of the war Gen. Greene removed to Georgia, and persuaded Baldwin to do the same, which he did in the year 1784. Withdrawing from the ministry, he began studying for the bar, was admitted to practice, and rapidly rose into a large business. Within a few months after his admission, having already a commanding figure among leaders of public opinion, he was elected to the legislature at the session next ensu¬ ing after his arrival and in the same year. Seldom, if ever, had a man, coming into a strange community far remote from his native, with antecedents so little known, risen with such rapidity. From the very first his presence and demeanor, his walk and conversation impressed all minds with the notion that he was one born to be a leader of men. This he easily became in the first public body to which he was so speedily sent. Baldwin was a lawgiver. It so appeared in the general assembly of January, 1785, less than a year after his coming into the State, unknown of all except the dis¬ tinguished soldier at whose instance he had come, and who died in the following year. It is not apposite to the subject of this article to allude otherwise than briefly to the work done by him for purposes besides educational. Preeminently gifted as he was, the impress of his hands must necessarily be upon whatever enterprise came within the compass of the plane wherever he traveled and wrought. It seems a pity, not only for his adopted State but for the whole country, that little memorial was left of such a man beyond the records of his public actions and the traditions of his acknowledged greatness. In the exigencies of a new, inchoate society, with a vast, unpeopled territory, extending far westward, it was remarkable how quickly all thoughtful, patriotic minds put themselves under the lead of this young stranger of 30 years. Almost universal tradition assigned to him well-nigh sole author¬ ship of the judiciary system of the State, which great lawyers*in this country and which such as Lord Tenterden and Lord Brougham declared to be a marvel of its kind. Such a man seemed to be more needed in the councils of the young confed¬ erate government than in those of his own State, and so, two years afterwards he was sent to the Federal convention, and played a conspicuous part in the formation of the Federal Constitution. No member of the convention more thoughtfully revolved the subjects of investigation. In the notes taken down by Madison the speeches and general movements made by him exhibit great carefulness and conser¬ vation, yet boldness wherever it seemed to him needed to be put forth. He was a leader among those who foresaw and dreaded the policy of intrusting to the General Government any greater powers beyond what were essential to the discharge of federative functions. One noted sentence of his has been often referred to: “Polit¬ ical power is like the screw in mathematics; it holds all it has, and every turn gives it more.” With the instinct of genins he recognized at a glance, as it were, the peculiar needs of the society into which he had come to dwell, and in what time was left for the purpose he labored to supply them. It was well known, and it became a matter of frequent speech, that in all the public assemblies in which he Stevens’s History of Georgia, Yol. II, p. 361. EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA, 877 had parts to enact, in those framing the constitution of Georgia, in the general assembly of the State, in Congess as Member of the House, to which he was elected in 1790, and in the Senate, he was never absent from his post for a single day until his last sickness, just one week before his death, in Washington, in 1807, at the age of 52 years. The principal item of the loss to the civil government of the State by the transfer of Baldwin to Congress and particularly by his early death was a long postpone¬ ment of the establishment of the supreme court of appeals for the correction of errors of superior court judges. Foresight of the indispensable need of such a tribunal provided for its early foundation ; but the withdrawal of the great leader delayed it for half a century. If he had lived, what took place in 1815 would have done so long, long before, and been put upon a far more satisfactory foundation. It is remarkable that many of the very greatest lawyers in the State opposed it to the last, an example of the willingness of prominent citizens to be content with systems wherein they have obtained iiositions of controlling influence. Yet the most serious loss inflicted upon the State by the absence of Baldwin was felt by its educational interests. It was his aim that general superintendence of education should be assumed by the State under the leading influence of one great university. He was one of those wise men who maintain that education within any State properly begins at the summit instead of the bottom. The decision of the multitudes, after he passed away, like that of multitudes everywhere when not ade¬ quately guided, that it should begin at the bottom and ascend delayed for a hundred years, and it yet delays, the accomplishment of that aim of a man who was the full equal of Thomas Jefferson in lawgiving wisdom, and possibly his superior in culti¬ vation. On January 25, 1785, an act was passed by the general assembly, some sections of which are as follows : “Whereas for the great purposes of internal education, divers allotments of land have at different times been made, particularly by the legislature at their sessions in July, 1783, and February, 1784, all of which may be comprehended and made the basis of one general and complete establishment; therefore, enacted, “Sec. I. That the general superintendence and regulation of the literature of the State, and in particular of the public seat of learning, shall be committed and intrusted to one board, denominated ‘the board of visitors,7 hereby vested with all powers of visitation, to see that the intent of this institution is carried into effect; and [13 persons named] who shall compose another board, denominated ‘the board of trustees/ These two boards united, or a majority of each of them, shall compose the ‘Senatus Academicus of the University of Georgia/ “Sec. II. All statutes, laws, and ordinances for the government of the university shall be made and enacted by the two boards united, or a majority of each of them, subject always to be laid before the general assembly as often as required, and to be repealed or disallowed as the general assembly shall think proper/71 (As before seen, 40,000 acres of land had been set apart in lots of 5,000 acres each, for the university in the new counties of Washington and Franklin.) “Sec. IV. As the appointment of a person to be the president and head of the university is one of the first and most important concerns on which its respect and usefulness greatly depend, the board of trustees shall first examine and nominate; but the appointment of the president shall be by the two boards jointly, who shall also have the power of removing him from office for misdemeanors, unfaithfulness, or incapacity.” Several sections follow containing details regarding management, then comes “Sec. XIII. The Senatus Academicus at their stated annual meetings shall consult and advise, not only upon the affairs of the university, but also to remedy the defects, and advance the interests of literature through the State in general. For Prince’s Digest of the Laws of the State of Georgia, 1837, p. 866, etc. 878 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. this purpose it shall he the business of the members, previous to their meeting, to obtain an acquaintance with the state and regulations of the schools and places of education in their respective counties, that they may thus be possessed of the whole, and have it before them for their mutual assistance and deliberation. Upon this information they shall recommend what hind of schools and academies shall be instituted, agreeably to the constitution, in the several parts of the State, and pre¬ scribe what branches of education shall be taught and inculcated in each. They shall also examine and recommend the instructors to be employed in them, or appoint persons for that purpose. The president of the university, as often as the duties of his station shall permit, and some of the members, at least once in a year, shall visit them and examine into their order and performances. “Sec. XIV. All public schools, instituted or to be supported by funds or public moneys in this State, shall be considered as parts or members of the university, and shall be under the foregoing directions and regulations. ‘•'Sec. XV. Whatsoever public measures are necessary to be adopted for accom¬ plishing these great and important designs, the trustees shall, from time to time represent and lay before the general assembly.” Such is an outline of the plan projected by this young man for education in the State. It was to begin where in every new State it should begin, with a great uni¬ versity, a primum mobile, destined to organize and preside over and regulate all inferior institutions receiving in time those who had passed through their courses to itself in order to qualify them for the coming duties of manhood and citizenship. A fair site was selected on the Oconee Eiver, around which the town of Athens grew up, and another native of Connecticut, Josiah Meigs, was elected president. In the same year, 1790, when Baldwin was elected to Congress, died his chief col¬ laborator, Lyman Hall. He was one of the Georgia signers of the Declaration of Independence, governor of the State, and before the advent of Baldwin the most cultured among its political leaders. He died childless at the age of 66 years.1 His death was a sore loss to the State, and was felt to be so. But he died in cheerful hope that the provisions thus made for its welfare would accomplish the ends for which they had been devised. Such was also the hope of his young survivor, when he left for the more extended field where the people desired his talents to bo employed. Yet as president of the board of visitors he continued to be the main director in putting the institution on a foundation. With nothing but land to appropriate for this purpose, although land was in abundance for the support of a hundred fold greater population, and therefore had merely nominal market value, yet the beginning was made in 1801 under President Meigs, who in time was assisted by Prof. Addin Lewis, who had come from Connecticut at the same time with the president. These two with a tutor in French for some years constituted the faculty. Moneys accruing from rent of the university lands being wholly inadequate, the gen¬ eral assembly the following year passed an act for the loan of $5,000 “in aid of the funds of the said institution for erecting the college buildings,” conditioned to be repaid with interest. In 1803 a further act was passed, authorizing the trustees to “sell and dispose of, in such manner as they may deem most for the benefit of the institution, the tract of land belonging to the university in the county of Hancock, and to appropriate the moneys arising from the sale in such manner as in their judgment will most advance the beneficial purposes of the said university, and that they also have full power and authority to sell and dispose of in like manner, and for the same purposes, all such lots and land situate in and adjoining the site of the university as they think proper, reserving, nevertheless, the quantity of 37 acres 1 The inscription upon his tomh, written by liis widow, concludes with these touching words : f‘ To him. so mourn’d in death, so loved in life, The childless parent and the widowed wife, With tears inscribed this monumental stone, That holds his ashes and expects her own.’* EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 879 of land for tlie college yard.” 1 This last tract bought and presented to the State by John Milledge consisted of over 600 acres, but the amount of sales was small, the village, so far from the center of existing population, being necessarily slow in set¬ tlement. Thus the institution struggled during infancy. In the year 1807 he who had been its founder and mainly its soul, died. He alone among its supporters fully comprehended what a great university is, what it means, what is its full scope, and what it needs and can not do without for the compass of its ends. The history of this institution henceforth is one of continuously recurring disappointments. The following extract, taken from a pamphlet written by the late Dr. Henry Hull, one of its first graduates and afterwards for several years one of the faculty, well sums up the accidents of twenty-five years whose likes were continued until 1884, when the pamphlet was written. It has for its title, Sketches from the Early History of Athens, Georgia, 1801-1825. “For a quarter of a century, at least, the interests of Athens and of the univer¬ sity went hand in hand — they rose and fell together; indeed, one was nothing with¬ out the other. The income of the university was derived from the rents of land deeded it by the State, and as land was very cheap none but the poorest as a rule rented it; consequently, the income was small and very uncertain. From its organi¬ zation, in 1801, to 1811, the faculty consisted of a president, Mr. Meigs; one pro¬ fessor of French, M. Petit de Clairville, and one tutor, Addin Lewis, whose place in 1808 was filled by James Merri wether for a year, after which M. Petit held on for two years and resigned in 1810, leaving President Meigs alone in his glory to instruct all the classes in every department of science. So the college came very near to the gates of death, and the town had but little more vitality. In 1811 the faculty reorganized by the election of Dr. John Brown, president, and Dr. Henry Jackson and Mr. John R. Golding, professors. This galvanized the college into spasmodic breathing, and the town sympathized in the shock. A few houses, before vacant, were occupied, and some whitewashing and maybe a little painting done, and the place looked for brighter days. I don't remember that anyone was so sanguine as to build a new house or improve a vacant lot; but the hoped-for improvement did not come, and the college and town languished, notwithstanding the election, in 1813, of an educational professor, Dr. William Green. But this strengthening of the faculty did not have the expected effect of strengthening the institution. The rents did not come in, and the professors’ salaries, ridiculously small though they were, were not paid; no aj)paratus could be bought, no library was within reach. So the college languished and the towm sickened, and if the legislature had not authorized the board of trustees to sell the lands and invest the proceeds, both would soon have died together. But that important measure was adopted, and in 1816 the lands were sold and notes and bonds taken in payment. The State took them to the amount of $120,000, and transferred to the university 1,000 shares of the stock of the Bank of the State of Georgia, guaranteeing 8 per cent dividend annually, and this it has paid, and only this, to the present day.” There is humor, yet some pathos, in the succeeding paragraph, in which Dr. HuM gave account of the disposal of the last, perhaps most valuable, tract owned by the university. “ The line between Georgia and South Carolina was the northern bank of the Savannah River at high water, from its mouth to its intersection with the thirty- fifth parallel of north latitude, and where it forked the larger of the two should be considered a continuation of the Savannah. Now, the Tugaloo and Seneca formed the first fork from its mouth, and it became a question which was the larger. It was generally conceded that the Seneca was the principal stream, and was therefore con¬ sidered the boundary between the States. The lands between the rivers belonged then to Georgia, a part of which, 5,000 acres, lying near the junction and very valu¬ able, was deeded by the State, with other tracts, to the university. This district Prince’s Digest, p. 869. 880 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. was represented in the Georgia legislature by a Mr. Lane. Subsequent surveys, pre¬ tending to be more carefully made, determined that the Tugaloo was the larger river, and it became the boundary line, thereby losing to the University of Georgia her 5,000 valuable acres. But our board of trustees resolved to make an effort to retain it. Supposing that such a tract, away in the backwoods, remote from any settle¬ ment, where public lands were worth but little more than the cost of surveying them, could be of small consideration to a State, they appointed one of their own body, a lawyer of distinction, to wait on the legislature of South Carolina, then in session, and ask the grant of the land should be confirmed to the university, not doubting that so small a favor would be granted. Colonel C. was a man of exquisite taste in wines and brandies, or at least he thought so, and kept that gift in active exercise on all proper occasions, and sometimes when the occasion was not proper. The South Carolinians knew exactly how to entertain such a man with becoming hospitality. There were some members of the legislature who, learning the object of the colonel’s visit and desiring to own themselves the land in question, deter¬ mined to prevent the confirmation of the grant, and succeeded in keeping our dele¬ gate in such a blissful state of tasting and tasting certain old and costly liquors that he did not have an opportunity to present the claims of the university until the legis¬ lature adjourned. Before its next meeting the lands were sold.” Yet for many years considerable interest in the university continued to be felt, and if thoroughly competent leadership had existed, it might have been put in time upon firm satisfactory foundation. A resolution of remarkable thoughtfulness and ability was adopted by the legislature in December, 1831. A brief extract is as follows: “ In our country every man ought to prepare himself for taking part in her public business. Should he never aspire to a seat in her State or national councils, he yet owes it as a duty to himself and his posterity, to let any talent he may possess appear at best in her primary assemblies. “If this view of our duty be correct, and it is believed it cannot be controverted, the committee feel warranted in considering the subject of education, the noblest and most important that can engage the attention of the lawgiver; it lies, in truth, at the basis of the whole social system. It affects not only the individual happiness, the character and the usefulness of those who are its objects, but it exerts a most powerful and irresistible influence upon the government, the laws, and the liberties of communities. No nation where the majority of the people are well educated can be enslaved; no nation where the great mass is ignorant can retain its freedom. In proportion to the general intelligence will be the force, the wealth, and the influence of a State, and it will be respected in the exact ratio of the instructed talent it can bring into its negotiations.” 1 Such utterances as this indicated the earnest interest felt by instructed minds for the bettering of an institution begun with purposes so patriotic and benign. Yet at that same session of the general assembly, Edward J. Black, representative from Richmond County, and afterwards member of Congress, one of the most distinguished politicians of the State, in a speech of notable eloquence, attacked the university, particularly regarding the manner in which it was conducted, and introduced a resolution for the appointment of a committee “to prepare and report a bill to remove the site of Franklin College” (the name by which the university was gen¬ erally called) “ from Athens to Milledgeville, and to appropriate money for the erection of suitable buildings for that purpose, and to appoint fit and proper persons for designating the spot upon which said buildings shall be erected, and for super¬ intending the erection of the same.”2 The journal from which this was taken does not contain any report of the com¬ mittee. The majority earnestly opposed it and doubtless it was deemed prudent to Prince’s Digest, p. 882. 2 Journal of the (Ga.) House, November 6, 1830; quoted in The Bench and Bar of Georgia, by- Stephen F. Miller. J. B, Lippincott & Co., 1858. EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 881 let it sleep. This action of Mr. Black was a startling indication of prejudices against the university which for certain reasons had been rising for some time past, particularly in the middle and upper portions of the State which were to become strong enough to hinder for good further public intervention in its behalf. A com¬ mittee was appointed by the general assembly of 1833 to examine into the account of receipts and disbursements of the university from the 1st of November, 1831, to the 1st of November, 1833. Some suspicion had been cast upon the management of the funds and complaints made that it was needlessly backward in repaying the comparatively small advances that had been made to it when in particularly exigent circumstances. Investigation showed that the account had been kept with entire fairness and accuracy, and the committee so found. Yet they felt themselves called upon to append a significant insinuation after premising assertion of what they styled “the generous patronage of the State.” They reported: “The committee to whom was referred an account of the receipts and disburse¬ ments of the University of Georgia, from the 1st of November, 1831, to the 1st of November, 1833, inclusive, have had the same under consideration, and beg leave to report that on a careful perusal of said report they find the respective debts and credits in said account appear fair and explicit, and furnish a distinct detail of the fiscal concerns of that institution. This seminary of learning has long enjoyed the generous patronage of the legislature of this State and has evidently, within a short period, made rapid advances in public estimation. “It is an institution that requires ample supplies, because the disbursements necessary to keep it in successful operation are great; but so long as the funds pro¬ vided are both judiciously and economically applied it will receive the approbation of the people of Georgia.” Then follows an admonition which plainly evinced the hostility that for several years had been growing into virulence that foreboded unhappy consequences. It is put in these words : “But, to insure the future countenance of the State, the strongest evidence should be given, by those employed in carrying it forward, that the interest of the whole people, and not of a part, is strictly attended to. The pursuit of literature alone can secure the confidence of the public, and both teacher and student will find it to be to their interest to devote their attention exclusively to this great object. Let it be run by action, not profession, that a generous emulation prevails among all those directly or indirectly connected with the university, to raise its character to a pitch of elevation that may make it an ornament and honor to the State. This is the only remuneration that she requires, and in fact imperiously demands. “Your committee deem these cursory remarks necessary to satisfy public expecta¬ tion, and admonitory to the university of the true course it ought to pursue.”1 The university had been started when the settlements of middle Georgia were sparse and were struggling with many hardships to gain a substantial foothold. If not satisfied with the old field schools they were not in condition to obtain higher. In the first years after the opening, therefore, comparatively few from this region were sent to it. A majority of students came from Savannah and the counties near by, which were older, more prosperous, and far more advanced in culture. For sev¬ eral years all the country west of the Oconee River and south of Clark wherein the University was located continued to be Indian territory. Complaints began to be made that the low country students were more favored than the others. It was remarked that the long vacation instead of being set in the summer was in the winter. The cause of this, as was charged by middle Georgia people, was that such arrangement was suited to the peculiar habits of the low countrymen of property who used to spend the greater part of the summer at Madison Springs, a watering place near by the seat of the university, or in the villages among the mountains not far beyond. These it suited to have vacation mainly in winter, when families would be at home. 1 Digest of the Laws of the State of Georgia, by Oliver H. Prince, 1837, p. 883. 882 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Another cause of complaint was that the university soon fell under the control of one political party. It seemed an oversight in the act organizing the institution in. making the hoard of trustees a close corporation, vacancies in which were to he filled hy the remaining members, a provision which, it was argued, enabled the majority party to exercise and perpetuate domination. The late Mr. Justice John A. Camp¬ bell was often heard to say that during his attendance at the university the college was dominated by the party that was opposed to that of which his father, Duncan G. Campbell, was a prominent leader. Indeed it is an interesting fact that during many years Athens was the place and commencement the occasion of the meeting of both political parties for consultation and caucus nomination of candidates for governor and other high State and Federal officials. Old citizens yet point to the places where stood the two tayerns at which the leaders severally sojourned during commencement week. Both these complaints, whether just or not, were greatly injurious. Belief or suspicion that the tone of the community was in favor of those whom middle Georgia people assumed to be, or at least to feel, aristocratic because of their wealth and better culture, served not only to diminish interest in the university, but to originate a jealousy between the two sections which it took several decades of years to subdue. Then such belief or suspicion regarding political partisanism necessarily wrought harm in all sections. But that which served to block effectually such support from the State as would secure the ends which the founders intended for the university was the denomi¬ national spirit of the two prevailing bodies of Christians — the Baptists and the Methodists — who far outnumbered all the rest in the rural districts of the State. To the faculty of the institution these denominations during the forming years made almost no contributions. This was owing to the fact that they at first had almost none to jmesent who were qualified to be professors. Hardly a single one among their clergy had received a college education. Some of the most eloquent and otherwise great preachers, whose superiors in some important respects the State has never since produced, had gotten what education they possessed in elementary schools and in intervals of work on their plantations and other places of business, and were entirely uninstructed in classical and scientific studies. On the other hand, the Presbyterians, few in numbers outside of cities, had only an educated clergy, and proportionately a far greater number of educated persons among the laity. Some of the latter had been engaged in teaching, particularly in towns, while few, if any, in the two other denominations had ever pursued that vocation. From the old fields to academies of high grade the leap was, as it were, instantaneous, as as has been seen, and these were kept by teachers from New England. Yet it was not so much because professorships were filled by Presbyterians as because of the rivalry between themselves that sentiment rose and rapidly took shape with each of the others to have its own university that tended to withdraw their support from the State institution. Unfortunately most persons, having little knowledge of the chief ends of a great university, believed honestly that the one already established was as high as there was any need for. Their aim, therefore, was to leave Savannah, the Presbyterians, and the politicians to run it on their own lines, while they would start each its own, intended to foster, besides literature and science, denominational religious faith and to aspire to denominational supremacy. A few thoughtful per¬ sons in each denomination opposed movements foreseen to be fatal to highest univer¬ sity education; but their counsels were rejected, and Mercer University and Emory College almost simultaneously rose into being, their founders and supporters being at least four-fifths of the State. About the same time the Presbyterians, with like denominational intent, started their own separate institution, Oglethorpe Univer¬ sity, at the village of Midway. This last, however, in a few years, for lack of ade¬ quate support from a community comparatively few in numbers, was suspended. The two others, supported liberally from the beginning by their denominations, rose speedily into successful rivalry with the State University, averaging during fifty EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 883 years at least as many pupils and imparting about as good college education. Cur¬ ricula of studies have been substantially the same in all, and alumni from all have risen to highest professional positions and made distinguished careers. Eminent specialists in any branch have not been sent forth because of lack of the means of specialization possessed by such as Harvard, Yale, and Johns Hopkins. If these six hundred and upward of youth had been at the university instead of divided among three colleges, and the sentiment of all parties had been in its support, it would have been before now equal to any in the country. The existence of continued rivalry and the apparent need of continual struggle in each to be equal if not fore¬ most, tended to lower the standard of scholarship in bestowal of degrees. Bachelors of arts and masters of arts by hundreds have been so dubbed with insufficient consid¬ eration of what are imported by those high distinctions. Whoever aimed at special education in any department went out of the State to obtain it; and they do so yet. Looking back to Abram Baldwin and those who acted under his leadership, one is continually reminded of the misfortune of his death, to be succeeded by none in influence and authority to perj>etuate and extend his ideas. Like Lycurgus, he esti¬ mated that highest education among other things was necessary to the founding of a new State. From Crete, Lycurgus brought Thales to Lacedaemon, whom, pro¬ fessing to be only a lyric poet, he saw to be a wise lawgiver besides. “The very songs which he composed,’7 said Plutarch, “ were exhortations to obedience and con¬ cord, and the very measure and cadence of the verse, conveying impressions of order and tranquillity, had so great influence on the minds of the listeners that they were insensibly softened and civilized, insomuch that they renounced their feuds and ani¬ mosities and were united in a common admiration of virtue. So that it may be said that Thales prepared the way for the discipline introduced by Lycurgus.” Further on are these words touching Homer’s poem : “Here” (in Crete) “he had the first sight of Homer’s works in the hands, we may suppose, of the posterity of Creophylos;1 and, having observed that the few loose expressions and actions of ill example which are to be found in hi3 poems were much outweighed by serious lessons of State and rules of morality, he set himself eagerly to transcribe and digest them into order, as thinking they would be of good use in his own country. They had, indeed, obtained some slight repute amongst the Greeks, and scattered portions, as chance conveyed them, were in the hands of individuals; but Lycurgus first made them really known.” Baldwin, brought up at time-honored Yale, and devoting four other years to par¬ ticipation in its discipline, sought and hoped to found its like in the young State of his adoption. A foundation was laid broad, benign, and wise. The following four sections in the act of 1785 show how wide was the scope of his intentions: “Sec. IX. All officers appointed to the instruction and government of the univer¬ sity shall be of the Christian religion, and within three months after they enter upon the execution of their trust shall publicly take the oath of allegiance and fidelity and the oaths of office prescribed in the statutes of the university — the president, before the governor or i>resident of the council, and all other officers before the presi¬ dent of the university. “Sec. X. The president, professors, tutors, students, and all officers and servants of the university, whoso office requires their constant attendance, shall be, and they are hereby, excused from military duty, and from all such like duties and services; and all lands and other property of the university is hereby exempted from taxation. “Sec. XI. The trustees shall not exclude any person of any religious denomination whatever from free and equal liberty and advantages of education, or from any of the liberties, privileges, and immunities of the university in his education, on account of his, her, or their speculative sentiments in religion, or being of a different religious profession.”2 % iA contemporary epic poet and friend of Homer. 2 Prince's Digest, pp. 808, 869. 884 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. “ Sec. XIV. All public schools, instituted or to be supported by funds or public moneys in this State, shall be considered as parts or members of the university, and shall be under the foregoing directions and regulations. “ Sec. XV. Whatsoever public measures are necessary to be adopted for accomplish¬ ing these great and important designs the trustees shall from time to time repre¬ sent and lay before the general assembly.” Baldwin’s aim, as in the judiciary, to have one supreme appellate court for regu¬ lating all other judicial tribunals already and to be hereafter established, was to have one great university which should guide all lesser institutions, private and pub¬ lic, of every grade, and become the center whither aspirants in all branches in time should resort for complete special requisitions. That the people of Georgia, despite this one unhappy mistake, have always been disposed toward education of its youth of both sexes, indeed fully as much so as those of any other State in the Union, has been over and often evinced. To mention only the Wesleyan Female College, at Macon (claimed to be the oldest of its kind in the world), and its nearly or quite twenty followers in several other towns and vil¬ lages, the general assembly, from time to time, made appropriations to existing acad¬ emies, and various provisions designed to give education to all, including the poor. As early as 1792, and later, in 1810, acts were passed authorizing disposition of part of the proceeds of the sales of confiscated property among the four academies then in existence. In 1817 an act was passed, as follows : “Whereas it is universally acknowledged that in all well-regulated governments, and particularly that form of government under which we have the happiness to live, the education of youth, and the general advancement of useful knowledge, are objects of primary importance ; and “Whereas the present system of education in this State is not well calculated for the general diffusion and equal distribution of useful learning : “Sec. I. Be it therefore enacted, $c., That from and immediately after the passage of this act the sum of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars be, and the same is hereby, set apart and appropriated for the future endowment and support of free schools throughout this State : Provided, That nothing contained herein shall prevent any future general assembly from repealing the whole or any part of the above- recited law.” This evinces both the universal desire to promote education and the incipient lack of trustful support of the university, and want of intelligence as to the precise definite purpose to which the appropriation ought to be devoted. An attempt at definiteness was made in the year 1820 by the following act : “All such funds as now are or hereafter may come into the possession of this State, or may hereafter become due to the»same on account of confiscated or reverted property or the sales thereof, and for forfeited land, and all such funds as may accrue to the State under the several escheat laws thereof, provided such escheated property has not been heretofore set apart to other special purposes by law, be, and the same is hereby, set apart as a fund for the promotion of literature and the advancement of the county academies in the manner heretofore pointed out. “ Sec. II. The fund herein contemplated and set apart for literature purposes shall be distributed among the county academies in this State in such proportions as appear to be still due as contemplated by the act of 1792.” In the following year, December 21, 1821, the sum of $500,000 was set apart, “the one half for the support and encouragement of free schools and the other half for the endowment of county academies.” Yet distrust was exhibited in Section VI, the last, by the words, “Nothing in this act contained shall be so construed as to prevent any future general assembly from altering or repealing this act, or any part thereof.” The action of subsequent legislatures on the subject of education shows earnest appreciation of its importance and as earnest zeal for its advancement and universal diffusion; but these generous sentiments failed of great results because of, what EARLY EDUCATIONAL LIFE IN MIDDLE GEORGIA. 885 became at last, settled departure from tlieplan considered by Baldwin and continued want of leaders wrho were or could be made by study and reflection competent for their direction. Instead of providing first for the highest, the idea grew that exist¬ ing degrees were as high as there was any need for, and the strain was to let every youth in the State have a share in such as was to begotten. Committees, changing in their make-up every year, made vague reports on existing conditions as they came to them by hearsay, and suggested indefinite resolutions regarding future action. Charges came from the poor that discriminations were made in the odious act cre¬ ating the poor school fund between their children and the children of the rich. These with others of general mismanagement of the moneys appropriated for educa¬ tion had most discouraging effect. The committee of the legislature of 1828 said: “Such has been the irregular manner in which the reports of academies and free schools have been made that they find it impossible to give such a condensed view of them as can lead to any correct conclusion as to their real state and condition. They had found out but one fact, that, with some honorable exceptions, there had been great waste and misapplication of the funds.”’ More gloomy yet was the report in the following year, 1829 : “That the present free-school system of the State of Georgia is miserably defective your committee have had but too mortifying testimony in the returns of the several counties submitted to their inspection during the present session. The fund set apart for free schools, although entirely inadequate to effect the important desider¬ atum of furnishing the means for a plain and substantial education to every family in the State under a more regular and economical administration, has, it is feared, been dissipated with comparative little benefit.” 1 Again, in a brief report of the committee appointed by the session of 1836, occur these words : “From all the information before your committee, there is great imperfection apparent in this system of education, and great laxity in the disbursement of this fund [the poor school], calling for a thorough reformation.” Yet it seems that the committee did not point out the errors in the system, nor to what particulars reformation should be directed. Such committees were composed of its own members, lawyers, planters, merchants, who, although some were educated persons, were without experience in such matters, and must therefore make indefi¬ nite reports upon a system which, so far as they had investigated, seemed to be in sore need of betterment, the means of which they left to the legislature in its col¬ lected wisdom to devise. If ever committees had indispensable need of experts to conduct their examinations, these did so. Yet it is to be questioned if upon any one a teacher was employed, for no teacher with a school worth the keeping could afford to go to the legislature, abandoning for two months his business, which none but himself could satisfactorily conduct. Doubtless such committees rose as briefly as possible after deciding in their own minds that changes of some sort were sadly needed to be made by somebody. It was thus that State education languished for years and years, while all minds were honestly desirous that it should flourish if only could be entertained the proper mode of inaugurating, and cultivating, and supporting it. The one sole want was a university — a university in fact as in name. The institution so named began with fair prospects, when Josiah Meigs, a scholarly man, took his seat as its head. So had been the beginning of the old universities under one competent leader, who from time to time drew others who were his likes. So began the University of Pennsyl¬ vania, when Dr. Shippen, after completing his education abroad opened a room of his office in Philadelphia for students in medicine. So began Johns Hopkins Uni¬ versity when Dr. Gilman came to Baltimore, and commenced the calling, at discreet intervals, of that list of distinguished teachers, who, under his thorough leadership during one score of years, have made it renowned throughout the world. The Prince’s Digest. 886 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. premature death, of Baldwin was a misfortune whose consequences are still felt after the passing of near a century. His wisdom and sagacity, and the honor in which he and his counsels were held, would have forestalled the accidents which served to withdraw from the institution he had founded the warm affection felt by the whole people at its inception. The complaints herein aforementioned, whether reasonable or not, those in control seemed to take little pains to regard or endeavor to reconcile. It was, therefore, that when the religious denominations took into their own hands the higher education of their youth, a sense of relief came not only to a majority of the people, but to the legislature which had been long partially handling the sub¬ ject in which they seemed to have little patience because of habitual neglect of pains that would have led to sufficient acquaintance with its multifold needs and the means to supply them. This sense of relief on the part of the legislature appears in the adopted report and resolution of the year 1834, which express “a, cordial appro¬ bation of the manual-labor system of education, and a willingness to foster and encourage the efforts making to that end by several religious denominations.”1 These denominations, after trial of the manual-labor system for a few years' aban¬ doned it as impracticable. This much, however, must be said of those institutions. AVitkin them numbers of young men have been educated to the degree which they were able to impart far greater than would have been if they had not existed ; that is, assuming that dis¬ satisfaction with the State university was to continue. In that view they have done much good by doubling and trebling the work being done by the university better than which was not possible in the State during the continuance of existing condi¬ tions. Unfortunately the degree thus attainable in college has seemed to all, with now and then an exception, satisfactory, and so the State has been without eminent native specialists in any department. Action upon this line has been directed by the idea settled in the majority of minds everywhere, that it is better to give moderate education to the multitude than the very highest to a few, ignoring the fact that the latter policy is of all the most efficacious in effecting the former. If, through legis¬ lative enactments (a thing not very probable) or i>rivato benefactions, the State col¬ lege shall become a university indeed, complete in all its appointments, then perhaps a monument, other than the small slab on the outer wall of one of the college build¬ ings inscribed with his name and another's, will be erected to the memory of Abram Baldwin. Prince’s Digest, p. 29. CHAPTER XVII. HORACE MAM.1 The educational history of our country is divided roughly into two epochs — that of rural and that of urban education. This is also the struggle that is going on now — to eliminate rural methods and supplant them by urban methods — for it often happens that a city grows in population but is slow to avail itself of the opportunity that a large population and accumulated wealth afford for superior methods of instruction. The number of cities within the United States containing 8,000 inhab¬ itants and upward was in 1790 only 6 ; between 1800 and 1810 it increased to 11; in 1820, 13; in 1830, 26; in 1840, 44. In the fifty years between 1810 and 1890 it increased from 44 to 443, or ten times the former num¬ ber. The urban population in this country in 1790 wTas, according to the Superintendent of the Census, only 1 in 30 of the population; in 1840 it had increased to 1 in 12 ; in 1890, to 1 in 3. In fact, if we count the towns on the railroads that are made urban by their close connections with large cities, and the suburban districts, it is safe to say that now one-lialf of the population is urban. In sparsely settled regions a district of 4 square miles will furnish only 20, 30, or 40 children of school age, and it follows as a matter of course that the schools were small, their annual sessions very short, the funds to pay teachers scarce, the teachers themselves poorly educated and not professionally trained. For the first forty years of this nation such was the condition of nine- tenths of all the schools. By 1830 the growth of cities began to be felt. As villages grew, and after the railroad had connected them to the large cities, bringing them into contact with urban life, graded schools began to exist and to hold an annual session of ten or eleven months. This required the services of a person whose entire vocation was teach¬ ing. One of the chief defects of the rural district school was to be found in the fact that the man who taught the winter school took up teaching as a mere makeshift, depending on his other business or trade (surveyor or clerk or farmer, etc.) for his chief support. There was small chance lAn address delivered by William T. Harris before the National Educational Associ¬ ation at Buffalo, N. Y., July 7, 1896. Reprinted from the Educational Review New York, September, 1896. 887 888 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. for the acquirement of any knowledge of the true methods of teaching. Another evil, more prominent than the former, was the letting down of standards caused by the low qualifications of the average committeeman. The town as a whole could afford a school committee of high qualifica¬ tions; the average district rarely. The township system, therefore, attains a far higher standard of efficiency than the district system. When the villages began to catch the urban spirit and establish graded schools with a full annual session there came a demand for a higher order of teacher — the professional teacher, in short. This caused a comparison of ideals, and the most enlightened in the community began an agitation of the school question, and supervision was demanded. In Massachusetts, where the urban civilization had made most progress, this agitation resulted in the formation of a State board of education in 1837 and the employment of Horace Mann as its secretary (June, 1837). Boston had been connected with Providence and Worcester and Lowell by railroads before 1835, and in 1842 the first great truuk railroad had been completed through Springfield to Albany, opening to Boston a communication with the great West by the Erie Canal and the newly completed railroad from Albany to Buffalo. This was the beginning of the great urban epoch in America that has gone on increasing in potency to this day. Horace Mann came to the head of education in Massachusetts just at the beginning of this epoch of railroads and the growth of cities. He attacked with unsparing severity the evils of the schools as he found them, these evils being chiefly the survivals of the rural-school epoch. The school-district system, introduced into Connecticut in 1701, into Bhode Island about 1750, and into Massachusetts in 1789, was pro¬ nounced by Horace Mann to be the most disastrous feature in the whole history of educational legislation in Massachusetts. Side by side with the new impulse given to education in the villages, no doubt the dis¬ trict system seemed very bad. Its evils were manifest in the opposition to central graded schools, which were needed in the populous villages, but which would break up the old district lines. Local power is never given up to a central power without a struggle. The stubbornness of this contest on the part of local committeemen was continued long after the adoption of the township system in Massachusetts and elsewhere. The district fought for its “rights” through its representatives on the town board, thereby postponing the feasible consolidation of districts and the formation of properly classified schools. Let us dwell a moment on this advantage of consolidated or “ union” schools, so called, in Hew York State and the West. In the rural school, isolated as it was, all grades of pupils from the lowest primary up to the secondary came together under one master, who had to give individual instruction to each, finding only five minutes or a little more for such lesson. Under such circumstances he could not well manage over 20 or 30 pupils. In his classes, each formed of one pupil in those HORACE MANN. 889 branches other than reading and spelling, he might have done better teaching had he had two pupils instead of one, for the child learns almost as much from paying attention to the efforts of his classmate to recite as from his own. A skillful teacher can make a recitation by an entire class of 20 or 30 pupils of even grade of advancement far more instructive to each pupil than a private tutor can make the same lesson to his one pupil. The other pupils of the class furnish a sort of bridge between the teacher’s mind (that sees or should see the topic under discussion in its relations to all human learning) and the individual pupil’s mind (that sees the topic in its barest outlines and has scarcely learned its relations to other topics), for each pupil gets some one¬ sided view of it for himself in preparing his lesson and sees in the class exercise (which we call “recitation” in our American school technique) many other one-sided views presented by his fellow-pupils, who are not likely to repeat his one-sided view, but to have others, equally distorted, of their own. Suppose two ungraded schools to be united in one and divided again according to grade, the 30 pupils youngest and in lowest elementary studies taken by one teacher and the other 30 pupils taken by the other teacher. One-half of the number of classes is saved by consoli¬ dation and each teacher has twice as much time for each class exercise or recitation. He can find more time to go into the merits of the sub¬ ject when he has ten minutes instead of five minutes. In a populous village a school of 500 pupils is collected. There is a teacher for each 50 pupils, making 10 in all; for nearly twice as many pupils can be taught by each teacher in a well- graded school as in an ungraded school. Each of these 10 teachers divides his 50 pupils into two classes according to advancement, and classes average a half year’s difference in their intervals of progress from the classes above or below. He has thirty minutes for each recitation. It is now possible to pro¬ mote a bright pupil, who is not finding enough to do in the tasks set for his class, to the next class above, for he can soon make up what he has omitted by the leap from one class to another. So, too, a pupil who is falling behind his class can take up his work with the next class below and find it better suited to his powers. It was an insight into this principle that led Martin Luther to insist on grading the schools. The Jesuits, who were the first to seize on the chief weapon of the Protestants — namely, education for the people — and turn it against them in the interest of the Catholic Church, formed a school system in 1590, and also took much pains with grading and classification. Horace Mann’s efforts did not at once abolish the district system in Massachusetts, but they prevailed to consolidate districts in populous sections of the State. His school reports were widely read outside of the State, and spread the agitation of the school question into Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Hew York, and elsewhere. Connecticut 890 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. succeeded in abolishing her district system in 1856, but Massachusetts clung to it until 1869, after several vain attempts to get rid of it. In this action she was followed by Maine in 1872. And this is what the State superintendent of Maine says of the evils of the district system in an able summary: First, the school moneys were inequably divided, some districts receiving much more than they could profitably expend, others much less than was absolutely needed; second, poor schoolhouses in remote and sparsely settled districts; third, short schools, or poor ones, if the agent attempted to lengthen them by hiring cheap teachers. Little money, poor schoolhouses, short schools are the necessary attend¬ ants of this system. Horace Mann extended his criticisms and suggestions to the exami¬ nation of teachers and their instruction in institutes ; to the improve¬ ment of school buildings; the raising of school funds by taxation; the creating of a correct public opinion on school questions; the care for vicious youth in appropriate schools. He discarded the hidebound text-book method of teaching and substituted the oral discussion of the topic in place of the memorizing of the words of the book. He encouraged school libraries and school apparatus. Horace Mann’s influence aided in founding the first normal school in the United States at Lexington (afterward removed to Framingham), and a second one at Barre, both in 1839, and a third one at Bridge- water, in the fall of the next year. Inspired by the example in Massachusetts, Connecticut was aroused by Henry Barnard, who carried through the legislature the act organ¬ izing a State board of commissioners, and became himself the first secretary of it (1819). In 1819 Connecticut established a normal school. In 1813 Mr. Barnard went to “Rhode Island and assisted in drawing up the State school law, under which he became the first commissioner, and labored there for six years. These were the chief fermenting influences in education that have worked a wide change in the management of schools in the Middle and Western States within the past fifty years. Let us consider some of those points more in detail and get a little closer to the personality of th«e hero whom we commemorate here. There had been in Massachusetts from 1789 to 1839 — a period of fifty years — an apparent retrogression of education. This apparent retro¬ gression was due to the increase of local self-government and the decrease of central, especially parochial, authority. It was a necessary and on the whole a healthful movement. The central power had been largely theocratic or ecclesiastical at the beginning. But the reaction against ecclesiastical control went too far in the direction of individual¬ ism. The farthest swing of the pendulum in this direction was reached, in 1828, when the districts obtained the exclusive control of the schools in all matters except in the item of examination of teachers. The public schools diminished in efficiency, and a twofold opposition began HORACE MANN. 891 some years before 1828, which took, on the one hand, the shape of an attempt to remedy the deficiency of public schools by the establish¬ ment of academies, and, on the other hand, that of a vigorous attack by educational reformers, such as Horace Mann and his devoted con¬ temporary, James G. Carter. The establishment of a State board of education and the appointment of Horace Mann as its secretary, there¬ fore, mark an era of return from the extreme of individualism to the proper union of local and central authority in the management of schools. Horace Mann’s function at this very important epoch was that of educational statesman. We must not permit our attention to be distracted from this point if we would behold the greatness and benefi¬ cence of his labors. Pestalozzi was essentially an educational mission¬ ary, a teacher of pupils in the first grade of the elementary school. Horace Mann was equally an educational missionary, for he conse¬ crated himself religiously to the task of promoting the school educa¬ tion of the people. Other people, all people, select vocations in which they are to work and earn a livelihood. But the missionary consecrates his whole life to a chosen work, not for what it will return to him in wealth or honor, but for the intrinsic worth of the object to be accom¬ plished as a good for the human race. The enthusiasm of Horace Mann shone out of his soul in his praise of the act of the Massachusetts legislature establishing the State board of education in 1837 : This hoard I believe to be like a spring, almost imperceptible, flooring from the highest table-land, between oceans, which is destined to deepen and widen as it descends, diffusing fertility and beauty in its course, and nations shall dwell upon its banks. It is the first great movement toward an organized system of common education, which shall at once be thorough and universal. It was he that was to succeed in making that State board of educa¬ tion the fertilizing spring that he describes. It was a board with lim¬ ited powers. It could not found schools nor direct or manage them after they were founded. It could only collect information and diffuse it. It could persuade the people, but not command them. In a nation founded upon the idea of local self-government it was a very great achievement to show what can be accomplished by a board that can not coerce but only persuade. This is the point of view to see Horace Mann’s greatness. One thinks of the potency of Peter the Hermit preaching a crusade. It was a crusade that Horace Mann preached in his twelve reports and in his hundreds of popular addresses, and in his thousands of letters, written with his own hand. The first report of Horace Mann, as secretary, was made in 1837, and contains the best statement ever made of the duties of school com¬ mittees, especially in the selection of teachers. It sets forth the apathy of the people regarding the schools and regrets the employment of incompetent teachers. (48 pp.) 892 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. There was a supplementary report on schoolhouses which discussed the matter of ventilation and warming, the proper kind of desks, the location of the building, the lighting of the room, the playgrounds, and the duties of the teacher in regard to light and ventilation. (60 pp.) In the second report, 1838, there is much discussion of the method of teaching reading, whether by letters or by the word method. A just criticism is made upon the character of the school reading books. (60 pp.) In the third report, 1839, he discusses the responsibility of the people for the improvement in common schools, the employment of children in manufactories, the importance of libraries, and the kind of books needed, the effect of reading on the formation of character, and recom¬ mends strongly the establishment of school-district libraries. (52 pp.) The fourth report, 1840, points out the desirability of union schools for the sake of grading and classifying the pupils and cheapening the cost of instruction. It shows the value of regularity and punctuality in attendance. (40 pp.) The fifth report, 1841, has a world- wide fame for its presentation of the advantages of education, the effect of it upon the fortunes of men, the production of property, the multiplication of human comforts, and all the elements of material well-being. He showed how education awakened thought, increased the resources of the individual, opening his eyes to the possibility of combinations not seen by the uneducated. The circular letter which he prepared, making inquiries of manufac¬ turers and men of business, is the most suggestive letter of its kind. This report deserves to be published in a pamphlet and placed in the hands of the people of every generation. (37 pp.) In his sixth report, 1842, he presents the subject of physiology and its importance as a branch to be taught in the schools. (100 pp.) The seventh report, 1843, records his observations in European schools, and starts endless questions regarding the methods of organi¬ zation and instruction, bringing into light the questions of corporal punishment and the overcultivation of the memory of words. He describes in an eloquent manner the evils of a partial system of educa¬ tion and treats in a judicial manner the advantages and disadvan¬ tages of the schools that he found in Scotland, Prussia, and Saxony. (190 pp.) In the eighth report, 1844, he treats of the employment of female teachers and of the method of conducting teachers’ institutes, teachers’ associations, and the study of vocal music. (30 pp.) In his ninth report, 1845, he discusses the motives to which the teacher should appeal, describes the school vices to be avoided, points out the transcendent importance of moral instruction, and shows how obedienee should be secured by affection and respect and not by fear. He treats of the dangers of truancy and the prevention of whispering, and a variety of practical difficulties that meet the teacher in the HORACE MANN. 893 schoolroom and shows how to avoid the evils of emulation, and com¬ mends the system of instruction by induction instead of deduction and the importance of substituting investigation for memorizing. (104 pp.) The tenth report, 1846, gives the history of the common- school system in Massachusetts and shows the relation which education holds to the future generations of the Commonwealth. (35 pp.) The eleventh report, 1847, makes a strong presentation of the power of the common schools to redeem the State from social evils and crimes. There is a circular letter of inquiry with regard to the effect of educa¬ tion in the prevention of vice and crime. The letter of 1841 had inquired regarding the effect of education upon thrift and industry. Eeplies obtained to the letter of 1847 gave encouraging facts and opinions in regard to the moral effect of school education. The report continues to discuss the qualifications of teachers and the methods of securing reg¬ ular attendance of children, and paints a picture of the effect of universal education. Every follower of God and friend of human kind will find the only sure means of carrying forward the particular reform to which he is devoted in universal educa¬ tion. In whatever department of philanthropy he may he engaged, he will find that department to he only a segment of the great circle of beneficence of which universal education is the center and circumference. (80 pp.) The twelfth and last report of Horace Maun presents anew the capacity of the common -school system to improve the pecuniary condition and elevate the intellectual, moral, and religious character of the Common¬ wealth, repeating with new force the arguments brought forward in previous reports. He shows the importance of religion and the reading of the Bible in the common school ; shows the importance of health and the necessity of providing for physical training in the schoolroom; sets forth the necessity of the schools for the political education of the citi¬ zens. His devices to show the use of intelligence gained in the schools to the mechanic, the merchant, and the farmer seem inexhaustible. (120 pp.) As a consequence of the seventh report, which sets forth the advan¬ tages of the schools of Germany, there arose the famous controversy with the 31 Boston schoolmasters. In studying the records of Massachusetts, one is impressed by the fact that every new movement in education has run the gauntlet of fierce and bitter opposition before adoption. The ability of the conservative party has always been conspicuous, and the friends of the new meas¬ ure have been forced to exert all their strength, and to eliminate one after another the objectionable features discovered in advance by their enemies. To this fact is due the success of so many of the reforms and improvements that have proceeded from this State. The fire of criti¬ cism has purified the gold from the dross in a large measure already before the stage of practical experiment has begun. In reviewing this long record of bitter quarrels over new measures that have now become 894 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. old and venerable because of their good results in all parts of the nation, we are apt to become impatient and blame too severely the conservative party in Massachusetts. We forget that the opposition helped to perfect the theory of the reform, and did much to make it a real advance instead of a mere change from one imperfect method to another. Even at best, educa¬ tional changes are often only changes of fashion — the swing of the pen¬ dulum from one extreme to another — and sure to need correction by a fresh reaction. Again, it is patent in Massachusetts history that the defects of old methods were in great part remedied by the good sense and skill of many highly cultured teachers who still practiced them, and hence the wholesale denunciation of the old methods was felt to be unjust. The best teachers resented the attack on their methods. It seemed unfair, because it charged against the method all the mistakes committed by inexperience and stupidity, and because, too, it claimed more for the new device than could be realized. The old was condemned for its poor results in the hands of the most incompetent, while the new was commended as the ideal without considering what it would become in the hands of unfaithful teachers. Take as an instance of this the use of text-books. Everyone will admit that what is called the u slavish use77 of such means is a great evil. The memorizing of words and sentences, without criticism and reflection on their meaning, is a mechanical training of the mind and fit only for parrots. But on the other hand, the proper use of the printed page is the greatest of all arts taught in the school. How to get out of printed words and sentences the original thought and obser¬ vation recorded there — how to verify these and critically go over the steps of the author’s mind — this is the method of discovery and leads to the only real progress. For real progress comes from availing one’s self of the wisdom of the race and using it as an instrument of new discovery. That other method sometimes commended, of original investigation without aid from books, forgets that mankind has toiled for long thousands of years to construct a ladder of achievement and that civilization is on the highest round of this ladder. It has invented school education in order that its youth may climb quickly to the top on the rounds which have been added one by one, slowly, in the lapse of ages. The youth shall profit vicariously by the thought and experi¬ ence of those who have gone before. For the child of the savage tribe there is no such vicarious thinking and living: he begins practically at the bottom of this ladder, with no rounds on which he may climb. FTow, there was in Massachusetts and elsewhere much excellent teach¬ ing in the academies and common schools — teaching which trained tbe pupil to criticise and verify instead of to accept the statements of the book with blind credulity. The good teachers knew that their methods were good and felt indignant to hear them caricatured and an inferior method recommended as a substitute. HORACE MANN, 895 For the merely oral method does not possess in it the capability of producing the independent scholar who can be trained by holding him responsible for mastering critically the printed page and making alive again its thoughts and perceptions. It was a sense of something valu¬ able in the old method that was not touched by the criticisms of Horace Mann that led to the reply of the Boston masters. Here we come to the closer view of the character of Horace Mann. He was, like so many of the great men of the Puritans, modeled on the type of the Hebrew prophets. The close and continuous study of the characters portrayed in the Old Testament, the weekly sermons, most of which were studies of those characters, had educated all Puritans to see ideals of character in ancient leaders who devoted themselves to a cause and withstood popular clamor, fiercely denouncing whatever form of idol worship they saw among their countrymen. The ideal of a strong, serious-minded, independent manhood, un¬ swerved by personal interest, thoroughly patriotic, and devoted to the public interest, it draws its support from a sense of righteousness that gives it a backbone coterminous with the axis on which the universe revolves. So long as this character is recognized and respected, and has in the main the support of the community, small and great, it stands firm like an oak, and thrives on the hostility of the elements in society that it opposes. But this species of character modeled on the Hebrew prophet, it should be said, is far more likely to be an inward tragedy than a gen¬ uine historical one. The average man puts on the air of a censor of his age or his community and develops an overweening egotism, or he poses as an unappreciated genius for poetry, or philosophy, or philan¬ thropy, or statesmanship, or theology, or ethical purity of character. The pathway of history for eighteen centuries is strewn with wrecked individualities of men who have become fanatics or cranks through the demoniac possession of a single idea and the self-delusion — a sugges¬ tion of the evil one — that they are exceptionally wise and gifted above their fellow-men ; that they, in short, are right and the world all wrong. It is saved from being a tragedy in Horace Mann, and in other great men before and after who have personified this Hebrew-prophet type of reformer, by the greatness of the cause they have espoused and by their self-sacrificing devotion to it. The Great Teacher gave the one prescription to ward off the fatal disease that attacks this Hebrew individualism, and that prescription is humility and self-abasement. Its intellectual rule is the measure by service of one’s fellows: Be their servant if you would rule over them. But we have from this ideal the most important fruition of all human history, namely, the development of individualism and the formation of a set of institutions to nurture it. We have characters that are so strong that they can withstand any amount of opposition from their fellow-men and still stand erect with¬ out fear. “One with God is a majority.” 896 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Tlius Horace Mann was intrenched in his fundamental principle, and on all occasions returned to it to rally his strength. In his own words he describes his conviction and at the same time lays down the details of his policy and methods of winning success : The education of the whole people in a republican government can never be attained without the consent of the whole people. Compulsion, even if it were desirable, is not an available instrument. Enlightenment, not coercion, is our resource. The nature of education must be explained. The whole mass of mind must be instructed in regard to its comprehension and enduring iuterests. We can not drive our people up a dark avenue, even though it be the right one ; but we must hang the starry lights of knowledge about it, and show them not only the directness of its course to the goal of prosperity and honor, but the beauty of the way that leads to it. In some districts there will be but a single man or woman, in some towns scarcely half a dozen men or women, who have espoused this noble enterprise; but whether there be half a dozen or but one, they must be like the little leaven which a woman took and hid in three measures of meal. Let the intelligent visit the ignorant day by day, as the oculist visits the blind man and detaches the scales from his eyes, until the living sense leaps in the living light. Let the zealous seek contact and communion with those who are frozen up in indifference, and thaw off the icebergs wherein they lie embedded. Let the love of beautiful childhood, the love of country, the dictates of reason, the admonitions of conscience, the sense of religious responsibility, be plied in mingled tenderness and earnestness until the obdurate and dark mass of avarice, ignorance, and prejudice shall be dissipated by their blended light and heat. He preached the same doctrine regarding the right of the state to educate at public expense that James G. Carter had preached. It is stated in these simple propositions : 1. The successive generations of men, taken collectively, constitute a great com¬ monwealth. 2. The property of the commonwealth is pledged for the education of all its youth up to such a point as will save them from poverty and vice and prepare them for adequate performance of their social and civil duties. 3. The successive holders of this property are trustees bound to the faithful exe¬ cution of this trust by the most sacred obligations ; and the embezzlement and pillage from children and descendants have not less of criminality, but far more than the same offenses when perpetrated against contemporaries. The net result of Mr. Mann’s labors in his great career as educa¬ tional statesman is put tersely by Mr. Martin in these words: In the evolution of the Massachusetts public schools during these twelve years of Mr. Mann’s labors, statistics tell us that the appropriations for public schools had doubled; that more than $2,000,000 had been spent in providing better schoolhouses j that the wages of men as teachers had increased 62 per cent, of women 51 per cent, while the whole number of women employed as teachers had increased 54 per cent; one month had been added to the average length of the schools ; the ratio of private- school expenditures to those of the public schools had diminished from 75 per cent to 36 per cent; the compensation of school committees had been made compulsory, and their supervision was more general and more constant; three normal schools had been established, and had sent out several hundred teachers, who were making themselves felt in all parts of the State.1 1 Martin’s Education in Massachusetts, p. 174. HORACE MANN. 897 In conclusion, I suggest again the thought of Mr. Mann as a charac¬ ter inspired with missionary zeal to reform society by means of the school system. It was this missionary zeal that led him to advocate in the Massachusetts legislature the first insane asylum and secure its establishment; to favor the establishment of asylums for deaf, dumb, and blind ; to secure normal schools, humane school discipline, meth¬ ods of instruction that appeal to the child’s interest and arouse him to self-activity, and finally to devote the evening of his life to the Antioch College experiment. It is this missionary zeal for the school that works so widely and in so many followers to-day. What enthusiastic teacher is not proud to be called a disciple of Horace Mann ? BIBLIOGRAPHY. Compiled by B : Pickman Mann. LETTER TO THE COMMISSIONER. 1918 Sunderland Place, Washington, D. C., 9 Dec., 1896. Dear Sir. I accede very gladly to your offer to publish in your annual report the material I have gathered for a bibliography of my father, Horace Mann. I regret that the work is not more complete. I have in my possession many interesting and valuable fragments of publications on the subject, which cannot be included in this list because I do not know where or when they were published. I have also a large number of indefinite references to publications which I have not been able' to see. Beyond these, I have reason to believe that much material exists of which I know nothing. I avail myself of the opportunity afforded by this publication to ask all persons kindly disposed to acquaint me with the titles of all publi cations relating to Horace Mann, not mentioned in this list, that I may further complete the work. I would like to receive definite references, and to know where the publications can be found. I would like also to obtain copies where such can be had. Yours respectfully, B: Pickman Mann. Hon. Wm. T. Harris, LL. D., JJ. S. Commissioner of Education. Mann, Horace. An oration delivered at Providence, September 6, 1825. Be¬ fore the United brother's society of Brown university. Providence : 1825. 30 p., O. Mann, Horace. Amendment of the con¬ stitution. (Boston commercial, 24 June 1832.) ED 96 - 29 Mann, Horace. License laws. (Colum¬ bian centinel [Boston, Mass.], 4 Feb. 1832, no. 4989, p. 4, col. 4-5 ; p. 2, col. 4-6; 8 Feb. 1832, no. 4990, p. 1, col. 1-2.) Editorial notice, (op. cit., 8 Feb., p. 2, col. 1.) Mann, Horace. Capital punishment. (Columbian centinel, 7 Mar. 1832, no. 4998, p. 4, col. 6.) 898 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Mann, Horace. Remarks upon the com¬ parative profits of grocers and re¬ tailers, as derived from temperate and intemperate customers. (Massachu¬ setts temperance society. Publi¬ cations. 1st series. No. 1.) Boston, Mass. temp, soc., Jan. 1834. 16p., S, Mann, Horace. [Reply to vote of thanks 8 of Senate.] (Columbian centinel, 20 Apr. 1836, no. 5430, p. 4, col. 1.) Massachusetts — Legislature — Senate . Reports and other documents relat¬ ing to state lunatic hospital at Wor¬ cester, Mass. Printed by order of the Senate. Boston, 1837. 200p., 2 pi., Q. Mann, Horace. [Reply to vote of thanks of Senate.] (Columbian centinel, 22 Apr. 1837, no. 5535, p. 1, col. 2.) Massachusetts — Board of education. First annual report of the Board of education, together with the first an¬ nual report of the secretary of the board. (Massachusetts — Legisla¬ ture — Senate. Senate . . . No. 26.) Boston: 1838. 75 p., 0. Reprint. (Common school journal, 15 Aug. -2 Sep. 1839, v. 1, no. 16-17, p. 241-270.) Mann, Horace. Report of secretary of Board of education, on schoolliouses, supplementary to his first annual re¬ port. Boston: 1838. 64 p., 3 pi., O. Reprint. (Common school journal, 2 Sep.-l Oct. 1839, v. 1, no. 17-19, p. 270-304, il.) Mann, Horace. Circular. [Boston, July 9, 1838.] 3 p., O. [Circular sent to the selio^l committees, to obtain statistics.] Mann, Horace. Abstract of the Massa¬ chusetts school returns, for 1837. Boston, 1838. 8 + 302 p., O. School convention. . . . (Inquirer, 15 Aug. 1838, 23 cm. ) [Editor.] Religious establishments. (New York observer, 20 Oct. 1838, v. 16, no. 42, p. 166, col. 1-2, 94 cm.) Common school journal (The). (Boston recorder, 28 Dec. 1838, v. 23, no. 52, p. 206, col. 3-4, 80 cm.) Storrs, R : Salter, pseud. Clericus Hamp- denensis. Letter 1. To the Hon. Horace Mann, secretary of the Board of education. (Boston recorder, 11 Jan. 1839, v. 24, p. 5, col. 1-2, 55 cm.) Our common schools. (Boston recorder, 11 Jan. 1839, v. 24,. p. 7, col. 1, 28 cm.) “ Sound the alarm !” (Quincy patriot, 12 Jan. 1839, 23 cm.) Religion in the common schools. (Trum¬ pet [Boston], 5 Jan. 1839, no. 1017, v. 20; n. s., v. 11, no. 29, p. 113, col. 1, 124 cm.) Storrs, R: S., pseud. Clericus Eamp- denensis. Letter 2. To the Hon. Horace Mann, secretary of the Board of education. (Boston recorder, 25 Jan. 1839, v. 24, p. 13, col. 2, 44 cm.) Y - z, Common schools. (Boston recorder, 25 Jan. 1839, v. 24, p. 15, col. 2, 39 cm.) An Observer. Common schools. (Bos¬ ton daily advertiser and patriot, 28 Jan. 1839, v. 43, no. 14604, p. 2, col. 3, 32 cm.) K - , S. Common schools. (Boston recorder, 1 Feb. 1839, v. 24, p. 17, col. 2-3, 42 cm.) Storrs, R: S., pseud. Clericus Hamp- denensis. Letter 3. To the Hon. Horace Mann, secretary of the Board of education. (Boston recorder, 8 Feb. 1839, v. 24, p. 21, col. 4-6, 77 cm.) D - . The recent attacks on the Board of education. (Boston daily advertiser . . . , 26 Feb. 1839, v. 43, no. 14629, p. 2, col. 3, 57 cm.) Storrs, R: S., pseud. Clericus Hamp- denensis. Letter 4. To the Hon. Horace Mann, secretary of the Board of education. (Boston recorder, 1 Mar. 1839, v. 24, p. 33, 76 cm.) Examination of schools. (Boston re¬ corder, 1 Mar. 1839, v. 24, p. 34, col. 5-6, 31 cm.) Massachusetts. (Connecticut common school journal, 15 Mar. 1839, v. 1, p. 116-118.) Storrs, R: S ., pseud. Clericus Hamp- denensis. Letter 5. To the Hon. Horace Mann, secretary of the Board of education. (Boston recorder, 22 Mar. 1839, v. 24, p. 45, col. 1-3, 112 cm.) Massachusetts — Board of education. Second annual report of the Board of education. Together with the sec¬ ond annual report of the secretar3rof the board. Boston : 1839. 79 p., O. Reprint. (Common school journal, 15 Oct.-15 Nov. 1839, v. 1, no. 20-22, p. 305-345.) HORACE MANN. 899 Mann, Horace. Abstract of the Massa¬ chusetts school returns, for 1838-9. Boston, 1839. 14 + 1 + 341 p., O. Mann, Horace. School-houses. (Culti¬ vator . . . Buel, Apr. 1839, v. 6, no. 2, p. 33-34, 122 cm., il.) Mann, Horace. The importance of pure air. (Cultivator . . . Buel, Apr. 1839, v. 6, no. 2, p. 37-38, 104 cm.) School houses. (Connecticut common school journal, 1 May 1839, v. 1, p. 142-146.) Common school journal (The). . Edited by Horace Mann, secretary of the Massachusetts Board of educa¬ tion. Boston: [v. 1-3] Marsh, Capen, Lyon, and Webb. [v. 4-7] William B. Fowle and X. Capen. [v. 8-10] Wil¬ liam B. Fowle. O. . . . For the year 1839 [Nov. 1838— Dec. 16,1839]. Yol. 1. 1839. 4+396 p. For the year 1840. Yol. 2. 1840. 4+404p., 1 pi. For the year 1841. Yol. 3. 1841. 4+395 p. For the year 1842. Yol. 4. 1842. 4+390 p. For the year 1843. Yol. 5. 1843. 4+391 p. For the year 1S44. Yol. 6. 1844. 4+398p., 8 pi. For the year 1845. Yol. 7. 1845. 4+388 p., 9 pi. For the year 1846. Yol. 8. 1846. 4+390 p. For the year 1847. Yol. 9. 1847. 4+388 p. For the year 1848. Yol. 10. 1848. 4+388p. Mann, Horace. Abstract of the Massa¬ chusetts school returns, for 1839-40. Boston, 1840. 10 -f- 1 + 482 p., O. Massachusetts — Board of education. Third annual report of the Board of education. Together with the third annual report of the secretary of the board. Boston : 1840. 102 p., O. [Another edition.] (Massachu¬ setts — Legislature — House of repre¬ sentatives. House . . . No. 21.) Boston: 1840. 102 p., O. Reprint. (Common school journal, 1 Apr. -15 May 1840, v. 2, no. 7-10, p. 97-105, 113-153. ) Massachusetts — Legislature — House of representatives. House . . . No. 49. [Boston, Mar. 1840.] 14 p., O. ■[Majority report in favor of abolishing the Board of education, and the normal schools.] Massachusetts — Legislature — House of representatives. House . . . No. 53. — Minority report of the Commit¬ tee on education. [Boston, Mar. 1840. ] 22 p., O. [Barnard, H:] Abstract of the Mass, school returns, for 1838-9. (Connec¬ ticut common school journal, 1 Mar. 1840, v. 2, p. 157-164.) [Barnard, H:] Massachusetts. Third annmal [sic] report of the Board of education, together with the third aunual [sic] report of the secretary of the board. (Connecticut common' school journal, 1 Apr. 1840, v. 2, p. 173-179.) Attempt to abolish the Board of educa¬ tion and the normal schools. (Com¬ mon school journal, 1 Aug. 1840, v. 2, no. 15, p. 225-246.) [Barnard, H :] Abstract of the Massachu¬ setts school returns for 1839-40, pre¬ pared by Horace Mann, secretary of the Board of education. (Connecti¬ cut common school journal, 1 Dec. 1840, v. 3, p. 47-48.) Mann, Horace. Lecture on education. Boston, Marsh, Capen, Lyon, and Webb, 1840. 62 p., D. [Emerson, G : B.] Massachusetts common school system. (North American re¬ view, Jan. 1841, v. 52, p. 148-191.) Massachusetts — Board of education. Fourth annual report of the Board of education, together with the fourth annual report of the secretary of the board. Boston, 1841. 108 p., O. Reprint. (Common school journal, 15 Jul.-15 Dec. 1841, v. 3, no. 14-24, p. 219-224, 238-240, 218-256, 270-272, 281-288, 302-304, 311-320, 333-336, 340-352, 359-368, 378-384. ) Mann, Horace. Importance of visible illustrations in common schools. (Connecticut common school journal, 1 Jan. 1841, v. 3, p. 61-62.) [Barnard, H:] Abstract of Massachu¬ setts school returns for 1840-41. . . . (Connecticut common school journal, 1 Feb. 1841, v. 3, p. 82-93.) [Barnard, H:] Massachusetts. Fourth annual report of the Board of educa¬ tion, together with the fourth annual report of the secretary of the board. (Connecticut common school journal, 1841, v. 3: 1 Apr., p. 140-144 j 1 May, p. 145-159.) [Combe, G:] Education in America: State of Massachusetts. (Edinburgh review, Jul. 1841, v. 73, p. 486-502.) 900 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. Mann, Horace. A lecture on the best mode of preparing and using spelling- books, delivered before the American institute of instruction, August, 1841. Boston: William 1). Ticknor . 1841. 40 p., D. Mann, Horace. Abstract of the Massa¬ chusetts school returns, for 1840-41. Boston, 1841. 16 + 328 p., O. Massachusetts — Board of education. Fifth annual report of the Board of education, together with the fifth annual report of the secretary of the board. Boston, 1842. 135 p., O. [Another edition.] (Massachu¬ setts — Legis lature — Senate. Senate . . . No. 4.) Boston, 1842. 135p.,0. Reprint. (Common school journal, 15 Oct. -15 Dec. 1842, v. 4, no. 20-24, p. 314-381.) [Barnard, H:] Massachusetts. Abstract of the Massachusetts school returns for 1840-41, prepared by the secretary of the Board of education, p. 328. Fifth annual report of the Board of education, together with the fifth annual of the secretary of the board, p. 135. (Connecticut common school journal, 1 June 1842, v. 4, p. 136-139.) Mann, Horace. An oration delivered before the authorities of the city of Boston, July 4, 1842. Boston, 1842. t.-p. cover + t.-p., 86 p., O. Mann, Horace. An oration, delivered before the authorities of the city of Boston, July 4, 1842. By Horace Mann, secretary of the Massachu¬ setts Board of education. [4th ed.] [Seal.] Boston : Wm. B. Fowle and Nahum Capen, and Tapp an Dennet. 1842. t.-p. cover, n. t.-p., +31p., O. Same. 5th ed. 31 p., O. Oratjpn (An) delivered before the author¬ ities of the city of Boston, July 4, 1842. By Horace Mann. (Christian exam¬ iner, Nov. 1842, v. 33 ; s. 3, v. 15, p. 258-262.) Mann, Horace. Abstract of the Massa¬ chusetts school returns, for 1841-42. Boston, 1842. 8 + 256 + 48 p., O. [Mann’s anniversary oration.] (Quar¬ terly review [London], Mar. 1843, v. 71, p. 523-528. ) Mann, Horace. Abstract of the Massa¬ chusetts school returns, for 1842-43. [Boston, 1843.] +-t.-p. cover, n. t.-p., + 48p., O. Massachusetts — Board of education. Sixth annual rexiort of the Board of education, together with the sixth annual report of the secretary of the board. Boston, 1843. 160 p., O. Reprint. (Common school journal, 15 June-16 Nov. 1843, v. 5, no. 12-22, p. 186-203, 216-236, 247-268, 280-299, 311-326, 347-352.) J - , E. Sixth annual report of the Board of education. With the sixth annual report of the secretary of the board. (Christian examiner, July 1843, v. 34 ; s. 3, v. 16, p. 366-381.) Massachusetts — Board of edu cation . Seventh annual report of the Board of education ; together with the seventh annual report of the secretary of the board. Boston: 1844. 199 p., O. Reprint. (Common school journal, 15 Feb. -15 June 1844, v. 6, no. 4-12, p. 62-196. ) Extra of nos. 5, 5 extra, and 6-12, with old paging. [Boston, Fowle § Capen, 1844.] n. t.-p., p. 65-200, O. [Newton, E: A.] Christian education. (Christian witness & church advo¬ cate [Boston], 23 Feb. 1844, v. 10, no. 1, p. 3, col. 3-4, 30 cm.) [Howe, M: Anthony DeWolfe, ed.~\ The system of public education in Massa¬ chusetts. (Christian witness . . ., 8 Mar. 1844, v. 10, no. 3, p. 10, col. 1-2, 85 cm.) Watchman, pseud. No schools without a bishop. (Boston courier, 12 Mar. 1844, v. 20, no. 6141, p. 2, col. 3, 64 cm.) [Howe, M : A. D. W., ed.~\ Christian edu¬ cation. (Christian witness . . ., 15 Mar. 1844. v. 10, no. 4, p. 14-15, 14 cm.) Mann, Horace. To the editor of the Christian witness and church advo¬ cate. (Christian witness . . ., 29 March 1844, v. 10, no. 6, p. 1, col. 1-5, 214 cm. ) [Howe, M: A. D. W., ed.~\ The bible in the schools. (Christian witness . . . , 29 Mar. 1844, v. 10, no. 6, p. 22, col. 1-3, 76 cm.) Watchman, pseud. No schools without a bishop. No. 2. (Boston courier, 30 Mar. 1844, v. 20, no. 6156, p. 2, col. 3, 36 cm.) HORACE MANN. 901 Board of education (The). The Christian witness versus the Hon. Horace Mann . ( Bay state democrat [Boston] 3 Apr. 1844, v. 4, no. 283, p. 2, col! 1-2, 81 cm.) Foster, Alfred D., sign. A. D. F. The hoard of education — Its secretary — “The witness.” (National segis [Worcester, Mass.], 3 Apr. 1844, v. 7, j no. 14, p. 2, col. 5, 27 cm.) Mann, Horace. Letter from Horace | Mann. To the editor of the Chris- j tian witness and church advocate. ' (Boston daily advertiser . . . , 4 Apr. 1844, v. 63, no. 82, p. 1, col. 4-6, j 176 cm.) Sectarian attack on the public schools. (Trumpet [Boston], 6 Apr. 1844, no. I 1288, v. 25; n. s., v. 14, no. 42, p. 166, ' col. 5-6, 360 cm.) F- - , T. Mr. Mann's letter to the I “Christian witness.” (Boston daily advertiser . . . , 8 Apr. 1844, v. 63, no. 84, p. 2, col. 2, 54 cm.) Hon. Horace Mann. (Newsletter [West- field, Mass.], 12 Apr. 1844, v. 4, no. 7, p. 2, col. 4, 34 cm.) Mann, Horace. Common schools and the Christian witness. (Boston courier, 11 Apr. 1844, v. 20, no. 6165, p. 2, col. 2,13 cm.) Board of education (The). (Salem [Mass.] observer, 13 Apr. 1844, v. 22, no. 15, p. 2, col. 1-2, 87 cm.) Common schools (The). (Evening ga¬ zette [Boston], 13 Apr. 1844.) [Not seen.] Watchman, pseud. No schools without a bishop. No. 3. (Boston courier, 16 j Apr. 1844, v. 20, no. 6169, p. 1, col. 7, | 46 cm.) Seventh annual report of the Board of educaion [sic], together with the seventh annual report of the secre¬ tary of the board. Boston: 1844. 8vo. pp. 199. (North American re¬ view, Apr. 1844, no. 123, v. 58, p. 518.) j [Howe, M: A. D. W., ed.J Religion and the schools. (Christian witness . . . , 17 May 1844, v. 10, no. 13, p. 49, col. 4-5, 48 cm.) Newton, E: A. Our common schools. (Christian witness . . . ,17 May 1844, v. 10, no. 13, p. 51, col. 1-3, 100 cm.) ; X - . The renewal of the attack of the Christian witness and church advocate on the Board of education. (Boston daily advertiser, after 17 May 1844.) [Not seen.] Christian witness (The) again. (Bay state democrat, 25 May 1844, v. 5, no. 24, p. 2, col. 2, 38 cm.) Mann, Horace. Our common schools. (Boston courier, 29 May 1844, v. 20, no. 6206, p. 1, col. 5-7, 206 cm.) Foster, A. D., sign. A. D. F. To “E. A. N.” (National tegis, 29 May 1844, v. 7, no. 22, p. 2, col. 6, 55 cm.) [Buckingham, Joseph T., ed.] Our com¬ mon schools. (Boston courier. 4 June 1844, v. 20, no. 6211, p. 1, col. 5, 66 cm.) Burnside, S : M. To Hon. Horace Mann. (National segis, 5 June 1844, v. 7, no. 23, p. 2, col. 5-6, 60 cm.) Civis, pseud. Our common school law. (New England puritan [Boston], 7 Juno 1844, v. 5, no. 23, p. 1, col. 5, 52 cm.) i Common school controversy (The) : con¬ sisting of three letters of the secre¬ tary of the Board of education, of the state of Massachusetts, in reply to charges preferred against the board, by the editor of the Christian witness and by Edward A. Newton esq. of Pittsfield, once a member of the board ; to which are added extracts from the daily press, in regard to the contro¬ versy. Boston : 1844. 55 p., O. Notice. (Boston daily advertiser . . . . 24 July 1844, v. 64, no. 20, p. 2, col. 2, 8 cm.) [Howe, M : A. D. W., ed.] Religious instruction in the common schools. (Christian witness . . . ,26 July 1844, v. 10, no. 23, p. 90, col. 4-5, 20 cm.) Field, Barnum, et al. Remarks on the seventh annual report of the Hon. Horace Mann, secretary of the Massa¬ chusetts Board of education. Boston : Charles C. Little and James Brown. [Sep.] 1844. 144 p., O. [Emerson, G:B.] Observations on a pamphlet, entitled “Remarks on the seventh annual report of the Hon. Horace Mann, secretary of the Massa¬ chusetts Board of education.” [Bos¬ ton, Sep. 1844.] 16 p., O. 902 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. Boston school masters. (Daily mail [ [Boston, Mass.], 19 Sept. -1844, \x 4, | no. 333, p. 2, col. 1, 40 cm.) Luther, pseud. The schoolmaster's re- j view of Mr. Mann's report (Boston ! courier, 24 Sept. 1844, v. 20, no. 6305, I p. 2, col. 2-3, 40 cm.) [Peet, H. P.] Seventh annual report of j the secretary of the [Massachusetts] | Board of education. Common school j journal. Boston. Vol. TI. pp. 65- ! 1S6. (North American review, Oct. 1844, no. 125, v. 59, p. 329-352.) Extra, entitled, “Review of Mr. ! Mann’s report. From the North Amer- ' ican review.” [Boston, Oct. 1844.] i ^-t.-p. cover -f-p. 330-352, O. Allen, G:, pseud. Z. The masters’ hook, or “Remarks on the seventh annual report of the Hon. Horace Mann, secretary of the Massachusetts Board of education.” Boston: Little & j Brown, pp. 144. (Christian citizen ! [Worcester, Mass.], 12 Oct. 1844, ax 1, no. 41, p. 3, col. 1-4, 146 cm.) Boston, Mass. — Primary school hoard. Report of the special committee of 1 the Primary school hoard, on a por- j tion of the remarks of the gram¬ mar masters. [Seal.] Boston: 1844. 13p., O. Mann, Horace. Reply to the “ Re¬ marks ” of thirty-one Boston school¬ masters on the seventh annual report of the secretary of the Massachusetts Board of education. By Horace j Mann, secretary of the hoard. Bos- I ton, JVm. B. Fowle and Nahum Capen. J [Nov.] 1844. 176p., O. B - . Hon. Horace Mann and the j thirty-one schoolmasters. (Boston ! daily atlas, 21 Nov. 1844, v. 13, no. { 124, p. 2, col. 1, 34 cm.) Seventh annual report of the Board of [ education .... Remarks on the Seventh annual rejmrt .... Observations on a pamphlet entitled, Remarks .... Report of the Special committee .... Reply to the “ Remarks ” .... (Bos¬ ton daily atlas, 26 Now 1844, v. 13, no. 128, p. 1-2, 204 cm.) Review of the school controversy. Con- j eluded. (Boston daily atlas, 3 Dec. ! 1844, v. 13, no. 133, p. 1-2, 287 cm.) I Justice, pseud. The Hon. Horace Mann and the schoolmasters. (Boston daily atlas, 5 Dec. 1844, v. 13, no. 135, p. 2, col. 4, 47 cm.) Hillard, G: S., sign. G. S. H. Mr. Mann and the Boston teachers. (Boston daily atlas, 7 Dec. 1844, v. 13, no. 137, p. 2, col. 3-4, 83 cm.) Justice, pseud. Mr. Mann’s reply to the Boston school masters. (Boston daily atlas, 7 Dec. 1844, ax 13, no. 137, p. 2, col. 4-5, 61 cm.) Justice, pseud. The Hon. Horace Mann and the school- masters. (Boston daily atlas, 14 Dec. 1844, ax 13, no. 143, p. 2, col. 3, 61 cm.) H - , A. School discipline. (Boston daily atlas, 21 Dec. 1844, v. 13, no. 149, p. 2, col. 6, 41 cm.) Mann, Horace. Abstract of the Massa¬ chusetts school returns, for 1843-44. Boston, 1844. 4-t.-p.^-8-f 336 p., O. [Eowen, Francis.] Mr. Mann and the teachers of the Boston schools. (North American review, Jan. 1845, v. 60, p. 224-246.) W. Education in Europe. 1. Seventh annual report of Horace Mann, esq., secretary of the Board of education in Massachu setts, on the state of education in Europe. Boston, 1844. 2 ... . (Southern q uarterly review, Jan. 1845, ax 7, p. 1-74, espe¬ cially p. 1-55.) Anti-Busby, pseud. School discipline. (Boston daily atlas, 7 Jan. 1845, v. 13, no. 163, p. 2, col. 6, 69 cm.) Cor¬ rection. (op. cit-.j 8 Jan., no. 164, p. 2, col. 3, 10 cm.) Massachusetts — Board of education. Eighth annual report of the Board of education, together with the eighth annual report of the secretary of the hoard. Boston, 1845. 136 p., O. Reprint. (Common school journal, 15 Feh.-l May 1845, v. 7, no. 4-9, p. 49-142.) Extra, with old paging. [Boston, Fowle Cope?*, 1845.] t.-p. cover -|-p. 49-144, O. [Editor.] Board of education. (Boston daily atlas, 1845, v. 13: 9 Jan., no. 165, p. 2, col. 3, 4 cm. ; 10 Jan., no. 166, p. 2, col. 3-4, 116 cm.) HORACE MANN. 903 [Editor.] Abstract of the Massachusetts school returns for 18-13 and ’44. . . . (Boston daily atlas, 10 Jan. 1845, v. 13, no. 166, p. 2, col. 2, 19 cm.) [Editor.] “We have carefully examined the report of a committee” .... (Boston daily atlas, 11 Jan. 1845, v. 13, no. 167, p. 2, col. 3, 13 cm.) Examiner, pseud. The North American and the school controversy. (Boston daily atlas, 10 Feb. 1845, v. 13, no. 1S2, p. 2, col. 6-7, 32 cm.) Examiner, pseud. The North American and the school controversy. No. 2. (Boston daily atlas, 25 Feb. 1845, v. 13, no. 205, p. 2, col. 6-7, 50 cm.) [Howe, M: A. D. W., ed.] The bible in common schools. (Christian witness i . . . , 28 Feb. 1845, v. 11, no. 2, p. 6, ! col. 2, 46 cm.) Wiggles worth, E., sign. E. W. Massa¬ chusetts Board of education. (Chris¬ tian examiner, Mar, 1845, v. 38; s. 4, v. 3, p. 229-242.) [Within gton, Leonard.] Penitential tears ; or A cry from the dust, by “ the j thirty-one”, prostrated and pulver- | ized by the hand of Horace Mann, ! secretary, &c. Fovvoviiai f f A%i- j Xsu'dv Ss. Boston: C. Stimpson. 1845. 59 p., O. Massachusetts, pseud. “ Penitential tears!” (Morning post, — 1845, 100 cm.) Rejoinder to the “Reply” of the Hon. PTorace Mann, secretary of the ‘ Massachusetts Board of education, to ; the “ Remarks ” of the Association of Boston masters, upon his seventh an¬ nual report. Boston: Charles C. Lit¬ tle arid James Brown. 1845. 55 p., O. ! [TL.-3 three following pamphlets appended.] j Shepard, W : A. Rejoinder to the second section of the “Reply”. [Boston], March 1845. 56 p., O. [Greene, S: S.] Rejoinder to the third section of the “Reply.” [Boston], March 1845. 40 p., O. [Hale, Joseph.] Rejoinder to the fourth section of the “Reply.” [Boston], April 1845. 64p., O. Boston, Mass. — Association of master's of the Boston public schools. Report of a committee of the Association of masters of the Boston public schools, i Boston, Mass. — Continued. on a letter from Dr. John Odin, jr., and in relation to a report of the sj)ecial committee of the Primary school board. Boston: 1845. 18 p.,0. Parent, pseud. School discipline. (Bos¬ ton courier, — 1845, 19 cm.) [Howe, M:A. D. W., ed.~\ Parochial schools. (Christian witness . . , 4 Apr. 1845, v. 11, no. 7, p. 26, col. 4, 5 cm.) [Howe, M:A. D. W., ed.~\ Parochial schools. (Christian witness . . , 16 May 1845, v. 11, no. 13, p. 50, col. 2, 23 cm. ) F - . Teachers’ institutes. (Boston courier, — 1845, 48 cm.) II. 1 Bloody nouns.’ (Boston olive branch, 24 May 1845, 25 cm.) School controversy (The). (Boston re¬ corder, 26 June 1845, v. 30, no. 26, p. 102, col. 4, 18 cm.) Mann, Horace. Answer to the “Rejoin¬ der” of twenty-nine Boston school¬ masters, part of the “thirty-one” who published “Remarks” on the seventh annual report of the secre¬ tary of the Massachusetts Board of education. By Horace Mann, secre¬ tary of the board. Boston: TYm. B. Fowle and Nahum Capen , 1845. 124 p., O. [Bumstead, J. F.] Mr. Bumstead’s de¬ fence of his school-books in reply to Mr. S. S. Greene. [Boston, July 1845.] 8p., O. Mann, Horace. The necessity of educa¬ tion in a republican government. (American institute of instruc¬ tion. Lectures delivered ... at Portland, August 30 & 31, 1844. . . . Boston, Ticknor, 1845. p.261-309.) Boston, Mass. — Annual visiting commit- * tees of the public schools, 1845. Reports of the Annual visiting committees of the public schools of the city of Bos¬ ton, 1845. (City document. — No. 26.) [Seal.] Boston: [Sep.] 1845. 168 p., O. Proceedings of the school committee (The). — . . . (Boston daily atlas, 8 Sep. 1845, v. 14, no. 59, p. 1, col. 7-8, 82 cm.) Mann, Horace. Address of Hon. Horace Mann. (Toledo [Ohio] blade, 7 Nov. 1845, t. — , no. 35, p. 1-2, 266 cm.) 904 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Mann, Horace — Continued. Notice, entitled “Mr. Mann’s ad¬ dress.” (op. tit., p. 2, col. 4, 3 cm.) Mann, Horace. Abstract of the Massa¬ chusetts school returns for 1844-45. Boston, 1845. t.-p. + 49 p., O. Massachusetts — Board of education. Ninth annual report of the Board of education, together with the ninth annual report of the secretary of the board. Boston: 1846. 158p.,0. Mann, Horace. Report of an educational tour in Germany, and parts of Great Britain and Ireland, being part of the seventh annual report of Horace Mann, esq., secretary of the Board of i education, Mass., U. S., 1844; with j preface and notes by W. B. Hodgson, ' principal of the Mechanics’ institu- j tion, Liverpool. 11 Id viro bono satis esse docuisse quod scierit.” Quint, lib. xii. 11. London; Simpldn, Mar¬ shall, Unis. . . . Paris, 1884. t.-p. cover I + t.-p, 28 p., O. Teachers (The) at Xewport. . . . Professor Amos Hadley's paper upon ‘‘Plorace Mann.” . . . (Boston morning journal, 10 July 1885, v. 52, no. 17163, p. 4, col. 1-3.) Gaufres, M. J. fiducateurs francais et ctrangers : Horace Mann, premier secretaire du Conseil d’education du Alassachusetts. (Revue pedagogique, 15 Dec. 1885, n. s., v. 7, no. 12, p. 524-544.) Hadley, Amos. Horace Mann: his life and example. (American insti-' tute of instruction — 56 Ih annual meeting. Lectures. . . . Xew¬ port, R. I., July 7-10, 1885. Boston: Willard Small. 1886. p.199-229.) Gaufres, M. J. Hducateurs francais et etrangers: Horace Mann president du college d’Antioche. (Revue peda¬ gogique, 15 Mar. 1887, n. s., v. 10, no. 3, p. 199-222.) Weston, J: B. Horace Mann: a view of his life and its meaning. A memo¬ rial address delivered at the unveil¬ ing of his monument at Antioch college, Yellow Springs, Ohio. Xew York; Fowler §' Wells Co., 1887. 2 por., 24 p., D. Keith, Alary Richardson. Horace Alann. (Xew England magazine, Aug. 1890, v. 8; n. s., v. 2, p. 653-659, il., por.) Mann, Horace. Annual reports of the secretary of the Board of education of Alassachusetts for the years 1837- 1838 including the first annual report of the Board of education to whicli are pre fixed Lectures on education. (Life and works of Horace Alann. Yol. 2.) Boston, Lee and Shepard, 1891. ... 20 -f- 571 p., O. Mann, Horace. Annual reports of the secretary of the Board of education of Alassachusetts for the years 1839- 1844. (Life and works of Horace Alann. A7©!. 3. ) Boston, Lee and Shep¬ ard, 1891. . . . 6 + 466 p., O. Mann, Horace. Annual reports of the secretary of the Board of education of Alassachusetts for the years 1845- 1848 and Oration.delivered before the authorities of the city of Boston, July 4, 1842. (Life and works of Horace Alann. AY>1. 4.) Boston, Lee and Shep¬ ard, 1891. . . . 6 + 403 p., O. HORACE MANN. 923 Mann, Horace. Educational writings of Horace Mann containing contribu¬ tions to the Common school journal and addresses of the president of Antioch college with an appendix containing a review of Horace Manns work and writings by Felix Pecaut. (Life and works of Horace Mann. Yol. 5.) Boston, Lee and Shepard, 1891. . . . 6 + 1 + 573 p., O. Martin, G: H. Horace Mann and the re¬ vival of education in Massachusetts. (Educational review [N. Y.], May 1893, v. 5, p.434-450.) Martin, G: H. The evolution of the Massachusetts public school system. A historical sketch. (International • education series. Yol. 29.) New York, D. Appleton and Company, 1894. 20 -f 284 p., O. Wells, Charlotte Fowler. Horace Mann, LL. D. (Phrenological journal. . ., [N. Y.], Feb. 1894, v. 97, no. 2, p. 81- 85, por. ) Wells, C. F. Sketches of phrenological biography. Horace Mann, LL. D. (Phrenological journal . . ., Mar. 1894, v. 97, no. 3, p. 136-139.) Wells, C. F. Sketches of phrenological biography. Horace Mann, LL. D. III. (Phrenological journal . . ., Apr. 1894, v. 97, no. 4, p. 197-201.) Sabin, II : Horace Mann’s country school. Read before the National educational association at Asbury Park, New Jersey, July 13, 1894. Des Moines, Iowa: 1894. t.-p. cover -f- 8 p., O. Second edition. Same imprint. Sabin, H : Extracts from the writings of Horace Mann. Prepared at the Department of public instruction. To be used in normal institutes and afterwards by teachers in their school work. (Iowa — Department of public instruction. Circular of in¬ formation no. 5, 1896.) Des Moines: 1896. 8 p., O. Lang, Ossian II. Editorial notes. (School journal [N. Y.], 15 Feb. 1896, v. 52, no. 7, p. 181, col. 1, 7 cm. ) Mann, Horace. The pilgrims and edu¬ cation. (School journal, 29 Feb. 1896, v. 52, no. 9, p. 237, col. 2, 10 cm.) Edwards, R: The rise and progress of normal schools in the United States. . . . III-IY. (Public school jour¬ nal [Bloomington, Ill. J , nos. 168-169, 1896, v. 15: Mar., no. 7, p. 351-358; Apr., no. 8, p. 407-411.) “Horace Mann was the greatest edu¬ cational force 11 . . . (Education [Boston], Apr. 1896, v. 16, no. 8, p. 497, 13 lines.) Harris, W : Torrey. Horace Mann cele¬ bration. (School news & practical educator [Taylorvillo & Chicago, Ill.], Apr. 1896, v. 9, no. 10, p. 21, col. 2, 7 cm. ) Horace Mann centennial (The). (Public school journal [Bloomington, Ill.], Apr. 1886, no. 169; v. 15, no. 8, p. 444, 21 cm.) Honor Horace Mann (To). Hundredth anniversary of his birth to be cele¬ brated in gala style. (New York herald, 3 Apr. 1896, 61st year, no. 21774, p. 7, col. 1, 10 cm.) Sutton, W. S., supt. of schools. Circular no. 9, 1895-’96. Office of the super¬ intendent of schools, Houston, Texas, April 8, 1886. To principals and teachers: . . . 4 p., O. Vaile, E. O. The influence of Horace Mann. (Intelligence [and the school¬ master] [Oak Park & Chicago], 15 Apr. 1896, no. 308; v. 16, no. 8, p. 121, col. 2, 24 cm.) Vaile, E. 0. Life and work of Horace Mann. (Intelligence . . ., nos. 308-309, 1896, v. 16: 15 Apr., no. 8, p. 123-125, 164 cm. ; 1 May, no. 9, p. 138-141, 298 cm.) Horace Mann centennial. It should be observed on May 4, by the educators of the country. (Connecticut school journal [Meriden, Ct.], 18 Apr. 1896, v. 1, no. 3, p. 7, col. 2, 18 cm.) Bases of school system. (Connecticut school journal, 18 Apr. 1896, v. 1, no. 3, p. 7, col. 3, 7 cm. ) 3Normal college (The). (New- York daily tribune, 27 Apr. 1896, v. 56, no. 18061, part 2, p. 16, col. 6, 14 cm.) Horace Mann celebration. Interesting event to be held at Normal college next Monday. (New York times, 27 Apr. 1896, v, 45, no. 13942, part 2, p. 10, col. 7, 15 cm.) 924 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Horace Mann’s birthday. The memory i of the educator to he honored at the | Xormal college. (New-York daily tribune, 28 Apr. 1896, v. 56, no. 18062, j p. 8, col. 4, 20 cm. ; por.) Horace Mann celebration. Mayor Strong will make one of the ad¬ dresses of welcome. (Commercial advertiser [N. Y.], 28 Apr.. 1896, v. 99, no. 180, p.5, col. 2, 9 cm.) Honor of Horace Mann's birthday. (Evening telegram [N. Y.], 28 Apr. 1896, v. 29, no. 9415, 4 cm.) In honor of Horace Mann. Hundredth anniversary of his birth to be cele¬ brated. (Evening telegram [N. Y.], 29 Apr. 1896, v. 29, no. 9416, 12 cm. ) Birthday of Horace Mann. His labors j for schools of this state recalled. The lOOtli anniversary of his birth fittingly commemorated by the Mas- | sachusetts woman suffrage associa- | tion — Addresses by Mr. John O. Norris and others. (Boston herald, 29 Apr. 1896, v. 99, no. 120, p. 6, col. 8, 20 cm.) “Horace Mann’s birthday will be cele-” .... (Springfield [Mass.] daily republican, 29 Apr. 1896, p. 6, col. 1, 8 cm.) Talk of Horace Mann (To). (Boston post, 30 Apr. 1896, p. 4, col. 7, 4 cm,) Horace Mann’s birthday. Honors for the great friend of public schools. (Jersey City [N. J.] journal, 30 Apr. 1896, v. 29, no. 305, p. 6, col. 2, 12 cm.) Winship, Albert E. Horace Mann. (Congregationalist, 30 Apr. 1896, v. 81, no. 18, p. 701, col. 2-3, 46 cm.) Winship, Albert E. Horace Mann, the educator. Boston: New England pub¬ lishing co. 1896. +101 p., D. por. j Sabin, H: Horace Mann, how he influ¬ enced my life. (Kindergarten maga- ; zine [Chicago], May 1896, v. 8, p. j 621-625.) Charles, T: Reminiscences of Horace Mann while at Antioch college by one of his students. (Kindergarten magazine, May 1896, v. 8, no. 9, p. 626-631, por.) Weston, Olive E. How a kindergartner was inspired by Horace Mann. (Kin¬ dergarten magazine, May 1896, v. 8, no. 9, p. 685-686.) Horace Mann’s centennial. (Daily inter ocean [Chicago], 2 May 1896, v. 25, no. 39, part 2, p. 12, col. 1-2, 28 cm.) Whiting, Lilian. Life in Boston. The centennial celebration of Horace Mann. The great educator. “B- ashamed to die until you win vic¬ tory.” Mary Peabody Mann — The Peabody family — A servant of the gods. (Daily inter ocean [Chicago], 2 May 1896, v. 25, no. 39, part 2, p. 16, col. 1-3, 138 cm. ; por.) Normal college (The). In honor of Horace Mann. (Evening post [N. Y.], 2 May 1896, v. 95, p. 18, col. 1, 15 cm. ) “ 100th anniversary (The) of the birth of Horace Mann, the great” . . . (Critic [N. Y.], 2 May 1896, v. 25, no. 741, p. 321, col. 2, 4 cm.) Horace Mann and his work. (Buffalo commercial, 2 May 1896, v. 64, no. 21196.) Parker, Francis W. Hero of the Ameri¬ can common schools. Centennial of the birth of Horace Mann, greatest American educator. (Sunday times- herald [Chicago], 3 May 1896, 15th year, no. 360, part 4, p. 39, col. 1-3, 163 cm.; por.) Horace Mann. (Sunday herald [Bos¬ ton], 3 May 1896, v. 99, no. 124, p. 12, col. 2-3, 53 cm.) [Winship, A. E.] Horace Mann's great fight. His controversy with thirty- one Boston schoolmasters. A chapter in his career with which the xmhlic is not generally familiar. — His tri¬ umph — Tomorrow is the 100th anni¬ versary of his birth — Sketch of his life. (Sunday herald [Boston], 3 May 1896, v. 99, no. 124, p. 34, col. 2-4, 168 cm. ; por.) Born beneath the same star. Historian Prescott and educator Mann have centennial celebrations to-morrow. From May 4, 1796, to 1896. The double centennial an affair of great public and literary interest. (New York herald, 3 May 1896, no. 21804; 61st year, no. 124, section 6, p. 13 : col. 5, 8 cm., por. ; col. 6,53 cm.; por.) One hundredth anniversary of the birth¬ day of Horace Mann, first secretary Massachusetts state board of educa¬ tion, . . . educator, publicist, philanthropist. Association hall, Paterson — New Jersey. 1796 1896. [Paterson, N. J., 1896.] 3 p., D. HORACE MANN. 925 Horace Mann To tlie students in the public schools Reprinted by the Commissioners of public instruction, Paterson, N. J., as a souvenir of the Horace Mann anniversary, May 4th, 1896. [Paterson, N. J., 1896.] t. -p. cover -f- 12 p., 13. Horace Mann. (New-Yorker staats- zeitung, 4 May 1896, jahrg. 62, no. 107, p. 4, col. 4, 22 cm.) Horace Mann’s gedachtnis (Zu). Die 100. wiederkehr seines wiegenfestes. In Normal college wird dieselbe heute abend festlich begangen. — Aus dem thatenreichen leben des pada- gogen. (New-Yorker staats-zeitung, 4 May 1896, jahrg. 62, no. 107, p. 9, col. 1, 43 cm. ; por.) ^ Mann memorial. Exercises to-day in the chapel of the Normal college. (New York recorder, 4 May 1896, v. 11, no. 1899, p. 5, col. 7, 14 cm.) In honor of Horace Mann. Speakers at ! the anniversary of his birth. (Com- , mercial advertiser [N. Y.], 4 May I 1896, v. 99, no. 185, p. 5, col. 1, 7 cm.) j Notable anniversary (A). (Providence [R. I.] journal, 4 May 1896, v. 68, no. 107, p. 6, col. 2, 34 cm.) Horace Mann. One hundredth anni¬ versary of his birth to be celebrated. He was a graduate of Brown univer¬ sity class of 1819. Distinguished for his interest in educational progress in Massachusetts. — Other services to the commonwealth. (Providence [R. I.] journal, 4 May 1896, v. 68, no. 107, p. 10, col. 4-5, 59 cm. ; por.) Some facts about Horace Mann, whose hundredth birthday is to be celebrat¬ ed this week — What he did for the schools of Massachusetts. (Spring- field [Mass.] daily republican, 4 May 1896, p. 8, col. 3, 63 cm.) (Spring- field weekly republican, 8 May 1896, 63 cm.) Horace Mami and his work Today the anniversary. Of the birth of the famous educator — W as born 100 years ago — His revolutionary methods. (Springfield [Mass.] union, 4 May 1896, v. 33, no. 122, p. 10, col. 1, 91 cm. ) Horace Mann. His birthday to be ob¬ served in the schools. Founder of the common school system — Inter¬ esting sketch of education and rise to Xirominence. (Times-democrat [New Orleans, La.], 4 May 1896, v. 33, no. 14208, p. 3, col. 6, 47 cm. ; por.) Horace Mann centenary. May 4th, 1796, May 4th, 1896. [Yellow Springs, O., 1896.] i-t.-p. cover -f- 32 p., T. il. Horace Mann’s memory (To). Addresses at the Normal college on the life and work of the great educator. (New- York daily tribune, 5 May 1896, v. 56, no. 18069, p. 2, col. 5, 8 cm.) In Horace Mann’s memory. Impressive exercises at the Normal college. Ad¬ dresses by President Hunter, Mayor Strong, United States Education Commissioner Harris and others. (New-York daily tribune, 5 May 1896, v. 56, no. 18069, p. 2, col. 5, 19 cm.) In memory of Horace Mann. Public men and educators join in praising his work. (Commercial advertiser [N. Y.], 5 May 1896, v. 99, no. 186, p. 5, col. 2, 28 cm. ; por.) Great educator (A). Commemoration of Horace Mann’s 100th birthday. At the Normal college. Mayors of four cities among the able men on the platform. Brief address by Mr. Strong. The principal speech was delivered by United States Commis¬ sioner of education Harris. (Morn¬ ing advertiser [N. Y,], 5 May 1896, v. 5, no. 1794, p. 2, col. 5, 39 cm. ; por.) All due honor to Horace Mann. Great educator is warmly eulogized at the Normal college. A century since his birth. Memory of the lawyer, states¬ man and benefactor kept green by men who tell to enthusiastic crowds the great and good work he did for education and for women. (New York recorder, 5 May 1896, v. 11, no. 1900, p. 4, col. 5, 54 cm. ; por.) Work of Horace Mann. Educators meet in memory of the school reformer. A great gathering in the Normal col¬ lege — Addresses by President Hun¬ ter, Mayor Strong, United States Com¬ missioner Harris, President Hall of Clark university, State superintend¬ ent Skinner, and others. (N.-Y. times, 5 May 1896, v. 45, no. 13949, p. 8, col. 1-2, 60 cm. ) 926 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. Horace Mann’s birthday. Its hun¬ dredth anniversary commemorated. Mayor Strong's speech. (Sun[N. Y.], 5 May 1896, v. 63, no. 218, p. 2, 4, 8 cm. ) In honor of Horace Mann. One hun¬ dredth anniversary of the educator’s j birth celebrated. (New York press, 5 May 1896, at. 9, ho. 3079, p. 9, col. 4, j 11 cm.) Ehren Horace Mann’s (Zu). Eine wiirdige feier des 100. geburtstages des ver- dienstvollen mannes. (New-Yorker staats-zeitung, 5 May 1896, jahrg. 62, no. 108, p. 9, col. 5, 21 cm.) “Not another day in the history of Ameri-” .... (Morning times [Washington, D. C.], 10 May 1896, v. 3, no. 785, p. 24, col. 2-3, 16 cm.) Wilbur, Mrs. Eliza Scott, lorn Mann. Horace Mann’s home life as seen by a Spriugheld woman. Mrs. Eliza Mann Wilbur who spent a part of her child¬ hood in his family tells her memories. (Springfield [Mass.] Sunday repub¬ lican, 10 May 1896, p. 8. col. 1-2, 74 cm.; por.) (Springfield weekly re¬ publican, 15 May 1896, p. 9, col. 5-6, 74 cm. ; por.) “Exercises (The) in honor of the 100th birthday ” . . . (Evening post [N. Y.], 5 May 1896, v. 95, p. 10, col. 1, 4 cm.) Birthday of Horace Mann (The) observed in various places in western Massa¬ chusetts. (Springfield [Mass.] daily republican, 5 May 1896, p. 5, col. 1, 14 cm.) Will honor Horace Mann. — . . . (Her¬ ald of gospel liberty [Dayton, 0.],7 May 1896, a*. 88, no. 19, p. 305, col. 2, 4 cm.) [Summerbell, J. J.] Horace Mann. (Herald of gospel liberty [Dayton, O.], 7 May 1896, v. 88, no. 19, p. 313, col. 1, 10 cm.) Horace Mann. Eloquent tributes to the promoter of the public school and founder of normal training. (Weekly pantagraph [Bloomington, Ill.], 8 May 1896, v. 50, no. 19, part 1, p. 7, col. 3, 37 cm.) [Long, Daniel Albright.] “Prest. Mann receh'ed the keys from” .... (Yellow Springs [O.] review, 8 May 1896, v. 16, no. 42, p. 3, col. 4, 5 cm.) Long, Daniel Albright. Horace Mann. The one hundredth anniversary of this distinguished man appropriately celebrated at Antioch college last Monday — A number of excellent speeches were made and the day pleasantly spent. (Yellow Springs [O.] review, 8 May 1896, v. 16, no. 42, p. 4, col. 1-4, 124 cm.) “ Centennial (The) of the birth of Horace Mann was cele-” . . . (Outlook [N. Y.], 9 May 1896, v. 53, no. 19, p. 844, col. 1-2,21 cm.) Long, Daniel Albright. Horace Mann. (Yellow Springs [O.] review, 15 May 1896, at. 16, no. 43, p. 2, col. 1-2, 53 cm.) “ Celebration (The) of the anuHersaries of” . (Educational ex¬ change [Birmingham, Ala.], May 1896, v. 11, no. 5, p. 4, col. 1-2, 14 cm.) Age of Mann (The). (School journal [N. Y.], 23 May 1836, v. 52, no. 21, p. 601-602.) Thurber, C: H. Horace Mann, the edu¬ cator statesman. (University rec¬ ord [Chicago], 29 May 1896, v. 1, no. 9, p. 161-165.) Dr. Harris’s paper. (Buffalo [N. Y.] commercial, 7 July 1896, v. 64, no. 21251, p. 11, col. 6, 27 cm.) Harris, W : Torrey. Horace Mann. Full text of the remarkable address de¬ livered at Music hall today by Dr. William T. Harris to the great con¬ vention of teachers. A wonderful review of the great reformer's life work and analysis of his character by a keen and philosophical admirer. Mann's influence on the public school system. How this modern puritan, this evangelized Hebrew prophet, wrought beneficent changes against the most fierce and bitter opposition of his contemporaries — His ideas as expressed in his own words. This address should be in the hands of eA-ery teacher in the country. (Buf¬ falo [X. Y.] enquirer, 7 July 1896, v. 51, no. 51, extra, p. 1, col. 6-7, 92 cm.; por. of Harris; p. 9, col. 1-3, 132 cm.) (Buffalo enquirer, 8 July 1896, v. 51, no. 52, 5th ed., p. 7, col. 1-5, 224 cm.; por. of Harris.) HORACE MAXN. 927 Sabin, H: Horace Mann. Abstract of an able paper by Henry Sabin, state ! superintendent of public instruction, j Iowa. (Buffalo [X. Y.] enquirer, 7 5 July 1896, v. 51, no. 51, extra, p. 9, col. ! 5, 9 cm.) Harris, W : T. Harris on Mann. Able j paper upon tbe history of education and the life of the great educator. (Buffalo [N. Y.] express, 8 July 1896, p. 8, col. 5, 20 cm.) Harris, W : T., etaJ. Horace Mann. (Buf¬ falo [X. Y.] courier, 8 July 1896, v. 61, no. 190, p. 6, col. 4-5, 41 cm.) Harris, W: T. Horace Mann. (Educa¬ tional review [X.Y.], Sep. 1896, no. 57 ; v. 12, no. 2, p. 105-119. ) Separate. [X. Y., 1893.] p. 105- 119, O. CHAPTER XVIII. CORRELATION OF STUDIES. [The two following papers continue the discussion aroused by the report of the Committee of Fifteen, from a new point of view.] Isolation and Unification as Bases of Courses of Study.1 By Emerson E. White, LL. D., Columbus, Ohio. An important condition in the development of any science is the use of clearly defined terms to denote its facts and principles. This is strikingly illustrated in the development of the natural and x>hysicaX sciences. The terminology of chemistry, physics, and biology has made these sciences possible. It is difficult to see how they could be presented in language without the use of definite technical terms, not only to denote phenomena, but principles and laws. Most of the terms in the present science of electricity lie outside of the vocabulary of the general scholar, and are known only to specialists in the science. The same is true, to a greater or less degree, of all the modern trades, professions, and arts. Each has a large glossary of technical terms peculiar to itself, each term having a definite meaning. It is one of the recognized infelicities of the science of psychology that so many of its terms are in general literature, where they are used with varying and often diverse significations. Indeed, one of the first conditions of the intelligent reading of a work on psychology is the determining of the definite meaning of the terms used by the author — not always an easy task. No psychologist who uses important terms in different senses, or with the meaning obscure, can be a successful author. This is specially true in that branch of psychology known as moral science or ethics. Much of the inconclusive and fruitless discussion which besets the student of ethics is due to the fact that the disputants use terms in different senses. A common source of disagreement is the use of words by one party with a larger or smaller content than the other, and this is true even when these contents contain a considerable common element. We thus approach one of the serious obstacles in the development of a science of pedagogy. Its terminology presents a most striking contrast to that of the physical sciences. Many of its terms are borrowed from psychology and ethics, not a few from philosophy, and these from authors who use the same terms in different senses. Indeed, the science of pedagogy has a very small vocabulary of technical terms, which are used by all writers with the same meaning. This fact is the source of wide confusion in thought and much fruitless discussion. It must be evident to every careful observer that the movement in recent pedagogical inquiry is the reverse of the movement in other modern sciences. Instead of careful differentiation and the use of special terms to denote things that differ, there is in pedagogy much ambi¬ tious generalization and the use of terms that express indefinite and vague entities — terms that have been appropriately called u blanket words,” since they so readily cover a group of diverse ideas. I frankly confess that I read articles and listen to 1 From the Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Associa¬ tion at its meeting in Jacksonville, Fla., February 18-20, 1896. ed 9 6 — —30 929 930 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. addresses on pedagogy tliat baffle my understanding, not, as I flatter myself, because they are too deep for me, but because of tbeir vagueness and obscurity. Much of the present conflict of opinion in pedagogy is largely due to the fact that those who differ do not understand each other, and it is doubtful if each one always under¬ stands himself. We have an instructive example of this difficulty in the discussion of the past year over the place and value of “ correlation,” “ coordination,77 and “ concentration " in school instruction. The discussion has been a Babel confusion of ideas, if not of tongues, and well-meant attempts to settle the pedagogical meaning of these terms havo only added to the confusion. After all that has been said, several writers for the educational journals are using the incongruous terms coordination and concen¬ tration as synonymous. One of the surprises of the profession was tho expressed expectation that a recent report on the “ correlation of studies" would be devoted to a discussion of the theory of concentration ! Tho desiro to bo understood in tho present paper has led mo to avoid, as far as possible, these badly mixed up terms, and to use instead terms that are more defi¬ nite and fundamental. For this purpose I havo selected tho terms “ isolation" and “ unification" as denoting opposito processes and results. Tho term isolation, as used herein, denotes the separation of a branch of study from other branches for the purposes of instruction — tho teaching of it in a separate exercise. I do not use the term in the sense of exclusion. The isolation of a branch of knowledge in instruction does not involve the exclusion of all tho facts and skill that may havo their origin in other branches. For example, the isolation of arith¬ metic as a school exercise does not mean that tho data for its problems may not be taken from another branch of study. It simply means the making of instruction and drill in number the central and controlling end of tho exercise, the unit of activity. The same is truo of isolation as applied to tho other branches of the course. Tho term unification is used in a contrary sense. . Tho unification of two or more branches of study means their union in instruction in such manner as makes them one branch, with a common sequence of facts, and taught with a common end or pur¬ pose. The term is not limited to any particular mode of uniting tho several subjects. For our present purpose it makes no difference whether they are united as coordi¬ nate elements, or whether one is made the principal or core and the others subordi¬ nated to it, as we construct complex sentences. The term unification is, however, exclusive of isolation. It does not include the teaching of branches in separate exercises, however skillfully these exercises are related to each other. If two branches are taught in separate exercises, each having its appropriate and special development, they are not unified in any true pedagog¬ ical sense. For tho purposes of instruction they are isolated. Nor is this fact of isolation changed if the several separate exercises all center in the pupil and actu¬ ally contribute to one teaching result. All rational instruction necessarily centers in tho pupil, and in this respect methods do not essentially differ. The essential fact in complete unification is the unity of the subjects or branches in actual instruction — their oneness in tho teaching process. This leads to the natural division of the studies of a school course into coordinate groups or unities. Fortunately this subject has been too ably and too exhaustively discussed in this presence to require further elucidation. The only question is whether thero aro more or less than five coordinate groups of studies. Dr. Harris admits that thero is a sixth coordinate group of knowledge, tho one that includes religious truth — tho fifth in Dr. Thomas Hill’s “ hierarchy of studies;" and Dr. Do Garmo’s earnest plea for the recognition of three coordinate groups, tho third being called tho “economic," necessitates, if conceded, tho adding of a seventh coordinate group— a group that includes drawing, construction, book keeping, etc., and better designated as tho “industrial art" group. Whether these two additional coordinate groups be, or be not, recognized as belonging to the school course does not concern our CORRELATION OF STUDIES. 931 present purpose. The important fact is that, while these coordinate groups, whether live or seven, have certain interrelations, they have a different origin, a different law of sequence, and, as a consequence, a different development; and it follows that no one of these coordinate groups can he united with another coordinate group by making the one or the other subordinate. Coordinate entities can not be unified on the principle of subordination. This is a fact of prime importance in pedagogy. If the existence of coordinate groups of studies be once conceded, the Ziller theory of concentration is left in the air, since this involves subordination. It is also plain that, in discussing the question of unification, a clear distinction must be made between the unifying of allied subjects in the same group and the unifying of subjects that belong in different coordinate groups. A failure to observe this distinction is resulting in much confusion. There is necessarily a close relation between subjects in the same natural group, and their union at different points in instruction may, as a consequence, be both feasible and desirable. But the unifying of coordinate branches is a different matter. Take, for example, the several subjects that make up the mathematical group. Whether arithmetic, algebra, and geometry shall bo taught tandem, or the elements of algebra and concrete geometry run abreast of arithmetic in the latter part of the arithmetical course, is a pedagogical question that can be best settled by experience. This is simply the proper correlation of allied subjects within a group. But the harnessing of mathematics to history or to natural science is another procedure. It constitutes a team of pedagogic animals that do not naturally travel the same road or in the same direction. The unifying of allied subjects within a group and the unification of separate coordinate groups are very different pedagogic problems. The distinction has a parallel in the difference of the powers of the signs -f- and — and the signs X and — in algebra, the former denoting relations between terms and the latter the relations of numbers within a term. It is important to keep this distinction in mind, for it is easy to pick out facts, and even groups of facts, in allied subjects which are so closely related that they may be taught together with obvious advantage, and then cite these instances as evidence that unification is a universal principle of teaching. It should also be kept in mind that the unifying of closely related facts or groups of facts selected from separate branches is not the unification of the branches as wholes. A teacher may, for example, use the transparency of glass to illustrate the meaning of a lucid style in writing, but this would hardly be the unification of physics and rhetoric. The pedagogic purpose is not to teach the transparency of glass. The same is true when the skill acquired in one branch is used as an aid in teaching another. Thus, skill in drawing may be utilized in teaching geography, but this is not, in any true sense, tho unification of drawing and geography, and, whenever it may be desirable to call such a procedure unification, care should be taken not to broaden the meaning to a unifying of the branches of study. We are prepared to ask whether either isolation or unification can be made the basis of a course of study. It may bo helpful in this inquiry to note that each of these principles may have three quite distinct degrees of application, as follows: Insolation. — First degree: Complete; all branches taught separately throughout the course. Second degree : General isolation, with incidental blendings ; especially in primary instruction, including the language arts. Third degree : Coordinate branches for development and drill, with rational blendings of allied subjects when relations are close and helpful; especially in elementary instruction. Unification. — Third degree : Allied subjects at points of close relation, especially in elementary instruction, with isolation of all coordinate branches for special devel¬ opment and drill. Second degree: Groups; all branches united in two or three coordinate groups, each with a central core; incidental isolation of branches for special development and drill. First degree: Complete; all branches united in one organic whole, with a central core. It is here seen that isolation is considered complete when it applies to each branch 932 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. of instruction, whether the end he knowledge or skill, and to each branch from the beginning to the end of the course. It seems unnecessary to add that this degree of isolation is not found in the American school. Spelling and reading were united more or less closely long before I was a pupil, and the same has long been true of the elements in other allied branches. Complete isolation is neither practicable nor desirable. The second degree of isolation more nearly represents the practice of the modern school. The coordinate groups of studies are isolated in instruction, except in the lowest grades, and the well-defined branches in each group are taught, as a rule, in separate exercises. There is, however, an increasing blending of the school arts, especially in primary grades, the arts of reading, spelling, writing, and language , having many close relations and possibly interunions. Advantage is also taken of the natural relations between allied subjects, and there is much incidental blending of these subjects in actual instruction. But in many schools unification is not intel¬ ligently sought as an end. What is done in this direction is incidental, and only the more simple associations are attempted. Isolation is the dominant principle, unifica¬ tion being incidental and exceptional. The third degree of isolation will be best explained in connection with the same degree of unification. Complete unification is the blending of all subjects and branches of study into one whole and the teaching of the same in successive sections. When this union is effected by making one group or branch of study in the course the center or core and subordinating all other subjects to it, the process is properly called the concen¬ tration of studies. In such a unification of subjects the principle of sequence and development of the central or core study necessarily dominates the entire group, and the proper development of each subordinate study is sacrificed. Nor is this result avoided by making the child the center, whatever this may mean, since this ignores the principle of development in all branches. Complete unification of school studies is neither practicable nor desirable. In the second degree of unification all branches and subjects are united in two or three coordinate groups, each with a central core. It recognizes coordination as a true and fundamental principle in a course of school studies ; and it allows each coordinate group to have its own principle of development, contenting itself with those natural and simple associations which are easily established between subjects in the same group. It also permits the isolation of the coordinate branches in actual instruction, and their systematic treatment. All this means much, for, if the prin¬ ciple of isolation applies to coordinate groups because they are coordinate, it neces¬ sarily applies to all the coordinate groups in a course, whatever be the number of such groups. If the attempt to subordinate mathematics to literature or history leads to fantastic results, as is conceded, the same will be true of an attempt to subordinate either physical or biological science to the so-called culture studies. Hence the argument for two or for three coordinate groups, each with its own sequence and development, concedes the whole ground; and we thus again reach the fact, making one subor¬ dinate to the other. Coordination excludes subordination. A glance at the outline given above will suffice to show that the third degree of unification and the third degree of isolation are practically the same. They differ chiefly in emphasis, one putting the emphasis on unification and the other on isola¬ tion. Both agree in the unification of allied subjects and closely related facts, and both require the isolation of coordinate branches for development and drill. Neither proposes to subject one branch of study to the principle of development that belongs to another, but each branch and subject is to receive such separate treatment as its nature demands. Both agree that unification is most feasible in elementary instruc¬ tion where the association of facts is simple and easy. It is obvious from this survey that the application of the principle of unification falls largely within the details of actual instruction. If closely related facts in CORRELATION OF STUDIES. 933 different branches are to be united in instruction, it must be done by the living teacher ; and hence the problem of unification belongs more to the art of instruction than to the curriculum of studies. The curriculum should, however, not only include the five coordinate groups of studies, but the sequence in each group should correspond with the psychical development and progress of the pupil. Since human knowledge is the result of human knowing, every branch of study has natural phases that cor¬ respond to the physical j)hases through which pupils pass as they ascend in the course. A true course of study not only properly correlates the five coordinate groups of studies, but it cuts off a section of each in every round of its ascent. It thus adjusts, so far as this can be done in a scheme of studies, the exercises and dis¬ ciplines of the school to the psychical condition and needs of the mind. Studies are thus put in right interrelation by being put in right relations to the pupil. The child is, in this psychological sense, the center of the course of study. These facts suggest the mischief that may lurk in an exaggerated view of the importance of unifying all the studies of a child. The attempt, for example, to associate every fact of nature with literature may give now and then a beautiful, even striking, lesson; but nine-tenths of the important facts of nature can not be hitched to a poem. The attempt to establish such associations inevitably results in fantastic, and even ridiculous, combinations. Nor can I see much promise in the effort to unify all branches of instruction by universal relations. There may be a “ causal flexus” that binds all knowledge into an organic unity, but children are not philosophic spiders that gather knowledge by excursions over a web of philosophic causation. It is seen from the foregoing survey of the subject that the principle of unification can not be made the basis of a rational course of instruction — much less of a curric¬ ulum of school studies. Its most fruitful applications are in teaching allied sub¬ jects within the several coordinate groups, and here chiefly in teaching the elements. It also has an important place in teaching the more closely related facts in different coordinate groups, known facts in one group being used in teaching related facts in another group. Here is the recognized field for the practical application of the principle of unification, and such application promises valuable results. But the obvious principle that underlies not only courses of study but methods of teaching, is the fact that every coordinate branch of study , has its own natural sequence and development, requiring its isolation and separate treatment. Instead of the concentration of all branches of study by subordinating all the rest to one central core, there must be increasing differentiation and isolation, with proper recog¬ nition, of course, of all important interrelations. It thus appears that isolation is the dominating principle in a true course of study, unification having its place and function chiefly in the processes of instruction. One more observation seems a fitting conclusion to this study. It does not follow that facts taught separately remain isolated in the pupil’s thought. The mind is endowed with the power of assimilation and unification, and this power is more fundamental in education than is dreamed of by some philosophers. Were the assimi¬ lation of knowledge or the unification of mental power dependent upon the philo¬ sophic mixing of the materials of instruction in the mind’s hopper, I fear that most of us now present would be idiots. We have all been doing a iitttle assimilating and unifying our own account, and have actually been able to see some of the simpler relations between facts not learned in the same school exercise, or in the same day, or even in the same year. It may be true that few of us have seen many of the “ universal relations,” which, according to the somewhat uncertain testimony of philosophy, binds all knowledge into one “ organic unity,” but we hope to get more of these insights, at least in the next world. Nor are we much comforted with the suggestion that a child can be made to feel the oneness of all knowledge, even though he may not intellectually apprehend it. The feeling of a truth not present in the mind seems to border on mystery! It is a wise child that sees the immediate relation between the more common facts of observation and experience. 934 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. On the Correlation of Elementary Studies.1 By George H. Howi&on, LL. D., Mills professor of philosophy in the University of California. What I am about to say to you, fellow-teachers, may well enough he taken as a sort of introduction to the inquiries which the committee from our State council of education has invited you to undertake during the year now opening — I mean the inquiries (1) into the course of study that is best for elementary schools, and (2) into the arrangement of the chosen studies that is most suitable in view of the edu¬ cational aims. You listened to our committee’s report with patient, nay, with interested attention, and you doubtless noted, at its close a few moments ago, the course of reading recommended as auxiliary to your study of the various questions proposed. You therefore can not have failed to fake especial notice of the promi¬ nence given in that course of reading to the two reports, now heard of everywhere, sent out to the educational world by our National Educational Association. I refer, of course, to the report of the committee of ten and the report of the committee of fifteen. These two reports are named by the committee from our State council as the pri¬ mary and chief texts by which your studies on the elementary curriculum and its arrangement are to be guided. It is only the report of the committee of fifteen, to be sure, that treats directly of your question; and the council has accordingly asked me to say to you a few words about that, particularly with reference to the very lively discussion which its exposition of principles has provoked. Still, as our State council committee has conjoined with this report of the fifteen the report of the ten — doubtless because some principles in the latter, though laid down for secondary schools, are felt to be of great importance for elementary schools as well — it will be natural and proper for me, in what I say, to bring out something of the relations subsisting between the two reports, noticing particularly certain marked differ¬ ences between them. By way of preliminary, it is worth saying that the report of the committee of fifteen really contains three distinct reports on three very distinct subjects con¬ nected with elementary schools, the committee having been divided for this purpose into three sections of five members each; so that it is only with the second of these sections that wo are really concerned this morning — the section whose report deals with the correlation of elementary studies. We are consequently to consider not the views of fifteen, but only of five committeemen. For the sake of a brief and convenient style of citation, then, I shall refer to these two great reports, during the rest of my remarks, as the report of the ten and the report of the five. Strongly as these two reports resemble each other in their exceptional ability, there is nothing more striking about them than the different, yes, the contrasted fates with which they have thus far met. The report of the ten has been hailed with an acclaim so nearly universal that the few dissenting voices are practically drowned in the wave of approval; but the report of the five seems in some danger of having its voice overwhelmed in the clamor of dissent which it has roused. The reasons for this great contrast of fates attending two performances so akin in pre¬ eminent merit aro not merely a matter for our curious interest, but are an imperative object of our inquiry, if we would bo true to the heart of great educational dis¬ cussions. Accordingly, though it will be impossible to do any full justice to the subject in the few minutes at our disposal, I will endeavor to show, in a brief and imperfect way, what the main causes are that have brought this great difference about. Notable of both the reports is the fact that each is dominated by the influence of one mind — that of the chairman of the committee in charge of it ; and this to a degree quite unusual in such cases. So that, in effect, wo have in these two reports the expression of tho minds of two men of profoundly differing types; the two, in fact, who by a 1 Address "before the California Teachers’ Association, at its meeting held in Oakland in January, 1896. 935 CORRELATION OF STUDIES. silent general consent have now for years been acknowledged as in tbeir respective "kinds unquestionably the leaders of our American education. In the report of the ten, we have the mind of the president of Harvard University; and not only upon the matter of an orderly and sound curriculum for secondary schools, but implicitly upon the far profounder matter of the determining principle for the whole scheme of a people’s education. In the report of the five, we have the mind of the United States Commissioner of Education ; and he, too, in setting forth the principles deter¬ mining the right correlation of studies for elementary. schools, finds his occasion, and indeed the necessity, to give us explicitly his full mind upon the principles that should determine all selection and all correlation of all studies, if education is to be sound; and he takes such a course in this great matter as to make his mind upon it appear as if it were the mind of mankind itself thereon. For his chief argument is that the safety of the human kind as an historical whole is what is in issue in the question of correlating studies, and that the all-controlling principle in a right cor¬ relation is the due selection and apportioning of studies in the light of their bearing on the historic integrity of the human race, and on the integrity of each child as a member in a whole that is to be historically continuous, and genuinely because his¬ torically progressive. What really makes these two reports so interesting and so significant is the conflict latent in them between these two marked personalities. W e can read in this the deeper conflict of two great types of personality — two types of human aim and purpose; two contending views, in fact, upon the meaning, the explanation, and the direction of life; in short, the conflict of two philosophies. The gist of the difference between these two philosophies, and consequently between the two reimrts, is the different value which they place (1) upon the native tendencies of each particular human being that lead him away from a fixed common type of mankind, and (2) upon that universal or rational type. The one X3roceeds upon the view that each peculiar and individual expression of the common human nature is the one fact of truly cardinal value; the other, upon the view that the supreme consideration must be the type characteristically human — not private and peculiar, but public, generic, and, above all, historic. The one fills its eye with the single human being and his peculiar whole of personal endowment, in no other exactly repeated, and incapable of being replaced by anything but itself; the other, with the imposing whole of the universal rational nature, in comparison with which individual variations seem trivial, and which appears clothed with the authority and majesty of history, and with the incomparable warrant of a public judgment that has borne the test of time, of experience, of the long conflict of considerate reflection and experience-sobered forethought with the complex and adverse cir¬ cumstances amid which the race has had to mature. The one therefore finds the chief motives of educational aims and methods in the interests of the single pupil; the other, in the rational authority of the human type, historically developed and tested and warranted. The watchword of the one will be that word now heard so constantly from almost every quarter, the word so naturally dear to every modern heart, the word so attractive, so fascinating, the kindling word “interest ;” the watch¬ word of the other, that word which, if often forgotten amid the whirl of contending and confusing interests, is still the word that wakes the deepest chords in the human soul whenever it is heard, the commanding word “ duty,” the bracing word charac¬ ter,” the invigorating phrase “a reasonable life.” Everywhere the one philosophy, and accordingly the one report, echoes to the theme of election in education, the great¬ est possible range of free choice by the individual student as to what he will study, guided by what he finds answering to his native interest in subjects ; everywhere the other, to the theme of a rational system of subjects for study, which is held to express the universal reason of mankind in its several essential aspects, and which must enter into every scheme of education that can claim to be truly human, in the sense of being genuinely reasonable. Thus the one philosophy, with its accordant report, finds the master principle of education in personal native impulse, in personal desire; the other finds it in a public or generic intelligent judgment, that gets at 936 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. the abiding heart of human nature with all the mass and momentum of history, in a universal rational will which is to judge, to master, and to use all merely private desires. Consequently, the report of the ten appeals directly to the foremost ten¬ dencies of the times, the present mood of the Zeitgeist, and naturally finds a corre¬ sponding response. But the report of the five has to stem the prevailing current; indeed, has to turn it from its course; and it not only invites the prevalent thought to an unrelished self-criticism, but it demands as the effective means of this a much subtler and deeper order of thinking than the habitual flow of consciousness finds easy. This largely accounts, as it seems to me, for the present greater success of the report of the committee often; but it also foretells, as I believe, the pro founder coming acceptance of the report of the five, an acceptance that may be slow in maturing, and that will no doubt be attended with corrective criticism of details, but that will be all the more settled and secure. Another reason for the difference in fate of the two reports is undoubtedly to be found in the different methods by which they are respectively supplied with evidence to convince and to influence those to whom they are addressed. This difference of methods is, in part, ingrained in the very difference of view and aim which we have just considered; but it is, in perhaps greater part, also owing to the characteristic powers of their two authors. Without the least disparagement of either, I think we may truly say that if the author of the first has a genius for administration, the author of the other has a genius for thought, for penetrating to first principles and to fundamental reasons. Thus the report of the ten, instead of arguing, proceeds, with the genuine administrative instinct, directly to the established sources of administrative authority, and, selecting approved representatives of the staff actually engaged in managing and teaching secondary schools, obtains their opin¬ ions, justly reckoned weighty, on the several questions raised. These are colligated, judiciously sifted, adjusted, most skillfully harmonized; and the condensed result — briefly, pertinently, and forcibly set forth — carries with it, naturally, all the comcrnc- ing Aveight that judgment already accepted and taken for granted must always liaA'e, and must have in the highest degree when there is confidence in the process by which its adequate representatives have been selected, and confidence in the adminis¬ trative capacity of the man who selects them. Far different from this simple appeal to what the public directly concerned has already definitely settled, and this master¬ ful avoidance of inquiries that may unsettle everything, and must unavoidably unsettle much, and stir up the more or less violent dispute that inevitably attends all starting of real questions — far different from this is the problem of the man who will inquire into the final reasons of things ; who can not find it in him to admit that what either individuals or communities, either personal instincts or gradually acquired customs and habits of feeling, merely want to have or to do is what in reason they ought to haA^e and to do, but is drawn onward by a high conviction that there is a discoverable reason, an ideal justification, for everything that is worth man’s while to do or to have. The report of the five inquires, into the chief problem of education in this spirit of deep and truly sober speculation. It opens matters to the bottom, and stirs them up from their depths. Its direct appeal to the ultimate reason in the case, its appeal from mere fact and actual practice to ideal considera¬ tions, may be in the best sense stimulating; but it carries with it the unavoidable consequence that the judgments of its readers, once invited and aroused, will surely be diverse, will be strongly so at first, and will require a process more or less tedious, a lapse of time possibly long, in order to come to a settled harmony. Accordingly, the author of this report has found himself — very likely without surprise — confronted with a keen opposition to his main positions, and that, too, from the Arery class of minds among our school managers that may Avell claim to rank among the most intelligently alert. There are three main lines of objection which they follow in criticising the report. The first of these is that its author’s view on correlation of studies misses the real aim entirely ; his scheme, they say, is not correlation in the true sense of the CORRELATION OF STUDIES. 937 word at all. His system should he called, rather, a system for the selection and valuation of studies; a system of their coordination instead of their correlation. Correlation, they will have it, means the bringing of the subjects of study into a closer unity than that of coordination; it means that they shall be brought into a unity of subordination, and that some subject, or rather some principle of dealing with all subjects, needs to be found that will serve to reduce each to its proper place and function as an auxiliary of greater or less subordination in the process of real education. It must settle which of them is really principal and substantive, and which merely subsidiary and instrumental. The report, they claim, has only begun the work assigned to its committee; or worse, it has built up a barrier in the way of the work, by suddenly arresting the investigation when it has settled upon the several studies that legitimately belong in an elementary curriculum, and then obstinately insisting that this shall be taken as the only problem, and its result as the only true meaning of correlation. This brings them to their second line of objection. "What they really mean is. that correlation, taken in the sense of a unification by subordination, has its secret in the recognition that mind, the development and right discipline of which is the business of education, carries in its very being as self-conscious intelligence a distinction between consciousness as substantive contents and consciousness as mere form — mere way of putting or stating those contents. All the interest of mental being lies in the contents, they say, and none of it at all, or next to none of it, is the mere form. Thus this distinction between knowledge of contents and knowledge of mere form is the distinction, they claim, between the knowledge that alone is substantive and real and the knowledge that is merely nominal. The form apart from the contents is unreal, hollow, meaningless, insignificant. There is in it no interest, except for a few unusual minds, who, whatever their remote usefulness as makers and polishers of instruments for real intelligences, are themselves hardly human, are a sort of gnomes that live in the underground Dammerung and are by nature repellent dryasdusts. The application of this vital distinction between form and contents to the question of correlation, say these critics of Dr. Harris, would settle a main practical question in elementary education at once. It would explain why the children in elementary schools do not flourish as they ought; it would show that they are perishing from an unsucculent diet of the three R’s — from a lack of the proper nourishment to be found only in interesting contents, and a vain attempt to feed minds on the empty husks of the merely formal consciousness. For, cry these Herbartian philosophers, what is Reading, ’Riting, or ’Rithmetic, but just the form of thought and reality, pure and simple, form tom off from its proper contents, and in itself destitute of any human interest or meaning? Nature and man, natural science, history, poetry, these alone furnish the mind with contents. What wonder that the school children do not care, except rarely, for learning to read and write and cipher, when it is plain that not one of these things gives them any interesting contents, any savory pabu¬ lum at all, but instead only forces on them the juiceless cud of empty form ? These things, no doubt, have to enter into the work of elementary education, but they should only play a minor and a servant’s part there, just as the mechanic’s tools are indispensable to his work, but after all are nothing but tools, and would lodge him on the summit of absurdity if he spent his time in making them and keeping them in order. The demand paramount, say these critics, is to correlate these formal studies into their proper place of humble service and instrumentality, and to teach them by means of interesting contents to which they are applied. All the three R’s should be taught incidentally merely, as need for them actually comes up in the course of learning by the help of the senses the interesting things of science, history, and poetry. At this point the third line of objection from these critics comes into plain view, the real and basal line. They claim that Dr. Harris makes no proper provision for interest — that he ignores or belittles the absolute mainspring of fruitful education, ED 96 - 30* 938 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. which, is that whatever a pupil studies shall interest him. Dr. Harris, his critics maintain, would bring all pupils, every one of whom is an unreplaceable original, with desires, powers, and interests all his own, having in themselves mandatory rights, the satisfaction and preservation of which ought to be the devout study and persistent business of every teacher — Dr. Harris would bring them all under the Pro¬ crustean forms of a public and undiscriminating tradition, a tradition, too, that commits the fatal oversight of rating formal and implemental studies even higher than studies of contents and substance, and that ignores the x>lain truth, no longer to be blinked, that human beings are not all cast in the same mold, but arc made in every variety of nature, with interests endlessly varying; a tradition, finally, that knows nothing of the central fact that the entire life of humanity turns upon interest, which is at once its spring, its inspiration, and its hope. But in this doctrine of interest — this absolute justification of the human natural self as a product of birth and heredity — Dr. Harris hears the knell of civilization. The secret of that, surely, whatever it may be, is of somewhat higher import than the satisfaction of merely individual instincts, qualifications, and desires. And just as surely, it can not lie directly in those private desires, can not be made out of end¬ less variation, isolation, difference. Nor can the great thing we mean by character, which assuredly is the true goal of all education, bo built out of mere instincts and desires and the perpetual consultation of these, and the persistent cultivation of them. What must become of rational freedom, of all that goes to make real man¬ hood and real womanhood, if the culture of each person is to be studied and guided wholly from the point of view of the natural interests, the private personal desires, of each? Well, there is the issue between Dr. Harris and his critics — the issue between inter¬ est and character. On which sido of it are you? I shall undertake no decision of it now, though I admit that my sympathies are mainly with the view of our distin¬ guished Commissioner of Education. Next year I shall hope to bear some part in the discussion of this question that is to come at our meeting in San Jose, and then I shall bo glad to go into the core of the subject on its merits. For the present, I must content myself with having thus briefly told you what I suppose the real ques¬ tion is, and with the further statement that, in my opinion, there can never be any satisfactory solution of the many problems connected with elementary education until wo find tho means of separating the elementary school, in accordance with its true philosophical definition, from the various forms of the secondary school, and of causing secondary education to begin, as it should, at a much earlier date than at present, somewhere near the beginning of the present so-called sixth grade of the grammar school. To this end, we need most of all to attain a philosophical dis¬ tinction between the elementary school and secondary schools, and to supplant by this our present meaningless and futile distinction, which knows no difference between them but the shallow fact that the one comes first and the other comes second. Let me close by saying that I would not for a moment be supposed to deny tho educational value of interest. Nor would I be thought to imply that Dr. Harris overlooks this; he only sees that there is something still more valuable. Interest is indispensable to successful education; you cannot teach the uninterested mind. But it is the very business of the teachor, and the very genius of the true teacher, to kindle interest; to know what is reasonable, what is for the highest good of the pupil, and to be able to rouse his interest in that, even when he has no interest in it by nature. CHAPTER XIX. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY.1 I. — Chief State School Officers. Name. Address. Official designation. Jolin O. Turner . i Sheldon Jackson . | F. J. Netberton . I Junius Jordan . j Samuel T. Black . | Miss Grace E. Patton . . | C. D. Hino . j W. B. Powell . i W\ N. Sheats . i Gustavus Ik Glenn - i C. A. Forscman . i Samuel M. Inglis . j D. M. Geeting . . j Henry Sabin . ; William Stryker . i W. J. Davidson . ! J. V. Calhoun . | W.W. Stetson . E. B. Prettvman . I Frank A. Hill . [ Henry Ik Pattengill . . . j W. YU. Pendorgast . I A. A. Kincannon . j .John It. Kirk . I E. A. Carleton . | W. Ik Jackson . H. C. Cutting . Fred. Gowing . Chas. J. Baxter . Am ado Cliaves . Chai'les It. Skinner - John C. Scarborough .. J. G. Holland . Oscar T. Corson . A. A. Nichols . G. M. Irwin . Nathan C. Schaeffer - Thomas B. Stockwell . . W. D. Mayfield . Frank Crane . Price Thomas . J. M. Carlisle . John It. Park . Mason S. Stone . John E. Massey . Frank J. Browne . J. Ik Trotter . J. Q. Emery . Miss Estelle Reel . Montgomery, Ala . Sitka, Alaska . . Phoenix, Ariz . Little Rock, Ark . Sacramento, Cal . . Denver, Colo . Hartford, Conn . Dover, Del . Washington, D. C . Tallahassee, Fla . Atlanta, Ga . Boise, Idaho . Springfield, Ill . Indianapolis, Ind . Des Moines, Iowa . Topeka, Kans . Frankfort, Ky . Baton Rouge, La . Augusta, Me . Baltimore, Md . Boston, Mass . . Lansing, Mich . St. Paul, Minn . Jackson, Miss . . . Jefferson City, Mo . Helena, Mont . . Lincoln, Nebr . Carson City, Nev . Concord, N. II . Trenton, N. J . Santa Fe, N. Mex . Albany, N. Y . Raleigh, N. C . Bismarck, N. Dak . Columbus, Ohio . Guthrie, Okla . Salem, Oreg . Harrisburg, Pa . Providence, R. I . Columbia, S. C . Pierre, S. Dak . Nashville, Tenn . Austin, Tex . Salt Lake City, Utah . Montpelier, Vt . Richmond. Ya . Olympia, W ash . Charleston, W. Va . Madison, Wis... . Cheyenne, Wyo . Stato superintendent of education. General agent of education. Superintendent of public instruction. Stato suuerintendent of public instruction. Do. Do. Secretary of State board of education. Do. - Superintendent of Distiict schools. State superintendent of public instruction. State school commissioner. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. State superintendent of education. Stato superintendent of common schools. Secretary of Stato board of education. Do. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. State superintendent of education. State superintendent of public schools. Stato superintendent of public instruction. Do. Do. Do. Do. Superintendent of public instruction. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Do. State commissioner of common schools. Superintendent of public instruction. State superintendent of public instruction Do. Commissioner of public schools. State superintendent of education. State superintendent of public instruction. State superintendent of public instruction. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Stato superintendent of education. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. State superintendent of free schools. State superintendent of public schools. State superintendent of public instruction. II.— City Superintendents. Anniston, J. W. Abercrombie. Bessemer, G. M. Love joy. Birmingham, J. H. Phillips. Eufaula, F. L. McCoy. Florence, H. C. Gilbert. Huntsville, Sydney J. May hew. ALABAMA. Mobile, John D. Yerby. Montgomery, Charles L. Floyd. New Decatur, R. R. Harris. Opelika, T. C. Pinckard. Selma, R. E. Hardaway. Tuscaloosa, James H. Foster. Corrected to February, 1897. 939 940 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. ARIZONA. Tucson, S. P. McCrea. ARKANSAS. Port Smith, J. L. Holloway. Little Rock, J. R. Rightsell. Helena, W. W. Rivers. Pine Bluff, J. H. Hinemon. Hot Springs, George B. Cook. CALIFORNIA. Alameda, D. J. Sullivan. Berkeley. S. D. Waterman. Eureka," T. L. Heaton. Fresno, Charles W. Roby. Los Angeles, J . A. Fosliay. Napa City, J. L. Shearer. Oakland. "J. W. McClymonds. Pasadena, James D. Graham. Pomona, F. A. Molyneaus. Riverside, Eugenia Fuller.' Sacramento, O. W. Erlewine. San Bernardino, T. H. Kirk.* 2 San Diego, Ell wood P. Cubberley. San Francisco, Madison Babcock. San Jose, F. P. Russell. Santa Ana, F. E. Perham. Santa Barbara, C. Y. Roop. Santa Cruz, D. C Clark. Santa Rosa, E. M. Cos. Stockton, James A. Barr. Yallejo, Charles A. Fulton. COLORADO. Aspen, F. H. Clark. Colorado Springs, - •. Cripple Creek, Charles M. Kingsley. Denver: District No. l, Aaron Gove. District No. 2, L. C. Greenlee. Denver: District No. 17, J. H. Tan Sickle. Leadville, J. P. Jackson. Pueblo: District No. 1, James S. McClung. District No. 20. J. F. Keating. Trinidad. Eugene C. Stevens. CONNECTICUT. Ansonia, W. A. Smith. Branford, C. H. Harriman.3 Bridgeport, Charles W. Deane. Bristol, C. L. Wooding.4 Danbury, G D. Northrup. Derbv, J. W. Peck. East Hartford, Joseph O. Goodwin.6 Enfield, James B. Houston.6 Greenwich, George P. Fisher. Hartford, Andrew F. Gates. Manchester: Town schools Robert P. Bissell. Ninth district (incorporated), Thomas Sims.6 Meriden, C. M. Williams. Middletown. Walter B. Ferguson. Milford, H. I. Mathewson. Naugatuck. J. H. Carfrey. New Britain, Giles A. Stuart. New Haven, Calvin N. Kendall. New London, Charles B. Jennings.7 New Milford, Charles H. Soule. Norwalk, Charles Olmstead.5 Norwich (Central district), N. L. Bishop. Rockville, I. M. Agard. Stamford, Everett C. Willard. Torrington, Edwin H. Forbes. Wallingford, Daniel R. Knight. Waterbury, M. S. Crosby.. West Haven, A. M. Drummond. Westport, L. T. Day.5 Willim antic, George L. Storrs.5 Winsted, George Foster Prentiss.6 DELAWARE. Newcastle, Allen H. Knapp. Wilmington, David W. Harlan. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Washington, William B. Powell (superintendent Washington. G. F. T. Cook (superintendent col- public schools) . ored schools). Jacksonville, Joel D. Mead.8 Key West, C. F. Kemp.8 Pensacola, N. B. Cook.8 Albany, E. G. Jones. Americus, William Harper. Athens, G. G. Bond. Atlanta, W. F. Slaton. Augusta, Lawton B. Evans. Brunswick, A. L. Franklin. FLORIDA. St. Augustine, Walter E. Knibloe. Tanipa, L. W. Buchholz.8 GEORGIA. Columbus, Carleton B. Gibson. Grifiin. J. Henry Walker. Macon, D. Q. Abbott. Rome, James C. Harris. Savannah, Otis Ashmore. Thomasville, K. T. MacLean.8 Principal of the High School. 2 Supervising principal. 3 Principal. 4 Acting visitor. * Secretary of the board of school visitors. 6 Secretary of the board of school visitors ; Post-office, Thompsonville. 7 Acting school visitor. 8 County superintendent. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY. 941 ILLINOIS. Alton, Robert A. Haight. Aurora: District No. 5 (East Side), C. M. Bard- well. District No. 4 (West Side), A. V. Green- man. Austin, Newell D. Gilbert. Beardstown, David T. Harris. Belleville, H. D. Updike. Belvidere, H. A. Warren,1 C. H. Dye.1 Bloomington, Edwin II. Tan Petten. Braidwood: North Side, John P. Keeves. South Side, M. E. Knapp. Cairo, Taylor C. Clendennen. Canton, - . Centralia, Irwin F. Mather. Champaign, Joseph Carter. Charleston, W . T. Gooden. Chicago, Albert G. Lane. Danville, - . Decatur, Enoch A. Gastman. Dixon, William Jenkins. Duqiioin, David B. Rawlins. East St. Louis: District No. 1, James F. McCul¬ lough. District No. 2, Range 10, T. J. McDonough.1 District No. 2, Range 9, 1. Harry Todd.1 Edwardsville, J. M. Parkinson. Elgin, M. A. Whitney. Evanston : District No. 1, Homer H. Kingsley. District No. 3 (North Evanston), Ar¬ thur J. Snyder. District No. 2 (South Evanston), Fred. W. Nichols. Freeport, R. S. Page. Galena, I. C. Baker. Galesburg, William L. Steele. Jacksonville, J. W. Henninger. Joliet, W. H. Campbell. Kankakee, F. N. Tracy. Kewanee, A. C. Butler. La Salle, L. A. Thomas. Lincoln, Campbell W. Harriman. Litchfield, J. E. Wooters. Macomb, R. C. Rennick. Mattoon, B. F. Armitage. Metropolis City, O. J. Page. Moline, H. M. Slauson. Monmouth, James C. Bums. Morris, J. M. Blackford. N Oak Park, William H. Hatch. Ottawa, Samuel H.Heidler. Pana: West and South Side, L. S. Ham.2 East Side, William Miner. Paris, W. W. Black. Pekin, J. A. Hornberger. Peoria, Newton Charles Dougherty. Peru, W. W. Wirt, Quincy, T. W. MacFall. Rock Island, James E. Ament. Rockford, P. R, Walker. Springfield, J. H. Collins. Spring Talley, F. S. Johnson. Sterling: District No. 1, W. T. Tuttle. District No. 3, H. L. Chaplin. District No. 8, S. B. Hursh. Streator, W. F. Rocheleau. Urbana, J. W. Hays. Waukegan, Frank H. Hall. Anderson, John W. Carr. Aurora, J. R. Houston. Bloomington, Sigel E. Raines. Bluffton, W. P. Burris. Brazil, John C. Gregg. Columbus, J. A. Carnagey. Connersville, W. F. L. Sanders. Crawfords ville, Isaac M. Wellington. Elkhart, D. W. Thomas. Evansville, William A. Hester. Fort Wayne, Justin N. Study. Ffankfort, Benjamin F. Moore. Goshen, William H. Sims. Greencastle, Robert A. Ogg. Hammond, W. C. Belman. Huntington, Robert I. Hamilton. Indianapolis, David K. Goss. Jeffersonville, P. P. Stultz. Kokomo, Horace G. Woody. Lafayette, Edward Ayres. Lapo'rte, O. C. Seelye. Atlantic, William Wilcox. Boone, George I. Miller. Burlington, Charles Eldred Shelton. Cedar Rapids, J. F. Merrill. Centerville, F. E. Stephens. Clinton, O. P. Bostwick. Council Bluffs, Joseph C. Hisey. Creston, O. E. French. Davenport, J. B. Young. Des Moines: East Side, Amos Hiatt. West Side, Frank B. Cooper. North Side, 0. E. Smith. Dubuque, F. T. Oldt. Fort Dodge, F. C. Wildes. INDIANA. Lawrenceburg, R. Ellsworth Call. Lebanon, James R. Hart. Logansport, Albert H. Douglass. Madison, C. M. McDaniels. Marion, Welford D. Weaver. Michigan City, Edward Boyle. Mount Vernon, Edwin S. Monroe. Muncie, W. R. Snyder. New Albany, W. H. Hershman. Peru, - . Portland, C. L. Hottel. Richmond. Thomas A. Mott. Seymour, H. C. Montgomery. Shelby ville, James H. Tomiin. South Bend, Calvin Moon. Terre Haute, William H. Wiley. Valparaiso, Charles Henderson Wood. Vincennes, Albert E. Humke. W abash, M. W. Harrison. Warsaw, James H. Henry. Washington, William F. Axtell. IOWA. Fort Madison, C. H. Morrill. Iowa City, W. F. Cramer. Keokuk, O. W. Meyer. Le Mars, E. N. Coleman. Lyons, J. H. Breese. Marshalltown, F. E. Willard. Mason City, A. R. Sale. Mount Pleasant, JohnF. Riggs. Muscatine, F. M. Witter. Oskaloosa, Orion C. Scott. Ottumwa, A. W. Stuart. Sioux City, H. E. Kratz. Waterloo’: East Sido, F. J. Sessions. West Side, George A. Bateman. Principal. Supervising principal. 942 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. KANSAS. Argentine. Charles R. Sorter. Arkansas City, T. TV. Conway. Atchison, J. H. Glotfelter. Emporia, L. A. Lowther. Fort Scott, David M. Bowen. Hutchinson, George W. Winans. Junction City, George W. Kendrick. Kansas City, Larkin L. L. Hanks. Lawrence, Frank P. Smith. Leavenworth, Miss Emma E. Dolphin, acting. Newton, J. W. Cooper. Ottawa, William M. Sinclair. Parsons, S. D. Frazier. Pittsburg, S. TV. Black. Salina, A.Ludlum. Topeka, William M. Davidson. Wellington, H. F. M. Bear. Wichita, Frank E. Dyer. Winfield, J. W. Spindler. KENTUCKY. Ashland, John G. Crabbe. Bowling Green, Edward Taylor. Covington, John Morris. Dayton, F. S. Alley. Frankfort, McHenry Bhoads. Henderson, Edward* S. Clark. Hopkinsville, Livingstone McCartney. Lexington, William Eogers Clay. Baton Eonge, E. C. Gordon. New Orleans, W arren Easton. Louisville, E. H. Mark. Maysvillc, no superintendent.2 Newport, John Burke. Owensboro, James McGinnis?. Paducah, George O. McBroom. Paris, E. W. Weaver. Bichmond, J. D. Clark. Winchester, A. C. Fleshman. LOUISIANA. Shreveport, John L. Hargrove. MAINE. Brunswick, Franklin C. Eobinson, Calais, S. E. Webber. Eastport, Charles Sumner Holton. Ellsworth, I. H. W. Whartf. Fort Fail-field, H. T. Powers. Gardiner, James M Larrabee.2 Houlton, Harry L. Putnam. Lewiston, I. C. Phillips. Old Town, Alfonso F. Marsh.2 Portland, Orlando 31. Lord. Rockland, Arthur P. Irving. Saco, John S. Locke. Sanford, Frank H. Dexter. Watervillc, TV. L. Waters. Auburn, A. P. Wagg. Augusta : Albion Halo Brainard, principal Cony High School. J. M. Wyman, superintendent subur¬ ban schools. S. I. Graves, superintendent village district. Weston Lewis, principal Williams District. Bangor, 3riss 3rary S. Snow. Bath, William H. Winslow. Belfast, F. S. Brick. Biddeford, Royal E. Gould. Brower, Mrs. Mertie M. Curtis. MARYLAND. Anna*polis, John G. Bannon.3 Cumberland, n. G. Weimer.3 Baltimore, Henry A. Wise. Frederick, Ephraim L. Boblitz.3 Cambridge, James L. Bryan.3 Hagerstown, George C. Pearson.3 MASSACHUSETTS. Abington, W. H. Sanderson. Adams, J. C. Gray. Amesbury, E. O. Perkins.4 Amherst, William D. Parkinson. Andover, George E. Johnson. Arlington, True TV. White. Athol, - . Attleboro, J. O. Tiffany. Barnstable. F. TV. Kingman. Beverly, Adelbert Leon Safi'ord. Blackstone, Josiah B. Davis. Boston, Edwin P. Seaver. Bradford, R. D. McKeen. Braintree, Irving TV. Horne. Bridgewater, TV. H. Sanderson. Brockton, B. B. Russell. Brookline, Samuel T. Dutton. Cambridge, Francis Cogswell. Canton, James S. Perkins. Chelsea, Eben H. Davis. Chicopee, Clarence A. Brodeur. Clinton. Charles L. Hunt. Concord, William L. Eaton. Danvers, TV. A. Baldwin. Dedham, Roderick Whittlesey Hine. East Hampton. W. D. Miller. Easton, Edward B. Maglathlin. Everett, Randall J. Condon. Fall River, William C. Bates. Fitchburg, Joseph G. Edgerley. Framingham, Samuel F. Blodgett. Franklin, Ernest D. Daniels. Gardner, Louis P. Nash. Gloucester, Freeman Putney. Grafton, Stanley H. Holmes. Greenfield, D. P. Dame. Haverhill, Albert L. Bartlett. Hingliam, Elmer L. Curtiss. Holyoke, P. TV. Search. Hopkinton, Alvan It. Lewis. Hyde Park. Ella F. Boyd.4 Lawrence, John E. Burke. Lowell, Arthur K. Whitcomb. Lynn, Orsannjs B. Bruce. Malden, George E. Gay. Marblehead. John B. Gifford. Marlboro, B. W. Tinker. Medford, Charles H. Morss. Melrose, Benjamin F. Robinson. Methuen, George E. Chickering. Middleboro, Asher J. Jacoby. Milford, C. W. Haley. Millbury, C. S. Lyman. Milton, M. W. Richardson, Natick, Frank Edson Parlin. New Bedford, William E. Hatch. Newburyport, William P. Lunt. Newton, George I. Aldrich. North Adams, Isaac Freeman Hall. Northampton, Alvin F. Pease. G. TV. Blatterman signs reports. Supervisor. 3 County school examiner. 4 Secretary of the school committee. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY. 943 MASSACHUSETTS— Continued. North Attleboro, 'William C. Hobbs. Northbridge, S. A. Melclier. Orange, Lizzie A. Mason. Palmer, W. H. Small. Peabody. John B. Giiford. Pittsfield, Eugene Bouton. Plymouth, Francis J. Heavens. Provincetown, Clarence W. Fearing. Quincy, H. W. Lull. Beading. Charles E. Hussey. Bevero, Milton K. Putney." Boc-kport, Mary L. Lincoln. Salem. J ohn W. Perkins. Saugus, C. E. Stevens. Somerville, Gordon A. South worth. Southbridge, John T. Clarke. South Hadley, Edward H. McLacklin. Spencer, Wyman C. Fickett. Springfield, Thomas M. Balliet. Stoneham, C. E. Stevens. Taunton. C. F. Hoyden. Wakefield, Charles E. Hussey. Waltham, Henry Wliittemore. Ware, Frank E. Spaulding. W arren, Albert Bobinson . "Watertown, George B. Dwelley. Webster, J. I. Buck. Wellesley, Marshall Livingston Perrin. Westboro, H. C. Waldron. Westfield, George H. Danforth. West Springfield. Ulysses G. Wheeler. Weymouth, I. M. A or cross. Wincliendon. David B. Locke. Woburn, Thomas Emerson. Worcester, Clarence F. Carroll. GAN. Adrian, A. E. Curtis. Albion, Warren C. Hull. Alpena, George A. Hunt. Ann Arbor, Walter S. Perry. Au Sable, C. M. Jansky. Battle Creek, W. G. Coburn. Bay City, John A. Stewart. Benton Harbor, Eugene A. Wilson. Big Bapids, James B. Miller. Cadillac, J. H. Nave. Charlotte, O. L. Miller. Cheboygan, William C. Thompson. Cold water, Egbert L. Briggs. Detroit, W. E7 Bobinson. Esc an aba, George P. Fleisher. Flint, F. B. Hathaway. Grand Haven, - Crawford. Grand Bapids, W. W. Chalmers. Hillsdale, W. L. Shuart. Holland, C. M. McLean. Ionia, C. L. Bemis. Iron Mountain, T. W. Baton. Ironwood, L. L. Wright. Ishpeming, Bichard Hardy. Jackson: District No. 1. L. S. Norton. District No. 17, Martin L. Palmer. Kalamazoo, O. E. Latham. Lansing, S. B. Laird. Ludington, H. T. Blodgett. Manistee, Albert Jennings. Marquette. Anna M. Chandler. Menominee, O. I. Woodley. Monroe, A. W. Tressler. Mount Clemens, S. C. Price. Muskegon, David Mackenzie. Negaunee, F. Dayton Davis. Niles, J. D. Schiller. Owosso, J. W. Simmons. Pontiac, F. E. Converse. Port Huron, Tnrrms B. Beazell. Saginaw: East Side, A. S. Whitney. West Side, Edwin C. Thompson St. Joseph, George W. Loomis. Sault Ste. Marie, E. E. Ferguson. Traverse City, Charles T. Grawn. West Bay City. N. A. Bichards. Wyandotte, A. W. Dasef. Ypsiianti, Austin George. MINNESOTA. Anoka, Zenas N. Vaughn. Austin, W. F. F. Selleck. Brainerd. Miles H. Carleton. Duluth, Bobert E. Denfeld. Faribault, George A. Franklin. Fergus Falls, Caswell A. Ballard. Mankato, George F. Kenaston. Minneapolis, C. M. Jordan. New Ulm, E. T. Critchett. Columbus, J. M. Barrow. Greenville, E. E. Bass. 1 Jackson, J. C. Hardy. Bonne Terre, J. H. Malugen. Boonville, D. T. Gentry. Brookfield, L. A. Wiriek. Cape Girardeau, T. E. Joyce. Carrollton, L. W. Bader. Carthage, W. J. Stevens. Chillicothe, W. F. Jamison. Clinton, Charles B. Beynolds. Columbia, B. H. Emberson. De Soto, Charles M. Gill. Fulton. JohnP. Gass. Hannibal, B. B. D. Simonson. Independence, J. N. Patrick. Jefferson City, J. M. White. Joplin, W. B." Brown. Kansas City, James M. Greenwood. Kirksville,*W. B. Holliday. Owatonna, L. H. Ford. Bed Wing, F. A'. Hubbard. Bochester. F. D. Budlong. St. Cloud. S. S. Parr. St. Paul, Virgil G. Curtis. St. Peter, Edgar George, Stillwater, Frank A. Weld. Winona, J A. Tormly. MISSISSIPPI. Meridian, J. G. Deupree. Natchez, J. W. Henderson. Vicksburg, Charles Pendleton Kemper. MISSOUBI. Lexington, H. D. Demand. Louisiana, A. P. Settle. Marshall, - . Maryville. B. F. Duncan. Mexico. D. A. McMillan. Moberly, J. A. Whiteford. Nevada, W. J. Hawkins. Bich Hill, John P. Thurman. St. Charles, George W. Jones. St. Joseph. Edward B. Neely. St. Louis, F. Louis Soldan. Sedalia, George V. Buchanan. Springfield, Jonathan Fairbanks. Trenton, H. E. DuBois. Warrensburg, F. E. Holiday. Webb City, A. G. Young. 1 Superintendent of white schools. 944 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. MONTANA. Butte, F. L. Kern. Helena, James E. Klock. Great Falls, B. T. Hathaway. NEBRASKA. Beatrice, 0. H. Brainerd. Lincoln, J. F. Saylor. Fremont, Daniel Miller. Nebraska City, W. H. Skinner. Grand Island, Robert J.Barr. Omaha, Carroll G. Pearse. Hastings. Edwin N. Brown. Plattsmouth. John G. McHugh. Kearney, Jesse T. Morey. South Omaha, A. A. Munro. NEVADA. Virginia City, F. P. Langan. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Concord, Louis J. Rundlett. Dover, Channing Folsom. Keene, Thaddeus 'William Harris. Laconia, William N. Cragin. NEW Atlantic City, W. M. Polland. Bayonne, Charles M. Davis. Bordentown, William Maefarland.1 Bridgeton, John S. Turner. Burlington, Wilbur Watts.1 Camden, Martin V. Bergen. Elizabeth, William J. Shearer. Gloucester, John C. Stinson. Hackensack, John Terhune.2 Harrison, John Dwyer.1 Hoboken, David E. Rue. Jersey City, Henry Snyder. Lambertville, Lambert H. Sargeant Long Branch, Christopher Gregory. Millville, E. C. Stokes. Morristown, W. L. R. Haven. New Brunswick, George G. Ryan. Albuquerque, Charles E. Hodgin. Manchester, William E. Buck. Nashua, James H. Fassett. Portsmouth, J ames C. Simpson. Rochester, Henry Kimball. JERSEY. Newark, Charles B. Gilbert. Orange, Usher W. Cutts. Passaic, H. H. Hutton. Paterson, J. A. Reinhart. Perth Amboy, S. E. Shull. Phillipsburg", H. Budd Howell. Plainfield. Henry M. Maxson. Rahway, Henry'B. Rollinson. Red Bank, Richard Case. Salem, Thomas G. Dunn. South Amboy, R. M. Fitch.3 Trenton, Leslie C. Pierson, superintendent. B. C. Gregory, supervising principal. Town of Union, Otto Oriel.4 Vineland, H. J. Wightman. Woodbury, William Milligan. MEXICO. Santa Fe, Tilmon Jenkins. NEW YORK. Albany, Charles W. Cole. Albion, Freeman A. Greene. Amsterdam, Charles S. Davis, Auburn, Benjamin B. Snow. Batavia, John Kennedy. Binghamton, Rufus H. Halsey. Brooklyn, William H. Maxwell Buffalo, Henry P. Emerson. Canandaigua," J. Carlton Norris, Catskill, Edward L. Stevens. Cohoes, George E. Dixon. College Point, Henry Delaniain. Corning, Leigh R. Hunt. Cortland, F. E. Smith. Dansville, W. G. Carrner.1 Dunkirk, John W. Babcock. Edgewater : DistrictNo. 2 (Middletown and South- field towns), A. Hall Burdick (post- office, Stapleton). District No. 1, J. W. Barris (post- office, Tompkins ville) . District No. — , S. J. Pardee (post- office, Rosebank). Elmira, Elias J. Beardsley. Fishkill on the Hudson. Watson S. Allen. 1 Flushing, John J. Chickering. Fulton, B. G. Clapp. Geneva, William H. Truesdale. Glens Falls, Sherman Williams. Gloversville, James A. Estee. Greenbush, H. R. Jolley. Green Island, James Heatley. Haverstraw, L. O. Markham. 1 Hempstead, Wallace S. Newton. Hoosiek Falls, H. H. Snell. Hornellsville, William R. Prentice. Hudson, F. J. Sagendorph. Ilion, Judson I. Wood. Ithaca, H. W. Foster. Jamaica, William J. Ballard. Jamestown, Rovillus R. Rogers. Johnstown. William S. Snyder. Kingston: “Kingston school district,' Charles M. Ryon. District No. 1, P. H. Cullen. 1 District No. 2. William E. Bun ten. 1 District No. 3, Henry Powers. 1 District No. 4, J. M. McConnell. 1 Lansingburg. George F. Sawyer. Little Falls. Thomas A. Caswell. Lockp_ort, Emmet Belknap. Long island City, J olm E. Shull. Lyons, W. H. Kinnej . Malone, Sarah L. Perry. Matteawan, Gurdon R. Miller. Medina, Henry Pease. Middletown, James F. Tuthill. Mount Vernon. Charles E. Nichols. Newark, John W. Robinson. New Brighton, Julia K. West. 5 New Rochelle, Isaac E. Young. New York, John Jasper. Newburg, R. V. K. Montfort. Niagara Falls, Nathaniel L. Benham. North Tonawanda, Clinton S. Marsh. Norwich, Elbert W. Griffith. Nyaek, Ira H. Lawton. Ogdensburg, Barney Whitney. Olean, Fox Holden. Oneida: District No. 25, Frank W. Jennings. District No. 26. H. H. Douglas. Oneonta, William C. Franklin. Principal. County superintendent. Supervising principal. 4 Post office. Weehawken. 6 School commissioner. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY 945 NEW Oswego, George E. Bullis. Owego, Edwin P. Recordon. Peekskill : Drum hill District (District No. 7). Millar. Oakside District (District No. 8), Dunbar. Penn \ an, George Howard Hoxie. Plattsburg, James G. Riggs. Port Chester, John C. Rockwell. Port Jervis, John M. Dolph. Port Richmond. Orry H. Hoag. Poughkeepsie, Edward Burgess. Rochester. Milton Noyes. Rome, "William D. Manro. Saratoga Springs, Thomas R. Kneil. Saugerties, Pred N. Moulton. Y O RK — Continued . Schenectady, Samuel B. Howe. Seneca Palis, F. S. Porter. , John Sing Sing, J. Irving Gorton. Syracuse, A. B. Blodgett. A. D. Tonawanda, I . . John H. Martin. A. M., D. D . Andrew Morrissey, C. S. C . Joseph J. Mills, A! M., LL. D . Geo. Hindley, B. D . Fintan Mundwiler, O. S. B . T. C. Reade, D. D . S. W. Stookey, M. S., acting . J. Frederick Hirsch, A. M . F. Richter . J. M, Littlejohn, D. D., Ph. D . Laur. Larsen . H. L Stetson, D D . B. O. Aylesworth. LL. D . John W. Bissell, A. M., D. D . George A. Gates, D. D . Hugh Robinson, A. M . Fletcher Brown, A. M., B. D . Charles A. Schaeffer, Ph. D . Friedrich Munz, A. M . C. L. Stafford, D. D . j Wm. F. King, LL. D . J. M. Atwater, A. M . A. Rosen berger, A. B. , LL. B - Arthur B. Chaffee, D. D . George W. Carr . Willis Marshall . R. C. Hughes, A. M . L. Book waiter, D. D . Jacob A. CTutz, D. D . Innocent Wolf, O. S. B., D. D - L. H.Mnrlin, A.B., S. T. B . j E. H. Vaughan, Ph. D . j J. D. Hewitt, D. D . William Boyle . j B. F. Kizer . ! F. H. Snow, Ph. D., LL. D . 1 C. M. Brooke, A. M . ! C. A. Swensson, A. M . j J. L. S. Riggs, Ph. D . Edward A. Higgins, S. J . , George J. Hagerty, A. M . F. M7 Spencer, D. D . Geo. M. Herrick . N. J. Morrison. D. D., LL. D . A. W. Meyer . Chester A. Place, A.M . Daniel Stevenson, D. D . Wm. G. Frost, Ph. D . Wm. A. Obenchain, A. M . Knox College . Lombard C niversity . . . Greer College . Illinois College . Lake Forest University . McKendree College . Lincoln University . Monmouth College . Northwestern College . St. Bede College . Chaddock College . St. Francis Solanus College... Augustana College . St. Joseph's Diocesan College. Shurtleff College . . Westfield College . Wheaton College . Indian University . Henry Kendall College . Indiana University . Wabash College . Concordia College . Franklin College . De Pauw University. . Hanover College . . Hartsville College . Butler College . Union Christian College . Moores Hill College . University of Notre Dame. ... Earlham College . Ridgeville College . St. Memrad s College . Taylor University . Coe College . Charles City College . Wart burg College . Amity College . Luther College . Des Moines College. . . Drake University . Parsons College.". . Upper Iowa University . . Iowa College . Lenox College . Simpson College . . State University oi Iowa . German College . Iowa W esleyan University . . . Cornell College . Oskaloosa College . Penn College . Central University of Iowa . . University of the Northwest. Buena Vista College . Tabor College . Western College . . . Midland College . St. Benedict’s College . Baker University . . Soule College . College of Emporia . . Highlan d University . Campbell University . . University of Kansas . Lane University . . Bethany College . Ottawa University . St.'Mary's College . Kansas "Wesleyan University. Cooper Memorial College . Washburn College . Fairmount College . St. J ohn ’ s Lutheran College . . Southwest Kansas College Union College . . Berea College . . Ogden College . Centre College . Galesburg, Ill. Do Hoopeston, Ill. Jacksonville, Ill. Lake Forest, HI. Lebanon. Ill. Lincoln, Ill. Monmouth. Ill. Naperville, HI. Peru, Ill Quincy, Ill. Do. Rock Island, Ill. Teutopolis. Ill. Upper Alton, Ill. Westfield, Ill. Wheaton, Ill. Bacone, Ind. T. Muscogee, Ind. T. Bloomington, Ind. Crawfordsville, Ind. Fort Wayne, Ind. Franklin, Ind. Greencastle. Ind. Hanover, Ind. Hartsville, Ind. Irvington, Ind. Meroru, Ind. Moores Hill. Ind. Notre Dame, Ind. Richmond, Ind. Ridgeville, Ind. St. Meinrad. Ind. Upland. Ind. Cedar Rapids. Iowa. Charles City, Iowa. Clinton, Iowa. College Springs, Iowa. Decorah, Iowa, Des Moines, Iowa. Do. Fairfield, Iowa. Fayette, Iowa. Gr’innell, Iowa. Hopkinton, Iowa. Indianola, Iowa. Iowa City, Iowa. Mount Pleasant, Iowa. Do Mount Vernon, Iowa. Oskaloosa, Iowa. Do. Pella, Iowa. Sioux City, Iowa. Storm Lake, Iowa. Tabor. Iowa. Toledo, Iowa. Atchison. Kans. Do. Baldwin, Kans. Dodge City, Kans. Emporia, ilans. Highland, Kans. Holton, Kans. Lawrence, Kans. Lecompton, Kans. Lindsborg, Kana. Ottawa, Kans. St. Marys, Kans. Salina, Kans. Sterling, Kans. Topeka, Kans. Wichita, Kans. Winfield, Kans. Do. Barbourville, Ky. Berea, Ky. Bowling Green, Ky. Danville, Ky. 950 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1895-98. III. — College Presidents — Continued. I. — Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University cr college. Address. A. C. Davidson, D. D . H. J. Green well, A. M . J. AY. Hardy . j Charles L. Loos . : James K. Patterson, Pli. D . L. H. Blanton, D. D . AY. S. Byland, D. D . John L. Steffau D. D., Pli. D - E. H. Pearce, D.D . ; Thos. D- Boyd . James H. Blent, S. M . 1 C. AY. Carter, D. D . C. AY. Tomkies . Henry C. Semple, S. J . E. C. Mitchell. D. D . ! L. G- Adkinson, D.D . 1 Oscar Atwood, A. M . A\"m. P. Johnston, LL. D . William Do AYitt Hyde, D. D - j George C. Chase, A."M . j Kathaniel Butler, D. D . Thomas Fell, Ph. D., LL. D . ' D. C. Gilman, LL. D . | John A. Morgan, S. J . | Francis J. AYagner. D. D . : Charles AY. Reid, Ph. D . I Brother Maurice . i C. B. Bex, D.D . Edward P. Allen, D. D . : William H. Purnell, LL. D . Thomas H. Lewis. A. M., D. D ... 1 Merrill E. Gates, Ph. D., LL. D., L.H.D. Timothy Brosnahan, S. J . William F. Warren, LL. D . j Charles AY. Eliot, LL. D . Samuel H Lee . ----- Elmer H. Capen, D. D . F. Carter, Ph. D., LL. D . G. Stanley Hall, Ph. D., LL. D. . . . John F. Lehy, S. J . Denison C. Thomas Ph. D . L. B. Fiske, D. D., LL. D . August F. Bruske, D. D . James B. Angell. LL. D . George AY. Caviness, A. M . ; James G. Bodger, Ph. D . H. A. Schapman, S. J . George F. Mosher, LL. D . Gerrit J. Kollen, A. M . i A. G. Slocum, LL. D . AY. G. Sperry, D. D . Peter Engel, O. S. B., Ph. D . Albert Buxton . j George H. Bridgman, D. D . Georg Sverdrup . j Cyrus Korthrop, LL. D . ! James AV. Strong. D. D . Thorbjorn H . Molin . I James Wallace, Ph. D . ! Matthias AYahlstrom, A. M . B. M Lawrence, A. M . I J. \Y. Pro vine. Ph. D . j C. A. Huddleston. A. M . j Charles E. Libbev, S. T. D . AY. B. Murrah, DiD . Robert B Fulton, A. M . i P. 0. Powell. A. M.,B.D . AAr. H Pritchett, A.M . j Asa B Bush, A M . j B. E. Downing, B. Sur . i Chas. F. Spray, A.M . 1 Clinton Lockhart, Ph. D . J. A. Linn, C. M . ! Bichard H. J esse, LL. D . Geo. AY. Mitchell . Tyson S. Dines, A. M . Edward C. Gordon, D. D . Chas. C. Hemenway . ' Georgetown College . Georgetown, Ky. Liberty College . Glasgow. By. South Kentucky College . *. . Hopkinsville, Ky. Kentucky University . Lexington, Ky. State College of Kentucky . Do. Central University . Richmond. Ky. Bethel College . . - - . Russellville. Ky. St. Mary's College . . . St. Marys, Ky. Kentucky Wesleyan College . Winchester, Ky. Louisiana State University . Baton Rouge, La. Jefferson College . Convent, La. Centenary College of Louisiana . Jackson, La. Keatchio'College . Keatcliie, La. Collego of the Immaculate Conception. Hew Orleans, La. Leland U niversity . . J Do. Kew Orleans University . Do. Straight University ...1 . Do. Tulane University . Do. Bowdoin College . Brunswick. Me. Bates College...- . Lewiston. Me. Colby University . AYaterville. Me. St. John's College . Annapolis, Md. Johns Hopkins University . Baltimore, Md. Loyola College . Do. Morgan College . Do. Washington College . Chestertown, Md. Rock Hill College . Ellicott City, Md. St. Charles College . Do. Mount St. Marys Collego . Mount St. Marys. Md. Kew Windsor College . Kew Windsor. "Md. AYestern Maryland Collego . AYestminster. Md. Amherst Collego . Amherst, Mass. Boston College . Boston University . Harvard University . - . French American College . Tults College . Williams College . Clark University . Collego of the Holy Cross . Adrian Collego . Albion College . Alma Collego . University ^>f Michigan . Battle Creek College . Benzonia College . Detroit College . ; . Hillsdale College . Hope Collego . . . . . . Kalamazoo College . Olivet College . St. John’s University . Korth western Christian Collego . Hamline University . . - . Augsburg Seminary . University of Minnesota . . Carleton College . . . St, Olaf College . - . Macalester College . Gustavus Adolphus College . . Parker College . Mississippi College . Cooper Huddleston College . Bust University . Millsaps College . University of Mississippi . Central Christian College . Korthwest Missouri College . Southwest Baptist College . Pike College . Missouri AYeslevan College . Christian University . St. Vincent s College . University of the State of Missouri Grand River Christian Union College. . Central College . W estminster College . Pritchett School Institute . Boston, Mass. Do. Cambridge, Mass. Springfield, Mass. Tufts College, Mass. Williamstown, Mass. Worcester, Mass. Do. Adrian, Mich. Albion. Mich. Alma. Mich. Ann Arbor, Mich. Battlecreek, Mich. Benzonia. Mich. Detroit, Mich. Hillsdale, Mich. Holland, Mich. Kalamazoo. Mich. Olivet, Mich. Collegeville. Minn. Excelsior. Minn. Hamline, Minn. Minneapolis, Minn. Do. Korthfield, Minn. Do. St. Paul, Minn. St. Peter, Minn. AYinnebago City, Minn. Clinton. Miss. Daleville, Miss. Holly Springs, Miss. Jackson. Aliss. University, Miss. Albany, Mo. Do. Bolivar, Mo. Bowling Green, Mo. Cameron. Mo. Canton. Mo. Cape Girardeau, Mo. Columbia, Mo. Edinburg, Mo. Fayette, Mo. Fulton, Mo. Glasgow, Mo. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY, 951 III. - College Presidents — Continued. I. — Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. Edwin TV. Doran . Jere T. Muir . Carleton B. Marsh, A. B. . J. P. Greene. D. D.. LL. D Win. H. Black, D. I) . TV. H. TVinton . J. C. Shelton . L. M. McAfee . Brother Paulian, P. S. C . j Joseph Grhnmelsman, S. J . TVinliekl S. Chaplin. LL. D . : Homer T. Fuller, Ph. D . j J. A. Thompson, A. M . ! F. A. Z. EL under, AM . Geo. B Addicks. A. M . A. B. Martin, A. M . ' Oscar J. Craig . David R. Kerr. Ph. D.. D. D . TV. P. A ylsworth, A. M . Eli B. Miller . David B. Perry. A M . > A. J. Mercer, A. M . Geo E. MacLean, LL. D . j G. TV. Hinman, A. B., acting . | John Pahls, S. J . j C. M. Ellin wood . ! TV. S. Reese . : Joseph E. Stubbs, D. D . . TV J Tucker, D. D.. LL. D . Hilary Pfraengle, O. S. B . ■ Austin Scott. Ph. D., LL. D . : F.L. Patton. D.D.. LL. D . TV m. F Marshall, A. M . , E. S Stover . B. C. Davis. A. M . ; Joseph F. Butler. O. S. F . : R. B. Fairbairn. D. D., LL. D _ 1 D. H. Cochran, Ph. D., LL. D _ Brother Jerome. O. S. F . ' J. A. Hartnett. C. M . John I. Zahm, S. J . ' John C. Lee. Ph.I)., D. D . M. TVoolsey Stryker, D. D . Geo. TV. Smith A. B„ LL. B . J. G. Schurman, Sc. D., LL. D _ Thomas E. Murphy, S. J . Alexander S. Webb, LL. D . Seth Low, LL. D . Brother Justin. A. M . Thomas J. Gannon, S. J . H. M MacCracken, D. D., LL. D . P. S. Mac Hale, C.M . A. Y. V. Raymond, D. D . James R. Dav. D. D . E A. Alderman. Fh. B . D. J. Sanders, D. D . ' J. B. Shearer. D.D.,LL.D . John C. Kilgo. D. D . TV. TV. Staley, D. D . L. Lyndon Hobbs, A. M . Robert A. Yoder. A. M . M. G. G. Scherer, A. M . J. C. Clapp, D.D . Clias. F. Meserve, A. M . TV. E. Abernethy . William H. Goler, D. D . C. E. Taylor, D. D., Litt. B . M. A. Yost. A. M . Henry C. Simmons . TV. Merri field. A. M . M. V. B. Knox. D.D . C. M. Knight, acting . Tamerlane P. Marsh, D. D . J. Allen Miller . ' . ! Isac Crook, D. D . 1 Ozark College . LaGrange College . Lawson Presbyterian College . William Jewell College . Missouri Valley College . Morrisville College . . Scarritt Collegiate Institute . Park College . St. Charles College . College of the Christian Brothers.. St. Louis University . Wash in gt on U ni versify . Drury College . . Tarkio College . . Avalon College . Central W esleyan College . College of Montana . Montana Wesleyan University.... University of Montana . .” . University of Omaha . Cotner University . Union College . Doane College . Fairfield College . University of Nebraska . Gates College . . . Creighton University . Nebraska Wesley anUniversity . . . York Collego . I - State University of Nevada . Dartmouth Collego . St. Benedict s College . Rutgers College . Princeton University . Seton Hall College . University of New Mexico . Alfred University . St. Bonaventure’s" College . St. Stephen’s College . Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn St. Francis Collego . St. John’s College . Canisius College . St. Lawrence University . Hamilton College . . Hobart Collego . Colgate University . Cornell University . College of St. Francis Xavier . College of the City of New York.. Columbia University . . Manhattan College . St. John’s Collego . New York University . Niagara University . University of Rochester . Union College . Syracuse University . University of North Carolina . Biddle University . Davidson College . Trinity College . Elon College . Guilford College . Lenoir College . North Carolina Collego . Catawba College . Shaw University . Rutherford College . Livingstone College . Wake Forest College . Weaverville Collego . Fargo College . University of North Dakota . Red River Valley University . Buchtel College . Mount Union College . Ashland University . Ohio University . Greenfield, Mo. Lagrange Mo. Lawson, Mo. Liberty, Mo. Marshall. Mo. Morrisville. Mo. Neosho. Mo. Parkville. Mo. St. Charles. Mo. St. Louis, Mo. Do. Do. Springfield, Mo. Tarkio, Mo. Trenton, Mo. Warrenton. Mo. Deerlodge, Mont. Helena. Mont. Missoula, Mont. Bellevue. Nebr. Bethany. Nebr. College Y iew, Nebr. Crete, Nebr. Fairfield. Nebr. Lincoln. Nebr. Neligh, Nebr. Omaha, Nebr. University Place, Nebr. York, Nebr. Reno. Ncv. Hanover, N. H. Newark, N. J. New Brunswick, N. J. Princeton. N. J. South Orange, N. J. Albuquerque, N. Mex. Alfred, N. Y. Allegany. N. Y. Annandale. N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. Do. Do. Buffalo, X. Y. Canton, X. Y. Clinton, N. Y. Geneva. X. Y. Hamilton, N. Y. Ithaca. N. Y New York. N. Y. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Niagara University, N. Y. Rochester. X. Y. Schenectady. X. Y. Svracuse. N. Y. Chapel Hill. X. C. Charlotte, X. C. Davidson, N. C. Durham, N. C. Elon College. X. C. Guilford College, N. C. Hickory, N. C. Mount Pleasant, N. C. Newton, Is . C. Raleigh. X. C. Rutherford College, N. C. Salisbury, N. C. Wake Forest. N. C. Weaverville, N. C. Fargo, X. Dak. University, X. Dak. Wahpeton, N. Dak. Akron. Ohio. Alliance, Ohio. Ashland. Ohio. Athens, Ohio. 952 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. III. — College Presidents— Continued. I. — Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. IsTame of president . T7niversity or college. Address. Millard F W arner, A. M . C. Riemenschneider, Ph. D . David McKinney . J ames Kogers, C. S. C . A. J. Burrowes, S. J . P. V N. Myers . H. J. Ruetemk, D. D . Joseph H Le Halle . Chas F Thwing, D. D . F W Stelihorn . James H Canfield, LL D . John R. H Latchaw. D. D . James W. Bashford. Ph. D . C. Manchester, A M . ' ¥m. F. Peirce, L. H.D . D. B. Purinton, A. M., LL. D . Ely Y. Zollars, LL. D . Carl Ackerman . J. H. Chamberlin, Litt. D., dean . . W. A. Williams, D. D . 1 Jesse Johnson . Wm. G. Ballantine. D. D ., LL. D . . "Win. O. Thompson, D. D . ! Geo. W. MacMillan, Ph. D., D. D . John M. Davis, Ph. D . W. G. Compher, Ph. D . j Samuel A. Ort, D D . John A. Peters, D. D . Thomas J. Sanders, Ph. D . 1 S. T. Mitchell, A. M., LL. D . James B. Unthank, M. S . S. F. Scovel, D. D . Daniel A. Long, D. D., LL. D . D. R. Boyd, A.M . Chas. H. Chapman. Ph. D . Thomas McClelland, D. D . C. C. Poling, Ph. B . H. L. Boardman . Thomas Newlin . j B. E. Emerick, A. M . Willis C. Hawley, A. M . ' Thomas Y an Scoy, D. D . ! W. J. Holland, Ph. D., D. D . Theodore L. Seip, D. D . 1 E. B. Bierman, Ph. D . j W. P. Johnston, A. M . j Aug. Schultz, D. D . George E. Reed, D. D., LL. D . C. E. Hyatt, C. E . ! Henry T. Spangler, D. D . ; E. D. Warfield. LL. D . H. W. McKnight, D. D., LL. D . . . | Theo. B Roth, D. D . Isaac C. Ketler, Ph. D . Isaac Sharpless, Sc. D., LL. D - S.T. Wiley . John S. Stahr, Ph. D., D. D . i John H. Harris, Ph. D . Isaac N. Kendall, D. D . Brother Athanasius . Wm. H. Crawford, D D . Aaron E. Gobble, A. M . R. G Ferguson, D. D . R. E. Thompson, D. D . Brother Isidore . Charles C Harrison, LL.*D . Edwin L. York, Ph. D . I J ohn T. Murphy, C. S. Sp . j Thomas M. Drown, M. D . G. W. Atherton, LL. D . Charles De Garino, Ph. D . Laurence A. Delurey, O. S. A . M. E. Hess . J ames D. Moffat, D. D . E. B. Andrews, D. D., LL. D . H. E. Shepherd, A. M,, LL. D . E. C. Murray . . J. W. Morris . Baldwin University . German W allace College . j Cedar ville College . j St. Joseph’s College . St. Xavier College . j University of Cincinnati . ; Calvin College . j St Ignatius College . ! Western Reserve University . ■ Capital University . ' Ohio State University . Defiance College . Ohio Wesleyan University . ; Findlay College . . 1 Kenyon College . Denison University . Hiram College . . Lima College . Marietta College . . . Franklin College . Muskingum College . Oberlin College . Miami University . Richmond College . Rio Grande College . Scio College . Wittenberg College . Heidelberg^ University . ... Otterbein University . Wilberforce University . ; Wilmington College . 1 University of Wooster . , Antioch College . ! University of Oklahoma . University of Oregon . j Pacific University . Lafayette Seminary . McMinnville College . Pacific College . ! Philomath College . j Willamette University . . Portland University .1 . | Western University of Pennsylvania. . . Muhlenberg College . ! Lebanon Y alley College . ] St. Yinceut College . . . Geneva College . ' Moravian College . Dickinson College . Pennsylvania Military College . ! Ursinus College . Lafayette College . Pennsylvania College . | Thiel College . . . Grove City College . Haverford College . Monongahela College . Franklin and Marshall College . Bucknell University . Lincoln University . St. Francis College . Allegheny College . Central Pennsylvania College . . Westminster College . Central High School . La Salle College . University of Pennsylvania . Duquesne College . Holy Ghost College . Lehigh University . Pennsylvania State College . Swartiimore College . Yillanova College . Yolant College . Washington and Jefferson College . Brown University . . College of Charleston . Presbyterian College of South Carolina. Allen University . Berea. Ohio. Do. Cedarville, Ohio. Cincinnati, Ohio. Do. Do. Cleveland, Ohio. Do. Do. Columbus, Ohio. Do. Defiance, Ohio. Delaware, Ohio. Findlay, Ohio. Gambier, Ohio. Granville, Ohio. Hiram, Ohio. Lima, Ohio. Marietta, Ohio. New Athens, Ohio. New Concord, Ohio. Oberlin, Ohio. Oxford, Ohio. Richmond, Ohio. Rio Grande, Ohio. Scio, Ohio. Springfield, Ohio. Tiffin, Ohio. W esterville, Ohio. Wilberforce, Ohio. Wilmington, Ohio. W ooster, Ohio. Yellow Springs, Ohio. Norman, Okla. Eugene, Oreg. Forest Grove, Oreg. Lafayette, Oreg. McMinnville, Oreg. Newberg, Oreg. Philomath, Oreg. Salem, Oreg. University Park, Oreg. Allegheny, Pa. Allentown, Pa._ Ann ville, Pa. Beatty, Pa. Beaver Falls, Pa. Bethlehem, Pa. Carlisle, Pa. Chester, Pa. Collegeville, Pa. Easton, Pa. Gettysburg Pa. Greenville, Pa. Grove City, Pa. Haverford, Pa. Jefferson, Pa. Lancaster, Pa. Lewisburg, Pa. Lincoln University, Pa. Loretto. Pa. Meadville. Pa. New Berlin, Pa. New Wilmington, Pa. Philadelphia, Pa. Do. Do. Pittsburg, Pa- Do. South Bethlehem, Pa. State College, Pa. Swarthinore, Pa. Yillanova, Pa. Yolant, Pa. W ashington. Pa. Providence. R. I. Charleston S. C. Clinton, S. C. Columbia, S. C. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY, 953 III. — College Presidents — Continued. I. — Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Jas. 'Woodrow, Ph. D., LL. D . W. M. Grier, D. D . Charles Manly, D. D . Geo. B. Cromer, A. M . L. M. Dunton, D. D . James H. Carlisle, LL. D . Wm. M. Blackburn, D. D . J. W. Hancher, M. S., A. M . W. I. Graham, A. M . I. P. Patch... . J osepli W. Mauck, A. M . H. K. W arren . J. Albert Wallace, D. D . Isaac W. Joyce, D. D., LL. D . George Summey, D. D . J. F. Spence. S. T. D., LL. D . S. G. Gilbreath . G. M. Savage, A. M., LL. D . J. S. Mc Culloch, D.D . Chas.W. Dabney, jr., Ph.D.,LL.D FT. Green, LL. D" . J. L. Dickens, Ph. D.. LL. D . S. W. Boardman, LL. D . Brother Maurelian . J . Hop wood, A. M . J. T. Henderson, A. M . J. Braden, D. D . E. M. Cravath, D. D . Owen James, D. D . Wm. H. Payne, LL. D . James H. Kirkland, Ph. D . B. Lawton Wiggins, A. M . W. FT. Billingsley, A . M . J. L. Bachman, A. M . Jere Moore, D. D . James T. Cooter. A. M . P. P. Klein, C. S. C . Geo. T. Winston, LL. D . J. D. Robnett, D. D . T. H. Bridges . Oscar L. Fisher, A. M. , D. D . John O’ Shanahan, S. J . John H. McLean, A. M., D. D _ M. W. Dogan, A. M . John Wolf . S. M. Luckett, D.D . L. A. Johnson. Ph. D . Addison Clark, LL. D . R. C. Burleson, D. D., LL. D . I. M. Burgan, D. D . Wm. J. Kerr . j James E. Talmage. Sc. D., Ph. D.. Matthew H. Buckham, D. D . Ezra Brainerd. LL. D . Wm. W. Smith, LL. D . W. B. Yount . P. B. Barringer, M. D . R. G. Waterhouse. D. D . . . Richard McHwaine, D. D . G. W. C.Lee, LL. D . F. W. Boatwright, A. M . Julius D. Dreher, Ph. D . L. G. Tyler, LL. D . A. C. Jones . F. FT. English, A. M . E. A. Sutherland . M. W. Harrington, Ph. D . James Rebmann, S. J . Calvin W. Stewart, D. D . C. R. Thoburn . Hiram P. Suindon . S. B. L. Penrose . J. P. Marshall, A. M . H. McDearmid. A. M . J. L. Goodknight, D. D . Samuel Plantz. Ph. D., D. D . E. D. Eaton, D. D., LL. D . H. A. Muehlmeier, D. D . Chas. K. Adams, LL. D . South Carolina College . Erskine College . j Furman University . ! Kewberry College . ! Claflin University . j Wofford College . . . . Pierre University . I Black Hills College . Dakota University . Redfleld College . University of South Dakota . Yankton College . King College . U. S. Grant University . Southw estern Presbyterian University . American Temperance University. Hiwassee College . Southwestern Baptist University . j Knoxville College . University of Tennessee . . Cumberland University . Bethel College . . - . j Maryville College . Christian Brothers’ College . ! Milligan Co lege . j Carson and Newman College . i Central Tennessee College . - Fisk L niversity . Roger Williams University . University of Flash ville . Vanderbilt University . University of the South . Burritt College . Sweetwater College . 1 Greenevillo and Tusculum College . W ashington College . St. Edward's College . University of Texas . Howard Payne College . Henry College . Fort Worth University . St. Mary's University . Southwestern University . Wiley University . i St. Louis College . . Austin College . Trinity University . Add-Ran Christian University . Baylor University . Paul Quiun College . Brigham Y oung College . University of Utah . University of Vermont . Middleburv College . Randolpli-Maeon College . Bridgewater College . University of Virginia . Emory and Henry College . Hampden-Sidney College . Washington and Lee University . Richmond College . Roanoke College . College of William and Mary . Yashon College . Colfax College . ! . Walla Walla College . University of Washington . ' Gonzaga College . Whitworth College . | Puget Sound University . St. James College . ! Whitman College . i Barboursville College . . Bethany College . West Virginia University . , Lawrence University . . . Beloit College . Mission House . University of Wisconsin . Address. Columbia, S. C. Due West, S. C. Greenville. S. C. Newberry, S. C. Orangeburg, S. C. Spartanburg, S. C. East Pierre, S. Dak. Hot Springs, S. Dak. Mitchell, S. Dak. Redfield, S. Dak. V ermilion, S. Dak. Yankton. S. Dak. Bristol, Tenn. Chattanooga, Tenn. Clarksville, Tenn. Harriman, Tenn. Hiwassee College, Tenn. Jackson, Tenn. Knoxville, Tenn. Do. Lebanon, Tenn. McKenzie, Tenn. Maryville, Tenn. Memphis, Tenn. Milligan. Tenn. Mossy Creek, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn. Do. Do. Do. Do. Sewanee, Tenn. Spencer, Tenn. Sweetwater, Tenn. Tusculum, Tenn. Washington College, Tenn. Austin, Tex. Do. Brownwood, Tex. Campbell, Tex. Fort Worth. Tex. Galveston, Tex. Georgetown, Tex. Marshall, Tex. San Antonio, Tex. Sherman, Tex. Tehuacana, Tex. Waco. Tex. Do. Do._ Logan, Utah. Salt Lake City, Utah. Burlington, Vt. Middlebury, Vt. Ashland. Va. __ Bridgewater, Va. Charlottesville, Va. Emory, Va. Hampden-Sidney, Va. Lexington, Va. Richmond, V a. Salem, Va. Williamsburg, Va. Burton, Wash. Colfax. Wash. College Place, Wash. Seattle, Wash. Spokane, Wash. Sumner, Wash. Tacoma, Wash. Vancouver, Wash. Walla Walla. Wash. Barboursville, W. Va. Bethany, W. Va. Morgantown, W.Va. Appleton, Wis. Beloit, Wis. Franklin, Wis. Madison, Wis. 954 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. III. — College Presidents— Continued. I. — Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. Wm. C. Whitford, P. D . Milton College . Milton, Wis. Milwaukee, Wis. Ripon, Wis. St. Francis, Wis. Watertown, Wis. Laramie, Wyo. Leopold Bushart, S. J . Rufus C. Flagg, D. D . Joseph Rainer . A. F. Ernst . . . . Marquette College . Ripon College . •. . Seminarv of St. Francis of Sales . Northwestern Universitv. . . Frank P. Graves, Ph. D . University of Wyoming" . II. — Colleges for women. Z. A. Parker . Henry A. Moody, M. D . J. B. Camming . . T. J. Simmons, A. M . A. H. Todd . A. B. Jones, D. D., LL. D - S. W. Averett, LL. D . Jas. I). Wade, A. M . Geo.R. McNeill, Ph. D . E. H. Mnrfee . Jolm P. Simpson . John Massey, LL. D . J.Cr. Lile.. . Mrs. C. T. Mills . Sister Mary Bernardino. . — Mrs. M. A. Lipscomb - - Clias. C. Cox, A. M . Homer Busk, A. M . G. J.Orr . M. H. Lane . A . W. Van Hooso . Rufus W. Smith, A. M . G. A. Nunnallv . J. I). Hammond, D. D . J. Harris Chappell . A. J. Battle, D. P., LL. P . . . . John E. Baker . Joseph R. Harker, Ph. P - E. E. Bullard, A. M . C. W. Leftingwell, P. P . Sarah E. Anderson . John M. Puncan, A. M . Wm. Bishop, P. 1) . F. R. Millspaugh, P. D . Benj. F. Cabell . Miss C. A. Campbell . Edmund Harrison, A. M - J. B. Skinner .. . H. B. McClellan, A.M . Cadesman Pope . Mrs. B. W. Vineyard . A. C. Goodwin . . G. B. Perry . A. G. Murphey . W illiam Shelton . Rice S. Eubank, B. S . George J. Ramsey, A. M - T. S. Sligh, A. M . S. Pecatur Lucas . H. S. Whitman, A. M . Edgar M. Smith . John E. Goucher. P. P . J. H. Apple, A. M . C. L. Reedy, A. M., M. P - J. H. Turner, A. M . C. C. Bragdon, A. M . Miss Agnes Irwin, dean L. Clark Seelye, P. I) . Mrs. E. S. Mead, A. M . . Mrs. Julia J. Irvine . Ella Young . W. T Lowrey, A. M., P. P . . John W. Chambers . Franklin L. Riley . Robert Frazer, LL. P . L. T. Fitzhugh . Athens Female College . [ Bailey Springs University . j East Lake Athenaeum . i Union Female College . Synodical Female College . Jones College for Young Ladies . I Judson Female Institute . j Marion Female Seminary . | Isbell College . J Centro 1 Female College . Tuscaloosa Female College . Alabama Conference Female College . Central Baptist College . Mills College . College of Notre Pame . Lucy Cobb Institute . Southern Female College . Andrew Female College . . . Palton Female College . . Monroe Female College . Georgia Female Seminary . Lagrange Female College . Southern Female College . Wesleyan Female College . . . Georgia Normal and Industrial College. Shorter College . : . Young Female College . Illinois Female College . J acksonville Female Academy . St. Mary’s School . Rockford College . Coates College . . College for Young Ladies . College of the Sisters of Bethany . Potter College . Caldwell College . Bethel Female College . Hamilton Female College. . Sayre Female Institute". . Millersburg Female College . Jessamine Female Institute . Owensboro Female College . Kentucky College for Young Ladies. . . Logan Female College . Stanford Female College . Winchester Female College . Silliman Female Institute . Mansfield Female College . Minden F emale College . W estbrook Seminary . Maine Wesleyan Seminary and Female College. Woman's College of Baltimore . Woman’s College . . . Kee Mar College . Maryland College for Young Ladies. . . Lasell Seminary for Young Women . . . Badcliffe College . , Smith College . Mount Holyoke College . Wellesley College - . Albert Lea College . . . Blue Mountain Female College . Whitworth Female College . Hillman College . Industrial Institute and College . Belhaven College for Young Ladies. .. Athens, Ala. Bailey Springs, Ala. Eastlake, Ala. Eufaula, Ala. Florence, Ala. Gadsden. Ala. Marion, Ala. Po. Talladega, Ala. Tuscaloosa, Ala. Po. Tuskegeo, Ala. Conway, Ark. Mills College, Cal. San Joso, Cal. Athens, Ga. College Park, Ga. Cuthbert, Ga. Palton. Ga. Forsyth, Ga. Gainesville, Ga. Lagrange, Ga. "Po. Macon, Ga. Milled geville, Ga. Rome, Ga. Thomasville, Ga. Jacksonville, 111. Po. Knoxville, Ill. Rockford, 111. Terre Haute, Ind. Oswego, Kans. Topeka, Kans. Bowling Green, Ky. Danville, Ky. Hopkinsville, Ky. Lexington, Ky. Do. Millersburg, Ky. N icholasvifle, Ky. Owensboro. Ky. Pewree Valley, Ky. Russellville, Ky. Stanford, Ky. Winchester, Ky. Clinton, La. Mansfield, La. Minden, La. Peering, Me. Kents Hill, Me. Baltimore, Md. Frederick, Md. Hagerstown, Md. Luthervilk , Md. Auburndale, Mass. Cambridge, Mass. Northampton, Mass. South Hadley. Mass. Wellesley, Mass. Albert Lea. Minn. Blue Mountain, Miss. Brookhaveii, Miss. Clinton. Miss. Columbus, Miss. Jackson, Miss. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY. 955 I£L — College Presidents — Continued II. — Colleges for women — Continued. Xame of president. University or college. C.H. Oiken, LL.D . J. TV. Beeson. A. M . 1 L. AT. Stone, D. D . A. S. Maddox . - . I H. S. Holler . Mro.M. H. Meek . Mrs. Eva B. Wilkinson . Mrs. F. P. St. Clair . S. F. Taylor, D.D . 1 Hiram i). Groves . I T. P. "Walton . George F. Ayres . B. T. Blewett, LL. D . W. H. Buck . ' Archibald A. Jones . ; W. H. Morton . ; C. M. Williams . A. K. Yancey . W. S. Knight, D. D . Geo. E. Plimpton . , J. W. Blaisdell . William E. Waters, Pk. D . Truman J. Backus. LL. D . A. C. McKenzie, I >. I) . Emily James Smiih, dean . James M. Taylor, D. D . James Atkins, D.D . ! S. A. Wolff . . Dred Peacock, A. M . S. P. Hatton, A. M . j M. S. Davis, A. M . W. O. Petty . ! F. P. Hobgood . j John H. Clewell . G. K. Bartholomew. A. M., Ph. D. L. D. Potter. D. D . Clara Sheldon . . D. B. Purinton. LL. D . . Fave Walker. D. D . . LeilaS. McKee, Ph.D . Miss Alary Evans . J. W. Khar) pen berger, A. M. J. Max Hark, D. D . . M. Carey Thomas, Ph. D... Wallace ?. Dick . Samuel A. Martin . Charles B. Shnltz . E. E. Campbell, A. M . Frances E. Bennett . It. JennieDeVere . J. A. Bice . . W. It. Atkinson, D. D . C. E. Todd . Jno. It. Mack, A. M . A. S. Townes . . M.M.Itiley... B.F. Wilson. B. G. Clifford S. Lander, A. M . D. S. Hearon, D. D . ! C. A. Folk. A. B . I Rol e rt D. Smith, A. M . ; T. E. Allen . | J. M. Hubbard . f Howard W. Key, Ph. D . ! Clias. C. Boss . j Miss V. O. W ardlaw. A. M . | Geo. W. F. Price, D. D . ! J.D. Blanton . j S.N. Barker . Wm.M. Graybill, A. M . Z. C. Graves, LL. I) . j Charles Carlton . W. A. Wilson. A.M . ’ S. M.Godbey . I McComb Female Institute . I East Mississippi Female College . j Stone College for Young Ladies . Union Female College . ) Chickasaw Female College . Port Gibson Female College . Hamilton College . Christian Female College . Stephens Female College . Howard Payne College^ . Synodical Female College . Presbyterian College . St. Louis Seminary . . Baptist Female College . Central Female College . . Elizabeth Anil Female Seminary . Liberty College for Young Ladies _ Hardin College . Linden wood Female College . New Hampshire Conference Seminary and Female College. Bordentown Female College . . Evelyn College . ! Wells College . j Packer Collegiate Institute . ; Elmira College . j Barnard College . Yassar College . ! Asheville Female College . Gaston College . Greensboro Female College . 1 Claremont Female College . j Louisburg Female College . ■ Chowan Baptist Female Institute - Oxford Female Seminary . Salem Female Academy . Bartholomew English and Classical School. Glendale Female College . Granville Female College . Shepardson College . Oxford College . Western College . Lake Erie Seminary . Allentown College for Women . Moravian Seminary for Young Ladies. Bryn Mawr College . ' Metzger College . Wilson College . Linden Hall Seminary . Irving Female College . Ogontz School . Pennsylvania College for W omen . 1 Columbia Female College . . i Presbyterian College for Women . Due West Female College . Cooper- Limestone Institute . \ Greenville College for Women . Greenville Female College . Converse College . Clifford Seminary . Williamston Female College . Sullins College . . . . Brownsville Female College . Columbia Atkensenm . Tennessee Female College . Howard Female College . Memphis Conference Female Institute. East Tennessee Institute . Soule Female College . Nashville College for Young Ladies. . . W ard Seminary . Martin Female" College . j Synodical Female College . ' Mary Sharp College. . . j Carlton College . - . Baylor Female College . 1 Chappell Hill Female College . Address. McComb, Miss. Meridian, Miss. Do. Oxford, Miss. Pontotoc, Miss. Port Gibson, Miss. W ater Y alley. Miss. Columbia, Mo. Do. Fayette, Mo. F ulton, Mo. Independence, Mo. Jennings. Mo. Lexington, Mo. Do. Do. . Liberty. Mo. Mexico. Mo. St. Charles, Mo. Tilton, N. H. Bordentown, X. J. Princeton. N. J. Aurora, X. Y. Brooklyn. X. Y. Elmira. X. Y. Xew York. X. Y. Poughkeepsie. X. Y. Asheville, X. C. Dallas, X. C. Greensboro, X. C. Hickory, X. C. Louisburg. X. C. Murfreesboro, X. C. Oxford; X. C. Salem, X. C. Cincinnati, Ohio. Glendale. Ohio. Granville, Ohio. Do. Oxford, Ohio. Do. Painesville, Ohio.. Allentown, Pa. Bethlehem, Pa. Bryn Mawr. Pa. Carlisle, Pa. Chamhershurg, Pa. Lititz, Pa. Meekanicsburg, Pa. Ogontz School. Pa. Pittsburg, Pa. Columbia, S. C. Do. Due W est. S. C. Gaffney City, S. C.. Greenville, S. C. Do. Spartanburg, S. C. Fnion, S. C. Williamston, S. C. Bristol, Tenn. Brownsville, Tenn. Columbia, Tciin. Franklin, Tenn. Gallatin. Tenn- Jackson, Tenn. Knoxville. Tenn. Murfreesboro, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn. Do. Pulaski, Tenn. Bogersville. Tenn. Winchester, Tenn. Bonham. Tex. Belton, Tex. Chappell Hill, Tex. 956 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. III. — College Presidents — Continued. II. — Colleges for women — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. W. M. Dyer . . . J. D. Anderson, A. M . Samuel D. Jones, B. L . J I. Miller . Martha Washington College . Stonewall Jackson Institute . Southwest Virginia Institute . . Abingdon, Va. Do. Bristol, Va. Buena Vista, Va. Charlottesville, Va. Danville, Va. ' Do. Hollins, Va. Lynchburg, Va. Marion, Va. Norfolk, Va. Petersburg, Va. Richmond, Va. Staunton, Va. Do. Do. Winchester. Va. Do. Parkersburg, W. Va. Milwaukee, Wis. L. H. Shuck. D. D . R. E. Farmer . C. F. James, D.D . Chas. L. Cocke . . . Albemarle Female Institute . Danville College for Young Ladies . Roanoke Female College . Hollins Institute . W. W. Smith, LL. D . J. J . Scherer, A. M . A. P. Piper . Arthur K. Davis, A. M . John H. Powell . James Willis, A. M . Mrs. J. E. B. Stuart . Henry P. Hamill . A. M. Smith . John P. Hyde, D. D., LL. D . Mrs. H. L. Field . Ella C. Sabin . Randolpli-Macon Woman’s College _ Marion Female College . Norfolk College for Young Ladies . Southern Female College . Richmond Female Institute . Staunton Female Seminary . Virginia Female Institute . Wesleyan Female Institute . Episcopal Female Institute . Valley Female College . Parkersburg Seminary . Milwaukee and Downer Colleges . III. — Schools of technology . Name of president. Name of institution. Address. Wm. Le Boy Broun, LL. D . Alston Ellis, LL. D . Regis Chauvenet, A. M., B. S . B. F. Koons . . Wm. C. Jason, A. M . j L. D. Bliss . Oscar Clute, LL. D . Lyman Hall (acting) . F. W. Gunsaulus, D. D . J. H. Smart, LL. D . Carl L. Mees, Pli. D . W. M. Beardshear, LL. D . Geo. T. Fairchild, LL. D . A. TV. Harris, Pb. D . P. H. Cooper, U. S. N . R. W. Silvester . H. H. Goodell, LL. D . T. C. Mendenhall, LL. D . J. L. Snyder, Ph. D . M. E. Wadsworth, Ph. D . S. D. Lee . E. H. Triplett . James Reid, A. B . C. S. Murklaud, Ph.D . Henry Morton, Ph. D . C. A. Colton, E. M . C. T. Jordan . John H. Peck, LL. D . 0. H. Ernst, LL S. A . James B. Dudley . A. Q. Holladay . J. H. Worst . Cady Staly, LL. D . Geo. E. Morrow, A. M . H. B. Miller . Edwin Morrison, M. S . John H. Washburn, Ph. D . Asbury Coward . Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical College. Colorado Agricultural College . State School of Mines . Storrs Agricultural College . State College for Colored Students .... Bliss School of Electricity . Florida State Agricultural College .... State School of Technology . Armour Institute . Purdue University . Rose Polytechnic Institute . Iowa Agricultural College . Kansas Agricultural College . Maine State College . United States Naval Academy . Maryland Agricultural College.. . Massachusetts Agricultural College. . . Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Worcester Polytechnic Institute . Michigan Agricultural College . Michigan Mining School . Mississippi Agricultural and Mechan¬ ical College. Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College. Montana College of Agriculture and Mechanio Arts. New Hampshire College of Agricul¬ ture and Mechanic Arts. Stevens Institute of Technology . Newark Technical School . New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute . United States Military Academy . Agricultural and Mechanical College for the Colored Race. North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. North Dakota Agricultural College. . . . Case School of Applied Science..". . Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechan¬ ical College. Oregon Agricultural College . Friends Polytechnic Institute . Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. South Carolina Military Academy . Auburn, Ala. Fort Collins, Colo. Golden, Colo. Storrs, Conn. Dover. Del. Washington, D. C. Lake City, Fla. Atlanta, Ga. Chicago, Ill. Lafayette, Ind. Terre Haute, Ind. Ames, Iowa. Manhattan, Kans. Oronc, Me. Annapolis, Md. College Park, Md. Amherst, Mass. Boston, Mass. Worcester, Mass. Agricultural College, Mich. Houghton, Mich, Agricultural College, Miss. Westside, Miss. Bozeman, Mont. Durham, N. H. Hoboken, N. J. Newark, N. J. Mesilla Park, N. Mex. Troy, N. T. West Point, N. Y. Greensboro, N. C. Raleigh, N. C. Fargo, N. Dak. Cleveland, Ohio. Stillwater, Okla. Corvallis, Oreg. Salem, Oreg. Kingston, R. I. Charleston, S. C. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY, 957 III. — College Presidents— Continued. III. — Schools of technology — Continued. Name of president. Name of institution. Address. 1 E. R. Craighead . John W. Heston, Ph. D., LL. D . . . V. T.McGillvcuddv . L. S. Ross . Joseph M. Tanner . Chas. C. Brill. A. M . J.M McBryde. LL. D . Scott Shipp. LL. D . E. A. Bryan, A. M . Clem son Agricultural College . South Dakota Agricultural College...., State School of Mines . . . Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. Agricultural College of Utah . Norwich University . Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College. Virginia Military Institute . Washington Agricultural College and School of Science. 1 Clemson College, S. C. ; Brookings. S. Dak. : Rapid City, S. Dak. College Station, Tex Logan. Utah. Nqrthfield, Vt. Blacksburg, V a. ! Lexington, Va. Pullman, Wash. IY. — Principals of Normal Schools. Public normal schools . ■ Location. Name of institution. Principal. Alabama. Cullman . Cnllman Normal Institute . . . j-Robt. Jones. Florence . State Normal College . James K. Powers. Forney . Cherokee Normal Institute . 1 T. E. Wilkinson. Jacksonville . State Normal School . Jacob Forney. Livingston . Alabama Normal College for Girls . Miss Julia S’. Tutwiler. Normal . State Colored Normal and Industrial School. . . W. EL Councill. Troy . State Normal College . Edwin It Eldridge Vernon . Vernon Institute . A. T. Ezelle. A Hzona. Tempe . Arkansas. . . : Territorial Normal School of Arizona. James McNaughton. Barren Fork . Malvern . Pinebluff . California. Chico . Los Angeles . San Francisco . . . San Jose . Mount Pleasant Academy . j J. P. Bingham. Hot Spring County Normal Institute . < AV. D. Leiper. Branch Normal College . ■ J. C. Corbin. California State Normal School . Robert F. Pennell. State Normal School . . . Edward T. Pierce. San Francisco Normal School . Laura T. Fowler. State Normal School . I Charles TV. Childs. Colorado. Greeley - - Connecticut. Bridgeport . New Britain . New Haven . TVillimantic . District of Columbia. ■Washington Do . . Colorado State Normal School. Bridgeport Training School . . Normal Training School . . State Normal Training School . . ...do . Delaware. Wilmington . Florida. De Funiak Springs.... Tallahassee . Georgia. Athens . Milled ge vill e . Washington Normal School . Washington Normal, Seventh and Eighth Di¬ visions . X. Snvder. Miss Emma G. Oimstead. Marcus White. Arthur B. Morrill. George P. Pheinx. Mrs. Idaliab G. Myers. Lucy E. Moten. i Mis Wilmington Training School . I Miss Mary C. I. Williams, Florida State Normal School . C. P. Walker. Florida State Normal and Industrial College . . T. De S. Tucker. State Normal School . , S. D. Bradwell. Georgia Normal and Industrial College . j J. Harris Chappell. 958 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. IY. — Principals or Normal Schools — Continued. Public normal schools — Continued. Location. Name of institution. Principal. Idaho. Frank A. Swanger. Geo. E. Knepper. Illinois. Carbondalc . Southern Dlinois State Normal University. . . . H. AY. Everest. Chicago, Station “ 0 ” . . Cook County Normal School . Francis AY. Parker. John AY. Cook. Indiana. AT. E. Nicholson. AYilliam AY. Parsons. Iowa. B. P. Holst. Homer H. Seerley. J. Iv. McCullough. Kossuth . Kossuth Normal Academy . P. C. Holdoegel. Messrs. Kinney, Biddle, and Keed. Kansas. A. B. Taylor. Kentucky. John H. Jackson. Hiram Roberts. Louisiana. Natchitoches . Louisiana State Normal School . Thomas D. Boyd. New Orleans . New Orleans Normal School . i Miss Marion Brown. Maine. ' Castino . i Pastern State Normal School . . Albert F. Richardson. Farmin gton . Farmington State Normal School . Geo. C. Purington. Port Kent . . Madawaska Training School . Petal Cyr. AY. J. Cort-hell. Gorham 1 Stato Normal School . . . . . . Lee 1 Leo Normal Academy . James D. Murphy. Ernest H. Pratt, A. B. Sprin o-field . ! Springfield Normal School . . . Maryland. Baltimore . Maryland State Normal School . i Massachusetts. Boston Boston Normal School . . . | Larkin Dnnton. George 11. Bartlett. Herbert H. Bates. John G. Thompson. Ellen Hyde. Daniel 1>. Hagar. Do . Massachusetts Normal Art School . Cnmhrhlorp! _ Cambridge Training School for Teachers . Fitchburg . . Massachusetts State Normal School . Framingham . . . State Normal School . . Salem . . . . 1 . do . 'Westfield . . do . J. C. Greenough. AV oreest.er _ . do . E. Harlow Bussell. Michigan. Detroit . . . Detroit Normal Training School . Harriet M. Scott. Mount Pleasant . Michigan Central Normal School . C. F. B. Bellows. Ypsilanti . . . Michigan State Normal School . 1 Richard G. Boone. Minnesota. "Mnnknto _ _ _ State N orma 1 School . . . . . i Edward Searing. Moorhead . . . . do . L. C. Lord. St. Cloud . . do . j Geo. B. Kleeherger. St. Paul . Teachers’ Training School _ _ _ ! Miss B. M. Phelan. AY i n on a, _ _ _ _ State Normal School . . . ' Irwin Shepard. Mississippi. Ackerman . Central Mississippi Normal Institute . ! J. A. Hudson. Blue Springs . Blue Springs Normal College . 1 AY. AY. and B. E. Cornelius. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY. 959 IY. — Principals or Normal Schools — Continued. Public normal schools — Continued. Location. Name of institution. Principal. Mississippi — Cont’d. Holly Springs . Holly Springs Normal Institute . TY. A. Anderson. l')o . E.D. Miller. C. E. Saunders. Missouri. TY. D. Y andiver. TY. S. Platt. Kirksville . St. Louis . State Normal School (Pirst district) . Normal and High School . TY. D. Dobson. TYm. J. S. Bryan. AYarrensburg . 'Nebraska. State Normal School (Second district) . Geo. L. Osborne. Peru . Nebraska State Normal Training School . [ A. TY. Norton. New Hampshire. 1 Plymouth . New Hampshire State Normal School . Chas. C. Pounds. Neiv Jersey. TY. J . Shearer. Newark . Newark Normal and Training School . J oseph Clark. TYm. J. Slattery. Trentou . New Jersey State Normal and Model Schools. . James M. Green. Neiv Mexico. Silver City . C. M. Light. New York. Albany . _ _ _ New York State Normal College. 1 TYm. J. Milne. Brockport . State Normal and Training School . Chas. D. McLean. Brooklyn . Training School for Teachers . John Gallagher. Buffalo 1’iiffaln Normal School _ _ . _ .. Cortland . State Normal and Training School . Prancis J. Cheney. Fredonia . . rlo . . . F. B. Palmer. Geneseo . . . Geneseo State Normal School . John M. Milne. New P alt z . State Normal School . Frank Sumner Capen. Thomas Hunter. New York . Normal College of the City of New York Oneonta . State Normal School . James M. Milne. Oswego . Oswego State Normal and Training School - Edward A. Sheldon. Platts burg _ State Normal School _ _ _ Edward N. J ones. Potsdam . State Normal and Training School . . Thomas B. Stowell. Syracuse . Syracuse High School, Normal Department AYm. K. TYickes, North Carolina. Elizabeth City . Stato Colored Normal School . P. AY. Moore. Eayettevillo . State Colored Normal School . - . . . E. E. Smith. Goldsboro . . State Normal School _ ... _ ... _ ...... _ P. S. Bives. Greeusboro . State Normal and Industrial School . Chas. D. Mclver. Plymouth _ _ _ Plymouth Slate Normal School . I H.C. Crosby. P. M. Martin. Salisbury . State Normal School . . . North Dakota. Mayville . State Normal School . . . f J. T. Perigo. Yalley City _ _ . do . . . j Geo. A. McFarland. Ohio. Cincinnati . Cincinnati Normal School . Mrs. Carrie N. Lathrop. Miss L. AY. Hughes. Cleveland . . . Clev eland Normal and Training School . Columbus . . Columbus Normal School . . Margaret AY. Sutherland. J . E. Dodds. Payette . . Payette Normal 1 ini versify _ _ _ _ Geneva . Genova Normal School . J. P. Treat. Warlswort.lj . TYa.ds worth Normal School . . _ . Prank A. Day. Oklahoma. ' Edmond . j Territorial Normal School cf Oklahoma . ' Edmund H. Murdaugh. Oregon. Monmouth . Stato Normal School . P. L. Campbell. AY eston . . . 1 M. G. Poyal. 960 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. IV. — Principals of Normal Schools — Continued. Public normal schools — Continued. Location. Name of institution. Principal. Pennsylvania. Bloomsburg . State Normal School and Literary Institute. . . Judson Perry Welsh. Theo. B. Ross. A. J. Davis. Geo. P. Bible. David J. Waller. Rev. Geo. B. Haneher. James Eldon. S. H. Albro. E. Oram Lyte. Geo. Howard Cliff. C. B. W ood. East Stroudsburg . East Stroudsburg State Normal School . . Millers ville . . . Philadelphia . Pittsburg . First Pennsylvania St^ite Normal School . Philadelphia Normal School for Girls . Pittsburg High School, normal department - Cumberland Valley State Normal School . G. M. D. Eckels. Slippery Rock . Slippery Rock State Normal School . Albert E. Maltby. Geo. M. Philips. Rhode Island. • Wm. Ed. Wilson. D. B. Johnson. South Carolina. South Dakota. W. H. H. Beadle. F. L. Cook. Tennessee. Hornbeak . West Tennessee Normal College . W. L. Willingham. J oe H. Davis. Martins Mills . . . Rose Normal Academy . Nashville . Peabody Normal College . William H. Payne. Texas. Huntsville _ ..... _ Sam Houston Normal Institute . H. C. Pritchett. Vermont. Castleton . . State Normal School. . . . Abel E. Leavenworth. Johnson . do . P. A. Blossom. Randolph Center _ . do . Edward Conant. Virginia. Fannville . . State Female School of Virginia . 1 John A. Cunningham. J. H. Johnston. R.E. Wolfe. Petersburg . Rye Cove . Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute . W a sh i n cton- T n sti fcn te _ _ _ _ Washington. Cheney _ _ State Normal School . . . . ............ Wm. J. Sutton. Ellensburg do . . . .....! P. A. Getz. West Virginia. Fairmont - - - Fairmont. State Normal School _ ........ _ ! J. Walter Barnes. 1 John H. Hill. Farm _ _ W est V irginia Colored Institute . ' Olenville _ _ Glenville State Normal School... . . . j W.J. Halden. Hu n tin gt on Marshall Col lego _ _ j Thos. E. Hodges. A. C. Kimler. J. N. Deahl. Shepherdstown . "West Liberty . Shepherd College, State Normal School . West Liberty State Normal School . 1 Wisconsin. Milwaukee _ ...... State Normal School . . L. D. Harvey. Oshkosh . _ _ _ . do . George S. Albee. James Chalmers. Platte ville _ i . do . River Falls _ .. i River Falls State Normal School . W. D. Parker. * Stevens Point _ _ j State Normal School . Theron B. Pray. Albert Salisbury. "Whitewater _ | _ _ do . . . . . EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY, 961 IY. — Principals of Normal Schools — Continued. Private normal schools. Location. Name of institution. Principal. Alabama. A. W. McKinney. J. T. Rose. A. T. Burnell. Tuskegee . Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute _ B. T. Washington. A rkansas. F. L. Jones. T. H. Jackson, Isaac A. Clarke. J. A. Laughlin. Do . . Little Rock . J. A. Booker. J. R. Hunt. Sulphur Rock . . Sulphur Rock College . . . . J. W. Decker. California. Carolyn M. N. Claverie. Brother Theodoras. Martinez . Novitiate of the Brothers of the Christian School. Gilson’s Normal and Special Training School California Kindergarten Training School . J. C. Gilson. Nora A. Smith. San Francisco . Colorado. Denver . Denver Normal and Preparatory School . Fred. Dick. Connecticut. Norwich . N ormal Department of N orwick Free Academy . Robert P. Keep. Delaware. Newark . Academy of Newark . Jas. Dickson Shanks. District of Columbia. "Washington . . Kindergarten Normal Training School . Mrs. Louise Pollock. Florida. Jasper _ _ J asper Normal Institute . . . . J. M.Guilliams. Rev. Geo. P. McKinney. B. D. Rowlee. Live Oak . Florida Institute . Orangepark . Orange Park Normal and Manual Training White Springs . School. Florida Normal College . J. Jerome Welty. Georgia. A IV, any Albany Normal Sr.hnol . James L. Murray. A then a _ _ Jeruel Academy . . . J. H. Brown. A flan t a _ Spelman Seminary . Miss Harriet E. Giles. Augusta. . Haines Normal and Industrial Institute _ Miss Lucy C. Laney. Geo. W. AValker. Do... Paine Institute . . . . Dem nrest, Demorest Normal School . . J. S. Jennings. N. H. Ballard. Green shorn _ Thomas Stocks Institute . Macon . . . Ballard Normal School . George C. Burrage. John Gibson. Monroe Johnston Institute . Savannah Beach Institute . . . . . . Julia B. Ford. Thnmasville Allen Normal and Industrial School . Amelia Merriam. Trenton Trenton Normal College . . . . Geo. P. Welch. Illinois. Addison . German Evangelical Lutheran Teachers’ Semi¬ E. A. W. Krauss. Aurora, _ . . nary. Jennings Seminary . Rev. A. R. Cronce. Ruslinell _ _ Western Normal College . AT. M. Evans. Dixon . . Northern Illinois Normal School . J. B. Dilie. Galesburg . Macomb . Galesburg Kindergarten Normal School . Western Illinois Normal School and Business M. Evelyn Strong. I. F. Meyer. Mount Morris . . Institute. Mount Morris Colle°re . J. G. Roger. S. Tan Pelt. Onarga . Grand Prairie Seminary _ . . Oregon . AT ells School for Teachers . E. L. Wells. ITushville . - ED 96 i Rushville Normal and Business College . 31 Maxwell Kennedy. 962 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. jy, — Principals of Normal Schools — Continued, Private normal schools— Continued. Location. Name of institution. Indiana. Angola . Borden . Collegeville . Columbus . Covington Danville . . Fairmount. . - Indianapolis. Tri-State Normal School . Borden Institute . St. J oseph's College . . . . • Columbus Business University and -Normal College. Indiana Normal College..... . ‘-Tt "5" Central Normal College and Commercial Insti¬ tute. Marengo . Marion . Mitchell . Portland . Princeton . Valparaiso . Fairmount Academy and Normal School - - Indiana Kindergarten and Primary Normal Training School. Marengo Academy . Marion Normal College....-.- . Southern Indiana Normal College ------- . Portland Normal, Music, and Law School - Indiana Normal University . Northern Indiana Normal School . Principal. Iowa. Afton . Algona . Anamosa . Casey . Carroll . Denison . Des Moines . Dexter . Glidden . Hedrick . Hull . Lemars . Newton . Nora Springs . . . Orange City Ottumwa . Shenandoah Spirit Lake . . . Yinton . W aukon . Kansas. Afton Normal and Business College ..... ------ Northern Iowa Normal and Commercial School. St. Mark’s School . - . Normal and Preparatory School . . . Carroll Normal and Business College . Denison Normal School . Highland Park Normal College . Dexter Normal College - - ... - - - - - - - ------ National Normal School and Business College. Hedrick Normal and Commercial School . Hull Educational Institute - ... - . - - - - . Lemars Normal School and Business College.. Newton Normal College . Nora Springs Seminary . - . Northwestern Classical Academy . Ottumwa Normal School . ------- . Western Normal College. Shenandoah Commer¬ cial Institute and Musical Conservatory. Spirit Lake Normal and Business Institute . . Waukon Business College and Normal School L. M. Sniff. H. A. Buerk. Aug. Seifut. F. H. Harper. Olive E. Coffeen. J. A. Joseph. El wood O. Ellis. Eliza A. Blaker. Taylor E. Breeden. A. Jones. John C. Willis. L. M. Holmes. J. M. Stephens. H. B. Brown. S. S. Stivers. A. J. Lilly. J. I. Corbyn. Mrs. M. J . Cowman. A. E. Whitten. W. C. Yan Ness. C. C. Iiearick. A. G. Smith. E. L. Esslev. W. O.Mullin. James F. Eaton. F. M. Chaffee, G. W. Wormley. C. P. Colgrove. James F. Z werner. Martha A. Peck. J. M. Hussey. H. Welty. T. F. Tobin. L. Eells. Fort Scott Great Bend. . . Hiawatha . Lincoln . Marysville. . - . McPherson . . Salina . Winfield . .T -. « ,i ... D. E. Sanders. Kansas Normal College . w strvker. Central Normal College . , E Tunner. Kansas Christ ian College . O. B. Modern Normal College . £ McPherson College . . . , . r'harles Swi Salina Normal University ----^ . ( harles b Southwest Kansas College, Normal Depart ment. Charles Swisher. Geo. It. Kirkpatrick. Kentncl-y. Blaine . Bowling Green Bremen . Corinth . Fulton . Hardinsburg Irvine . Jackson . Louisa . Madisonville Do . Magnolia Morehead. .. . Waddy . Louisiana. Baldwin . New Orleans. Blaine Normal School - - - - - . ----- Bowling Green Business College and bouthern Normal School. . Bremen College and Perryman Institute . - - - - - Northern Kentucky Normal School and Acad¬ Fulton Normal and Business College . . Breckinridge Normal College . Irvine Training School . Jackson Collegiate Institute . Louisa Normal Institute . The National Institute . ----- . Western Kentucky Normal School . Magnolia Classical and Normal College . Morehead Normal School . - . - - - - . Central Normal School and Business College. . Gilbert Academy and Industrial Institute. Southern Academic Institute . G. Milton Elam . H. H. and T. C. Cherry. G. Y. Gordon. A. A. Hibner. A. M. Kirkland. R. P. Shacklett. Prof. Thos. Throop. E. P. Mickle. U. S. G. Anderson. E. McCulley. H. Evelvn Brooks. Kvander Masten. F. C. Button. J. B. Secrest. A. E. P. Albert. Mrs. I. E. Seaman. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY. 963 IY. — Principals of Normal Schools— Continued. Private normal schools — Continued. Location. Maine. Bncksport . Hampden. . E. M. Conference Seminary . j Rev. A. F. Chase. Hampden Academy . Geo. C. 'Webber. Maryland. Buckeystown . Buckeystawn Normal Training School . F. It. Neighbours Rising" Sun . Friends' Normal Institute . . . 1 Thos. D. Bowers. Massachusetts. Boston . Waltham .. Worcester . Michigan. Big Rapids Fenton - Flint . Chauncy Hall Normal Class . Lucy Wheelock. Notre Dame Training School . j Sister Georgiana. Kindergarten Normal Class . < Annie C. Rust. Ferris Industrial School . j W. N. Fetris. Fenton Normal School and Commercial College.! W. A. Stevenson. Flint Normal College and Business Institute..! G. Eastman Swarthout. Owosso . Oakside School Petoskey . j Graves Normal Academy . M. O. Graves Minnesota. Moorhead . ' Concordia College . New Ulm . I I)r. Martin Luther College . Sauk Center . ; Sauk Center Academy and Business College. Mrs. L. E. Gould. H. H. Aaker. John Schaller. Lewis H. Vath. 3Iississippi. Abbeville . . Bellefontaine . Buenavista .... Houston . Iuka . Meridian . . Jackson . Plattsburg Sherman . . Tougaloo . Tula . Walnut Grove Missouri. Brookfield . Chillicothe Clarksburg . College Mound . . . Eldorado Springs. Greenridge . Licking . Maryville . Pleasant Hope. . . . Stan berry . Thorn field . Weaubleau . Abbeville Normal School . Bellefontaine High School . . Buena Vista Normal College . Mississippi Normal College . . Iuka Normal College . . Meridian Academy . Jackson College . . Winston Normal High School . Mississippi Normal Institute . Normal Department Tougaloo University . Tula Normal Institute and Business College. . . Mississippi Central Normal School . . Brookfield College . Chillicothe Normal, Business, and Shorthand College. Hopper Institute . McGee College . El Dorado Normal and Business College . Central Missouri Normal and Business College. Licking College . The Maryville Seminary . Pleasant Hope Normal Academy . Stanberry Normal School . I . Thorn field Normal Institute. . . Weaubleau Christian College . Montana. Twin Bridges... . Xebraska. Montana Normal Training School Keeton & Bankston. W. B. Walker. R. V. Fletcher. H. B. Abernethy. H. A. Dean. Rev. J. L. Wilson. Rev. Luther G. Barrett. H. Lynn McCleskey. Davis, Langston, and Tucker. Earnest C. Moore. C. C. Hughes. J. M. Conslev. M. H. Reaser. Allen Moore. W. C. Sebring. J. B. Creighton. 0. C. Wood. K. M. Scotten. J. N. Curlin. Geo. E. Moore. J. F. Martin. John E. Fesler. J. E. Smith. J. Whitaker. Chas. W. Birchard. Fremont . Lincoln . Madison . Pawnee City . Santee A gen cy.. . Stromsburg . Wayne . New York. New York . . _ Fremont Normal School . Lincoln Normal University . North Nebraska Normal College Pawnee City Academy . Santee Normal Training School. . Bryant Normal University . Nebraska Normal College . Teachers’ College. W. H. Clemmons. Hill M. Bell. E. A. Whitwam. Rev. R. T. Campbell. Alfred L. Riggs. ' J. J. Bryant. J.M. Pile. j Walter L. Hervey. 964 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. IV.— Principals of Normal Schools— Continued. Private normal schools — Continued. Location. Name of institution. Principal. North Carolina. Asheville . . Beaufort . Concord . Parmer . Franklinton . Kings Mountain.. Lumberton . Poes . Raleigh . Shallotte . Traphill . Warrenton . Wilmington . Winston . North Dakota. Grand Forks . . Ohio. Ada . Canfield . Dayton . . Defiance . . Ewington . . Lebanon . Middlepoint . . New Philadelphia Piketon . . South New Lyme... Tremont . Woodville . . Oregon. Drain . . Pennsylvania. Ebensburg . . Huntingdon . M uncy . . Philadelphia . . Pittsburg . Rimersburg . Waynesburg . . South Carolina. Aiken . . Camden . Charleston . Do . Chester . Progmore . Greenwood . Normal and Collegiate Institute AYashburn Seminary- . Scotia Seminary . Parmer Institute . . Albion Academy . Lincoln Academy . Whitin Normal School . . Buies Creek Academy . St. Augustine's School . Shallotte Preparatory School . . . Pairview College . Shiloh Institute . Gregory Normal Institute . Waters Normal Institute . Grand Forks College Ohio Normal University ........... Northeastern Ohio Normal College St. Mary’s Academy . Defiance College . Ewington Academy . National Normal University . Western Ohio Normal School . John P. Kuhn’s Normal School . Southern Ohio School of Pedagogy New Lyme Institute . Western Normal University . Teachers’ Seminary . Oregon State Normal School Ebensburg Normal Institute . . . Juniata College . Lycoming County Normal School . Institute for Colored Youth . Curry Institute . Clarion Collegiate Institute . AY aynesburg College . . . . . . Schofield Normal and Industrial School, Browning Home and Industrial School Avery Normal Institute . Wallingford Academy . . Brainerd Institute . Penn Normal and Industrial School _ Brewer Normal School . . Rev. Thos. Lawrence. P. S. Hitchcock. D. J. Satterfield. AY. H. Boone. Rev. J. A. Savage. Lilian S. Cathcart. D. P. Allen. Rev. J. A. Campbell. Rev. A. B. Hunter. Geo. Leonard. M. L. Roork. J. A. Whitted. Francis T. Waters. C. S. Brown. C. B. Blake, jr. H. S. Lehr. John A. Cummins. Rev. George Meyer. Jno. C. McCanley. P. P. Yale. Alfred Holbrook. P. S. Morgan. John P. Kuhn. Levi B. Moore. J. Tuckerman. B. L. Barr. Theo. Mees. Louis Barzee. T. L. Gibson. M. G. Brumbaugh. Pred Woods Robbins. Pannie J. Coppin. J. Clark Williams. W. L. Smith. Rev. A. B. Miller. Ella A. Warner. Mrs. A. Gorden, Morrison A. Holmes. Rev. Thos. A. Grove. J. S. Marquis. Miss Ellen Murray. Rev. J, M. Robinson. South Dakota. Sioux Palls . Tennessee. Lutheran Normal School H. B. Hustvedt. Bloomingdale . Birch wood. ... Dickson . Fountain City Greenbrier ... Huntingdon Jonesboro . McLemoresville Maryville . Memphis . Morristown . Mulberry . Sparta . . . AYheat . Winchester . Kingsley Seminary . Rutherford Graded School . Dickson Normal School . Holbrook Normal College . Central Tennessee Normal and Commercial School. Southern Normal University . Warner Institute . McLemoresville Collegiate University . Freedman’s Normal Institute . Le Moyne Normal Institute . . . Morristown Normal Academy . South Central Tennessee Normal School . Dibrell Normal Institute . Roane College . . . AYineliester Normal College . J oseph H. Ketron. R. T. Rutherford. Wade & Loggins.' J. J. Crumley. N. J. Pritchard. J. A. Baber. Anna R. Miner. Lewis S. Mitchell. L. H. Garner. A. J. Steele. Judson S. Hill. J. C. McClure. AY. T. Garrett. J. P. Griffitts. R. A. Clark. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY. IV.— Principals of Normal Schools— Continued. Plicate normal schools — Continued. 965 Location. Texas. Austin . Brenham . . Castroville _ Commerce . Crockett . Detroit . Hearn e . Principal. Tillotson College . Blinn Memorial College.* . Divine Providence Academy . East Texas Normal College . . . Mary Allen Seminary . ” ’ . . . Detroit Normal College . Hearne Academy, Normal’ and Indus triai'in- n I stitute. . Summer Hill Select School . Sunset Institute . Wliitesboro Normal College* . Sunset Wliitesboro Utah. Provo City . Salt Lake City. . Virginia. Cappakosic . . Hampton . . Lawrenceville .... Norfolk . Reliance . Richmond . Rocky Mount . Scottsburg . Stuart . Willis . Brigham Young Academy Latter Day Saints’ College. West Virginia. Buckhannon. .. Fayetteville . . . Harpers Ferry. Summers ville. . Wisconsin. Milwaukee . . St. Francis . West Superior.. . Wyoming. Rawlins . Gloucester Agricultural and Industrial School Hampton Bormai and Agricultural Institute. xt V1!1,1 formal and Industrial School . . .Norfolk Mission College . Shenandoah Normal College. . Hartshorn Memorial College . . Piedmont Normal College. . . Scottsburg Normal Colfege . ! ] . . Stuart Normal College . The Mountain Normal School ..’ *.! . Union College . Fayetteville Academy . Storer College . Summersville Normal School Rev. W. S. Goss. C. Urbantke. Mother M. Florence. W. L. Mayo. Rev. John B. Smith. Andrew Ross. M. H. Broyles. A . W. Orr. Mrs. C. F. Caylor. C. L. &. II. Adair. Ben j. Cluff. Willard Done. W. B. Weaver. H. B. Frissell. Rev. J ames S. Russell. J. B. Work. G. W. Hoenshel. Lyman B. Tefft. T. A. Walker. S. H. Thompson. I. M. Groves. J. H. Rutrough. National German American Teachers’ Semi¬ nary. .Catholic Normal School of the Holy Familv and Pio Nono College. ^ V est Superior State Normal School . Wyoming Normal and Scientific College . W. O. Mills. H. C. Robertson. Nathan Cook Brackett. W. G. Brown. Emil Dapprich. Rev. M. J. Lochemes. H. M. Neill. J. E. Brate. i FALVEY MEMORIAL LIBRARY VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY DATE DUE VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY L111.A3 1895-096,001 3 9346 00027380 7 27380 .1 L 111 .A3 '.1 U.3, Bureau of Education Annual report, 18-9 5-9 6